tag:theconversation.com,2011:/africa/topics/coffee-5703/articlesCoffee – The Conversation2024-03-28T05:59:23Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2260152024-03-28T05:59:23Z2024-03-28T05:59:23ZThink $5.50 is too much for a flat white? Actually it’s too cheap, and our world-famous cafes are paying the price<p>Even in a stubborn cost-of-living crisis, it seems there’s one luxury most Australians <a href="https://www.comparethemarket.com.au/news/what-australians-wont-give-up-cost-of-living-crisis-report/">won’t sacrifice</a> – their daily cup of coffee. </p>
<p>Coffee sales have largely <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/866543/australia-domestic-consumption-of-coffee/">remained stable</a>, even as financial pressures have bitten over the past few years. </p>
<p>So too have prices. Though many of us became upset when prices began to creep up last year, they’ve since largely settled in the range between $4.00 and $5.50 for a basic drink. </p>
<p>But this could soon have to change. By international standards, Australian coffee prices are low.</p>
<p>No one wants to pay more for essentials, least of all right now. But our independent cafes are struggling. </p>
<p>By not valuing coffee properly, we risk losing the <a href="https://bizcup.com.au/australian-coffee-culture/">internationally renowned</a> coffee culture we’ve worked so hard to create, and the phenomenal quality of cup we enjoy. </p>
<h2>Coffee is relatively cheap in Australia</h2>
<p>Our recent survey of Australian capital cities found the average price of a small takeaway flat white at speciality venues is A$4.78. </p>
<p>But in <a href="https://pabloandrustys.com.au/blogs/drinkbettercoffee/global-coffee-prices">some international capitals</a>, it’s almost double this, even after adjusting for local <a href="https://www.investopedia.com/updates/purchasing-power-parity-ppp/">purchasing power parity</a>. </p>
<p><iframe id="gaplH" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/gaplH/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>In London, a small flat white costs about A$6.96. Singapore, A$8.42. In Athens, as much as A$9.95. </p>
<h2>The cafe business is getting harder</h2>
<p>Over the past few decades, coffee prices haven’t kept pace with input costs. In the early 2000s, after wages, food costs, utilities and rent, many cafes <a href="https://www.coffeecommune.com.au/blog-why-are-cafes-so-expensive/">earned healthy profit margins</a> as high as 20%. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.ibisworld.com/au/industry/cafes-coffee-shops/2015/">most recent data from IBISWorld</a> show that while Australian cafe net profits have recovered from a drop in 2020, at 7.6%, they remain much lower than the Australian <a href="https://www.money.com.au/research/australian-business-statistics">average business profit margin of 13.3%</a>. </p>
<p>For an independent owner operating a cafe with the <a href="https://www.ibisworld.com/au/industry/cafes-coffee-shops/2015/">average turnover of A$300,000</a>, this would amount to a meagre A$22,800 annual net profit after all the bills are paid. </p>
<h2>What goes into a cup?</h2>
<p>Just looking at the cost of raw inputs – milk, beans, a cup and a lid – might make the margin seem lucrative. But they don’t paint the whole picture. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A takeaway coffee cup showing the price inputs, with wages and operation costs making up over 65% of the cost of a coffee" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/584949/original/file-20240328-24-rlngpk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/584949/original/file-20240328-24-rlngpk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584949/original/file-20240328-24-rlngpk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584949/original/file-20240328-24-rlngpk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584949/original/file-20240328-24-rlngpk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584949/original/file-20240328-24-rlngpk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584949/original/file-20240328-24-rlngpk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Chart: The Conversation.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://pabloandrustys.com.au/blogs/drinkbettercoffee/whats-in-the-cost-of-coffee">Data: Pablo and Rusty's Coffee Roasters</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Over the past few years, renting the building, keeping the lights on and paying staff have all become <a href="https://www.reuters.com/business/ground-down-australia-coffee-shops-an-early-inflation-casualty-2023-07-10/">much bigger factors</a> in the equation for coffee shop owners, and many of these pressures aren’t easing.</p>
<p><strong>1. Green coffee price</strong></p>
<p>Increasingly <a href="https://www.aa.com.tr/en/environment/brewing-crisis-how-climate-change-is-reshaping-coffee-production/3113886">subject to the effects</a> of climate change, the baseline commodity price of green (unroasted) coffee is <a href="https://perfectdailygrind.com/2024/02/demand-for-robusta-prices-record-high/">going up</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/from-crop-to-cup-a-new-genetic-map-could-make-your-morning-coffee-more-climate-resilient-223065">From crop to cup – a new genetic map could make your morning coffee more climate resilient</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Arabica – the higher quality bean you’re most likely drinking at specialty cafes – is a more expensive raw product. Despite levelling off from post-pandemic highs, its price is still trending up. In 2018, it <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/675807/average-prices-arabica-and-robusta-coffee-worldwide/">sold</a> for US$2.93 per kilogram, which is projected to increase to US$4.38 dollars in 2025. </p>
<p>Robusta coffee is cheaper, and is the type <a href="https://www.lavazza.com.au/en/coffee-secrets/difference-type-arabica-robusta-coffee">typically used to make instant coffee</a>. But serious drought in Vietnam has just pushed the price of robusta to an <a href="https://www.barchart.com/story/news/25094367/coffee-rallies-with-robusta-at-a-record-high-on-shrinking-coffee-output-in-vietnam">all-time high</a>, putting pressure on the cost of coffee more broadly. </p>
<p><strong>2. Milk prices</strong></p>
<p>The price of fresh milk has risen by <a href="https://cdn-prod.dairyaustralia.com.au/-/media/project/dairy-australia-sites/national-home/resources/reports/situation-and-outlook/situation-and-outlook-report-march-2024.pdf?rev=b0222df4b01b40d0ae36cf8ac7b01bc0">more than 20%</a> over the past two years, and remains at a peak. This has put sustained cost pressure on the production of our <a href="https://gitnux.org/australian-coffee-consumption-statistics/#:%7E:text=Coffee%20is%20a%20beloved%20beverage,approximately%206%20billion%20cups%20annually.">most popular drink orders</a>: cappuccinos and flat whites. </p>
<p><strong>3. Wages and utilities</strong></p>
<p>Over the past year, Australian wages have grown at their <a href="https://ministers.treasury.gov.au/ministers/jim-chalmers-2022/media-releases/real-wages-growth-back">fastest rate</a> since 2009, which is welcome news for cafe staff, but tough on operators in a sector with low margins. </p>
<p>Electricity prices remain elevated after significant inflation, but could <a href="https://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/heres-how-much-your-energy-bills-might-go-down-by-and-when/k8g00jheg">begin to fall mid-year</a>.</p>
<h2>Specialty vs. commodity coffee: why price expectations create an industry divide</h2>
<p>One of the key factors keeping prices low in Australia is consumer expectation. </p>
<p>For many people coffee is a fundamental part of everyday life, a marker of livability. Unlike wine or other alcohol, coffee is not considered a luxury or even a treat, where one might expect to pay a little more, or reduce consumption when times are economically tough. We anchor on familiar prices. </p>
<p><iframe id="oDbah" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/oDbah/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>Because of this, it really hurts cafe owners to put their prices up. In touch with their customer base almost every day, they’re acutely aware of how much inflation can hurt. </p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="man stands over a coffee roaster and fills in a clipboard" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/584942/original/file-20240328-24-gom2t4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/584942/original/file-20240328-24-gom2t4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584942/original/file-20240328-24-gom2t4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584942/original/file-20240328-24-gom2t4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584942/original/file-20240328-24-gom2t4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584942/original/file-20240328-24-gom2t4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584942/original/file-20240328-24-gom2t4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Many specialty operators source and roast their own beans.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/close-up-of-man-operating-a-machine-at-a-coffee-roasting-factory-4816462/">Maksim Goncharenok/Pexels</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But in Australia, a huge proportion of coffee companies are also passionate about creating a world-class product by only using “<a href="https://medium.com/@samandsunrise/why-is-specialty-coffee-so-expensive-6cf298935e4b#:%7E:text=Specialty%20Shops%20Feature%20High%20Grade%20Coffees&text=Their%20coffees%20are%20hand%2Dpicked,even%20on%20the%20same%20tree.">specialty coffee</a>”. Ranked at least 80 on a quality scale, specialty beans cost significant more than commodity grade, but their production offers better working conditions for farmers and encourages more sustainable growing practices. </p>
<p>Although not commensurate with the wine industry, there are similarities. Single origin, high quality beans are often sourced from one farm and demand higher prices than commodity grade coffee, where cheaper sourced beans are often combined in a blend. </p>
<p>Running a specialty cafe can also mean roasting your own beans, which requires a big investment in expertise and equipment. </p>
<p>It’s an obvious example of doing the right thing by your suppliers and customers. But specialty cafes face much higher operating costs, and when they’re next to a commodity-grade competitor, customers are typically unwillingly to pay the difference.</p>
<h2>Approach price rises with curiosity, not defensiveness</h2>
<p>When cafe owners put up their prices, we often rush to accuse them of selfishness or profiteering. But they’re often just trying to survive. </p>
<p>Given the quality of our coffee and its global reputation, it shouldn’t surprise us if we’re soon asked to pay a little bit more for our daily brew. </p>
<p>If we are, we should afford the people who create one of our most important “<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-cafes-bars-gyms-barbershops-and-other-third-places-create-our-social-fabric-135530">third spaces</a>” kindness and curiosity as to why. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-cafes-bars-gyms-barbershops-and-other-third-places-create-our-social-fabric-135530">How cafes, bars, gyms, barbershops and other 'third places' create our social fabric</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/226015/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Emma Felton does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Cafe owners have tried to keep prices low but are being squeezed out by tight margins.Emma Felton, Adjunct Senior Researcher, University of South AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2257002024-03-27T16:02:40Z2024-03-27T16:02:40ZHazardous mould contaminates many food staples – what you should know about mycotoxins<p><em>Mycotoxins are substances produced by mould that poison food. They are <a href="https://academic.oup.com/carcin/article/31/1/71/2392129">harmful</a> to humans and animals when consumed. According to the Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO), about 25% of the world’s agricultural harvests are <a href="https://pureadmin.qub.ac.uk/ws/files/185127566/Worldwide_contamination_of_food_crops_with_mycotoxins_Validity_of_the_widely_cited_FAO_estimate_of_25.pdf">contaminated</a> by mycotoxins. Though reliable data is lacking, mycotoxin contamination is <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4108760/">widespread in Africa</a>. It often takes the form of aflatoxin in cereal crops and has led to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6354945/#:%7E:text=They%20have%20the%20ability%20to,of%20humans%20annually%20(15).">health issues</a> such as chronic gastritis, diarrhoea, kidney problems and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3699030/">liver cancer</a>. Biologist Oluwadara Pelumi Omotayo <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214750018307315">studied</a> how mycotoxins contaminate ginger in South Africa. We asked her to explain what they are and how to avoid the danger.</em></p>
<hr>
<h2>What are mycotoxins?</h2>
<p>Mycotoxins are hazardous substances produced by certain microorganisms called toxigenic fungi (<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4108760/">moulds</a>). </p>
<p>One mould species may produce more than one type of mycotoxin, and a single mycotoxin may be produced by several mould species. Mycotoxins are ubiquitous. They can be found indoors and outdoors, thriving in warm and highly humid areas. They are usually toxic to living things. </p>
<p>Contamination can lead to variety of illnesses, and even death. They can cause <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4108760/">cancer</a>, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780323870313000305">hepatic diseases</a>, deterioration of the <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1191/0960327103ht328oa">kidneys</a>, <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1191/0960327103ht328oa">nephropathy</a>, and <a href="https://core.ac.uk/download/481757543.pdf">alimentary toxic aleukia</a>, a potentially fatal illness marked by nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea and skin inflammation. They can also impair an animal’s immune system, decrease milk production, cause stunted growth and weight loss, and induce gastroenteritis. </p>
<p>Mycotoxins have been reported to be responsible for numerous human deaths. For example, in 2004, Kenya <a href="https://www.devex.com/news/kenyans-love-maize-but-aflatoxins-are-making-it-dangerous-96279">recorded</a> an outbreak of aflatoxin poisoning which led to the death of about 125 people.</p>
<p>Mycotoxins drastically suppress the immune system. And a single mycotoxin, even in minute quantities, can result in acute poisoning in humans and animals.</p>
<p>Over 300 types of mycotoxins have been identified so far, including the notable aflatoxin and other types like ochratoxin and fumonisin, which often contaminate grains like maize. </p>
<h2>How do humans come in contact with mycotoxin?</h2>
<p>People can be exposed to mycotoxins through eating contaminated food and through contact and absorption through the skin. Exposure can also happen through inhalation of polluted air, as they can be present in airborne particles such as fungal spores.</p>
<p>Human exposure to mycotoxins can come from plant-based food and from the carry-over of mycotoxins and their metabolites in animal products such as meats.</p>
<p>Food items that can be tainted include spices, grains (such as maize, rice and sorghum), nuts, fruits (dry or fresh), coffee beans, cocoa seeds, vegetables and rhizomes like ginger.</p>
<h2>Why should we be concerned about mycotoxins?</h2>
<p>Mycotoxin contamination is widespread, especially in African countries. The toxins exist even in medicinal plants and herbs. This was confirmed by our <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214750018307315">study</a>, which investigated the presence of mycotoxin in ginger. </p>
<p>Ginger has been used since antiquity for the treatment of various ailments such as colds, migraines and gastrointestinal tract disorders. However, like other spices and herbs, it has been reported to contain mycotoxins. Ginger has been found to contain aflatoxin and ochratoxin A (which is known to be teratogenic: capable of causing developmental abnormalities in unborn foetuses). </p>
<p>From our study, aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2 and ochratoxin A were found in ginger collected from the North-West province of South Africa in summer and winter. Though at varying concentrations, the highest concentration was observed in summer. This indicates that there’s no period when crops and plants, including ginger, would necessarily be completely free from mycotoxins.</p>
<h2>How do farmers and consumers know that a crop has been contaminated?</h2>
<p>Mycotoxins are not visible to the naked eye. The invasion of crops and foods by moulds is an indication that they are potentially contaminated with mycotoxins. </p>
<p>Farmers and consumers should inspect food crops for evidence of moulds, and discard crops and food that have mould growth. </p>
<h2>What can be done to prevent mycotoxin contamination?</h2>
<p>To minimise the risk of mycotoxin exposure and contamination, we recommend action before and after harvest and storage.</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Prevent mycotoxin/fungi invasion while the crops are still in the field. This can be achieved by cultivating and harvesting at the appropriate time. Adopt techniques that reduce stress in plants, such as ensuring they get enough water and are well spaced. They also need adequate sunlight and should be cultivated on suitable soil. It is also important to avoid using agricultural residues as compost as they can produce toxigenic fungi and mycotoxins when decaying.</p></li>
<li><p>After harvest, reduce fungal contamination and mycotoxin production in foods during storage, handling, processing and transport. Facilities should be monitored and kept at temperatures that discourage mould growth. Crops with moulds should be sorted and removed before storage. Storage facilities must be aerated and dry. Reducing moisture content in crops before storage is important to prevent mould.</p></li>
<li><p>Avoid damage to grains before storing as damaged grain is more susceptible to mould growth and mycotoxin contamination.</p></li>
<li><p>Don’t store food too long before consumption. It is important to follow recommended guidelines for safely storing <a href="https://www.foodsafety.gov/food-safety-charts/cold-food-storage-charts">cooked and raw food</a> in the <a href="https://www.foodsafety.gov/food-safety-charts/food-safety-during-power-outage">refrigerator</a>, <a href="https://www.agric.wa.gov.au/fruit/storage-fresh-fruit-and-vegetables?nopaging=1">fruits and vegetables</a>, <a href="https://wholegrainscouncil.org/recipes/cooking-whole-grains/storing-whole-grains">grains</a>, <a href="https://wildlyorganic.com/blogs/recipes/how-long-do-nuts-last-tips-for-storing-nuts-and-seeds">nuts and seeds</a>, and spices such as <a href="https://eatbydate.com/other/spice-menu/how-long-does-ginger-last-shelf-life/">ginger</a>. </p></li>
<li><p>Inspect and discard foods contaminated by moulds. </p></li>
<li><p>Ensure contaminated foods are not sold to consumers.</p></li>
<li><p>Improve awareness about mycotoxin contamination.</p></li>
</ul><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225700/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Oluwadara Pelumi Omotayo does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Mycotoxins contamination causes health issues. Paying attention to storage of agricultural produce can save many lives.Oluwadara Pelumi Omotayo, Postdoctoral Research Fellow, North-West UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2230652024-02-14T16:56:22Z2024-02-14T16:56:22ZFrom crop to cup – a new genetic map could make your morning coffee more climate resilient<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575043/original/file-20240212-20-hq1506.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">New insight from the genetic mapping of Arabica coffee plants could help breeders develop climate-resilient varieties of coffee. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/coffee-picker-show-red-cherries-on-1707181633">PixieMe/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>A new genetic map of the arabica coffee plant, <em>coffea arabica</em>, could help breeders develop to more <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-023-44449-8">climate-proof brews</a>. </p>
<p>Coffee is the second most consumed beverage on earth with over <a href="https://www.driveresearch.com/market-research-company-blog/coffee-survey/#:%7E:text=66%25%20of%20American%20coffee%20drinkers,consumed%20in%20the%20world%20daily.">2 billion cups</a> being enjoyed every day. It’s also a valuable commodity and in 2023 the global market was worth over USD<a href="https://www.statista.com/outlook/cmo/hot-drinks/coffee/worldwide">$93 billion</a> (£74 billion). </p>
<p>With their superior smooth taste and many fine varieties, arabica coffee beans make up around 60%-70% of <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/10/1/international-coffee-day-where-does-your-caffeine-fix-come-from">global coffee production</a>. Coffee cultivation also directly supports the livelihoods of <a href="https://www.fairtrade.org.uk/farmers-and-workers/coffee/#:%7E:text=Coffee%20is%20one%20of%20the,on%20coffee%20for%20their%20livelihoods">25 million family farmers</a> with another 100 million people involved in coffee processing and retailing.</p>
<p>But coffee crops are also threatened by climate change in many parts of the world and we need to use breeding to help the crops adapt to new conditions as well as growing them in areas that are less susceptible to factors such as drought. </p>
<p>This study could help produce coffee varieties with higher yields and more resilience to climate change. These new insights could not have come at a more important time for coffee crops. </p>
<h2>Secrets of coffee genetics</h2>
<p>A landmark study by an international group of scientists has uncovered the surprising genetic factors that underpin the diversity of the hundreds of arabica <a href="https://varieties.worldcoffeeresearch.org">coffee varieties</a> grown around the world. The new work, led by a team from the University of Udine, Italy, also reveals surprising similarities between the genetics of coffee and other important crops, including potatoes, brassicas and wheats. </p>
<p>These crops are known as <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/tetraploidy">tetraploids</a> because they have four copies of each gene, instead of the two copies (one from each parent) found in humans and nearly all other animals. As shown below, the Arabica genome contains eleven groups of chromosomes each containing two copies from each of its respective parents, <em>coffea canephora</em> in blue and <em>coffea eugenioides</em> in green. In some cases parts of the blue and green chromosome segments have become mixed up. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Blue and green graphical lines that show four of each chromosome" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575031/original/file-20240212-24-it6ean.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575031/original/file-20240212-24-it6ean.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=143&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575031/original/file-20240212-24-it6ean.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=143&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575031/original/file-20240212-24-it6ean.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=143&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575031/original/file-20240212-24-it6ean.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=179&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575031/original/file-20240212-24-it6ean.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=179&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575031/original/file-20240212-24-it6ean.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=179&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Graphical representation of a c. arabica genome. Blue and green vertical bars represent chromosomes derived from c. canephora and c. eugenioides, respectively.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-023-44449-8/figures/4">Scalabrin et al, 2024, Nature Communications</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Unlike edible crops such as wheat or potato, which have been highly bred over decades or centuries to create varieties that are <a href="https://www.croptrust.org/resources/new-drought-tolerant-durum-wheat-could-transform-farming-in-dry-regions/">drought-tolerant</a> or <a href="https://www.dundee.ac.uk/stories/international-potato-study-helps-create-new-pathogen-resilient-varieties">pest-resistant</a> – coffee has lagged behind in the application of modern breeding methods. </p>
<p>This includes the use of more precise DNA-based techniques such as <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/people-plants-and-genes-9780199207145?cc=us&lang=en&#">genome editing</a> that involves making changes to DNA. These methods, which are also <a href="https://www.who.int/health-topics/human-genome-editing#tab=tab_1">used in medicine</a>, enable us to identify and precisely manipulate the parts of a crop’s genome or genetic code to improve many aspects of performance. </p>
<p>With more detailed information about the genetic makeup of coffee, researchers can begin to use these methods to improve coffee varieties. One of the problems with arabica coffee is that our current varieties are not very diverse. </p>
<p>However, there are many wild species of coffee that are highly diverse and one goal will be to generate more resilient hybrids between the wild and cultivated species. This will allow breeders to produce a wider range of coffee varieties that could thrive in many different regions of the world.</p>
<h2>Climate-proof coffee?</h2>
<p>In 2022, a <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/authors?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0261976">Swiss study</a> showed that arabica coffee crops are facing unprecedented threats from climate change that could severely affect major growing regions such as <a href="https://theconversation.com/coffee-may-become-more-scarce-and-expensive-thanks-to-climate-change-new-research-175766">Brazil and Ethiopia</a>. Parts of these regions might become unsuitable for coffee cultivation due to increased drought incidence and threats from new pests or diseases. </p>
<p>Breeders are already applying advanced methods to develop other <a href="https://academic.oup.com/plcell/article/35/1/162/6825320">drought-tolerant crops</a>. In the future, these could be applied to coffee. Indeed, earlier work in Portugal and Latin America has already shown that novel hybrid varieties from East Timor had useful disease resistance and a form of increased vigour called <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s001220050019">heterosis</a>. </p>
<p>This new knowledge will expand the ability to produce novel coffee hybrids that suit locations such as India and New Caledonia where they could be a new crop for farmers. </p>
<p>While coffee crops face significant threats from climate change, it is heartening that we are now able to understand the wonderful genetic complexity of coffee plants in unprecedented detail. The new genetic knowledge could also lead to development of novel flavours that would further diversify the appeal of coffees in different regions of the world. </p>
<p>With the development of more precise breeding tools to produce more resilient varieties, coffee could be on the cusp of a new era for both farmers and consumers.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong><em>Don’t have time to read about climate change as much as you’d like?</em></strong>
<br><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/newsletters/imagine-57?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=Imagine&utm_content=DontHaveTimeTop">Get a weekly roundup in your inbox instead.</a> Every Wednesday, The Conversation’s environment editor writes Imagine, a short email that goes a little deeper into just one climate issue. <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/newsletters/imagine-57?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=Imagine&utm_content=DontHaveTimeBottom">Join the 30,000+ readers who’ve subscribed so far.</a></em></p>
<hr><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/223065/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Denis J Murphy does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>With new insight into the genetic complexity of coffee crops, new, more climate-resilient varieties could be bred in the future.Denis J Murphy, Emeritus Professor of Biotechnology, University of South WalesLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2207462024-01-17T13:06:03Z2024-01-17T13:06:03ZCaffeine: here’s how quitting can benefit your health<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569554/original/file-20240116-15-cnvn6w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3122%2C2070&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Because caffeine is water and fat soluble, it's able to exert its affects on many parts of the body.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/unhappy-coffee-409558066">andrew crotty/ Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Caffeine is the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19769434/">most consumed psychoactive compound</a> in the world. Even if you don’t drink coffee or tea, you probably still regularly consume caffeine since it’s found in everything from <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17995675/">fizzy drinks</a> and <a href="https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/ingredient/731#gref">cold remedies</a> to <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17132260/">decaf coffee</a> and <a href="https://www.yahoo.com/lifestyle/does-chocolate-caffeine-yes-higher-140325414.html?">chocolate</a>.</p>
<hr>
<iframe id="noa-web-audio-player" style="border: none" src="https://embed-player.newsoveraudio.com/v4?key=x84olp&id=https://theconversation.com/caffeine-heres-how-quitting-can-benefit-your-health-220746&bgColor=F5F5F5&color=D8352A&playColor=D8352A" width="100%" height="110px"></iframe>
<p><em>You can listen to more articles from The Conversation <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/audio-narrated-99682">narrated by Noa</a>.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>When caffeine is consumed, it’s rapidly absorbed by the body – reaching peak effects <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4898153/">within two hours</a> (though it may take up to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK223808/">nine hours</a> to leave your body). It’s also water and fat soluble, so it gets into all <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0002822321032405">body tissues</a>, which explains why caffeine can affect many different parts of the body.</p>
<p>It’s recommended that adults consume no more than <a href="https://www.fda.gov/consumers/consumer-updates/spilling-beans-how-much-caffeine-too-much">400mg of caffeine a day</a> (approximately four cups of coffee). More than this may lead to muscle tremors, nausea, headaches, pounding heart and even <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-wales-60570470">death</a> (in extreme cases). </p>
<p>But even people who only consume a couple cups of coffee or tea daily may feel it still has <a href="https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/how-stop-drinking-coffee-caffeine-addiction-c9cfptdbx">adverse effects</a> – such as irritability, difficulty falling asleep and feeling jittery. This is why a growing number of people are deciding to give up caffeine. </p>
<p>If you’re thinking about giving up caffeine and are wondering what benefits it may have, here’s what the research says:</p>
<h2>Brain function</h2>
<p>Caffeine withdrawal can cause headaches, fatigue and tiredness. This is because the body develops a tolerance to caffeine. </p>
<p>Caffeine binds to a receptor in the brain used by <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8160517/">adenosine</a>. The binding of caffeine to these receptors causes the body to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3153505/">delay the onset of fatigue</a>. But over time the brain cells produce <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9541543/">more adenosine receptors</a> to enable normal adenosine binding to happen. </p>
<p>So, when you stop consuming caffeine, there are excess adenosine receptors to bind to. This allows fatigue and tiredness to kick in as normal, with the person feeling more tired than before.</p>
<p>Headaches happens as a result of the absence of caffeine. In the head and neck, caffeine causes the blood vessels to narrow, reducing blood flow to the brain. When you stop drinking caffeine, after approximately 24 hours it causes the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2738587/">blood vessels to return to normal</a>, causing an <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10672630/">increase in blood flow</a> to the brain and triggering headaches. They may last up to <a href="https://jpet.aspetjournals.org/content/255/3/1123.long">9 days</a> on average.</p>
<p>And because caffeine binds to adenosine receptors (which also modulate pain) quitting caffeine may temporarily <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2452073X22000046">increase your perception and sensitivity</a> to pain because there’s more receptors available.</p>
<p>Caffeine really only affects sleep when consumed in the late afternoon and evenings. This is because caffeine delays the release of <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/medicines/melatonin/">melatonin</a> (a hormone which makes us tired) by <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/scitranslmed.aac5125">40 minutes</a>. Caffeine also reduces the overall <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/scitranslmed.aac5125">time you sleep</a> and shortens the period of <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24235903/">deep sleep</a>. </p>
<p>This can increase your tiredness the next day, leading to cycle of using caffeine to wake you up but having trouble sleeping later on as a result. When you stop caffeine, you may find your sleep improves. Some evidence suggests improvements are seen in as little as <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7907384/">12 hours</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A tired woman looks at her laptop with multiple finished cups of coffee." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569558/original/file-20240116-17-7vakxl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569558/original/file-20240116-17-7vakxl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=395&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569558/original/file-20240116-17-7vakxl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=395&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569558/original/file-20240116-17-7vakxl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=395&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569558/original/file-20240116-17-7vakxl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=497&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569558/original/file-20240116-17-7vakxl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=497&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569558/original/file-20240116-17-7vakxl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=497&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The effect caffeine has on sleep may create a cycle of needing more caffeine to stay awake.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/caffeine-addicted-bad-lifestyle-concept-young-1920296081">SrideeStudio/ Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Caffeine has also been linked to increased <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34871964/">anxiety and panic attacks</a> – and not just in those with a pre-disposition to mental health issues. Reducing or eliminating caffeine may improve your mood. This may partly be because it improves sleep. Sleep deprivation can <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2862829/">exacerbate anxiety</a> and other <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6122651/">mood disorders</a>.</p>
<p>But the adenosine receptors that caffeine bind to are also involved in the modulation of other neurotransmitters that have a role in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/1395332">stress</a>, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3008658/">happiness</a> and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK526124/">fear</a>.</p>
<h2>Cardiovascular health</h2>
<p>Reducing or eliminating caffeine might also cure heartburn and indigestion. Caffeine <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28696284/">induces acid secretion</a> in the stomach and weakens the oesophageal sphincter, which controls reflux of stomach contents up the oesophagus – triggering heartburn and indigestion.</p>
<p>Quitting caffeine may also lower your <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9402612/">blood pressure</a> and reduce your <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF01857602">heart rate</a> – although other studies have shown <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-08678-4">little change</a>.</p>
<p>This is because if someone consumes caffeine daily for many years, their body adapts to the exposure – and it becomes the new norm with its stimulant effects on the nervous system, bowels and heart. </p>
<p>There also appears to be <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-08678-4">genetic component</a> to caffeine tolerance and metabolism. This could mean some people are more affected by caffeine over others – though more research is needed on this link. </p>
<h2>A brighter smile</h2>
<p>Cutting out caffeine may improve the whiteness of your teeth – not because of caffeine directly, but because <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10266434/">tea</a> and <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1629514/">coffee</a> contain compounds including tannins that <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/4800959">stain teeth</a>. </p>
<p>Sugar in <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28438229/">energy drinks</a> can also cause damage to your teeth. Quitting may help protect them. Evidence also suggests caffeinated drinks may <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1034/j.1601-0825.2003.03967.x">reduce the amount of saliva</a> you produce, which normally protects our teeth from damage.</p>
<p>You may also find that you have an increased sensitivity to the taste of sweet food and drinks after quitting, as caffeine interferes with the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28833098/">tasting of sweet substances</a>.</p>
<h2>Going to the toilet less</h2>
<p>Caffeine acts on the smooth muscle of the intestines, particularly in the colon, causing them to contract and trigger <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9581985/">the urge to poo</a>. Caffeine can also change the consistency of your poo – especially if you drink too much, as caffeine affects <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK507857/">water absorption</a>. </p>
<p>Reducing caffeine intake may cause a less frequent urge to poo – and the consistency of your stools may change. </p>
<p>Caffeine also acts as a mild diuretic, causing an <a href="https://bpspubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/bcp.14856">increase in urine production</a>. This is because caffeine binds the adenosine receptors in the kidney, which alters how sodium is exchanged, affecting water retention. There’s also evidence caffeine is a <a href="https://nafc.org/bhealth-blog/the-big-four-bladder-irritants/">bladder irritant</a>, which can cause a more <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32441853/">frequent urge</a> to urinate. Quitting caffeine may decrease your daily toilet visits.</p>
<h2>Moderate consumption</h2>
<p>As with many things, it’s about moderation. </p>
<p>But if you’re seriously considering removing caffeine from your diet, the best way to do so is gradually. Going “cold turkey” will bring on side effects such as headaches and tiredness which can last <a href="https://jpet.aspetjournals.org/content/255/3/1123.long">two</a> to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/009130579500029V?via%3Dihub">three</a> weeks. </p>
<p>How severe and long-lasting these are depends on how much caffeine you’ve consumed per day and how long your habit has been going.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/220746/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Adam Taylor does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Caffeine is the most consumed psychoactive substance globally.Adam Taylor, Professor and Director of the Clinical Anatomy Learning Centre, Lancaster UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2183442023-12-21T23:19:57Z2023-12-21T23:19:57ZGot period pain or cramps? What to eat and avoid, according to science<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566750/original/file-20231219-27-7x7oaq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=1%2C1%2C1276%2C848&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/woman-suffering-from-a-stomach-pain-5938362/">Sora Shimazaki/Pexels</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Painful periods are common. More than half of people who menstruate have some pain for up to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8943241/">three days a month</a>, typically throbbing or cramping in the lower abdomen. </p>
<p>Digestive changes – such as vomiting, gas, bloating, diarrhoea and a “bubbling gut” – are also <a href="https://bmcwomenshealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12905-018-0538-8">common</a> around the time of menstruation. </p>
<p>There are many <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8943241/">treatments</a> for period pain (known medically as dysmenorrhoea). Not all these treatments are well-tolerated or work for everyone.</p>
<p>We’re learning more about food’s role in influencing <a href="https://theconversation.com/9-signs-you-have-inflammation-in-your-body-could-an-anti-inflammatory-diet-help-210468">inflammation</a> in our body. So, could eating or avoiding certain foods <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5963185/">help</a> with painful periods? Here’s what we know based on high-quality research.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/from-sharp-butt-pains-to-period-poos-5-lesser-known-menstrual-cycle-symptoms-191352">From sharp butt pains to period poos: 5 lesser-known menstrual cycle symptoms</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Foods that may relieve period pain or cramps</h2>
<p><strong>Foods containing omega-3 fatty acids</strong></p>
<p>Foods rich in omega-3 fatty acids include chia seeds, walnuts, flaxseeds, salmon, herring, sardines, mackerel, oysters and edamame beans. Omega-3 fatty acids are naturally present in oils including fish, cod liver, algal, krill, flaxseed (linseed), soybean and canola oils.</p>
<p>Omega-3 fatty acids <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3257651/">affect</a> how our cells function and the signalling pathways associated with inflammation and pain. </p>
<p>Earlier this year, researchers published a <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37545015/#:%7E:text=Meta%2Danalysis%20(n%20%3D%208,0.51)%20at%20reducing%20dysmenorrhoea%20pain.">meta-analysis</a> where they combined and analysed all data available on the impact of omega-3 fatty acids on period pain. They found diets high in omega-3 fatty acids (including supplements of 300-1,800 milligrams a day) over two to three months may reduce pain, and pain medication use, in people with painful periods.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566754/original/file-20231219-15-vu9xne.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Open sardine can, parsley, cut lemon on wooden table." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566754/original/file-20231219-15-vu9xne.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566754/original/file-20231219-15-vu9xne.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566754/original/file-20231219-15-vu9xne.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566754/original/file-20231219-15-vu9xne.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566754/original/file-20231219-15-vu9xne.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566754/original/file-20231219-15-vu9xne.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566754/original/file-20231219-15-vu9xne.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sardines and other oily fish are rich in omega-3 fatty acids.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/open-can-sardines-preserves-oil-on-1636046179">BearFotos/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/are-fish-oil-supplements-as-healthy-as-we-think-and-is-eating-fish-better-212250">Are fish oil supplements as healthy as we think? And is eating fish better?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p><strong>Foods high in vitamin D</strong></p>
<p>Foods high in vitamin D include trout, salmon, tuna and mackerel, as well as fish liver oils. Small amounts are also found in beef liver, egg yolk and cheese. Mushrooms contain varying levels of vitamin D, and you can <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6213178/">boost</a> this by exposing them to direct midday sunlight for 15-120 minutes. </p>
<p>The body can make vitamin D when it gets sunlight exposure and you can also get vitamin D from supplements.</p>
<p>Vitamin D <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24262718/">may help</a> reduce the factors that cause inflammation in the uterus. This includes levels of hormone-like molecules called prostaglandins. </p>
<p>A 2023 <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/15/13/2830#B11-nutrients-15-02830">meta-analysis</a> showed women who received weekly doses of vitamin D greater than 50,000 IU (or international units) had relief from period pain, regardless of how long and how often women took the vitamin.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/should-i-be-getting-my-vitamin-d-levels-checked-211268">Should I be getting my vitamin D levels checked?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p><strong>Foods high in vitamin E</strong></p>
<p>Foods rich in vitamin E include seeds (particularly sunflower seeds), nuts (particularly almonds, hazelnuts and peanuts) and spinach, broccoli, kiwifruit, mango and tomato. </p>
<p>There is some evidence vitamin E supplements reduce period pain. In a well-conducted <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15777446/">trial</a> run over the course of four periods, women took vitamin E supplements (90 milligrams, twice a day) for five days, beginning two days before the expected start of the period. This significantly reduced the severity and duration of period pain. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566756/original/file-20231220-17-d2da5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Woman tipping out nut mix into palm of hand" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566756/original/file-20231220-17-d2da5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566756/original/file-20231220-17-d2da5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566756/original/file-20231220-17-d2da5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566756/original/file-20231220-17-d2da5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566756/original/file-20231220-17-d2da5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566756/original/file-20231220-17-d2da5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566756/original/file-20231220-17-d2da5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Seeds and nuts are rich in vitamin E.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/hands-holding-jar-nuts-dried-fruits-1112521214">NazarBazar/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/i-have-painful-periods-could-it-be-endometriosis-101026">I have painful periods, could it be endometriosis?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Foods that may worsen period pain or cramps</h2>
<p><strong>Highly processed foods</strong></p>
<p>Highly processed foods include energy-dense, nutrient-poor foods such as takeaways, chips, biscuits, doughnuts, processed meats and soft drinks. </p>
<p>Research findings on the impact of a diet high in processed foods on period pain vary. A 2019 <a href="https://karger.com/goi/article/84/3/209/153726/Nutrition-as-a-Potential-Factor-of-Primary">review</a> found sugar consumption had little association with painful periods. </p>
<p>However, some observational studies (which do not involve an intervention) suggest women who eat more processed foods may have more intense period pain. For example, a <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19468949/">2009 study</a> found adolescent females who ate fast or processed foods for two days or more a week reported more period pain compared with those who did not. Therefore, eating less processed food may be something to consider. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/8-everyday-foods-you-might-not-realise-are-ultra-processed-and-how-to-spot-them-197993">8 everyday foods you might not realise are ultra processed – and how to spot them</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p><strong>Caffeine</strong></p>
<p>Foods high in caffeine include coffee, energy drinks and some processed energy bars. Caffeine intake is <a href="https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwij7LmPxfSCAxV5d_UHHRnyDyUQFnoECBIQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4222008%2F&usg=AOvVaw2mEjyMadOB1D6geQgAwckc&opi=89978449">associated with</a> menstrual pain. </p>
<p>Although we don’t know the precise underlying mechanism, researchers think caffeine may narrow blood vessels, which limits blood flow, leading to stronger cramps.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566757/original/file-20231220-23-u1d2j2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Tired woman staring at bowl of breakfast, cereal and cup on kitchen table" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566757/original/file-20231220-23-u1d2j2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566757/original/file-20231220-23-u1d2j2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566757/original/file-20231220-23-u1d2j2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566757/original/file-20231220-23-u1d2j2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566757/original/file-20231220-23-u1d2j2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566757/original/file-20231220-23-u1d2j2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566757/original/file-20231220-23-u1d2j2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Avoiding coffee may help your period pain.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/woman-does-not-want-eat-her-151886987">Lolostock/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/nope-coffee-wont-give-you-extra-energy-itll-just-borrow-a-bit-that-youll-pay-for-later-197897">Nope, coffee won't give you extra energy. It'll just borrow a bit that you'll pay for later</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p><strong>Alcohol</strong></p>
<p>Drinking alcohol is <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4859868/">not</a> a recognised risk factor for painful periods. However, chronic heavy alcohol use reduces levels of <a href="https://academic.oup.com/alcalc/article/55/2/164/5734241">magnesium</a> in the blood. Magnesium is an important factor in relaxing muscles and supporting blood flow.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/adele-called-herself-a-borderline-alcoholic-but-is-that-a-real-thing-215987">Adele called herself a 'borderline alcoholic'. But is that a real thing?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>A healthy, balanced diet is your best best</h2>
<p>Having a healthy, balanced diet is <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7071223/">one of the best ways</a> we can support our own health and prevent future chronic conditions. This can help reduce inflammation in our bodies, thought to be the main way diet can help people with painful periods.</p>
<p>If you are looking for tailored dietary advice or a menstrual health meal plan, speak with an <a href="https://member.dietitiansaustralia.org.au/Portal/Portal/Search-Directories/Find-a-Dietitian.aspx">accredited practising dietitian</a>.</p>
<p>It’s important to stress, however, that diet alone cannot treat all forms of menstrual pain. So if you are concerned about your painful periods, check in with your GP who can discuss your options.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/9-signs-you-have-inflammation-in-your-body-could-an-anti-inflammatory-diet-help-210468">9 signs you have inflammation in your body. Could an anti-inflammatory diet help?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p><em>This article has been updated to reflect the correct date of a review that found sugar consumption had little association with painful periods.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/218344/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lauren Ball works for The University of Queensland and receives funding from the National Health and Medical Research Council, Queensland Health and Mater Misericordia. She is a Director of Dietitians Australia, a Director of the Darling Downs and West Moreton Primary Health Network and an Associate Member of the Australian Academy of Health and Medical Sciences.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Emily Burch is an Accredited Practising Dietitian and member of Dietitians Australia. She works for Southern Cross University. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Pui Ting Wong is a PhD Candidate at The University Queensland (UQ) Centre for Community Health and Wellbeing, and receives the UQ Tuition Fee Offset and Stipend Scholarship. She is also an Accredited Practising Dietitian and a member of Dietitians Australia.</span></em></p>A cup of coffee might help you kick-start your day, but it may actually make painful periods worse. Here’s what else to avoid (and eat) if you have period pain.Lauren Ball, Professor of Community Health and Wellbeing, The University of QueenslandEmily Burch, Lecturer, Southern Cross UniversityPui Ting Wong, PhD Candidate, culinary education and adolescent mental health, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2186062023-12-05T01:41:44Z2023-12-05T01:41:44ZWhat does Australian-grown coffee taste like, and how does it compare? Our research describes its unique ‘terroir’<p>Australians love their coffee, and many can barely live without it. <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/866543/australia-domestic-consumption-of-coffee/">According to Statista</a>, we consumed an average of about 2kg of coffee per person in 2022. Yet <a href="https://adepteconomics.com.au/coffees-economic-contribution-in-australia/">it’s estimated</a> less than 1% of this coffee is grown in Australia.</p>
<p>Our new research, <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/joss.12886">published in the Journal of Sensory Studies</a>, introduces a world-first coffee character wheel which can be used to describe the unique “terroir” of Australian coffee. </p>
<p>We pored over published literature, online materials and coffee sensory panels to collate a list of 679 unique sensory terms describing coffee’s acidity, mouthfeel and aftertaste. We then narrowed this down to 95 terms, which were arranged onto our wheel. </p>
<p>We hope our research will help Australian growers become more competitive in the wider coffee market, and establish a brand identity beyond “Grown in Australia”.</p>
<h2>A history of growing coffee</h2>
<p>Many people don’t think of Australia as a coffee-growing country – probably because coffee cultivation is typically associated with tropical high-altitude areas. </p>
<p>But that doesn’t mean we can’t produce a good cup of coffee here. In fact, coffee has been successfully grown on Australia’s east coast for <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/goodfood/why-australiangrown-coffee-is-creating-a-buzz-plus-eight-to-try-20220915-h26fo8.html">more than 100 years</a>. Today, there are about 50 growers scattered throughout the coast’s tropical and subtropical areas. </p>
<p>During the course of our research, coffee farmers told us Australia’s cool temperature, high rainfall and zero-frost microclimates are perfect for producing high-quality Arabica coffee.</p>
<p>At the same time, coffee is an expensive crop to produce because of high labour and land costs. As such, Australian-grown coffee remains the secret of a small number of speciality coffee drinkers. </p>
<p>But our research has found there is potential for it to meet national demand.</p>
<h2>Working with producers</h2>
<p>Southern Cross University’s Northern Rivers campus borders the Byron Bay hinterland in New South Wales, a major coffee-producing area in Australia. For decades, our university’s researchers have worked with local coffee farmers to improve production and quality. </p>
<p>Our team recently received funding from AgriFutures Australia, as part of its <a href="https://agrifutures.com.au/news/brewing-new-opportunities-for-australias-emerging-coffee-industry/">AgriFutures Emerging Industries Program</a>, to find the unique “terroir” of Australian-grown coffee. </p>
<p>Terroir, a word often associated with wine, can be thought of as the “taste of place” of a product being consumed. Although a product’s terroir is specific to a location, the exact definition can vary for different crops.</p>
<p>Looking at the literature on coffee, we found the definition of coffee terroir would need to be clarified. We <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2304-8158/11/13/1907">compared it</a> to the well-defined wine terroir, and found post-harvest processing should also be included, as it is specific to the location.</p>
<h2>Finding the terroir of Aussie coffee</h2>
<p>The quality of coffee is often assessed and scored following industry-standard guidelines. </p>
<p>Australian-grown coffees have <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/goodfood/why-australiangrown-coffee-is-creating-a-buzz-plus-eight-to-try-20220915-h26fo8.html">very high scores</a> similar to, or above, other international coffees such as those from Brazil, Columbia or Ethiopia. </p>
<p>However, these scores can’t differentiate between terroirs – so we assessed and differentiated between the terroirs of 100 Australian-grown single-origin coffee samples and 50 international ones. </p>
<p>The samples were anonymised and given to 138 panellists who provided thousands of descriptions. For aroma and flavour, we standardised the descriptions to the well-known <a href="https://sca.coffee/research/coffee-tasters-flavor-wheel">coffee taster’s flavour wheel</a>.</p>
<p>We then isolated descriptions related to acidity, mouthfeel and aftertaste, which we were able to summarise using our <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/joss.12886">coffee character wheel</a>.</p>
<h2>What does our coffee taste like?</h2>
<p>Our results found Australian-grown coffee is sweeter, nuttier and fruitier in flavour than others. This pleasant terroir is probably due to the cooler temperatures and longer ripening periods in our coffee-producing areas. </p>
<p>It also has a low-medium intensity in acidity, smooth textural mouthfeel, and a medium-long aftertaste. </p>
<p>In addition, we observed slight differences between the terroirs of coffee from Australia’s two primary growing regions. The tropical north had a more nutty and roasted flavour profile, while the subtropical presented a sweeter and fruitier profile.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/I9TzqkAC_ds?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Growing Australia’s coffee industry and brewing the perfect cup.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Waiting to be discovered</h2>
<p>In <a href="https://worldcoffeeresearch.org/programs/international-multilocation-variety-trial">collaboration with</a> World Coffee Research, we’ve conducted trials to find new high-quality coffee varieties that can be grown in Australia. These will help reduce the cost of production and provide <a href="https://www.ft.com/video/c50299ef-afc0-43a9-a101-f92a661d2322">more resilience against climate change</a>.</p>
<p>Locally produced coffee also has a lower carbon footprint and transport time compared with imported coffee. This means a fresher, cleaner and greener product. And as Australia is <a href="https://www.farmbiosecurity.com.au/make-sure-your-next-cuppa-isnt-a-biosecurity-risk/">free of coffee pests</a> and diseases, most of it is grown without the use of pesticides.</p>
<p>For now, Australian-origin coffee remains a niche product waiting to be discovered – but it might just end up in your morning cup yet. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/appearance-aroma-and-mouthfeel-all-you-need-to-know-to-give-wine-tasting-a-go-172500">Appearance, aroma and mouthfeel: all you need to know to give wine tasting a go</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/218606/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lei Liu receives funding from AgriFutures Australia for the research project ‘The Defining terroir of Australian coffee to increase demand and investment’. The project is lead by Southern Cross University and funded by AgriFutures Australia’s Emerging Industries Program.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Simon Williams receives funding from AgriFutures Australia for the research project ‘The Defining terroir of Australian coffee to increase demand and investment’. The project is lead by Southern Cross University and funded by AgriFutures Australia’s Emerging Industries Program.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tobias Kretzschmar receives funding from AgriFutures Australia for the research project ‘Assessing the performance of international coffee cultivars in Australia’. The project is lead by Southern Cross University and funded by AgriFutures Australia’s Emerging Industries Program.</span></em></p>Australian-grown coffees have very high scores, similar to other international varieties from Brazil, Columbia or Ethiopia.Lei Liu, Senior Research Fellow, Southern Cross UniversitySimon Williams, Adjunct Fellow, Southern Cross UniversityTobias Kretzschmar, Professor, Southern Cross UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2155462023-10-31T19:17:51Z2023-10-31T19:17:51ZHow is decaf coffee made? And is it really caffeine-free?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556740/original/file-20231030-21-uurqzu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=133%2C47%2C6059%2C3540&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/gray-metal-tool-aaHwnxgBmHs">Volodymyr Proskurovskyi/Unsplash</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Coffee is one of the most popular drinks in the world, and its high levels of caffeine are among the main reasons why. It’s a natural stimulant that provides an energy buzz, and we just can’t get enough.</p>
<p>However, some people prefer to limit their caffeine intake <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12684194/">for health</a> or other reasons. Decaffeinated or “decaf” coffee is widely available, and its consumption is reported to be <a href="https://www.coffeebeanshop.com.au/coffee-blog/decaf-coffee-market-worth-2145-billion-by-2025-at-69">on the rise</a>.</p>
<p>Here’s what you need to know about decaf coffee: how it’s made, the flavour, the benefits – and whether it’s actually caffeine-free.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/health-check-four-reasons-to-have-another-cup-of-coffee-40390">Health Check: four reasons to have another cup of coffee</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>How is decaf made?</h2>
<p>Removing caffeine while keeping a coffee bean’s aroma and flavour intact isn’t a simple task. Decaf coffee is made by stripping green, unroasted coffee beans of their caffeine content and relies on the fact that <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6318762/#:%7E:text=Caffeine%20(Figure%201a)%20being,(15%20g%2FL).">caffeine dissolves</a> in water.</p>
<p>Three main methods are used for removing caffeine: chemical solvents, liquid carbon dioxide (CO₂), or plain water with special filters. </p>
<p>The additional steps required in all of these processing methods are why decaf coffee is often more expensive. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556561/original/file-20231030-27-ab4y1v.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A close-up of a small branch with bright green berries on it" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556561/original/file-20231030-27-ab4y1v.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556561/original/file-20231030-27-ab4y1v.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556561/original/file-20231030-27-ab4y1v.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556561/original/file-20231030-27-ab4y1v.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556561/original/file-20231030-27-ab4y1v.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556561/original/file-20231030-27-ab4y1v.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556561/original/file-20231030-27-ab4y1v.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Coffee beans are not actually beans – they are the hard seeds nestled inside the fruit of the coffee plant.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/green-leaf-budded-during-daytime-VMJtKiREtMc">Marc Babin/Unsplash</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Solvent-based methods</h2>
<p>Most decaf coffee is made using <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/epdf/10.1080/10408699991279231?needAccess=true">solvent-based</a> methods as it’s the cheapest process. This method breaks down into two further types: <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780123849472001835">direct and indirect</a>.</p>
<p>The <strong>direct method</strong> involves steaming the coffee beans and then repeatedly soaking them in a chemical solvent (usually methylene chloride or ethyl acetate) which binds to the caffeine and extracts it from the beans.</p>
<p>After a pre-determined time, the caffeine has been extracted and the coffee beans are steamed once more to remove any residual chemical solvent. </p>
<p>The <strong>indirect method</strong> still uses a chemical solvent, but it doesn’t come into direct contact with the coffee beans. Instead, the beans are soaked in hot water, then the water is separated from the beans and treated with the chemical solvent. </p>
<p>The caffeine bonds to the solvent in the water and is evaporated. The caffeine-free water is then returned to the beans to reabsorb the coffee flavours and aromas. </p>
<p>The solvent chemicals (particularly methylene chloride) used in these processes are a source of controversy around decaf coffee. This is because <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/dichloromethane">methylene chloride</a> is suggested to be mildly carcinogenic in high doses. Methylene chloride and ethyl acetate are commonly used in paint stripper, nail polish removers and degreaser.</p>
<p>However, both the <a href="https://www.foodstandards.gov.au/code/pages/default.aspx">Australian New Zealand Food Standards Code</a> and <a href="https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/cfrsearch.cfm?fr=173.255">the United States Food and Drug Administration</a> permit the use of these solvents to process decaf. They also have strict limits on the amount of the chemicals that can still be present on the beans, and in reality <a href="https://www.chemicals.co.uk/blog/how-dangerous-is-methylene-chloride">practically no solvent</a> is left behind.</p>
<h2>Non-solvent-based methods</h2>
<p>Non-solvent-based methods that use liquid carbon dioxide or water are becoming increasingly popular as they don’t involve chemical solvents.</p>
<p>In the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/10408699991279231"><strong>CO₂ method</strong></a>, liquid carbon dioxide is pumped into a high-pressure chamber with the beans, where it binds to the caffeine and is then removed through high pressure, leaving behind decaffeinated beans.</p>
<p>The <strong>water method</strong> (also known as the Swiss water process) is exactly what it sounds like – it <a href="http://publication.eiar.gov.et:8080/xmlui/bitstream/handle/123456789/3234/ECSS%20Proceeding%20Final.pdf?sequence=1#page=294">involves extracting caffeine</a> from coffee beans using water. There are variations on this method, but the basic steps are as follows. </p>
<p>For an initial batch, green coffee beans are soaked in hot water, creating an extract rich in caffeine and flavour compounds (the flavourless beans are then discarded). This green coffee extract is passed through activated charcoal filters, which trap the caffeine molecules while allowing the flavours to pass through.</p>
<p>Once created in this way, the caffeine-free extract can be used to soak a new batch of green coffee beans – since the flavours are already saturating the extract, the only thing that will be dissolved from the beans is the caffeine. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/8531vyP7Z5U?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<h2>Is caffeine fully removed from decaf?</h2>
<p>Switching to decaf may not be as caffeine free as you think. </p>
<p>It is unlikely that 100% of the caffeine will be successfully <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8603790/">stripped from the coffee beans</a>. Just like the caffeine content of coffee can vary, some <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17132260/">small amounts</a> of caffeine are still present in decaf. </p>
<p>However, the amount is quite modest. You would need to drink more than ten cups of decaf to reach the caffeine level typically present in <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jat/article/30/8/611/714415">one cup of caffeinated coffee</a>.</p>
<p>Australia <a href="https://www.foodstandards.gov.au/code/Documents/1.1.2%20Definitions%20v157.pdf">does not require</a> coffee roasters or producers to detail the process used to create their decaf coffee. However, you might find this information on some producers’ websites if they have chosen to advertise it.</p>
<h2>Does decaf coffee taste different?</h2>
<p>Some people say decaf tastes different. Depending on how the beans are decaffeinated, some aromatic elements may be co-extracted with the caffeine <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23745606/">during the process</a>.</p>
<p>Caffeine also contributes to the bitterness of coffee, so when the caffeine is removed, so is <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8948847/">some of the bitterness</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556739/original/file-20231030-23-t3sdwn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A tub of partially roasted coffee beans in a pale tan colour" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556739/original/file-20231030-23-t3sdwn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556739/original/file-20231030-23-t3sdwn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556739/original/file-20231030-23-t3sdwn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556739/original/file-20231030-23-t3sdwn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556739/original/file-20231030-23-t3sdwn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556739/original/file-20231030-23-t3sdwn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556739/original/file-20231030-23-t3sdwn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Caffeine contributes some of the bitterness of coffee, but there are also plenty of flavour compounds that develop in green beans as they are roasted to a rich, dark brown.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/person-holding-brown-seed-XpyD7z6AP4g">Joshua Newton/Unsplash</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Do caffeinated and decaf coffee have the same health benefits?</h2>
<p>The health benefits found for drinking decaf coffee are similar to that of caffeinated coffee, including a lower risk of type 2 diabetes, some cancers and overall <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5696634/">mortality</a>.
More recently, coffee has been linked with improved weight management over time.</p>
<p>Most of the health benefits have been shown by drinking <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5696634/">three cups</a> of decaf per day. </p>
<p>Moderation is key, and remember that the greatest health benefits will come from having a <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-a-balanced-diet-anyway-72432">balanced diet</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/can-coffee-help-you-avoid-weight-gain-heres-what-the-science-says-214954">Can coffee help you avoid weight gain? Here's what the science says</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/215546/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lauren Ball works for The University of Queensland and receives funding from the National Health and Medical Research Council, Queensland Health and Mater Misericordia. She is a Director of Dietitians Australia, a Director of the Darling Downs and West Moreton Primary Health Network and an Associate Member of the Australian Academy of Health and Medical Sciences.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Emily Burch works for Southern Cross University.</span></em></p>Some coffee lovers can’t do without their hit of caffeine. But if you prefer decaf, here’s the intriguing science of how it’s made, why it costs more – and how much caffeine makes it to your cup.Lauren Ball, Professor of Community Health and Wellbeing, The University of QueenslandEmily Burch, Dietitian, Researcher & Lecturer, Southern Cross UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2149542023-10-12T19:02:36Z2023-10-12T19:02:36ZCan coffee help you avoid weight gain? Here’s what the science says<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553392/original/file-20231011-22-7g3lmc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=44%2C260%2C5928%2C3727&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/person-holding-yellow-ceramic-cup-724668/">Valeria Boltneva/Pexels</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Coffee is well recognised as having a positive impact on long-term health. Drinking the equivalent of three to four cups of instant coffee a day <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5696634/">reduces the risk</a> of many health conditions including heart disease, type 2 diabetes and some cancers.</p>
<p>Most people gain <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4984841/">small amounts of weight</a> each year as they age. But can coffee help prevent this gradual weight gain? </p>
<p>A group of researchers examined whether drinking an extra cup of coffee a day – or adding sugar, cream or a non-dairy alternative – resulted in more or less weight gain than those who didn’t adjust their intake. </p>
<p>Their <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0002916523661702">research</a> (currently a pre-proof, which means it has been peer reviewed but is yet to undergo the final formatting and copyediting) found a modest link between coffee and gaining less weight than expected. </p>
<p>People who drank an extra cup of coffee a day gained 0.12 kg less weight than expected over four years. Adding sugar resulted in a fraction more (0.09 kg) weight gain than expected over four years.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/health-check-four-reasons-to-have-another-cup-of-coffee-40390">Health Check: four reasons to have another cup of coffee</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>How was the study conducted? What did it find?</h2>
<p>Researchers combined data from three large studies from the United States: two <a href="https://nurseshealthstudy.org">Nurses’ Health Studies</a> from 1986 to 2010, and from 1991 to 2015, and a <a href="https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/hpfs/about-the-study/">Health Professional Follow-up study</a> from 1991 to 2014. </p>
<p>The Nurses’ Health Studies are two of the largest cohort studies, with more 230,000 participants, and investigates chronic disease risks for women. The Health Professional Follow-up study involves more than 50,000 male health professionals and investigates the relationship between diet and health outcomes. </p>
<p>Participants in all three studies completed a baseline questionnaire, and another questionnaire every four years to assess their food and drink intake. Using the combined datasets, researchers analysed changes in coffee intake and changes in the participants’ self-reported weight at four-year intervals. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Woman holds coffee cup" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553397/original/file-20231011-15-1e5x6f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553397/original/file-20231011-15-1e5x6f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=405&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553397/original/file-20231011-15-1e5x6f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=405&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553397/original/file-20231011-15-1e5x6f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=405&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553397/original/file-20231011-15-1e5x6f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=508&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553397/original/file-20231011-15-1e5x6f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=508&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553397/original/file-20231011-15-1e5x6f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=508&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The study looked at associations between coffee intake and weight.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/gv1I7bYLLDI">Unsplash/Annie Spratt</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The average four year weight-gains for the nurses’ studies were 1.2kg and 1.7kg, while participants in the health professionals study gained an average of 0.8kg.</p>
<p>The researchers found that increasing unsweetened caffeinated or decaffeinated coffee intake by one cup a day was associated with a weight gain that was 0.12 kg less than expected over four years.</p>
<p>Adding creamer (milk) or a non-dairy alternative did not significantly affect this weight change. </p>
<p>However, adding sugar (one teaspoon) to coffee was associated with a weight gain that was 0.09 kg more than expected over four years.</p>
<p>These associations were stronger in participants who were younger and had a higher body mass index at the beginning of the studies.</p>
<h2>What are the pros and cons of the study?</h2>
<p>This study is unique in two ways. It had a very large sample size and followed participants for many years. This adds confidence that the associations were real and can likely be applied to other populations.</p>
<p>However, there are three reasons to be cautious.</p>
<p>First, the findings represent an <em>association</em>, not <em>causation</em>. This means the study does not prove that coffee intake is the true reason for the weight change. Rather, it shows the two changes were observed together over time. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/clearing-up-confusion-between-correlation-and-causation-30761">Clearing up confusion between correlation and causation</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Second, the findings around weight were very modest. The average four-year weight gain averted, based on one cup of coffee, was 0.12 kilograms, which is about 30 grams per year. This amount may not be a meaningful change for most people looking to manage weight. </p>
<p>Finally, this analysis did not consider the variability in the amount of caffeine in coffee (which we <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17412475/">know can be high</a>), it just assumed a standard amount of caffeine per cup.</p>
<h2>How could coffee help with weight management?</h2>
<p>Caffeine is a natural stimulant which has been <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0149763416300690">shown to</a> temporarily reduce appetite and increase alertness. This may help to feel less hungry for a short period, potentially leading to reduced energy intake. </p>
<p>Some people consume coffee before exercise as a stimulant to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7777221/">improve their workout performance</a> – if a workout is more effective, more energy may be expended. However, the benefit is largely thought to be short-lived, rather than long-term.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Pouring coffee" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553388/original/file-20231011-24-lnybke.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553388/original/file-20231011-24-lnybke.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553388/original/file-20231011-24-lnybke.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553388/original/file-20231011-24-lnybke.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553388/original/file-20231011-24-lnybke.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553388/original/file-20231011-24-lnybke.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553388/original/file-20231011-24-lnybke.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Coffee has a small impact on metabolism.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/close-up-of-woman-holding-coffee-cup-at-cafe-312420/">Chevanon Photography/Pexels</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Caffeine has also been <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0271531720304449">shown to</a> speed up our metabolism, causing more energy to be burned while resting. However, this effect is relatively small and is not a suitable substitute for regular physical activity and a healthy diet.</p>
<p>Finally, coffee has a <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4725310/">mild diuretic effect</a>, which can lead to temporary water weight loss. This is water loss, not fat loss, and the weight is quickly regained when you re-hydrate.</p>
<h2>Is it worth trying coffee for weight loss?</h2>
<p>Losing weight can be influenced by various factors, so don’t get too enthusiastic about the coffee-weight link highlighted in this new study, or increase your coffee intake to unreasonable levels.</p>
<p>Most adults can safely consume around <a href="https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/caffeine">400mg</a> of caffeine a day. That’s the equivalent of two espressos or four cups of instant coffee or eight cups of tea.</p>
<p>If you are pregnant or breastfeeding, it is important to talk to your doctor before increasing your caffeine intake, because caffeine can be passed through to your growing baby.</p>
<p>If you need individualised weight guidance, talk to your GP or visit an <a href="https://member.dietitiansaustralia.org.au/Portal/Portal/Search-Directories/Find-a-Dietitian.aspx">accredited practising dietitian</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-can-you-do-to-speed-up-your-metabolism-204811">What can you do to speed up your metabolism?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/214954/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lauren Ball works for The University of Queensland and receives funding from the National Health and Medical Research Council, Queensland Health and Mater Misericordia. She is a Director of Dietitians Australia, a Director of the Darling Downs and West Moreton Primary Health Network and an Associate Member of the Australian Academy of Health and Medical Sciences.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Emily Burch works for Southern Cross University.</span></em></p>A new study shows people who drank an extra cup of coffee a day gained less weight than expected over four years.Lauren Ball, Professor of Community Health and Wellbeing, The University of QueenslandEmily Burch, Dietitian, Researcher & Lecturer, Southern Cross UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2126802023-09-29T17:00:37Z2023-09-29T17:00:37ZLost in the coffee aisle? Navigating the complex buzzwords behind an ‘ethical’ bag of beans is easier said than done<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/551067/original/file-20230928-21-efm249.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=19%2C0%2C2121%2C1397&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The text on a single bag of coffee can feel like information overload.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/young-asian-woman-pushing-a-shopping-cart-grocery-royalty-free-image/1469902811?phrase=coffee+aisle&adppopup=true">d3sign/Moment via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>You’re shopping for a bag of coffee beans at the grocery store. After reading about <a href="https://theconversation.com/coffee-60-of-wild-species-are-at-risk-of-extinction-due-to-climate-change-109982">the effects of climate change</a> and how little farmers make – <a href="https://perfectdailygrind.com/2022/09/how-much-of-the-price-of-a-cup-of-coffee-do-farmers-receive/">typically $0.40 per cup</a> – you figure it might be time to change your usual beans and buy something more ethical. Perusing the shelves in the coffee aisle, though, you see too many choices.</p>
<p>First up is the red tub of Folgers “100% Colombian,” a kitchen staple – “lively with a roasted and rich finish.” On the side of the tub, you see <a href="https://luzmedia.co/colombian-coffee">the icon of Juan Valdez</a> with his donkey, Conchita – a fictional mascot representing the Colombian Coffee Growers Federation.</p>
<p>Next might be Starbucks “<a href="https://www.kroger.com/p/starbucks-colombia-medium-roast-ground-coffee/0076211120611">Single-Origin Colombia</a>.” One side of the green bag tells “the story” of the beans, describing “treacherous dirt roads” to “6,500 feet of elevation” that are “worth the journey every time.” The other shows a QR code and promises Starbucks is “Committed to 100% Ethical Coffee Sourcing in partnership with Conservation International.” </p>
<p>Then again, you’ve heard that a “better” choice would be to buy from local cafes. The bag from your local roaster introduces you to La Familia Vieira of Huila, Colombia, who have worked as coffee farmers for four generations at 1,600 meters above sea level – about a mile. But then there’s a flood of unfamiliar lingo: the 88-point anerobic-processed coffee was sourced directly from an importer who has a six-year relationship with the family, paid $3.70 per pound at farmgate, and $6.10 per pound FOB at a time when the C-market price was $1.60 per pound.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/551072/original/file-20230928-21-o96poq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A man in a straw hat and pink shirt pours brightly colored berries through an open-air processor." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/551072/original/file-20230928-21-o96poq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/551072/original/file-20230928-21-o96poq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=369&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/551072/original/file-20230928-21-o96poq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=369&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/551072/original/file-20230928-21-o96poq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=369&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/551072/original/file-20230928-21-o96poq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=463&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/551072/original/file-20230928-21-o96poq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=463&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/551072/original/file-20230928-21-o96poq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=463&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Coffee farmer Julian Pinilla uses a coffee grinder during an interview with AFP in Valle del Cauca, Colombia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/coffee-farmer-julian-pinilla-uses-a-coffee-grinder-during-news-photo/1504615725?adppopup=true">Juan Restrepo/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>If you’re about ready to toss in the towel, you’re hardly alone. Consumers are often asked to make more responsible choices. Yet when it comes to commodity goods like coffee, the complex production chain can turn an uncomplicated habit into a complicated decision.</p>
<p>As a coffee enthusiast and <a href="https://www.uml.edu/msb/faculty/ross-spencer.aspx">marketing professor who researches marketplace justice</a>, I’ve long been fascinated with how ethics and coffee consumption are intertwined. Before COVID-19, my family <a href="https://www.instagram.com/yukro.cat/">adopted a cat and named him Yukro</a>, after a coffee-producing community in Ethiopia. While we were quarantining at home, I ordered Yukro-originating coffee from as many roasters as I could find to try to understand how consumers were supposed to make an informed choice.</p>
<p>Paradoxically, the more information I gleaned, the less I knew how to make a responsible decision. Indeed, prior research has indicated that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2019.03.011">information overload increases the paradox of choice</a>; this is no different when factoring in ethical information. Additionally, as with a lot of consumer-facing information, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/07439156231202746">it can be difficult to tell what information is relevant or credible</a>. </p>
<p>Marketers attempt to simplify this overload by using buzzwords that sound good but may not get across much nuance. However, you might consider some of these terms when trying to decide between “100% Colombian” and the Vieira family. </p>
<h2>Fair trade</h2>
<p>As a benchmark, the coffee industry typically uses the “C-price”: <a href="https://www.marketwatch.com/investing/future/kc00">the traded price</a> on the New York Intercontinental Exchange for a pound of coffee ready for export. “Fair trade” implies the coffee is fairly traded, often with the goal of paying farmers minimum prices – and fixed premiums – above the C-price. </p>
<p>There are a few different fair trade certifications, such as <a href="https://www.fairtradeamerica.org/">Fairtrade America</a> or <a href="https://www.fairtradecertified.org/">Fair Trade Certified</a>. Each of these has its own, voluntary certification standards linked with the associated organization. Yet <a href="https://cdn.coffeestrategies.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/07/Sustainable-Coffee-Certifications-Comparison-Matrix-2010.pdf">obtaining certification</a> can come at significant additional cost for farms or importers.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/551070/original/file-20230928-25-et44vv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Women spread out coffee beans on a drying rack in an open field with hills in the distance." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/551070/original/file-20230928-25-et44vv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/551070/original/file-20230928-25-et44vv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/551070/original/file-20230928-25-et44vv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/551070/original/file-20230928-25-et44vv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/551070/original/file-20230928-25-et44vv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/551070/original/file-20230928-25-et44vv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/551070/original/file-20230928-25-et44vv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Farmers work on the coffee seed harvest in the Nandi province of Tindiret, Kenya.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/the-farmers-are-on-the-process-of-coffee-seed-harvest-at-news-photo/1650320045?adppopup=true">Gerald Anderson/Anadolu Agency via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In contrast, some importers, or even roasters, have established relationships with specific farms, rather than buying beans at auction on the open market. These relationships potentially allow the importers to work directly with farmers over multi-year periods to improve the coffee quality and conditions. Longer-term commitment can provide farmers more certainty in times when the C-price is below their cost of production. </p>
<p>Yet these arrangements can be just as volatile for farmers if the importers they’ve committed to cannot find roasters interested in buying their beans – beans they could have sold at auction themselves.</p>
<h2>100% arabica</h2>
<p>There are several species of coffee, but <a href="https://www.climate.gov/news-features/climate-and/climate-coffee">approximately 70% of the world’s production</a> comes from the arabica species, which grows well at higher altitudes. Like with wine, there are several varieties of arabica, and they tend to be a bit sweeter than other species – making arabica the ideal species for satisfying consumers.</p>
<p>In other words, a label like “100% arabica” is meant to signal deliciousness and prestige – though it’s about as descriptive as calling a bottle of pinot noir “100% red.”</p>
<p>When it comes to the environment, though, arabica isn’t necessarily a win. Many arabica varieties are susceptible to climate change-related conditions such as coffee rust – <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2020/09/coffee-rust/616358/">a common fungus</a> that spreads easily and can devastate farms – or drought. </p>
<p>Other coffee species such as robusta or <a href="https://intelligence.coffee/2023/03/whatever-happened-eugenioides-coffee/">the less common eugenioides</a> are more climate-change resistant, reducing costs of production for farmers, and are <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/675807/average-prices-arabica-and-robusta-coffee-worldwide/">cheaper on commodity markets</a>. However, they have a bit of a <a href="https://sprudge.com/what-is-eugenioides-coffee-181142.html">different taste profile</a> than what folks are normally used to, which could mean lower earnings for farmers who make the switch, but could also provide new opportunities in areas where coffee was not previously farmed or to new markets of consumers’ tastes.</p>
<h2>Single-origin</h2>
<p>If someone labeled a peach as “American,” a consumer would rightly wonder where exactly it came from. Similarly, “single-origin” is a very broad description that could mean the coffee came from “Africa” or “Ethiopia” or “Jimma Zone” – even the zone’s specific town of “Agaro.” “Single-estate” at least gives slightly more farm-level information, though even this information may be tough to come by. </p>
<p>Consumers have tended to want their coffee’s journey from seed to cup to be <a href="https://perfectdailygrind.com/2023/04/do-specialty-coffee-consumers-want-to-connect-with-farmers/">traceable and transparent</a>, which implies that everyone along the production chain is committed to equity – and “single-origin” appears to provide those qualities.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/551069/original/file-20230928-17-hi274j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A man in a blue shirt crouches to examine small green fruits along a stem." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/551069/original/file-20230928-17-hi274j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/551069/original/file-20230928-17-hi274j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/551069/original/file-20230928-17-hi274j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/551069/original/file-20230928-17-hi274j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/551069/original/file-20230928-17-hi274j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/551069/original/file-20230928-17-hi274j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/551069/original/file-20230928-17-hi274j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Egyptian farmer Ahmad al-Hijawi’s Yemeni coffee beans are cultivated in the shade of mango trees.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/view-of-egyptian-farmer-ahmad-al-hijawis-yemeni-coffee-news-photo/1673786616?adppopup=true">Mohamed Elshahed/Anadolu Agency via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As a result, some coffee marketers invest quite a bit in being able to craft a narrative that emotionally resonates with consumers and makes them feel “connected” to the farm. Others have developed <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joitmc.2023.100008">blockchain solutions</a> where each step along the coffee’s journey, from bean to retail, is documented in a database that consumers can look at. Since blockchain data are immutable, the information a consumer gets from scanning a QR code on a label of a coffee bag should provide a clear chain of provenance.</p>
<h2>Shade-grown</h2>
<p>Shade-grown labels indicate that farms have adopted a more environmentally sustainable method, using biomatter like dead leaves as natural fertilizer for the coffee shrubs <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2022.877476">growing beneath a canopy of trees</a>. Unlike other methods, shade-grown coffee doesn’t increase deforestation, and it protects habitats for animals like migratory birds – which is why the Smithsonian’s National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute, which has developed its own coffee certification program, <a href="https://nationalzoo.si.edu/migratory-birds/bird-friendly">calls it “bird-friendly</a>.”</p>
<p>But as with fair trade, there are costs associated with certification, and those costs are often passed on to consumers. Farmers or importers are left justifying the cost and wondering if the specialized label can attract a large enough market to validate their decision to certify. That said, many farmers who have the ability will do shade-grown regardless, since it’s a better farming practice and <a href="https://news.climate.columbia.edu/2019/03/12/shade-grown-coffee-sustainable/">saves some costs</a> on fertilizer.</p>
<p>In the end, all this information – or lack thereof – is a tool for consumers to use when making their coffee choices. Like any tool, sometimes it’s helpful, and sometimes not. These labels might not make your decision any easier, and might drive you right back to your “usual” bag of beans – but at least your choice can be more nuanced.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/212680/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Spencer M. Ross is a former member of the Specialty Coffee Association (SCA) and has presented seminars twice at SCA events.</span></em></p>If you’ve decided to look for coffee that’s better for the earth or the people making it, you might need some help translating all the industry lingo.Spencer M. Ross, Associate Professor of Marketing, UMass LowellLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2137152023-09-25T12:20:30Z2023-09-25T12:20:30Z‘Design of Coffee’ course teaches engineering through brewing the perfect cup of coffee<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549189/original/file-20230919-29-u8o1mb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=7%2C21%2C4785%2C3168&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">UC Davis students learn the fundamentals of both engineering and brewing coffee.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">UC Davis</span></span></figcaption></figure><figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Text saying: Uncommon Courses, from The Conversation" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/499014/original/file-20221205-17-kcwec8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/499014/original/file-20221205-17-kcwec8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499014/original/file-20221205-17-kcwec8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499014/original/file-20221205-17-kcwec8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499014/original/file-20221205-17-kcwec8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499014/original/file-20221205-17-kcwec8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499014/original/file-20221205-17-kcwec8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/topics/uncommon-courses-130908">Uncommon Courses</a> is an occasional series from The Conversation U.S. highlighting unconventional approaches to teaching.</em> </p>
<h2>Title of course:</h2>
<p>The Design of Coffee: An Introduction to Chemical Engineering</p>
<h2>What prompted the idea for the course?</h2>
<p>In 2012, my colleague professor Tonya Kuhl and I were drinking coffee and brainstorming how to improve our senior-level laboratory course in chemical engineering. Tonya looked at her coffee and suggested, “How about we have the students reverse-engineer a Mr. Coffee drip brewer to see how it works?” </p>
<p>A light bulb went off in my head, and I said, “Why not make a whole course about coffee to introduce lots of students to chemical engineering?” </p>
<p>And that’s what we did. We developed The Design of Coffee as a freshman seminar for 18 students in 2013, and, since then, the course has grown to over 2,000 general education students per year at the University of California, Davis.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549190/original/file-20230919-25-c9imuf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A student wearing a flannel shirt uses a white microscope, with a pile of coffee beans and a metal scoop sitting next to them on the table." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549190/original/file-20230919-25-c9imuf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549190/original/file-20230919-25-c9imuf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549190/original/file-20230919-25-c9imuf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549190/original/file-20230919-25-c9imuf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549190/original/file-20230919-25-c9imuf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549190/original/file-20230919-25-c9imuf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549190/original/file-20230919-25-c9imuf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A student uses a microscope to look at coffee beans in The Design of Coffee lab.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">UC Davis</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What does the course explore?</h2>
<p>The course focus is hands-on experiments with roasting, brewing and tasting in our coffee lab. </p>
<p>For example, students measure the energy they use while roasting to illustrate the law of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/conservation-of-energy">conservation of energy</a>, they measure how <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/nursing-and-health-professions/ph-measurement">the pH of the coffee</a> changes after brewing to illustrate the kinetics of chemical reactions, and they measure how the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-85787-1">total dissolved solids</a> in the brewed coffee relates to time spent brewing to illustrate the principle of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_transfer">mass transfer</a>. </p>
<p>The course culminates in an engineering design contest, where the students compete to make the best-tasting coffee using the least amount of energy. It’s a classic engineering optimization problem, but one that is broadly accessible – and tasty.</p>
<h2>Why is this course relevant now?</h2>
<p>Coffee plays <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/videos/the-history-of-coffee-culture-in-america/">a huge role in culture</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.3945/jn.116.233940">diet</a> and <a href="https://www.ncausa.org/Research-Trends/Economic-Impact">the U.S.</a> and <a href="https://icocoffee.org/">global economy</a>. But historically, relatively little academic work has focused on coffee. There are entire academic programs on wine and beer at many major universities, but almost none on coffee. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549191/original/file-20230919-15-46yjz8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A student wearing a black UC Davis sweatshirt holds a glass cup of coffee" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549191/original/file-20230919-15-46yjz8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549191/original/file-20230919-15-46yjz8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549191/original/file-20230919-15-46yjz8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549191/original/file-20230919-15-46yjz8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549191/original/file-20230919-15-46yjz8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549191/original/file-20230919-15-46yjz8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549191/original/file-20230919-15-46yjz8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Many students who don’t like coffee develop a taste for it over the course of the class.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">UC Davis</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The Design of Coffee helps fill a huge unmet demand because students are eager to learn about the beverage that they already enjoy. Perhaps most surprisingly, many of our students enter the course professing to hate coffee, but by the end of the course they are roasting and brewing their own coffee beans at home.</p>
<h2>What’s a critical lesson from the course?</h2>
<p>Many students are shocked to learn that black coffee can have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1750-3841.16531">fruity, floral or sweet flavors</a> without adding any sugar or syrups. The most important lesson from the course is that engineering is really a quantitative way to think about problem-solving. </p>
<p>For example, if the problem to solve is “make coffee taste sweet without adding sugar,” then an engineering approach provides you with a tool set to tackle that problem quantitatively and rigorously. </p>
<h2>What materials does the course feature?</h2>
<p>Tonya and I originally self-published our lab manual, <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Design-Coffee-Engineering-Approach/dp/B09FSCDY18">The Design of Coffee: An Engineering Approach</a>, to keep prices low for our students. </p>
<p>Now in its third edition, it has sold more than 15,000 copies and has been translated to <a href="https://www.amazon.com/dise%C3%B1o-del-caf%C3%A9-aproximaci%C3%B3n-ingenier%C3%ADa/dp/B08TQ42NS2/">Spanish</a>, with Korean and Indonesian translations on the way.</p>
<h2>What will the course prepare students to do?</h2>
<p>Years ago, a student in our class told the campus newspaper, “I had no idea there was an engineering way to think about coffee!” Our main goal is to teach students that there is an engineering way to think about anything. </p>
<p>The engineering skills and mindset we teach equally prepare students to design a multimillion-dollar biofuel refinery, a billion-dollar pharmaceutical production facility or, most challenging of all, a naturally sweet and delicious $3 cup of coffee. Our course is the first step in preparing students to tackle these problems, as well as new problems that no one has yet encountered.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/213715/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>William D. Ristenpart receives funding from the National Science Foundation, the Coffee Science Foundation, and the Specialty Coffee Association. </span></em></p>In an engineering course at UC Davis, students learn all the nuances that go into brewing ‘a truly excellent cup of coffee.’William D. Ristenpart, Professor of Chemical Engineering, University of California, DavisLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2068472023-08-17T12:35:47Z2023-08-17T12:35:47ZCan coffee or a nap make up for sleep deprivation? A psychologist explains why there’s no substitute for shut-eye<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542680/original/file-20230814-9571-esc8z7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C2121%2C1412&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A cup of coffee might provide you some pep, but it won't fully make up for lost sleep. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/woman-showing-arm-raised-up-holding-coffee-cup-on-royalty-free-image/1147318074">nopponpat/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>There is no denying the importance of sleep. Everyone feels better after a good night of sleep, and lack of sleep can have <a href="https://theconversation.com/health-care-workers-are-frazzled-and-poor-sleep-may-turn-stress-into-poor-mental-health-199944">profoundly negative effects</a> on both the body and the brain. So what can be done to substitute for a lack of sleep? Put another way, how can you get less sleep and still perform at your peak?</p>
<p><a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=g35Ez50AAAAJ&hl=en">As a psychologist</a> who studies the ways in which sleep benefits memory, I’m also interested in how sleep deprivation harms memory and cognition. After some initial research on <a href="https://theconversation.com/feeling-sleepy-you-might-be-at-risk-of-falsely-confessing-to-a-crime-you-did-not-commit-54229">sleep deprivation and false confessions</a>, my students at Michigan State University’s <a href="http://psychology.psy.msu.edu/sleeplab/">Sleep and Learning Lab</a> and I wanted to see what interventions could reverse the negative effects of sleep deprivation. </p>
<p>We found a simple answer: There is no substitute for sleep. </p>
<h2>Sleep deprivation impairs cognition</h2>
<p>For many years, scientists have known that sleep deprivation reduces the ability to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41386-019-0432-6">maintain attention</a>. When asked to monitor a computer screen and press a button whenever a red dot appears – a pretty simple task – participants who are sleep deprived are much more likely to have lapses in attention. They don’t notice a bright red dot and fail to respond within a half-second. These lapses in attention are due to a <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/emres/longhourstraining/pressure.html">buildup in pressure to sleep</a> and are more common at points in the 24-hour circadian cycle when the body expects to be sleeping.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/dqONk48l5vY?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Sleep deprivation can seriously damage your body.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Research investigating the effect of sleep derivation on more complex types of thinking has shown somewhat mixed results. So my team and I sought to determine how keeping people awake for one night affected different types of thinking. We had participants perform various cognitive tasks in the evening before we randomly assigned them to either go home and sleep or stay awake all night in the laboratory. The participants who were permitted to sleep returned in the morning, and everyone completed the cognitive tasks again. </p>
<p>Along with impairments in attention, we also found that sleep deprivation led to <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/xge0000495">more placekeeping errors</a>. Placekeeping is a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030986">complex ability</a> that involves following a series of steps in order without skipping or repeating any of them. This would be similar to following a recipe to bake a cake from memory. You wouldn’t want to forget to add eggs or accidentally add the salt twice.</p>
<h2>Can caffeine replace sleep?</h2>
<p>Next, we set out to test different ways to potentially make up for a lack of sleep. What would you do if you did not sleep enough last night? Many people would reach for a cup of coffee or an energy drink. One 2022 survey found that <a href="https://foodinsight.org/caffeine-consumer-consumption-habits-and-safety-perceptions/">over 90% of the American adults sampled</a> consume some form of caffeine daily. We wanted to see whether caffeine would help maintain attention and avoid placekeeping errors after sleep deprivation. </p>
<p>Interestingly, we found that caffeine improved the ability to pay attention in sleep-deprived participants so well that their performance was <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/xlm0001023">similar to people who slept all night</a>. Giving caffeine to people who had a full night of sleep also boosted their performance. So caffeine helped everyone maintain attention, not just those who did not sleep. This result was not surprising, as other studies have had <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nbscr.2020.100051">similar findings</a>. </p>
<p>However, we found that caffeine <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/xlm0001023">did not reduce placekeeping errors</a> in either the sleep-deprived group or the group that slept. This means that if you are sleep deprived, caffeine may help you stay awake and play Candy Crush, but it likely will not help you ace your algebra exam.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542687/original/file-20230814-26-ht98cu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Person with glasses sleeping on a stack of thick files, surrounded by coffee cups and paperwork" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542687/original/file-20230814-26-ht98cu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542687/original/file-20230814-26-ht98cu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542687/original/file-20230814-26-ht98cu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542687/original/file-20230814-26-ht98cu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542687/original/file-20230814-26-ht98cu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542687/original/file-20230814-26-ht98cu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542687/original/file-20230814-26-ht98cu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Your body turns up the pressure to sleep the longer it goes without it.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/exhausted-businesswoman-lying-down-on-the-desk-and-royalty-free-image/1199872302">cyano66/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Can naps make up for lost sleep?</h2>
<p>Of course, caffeine is an artificial way to replace sleep. We also reasoned that perhaps the best way to replace sleep would be with sleep. You have likely heard that <a href="https://theconversation.com/guilty-about-that-afternoon-nap-dont-be-its-good-for-you-89023">naps during the day</a> can boost energy and performance, so it is logical to think that a nap during the night should have a similar effect. </p>
<p>We gave some of our participants the opportunity to nap for either 30 or 60 minutes during an overnight deprivation period between 4 a.m. and 6 a.m. This time period roughly coincides with the lowest point of alertness in the circadian cycle. Importantly, we found that participants who napped <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/zsab152">did no better</a> on either the simple attention task or the more complex placekeeping task than those who stayed up all night. </p>
<p>Thus, a nap in the middle of the night had no discernible benefits to cognitive performance during the morning after a night of overall sleep deprivation. </p>
<h2>Get your z’s</h2>
<p>While caffeine may help you stay awake and feel more alert, it likely won’t help you with tasks that require complex thought. And while a short nap may make you feel better on nights that you need to stay awake, it probably won’t help your performance. </p>
<p>In short, sufficient sleep is essential to your mind and brain, and there is simply no substitute for sleep.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/206847/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kimberly Fenn receives funding from the Office of Naval Research. </span></em></p>While a cup of joe or a brief nap during an all-nighter might help you feel a little more alert, it won’t offset cognitive impairments from sleep deprivation when you’re performing complex tasks.Kimberly Fenn, Professor of Psychology, Michigan State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2029492023-04-02T11:46:46Z2023-04-02T11:46:46ZBest time to play Tim Hortons’ Roll up to Win? The middle of the night dramatically increases your odds<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518865/original/file-20230401-16-sk7jdj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=31%2C7%2C5145%2C3437&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A professor of statistics has used game data from Tim Hortons Roll up to Win to figure out the best time to play.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/best-time-to-play-tim-hortons--roll-up-to-win-the-middle-of-the-night-dramatically-increases-your-odds" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>Tim Hortons’ iconic Roll up the Rim contest began in 1985 and went largely unaltered for 25 years. The format was simple: buy a coffee, roll up the rim of the paper cup and see if you’ve won a prize. But this all changed in 2020.</p>
<p>Amid the emergence of a global pandemic, the game went digital. Buying Tim Hortons products still earned you entries to the contest, but these were now stored on the company’s loyalty app. It was then up to you when to play these so-called “digital rolls.” Because players no longer roll up an actual coffee cup rim, the contest is now called Roll up to Win.</p>
<p>Last week I made national news as “<a href="https://kitchener.ctvnews.ca/meet-the-ontario-stats-prof-who-claims-he-can-t-stop-beating-roll-up-to-win-1.6332975">the stats prof who cracked Roll up to Win”</a>. I boosted my odds in Tim Hortons’ annual coffee contest to 80 per cent and then shared my strategy with the nation. </p>
<p>My approach sounds simple — play when other people aren’t — but it took data, determination and drinking a lot of coffee to find the optimal approach.</p>
<p>Here’s the story of the statistics behind the headlines.</p>
<h2>Digital element changes odds</h2>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/heres-how-i-cracked-roll-up-the-rim-and-won-almost-every-time-136939">As I explained in 2020</a>, “digital rolls” introduced an element of strategy to the game. There’s one major trick to increasing your odds: play when other people aren’t.</p>
<p>So when are the fewest people playing?</p>
<p>On the surface this seems simple: play in the middle of the night when most Canadians are asleep. But in a country spanning six time zones, finding the single best time is a challenging calculation.</p>
<p>In previous contests I made an educated guess that 4:30 a.m. Eastern was the sweet spot: not too late and not too early. But an educated guess is still a guess, and if I wanted to find the true Goldilocks zone of free coffee I’d need data.</p>
<p>This year, that’s exactly what Tim Hortons gave me.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="A screenshot of the Tim Hortons app showing More than 2,520,293 prizes already awarded!" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518854/original/file-20230401-16-as76wk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518854/original/file-20230401-16-as76wk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=1085&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518854/original/file-20230401-16-as76wk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=1085&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518854/original/file-20230401-16-as76wk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=1085&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518854/original/file-20230401-16-as76wk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1364&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518854/original/file-20230401-16-as76wk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1364&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518854/original/file-20230401-16-as76wk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1364&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A screenshot of the Tim Hortons app showing how many prizes have been awarded.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Tim Hortons</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Getting data from the app</h2>
<p>Logging in to the app on the first day of the contest on March 6, a large message grabbed my attention: “More than 308,619 prizes already awarded!” This is an enticement to play — so many winners already! — but it’s also a valuable piece of information.</p>
<p>I waited five minutes and refreshed the page. The message changed: “More than 309,949 prizes already awarded!” Another 1,330 prizes had been won.</p>
<p>This gave me an idea.</p>
<p>I periodically refreshed the page, logging the time and number of prizes awarded. My theory: the number of prizes won should correlate with the number of people playing. By tracking these data I could build a model of Roll up to Win player behaviour and, by extension, calculate exactly when I should play.</p>
<p>Tracking online data is common in scientific research and often employs software to download information automatically. Automated procedures are usually against the rules of contests like this, however, and Roll up to Win was no exception. So I gathered the data manually.</p>
<p>Refreshing the page myself throughout the day — and night — I was able to approximately track the prizes. But I did have other things to do, so there were gaps in my logs. In statistical terms, I had what’s known as missing data.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A graph showing total prizes awarded over time. The line is steepest during daytime hours, plateauing during the night. Red circles highlight areas with missing data." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518855/original/file-20230401-14-zc2kou.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518855/original/file-20230401-14-zc2kou.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=346&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518855/original/file-20230401-14-zc2kou.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=346&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518855/original/file-20230401-14-zc2kou.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=346&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518855/original/file-20230401-14-zc2kou.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=435&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518855/original/file-20230401-14-zc2kou.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=435&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518855/original/file-20230401-14-zc2kou.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=435&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">During this two-day period the number of prizes awarded continued to climb, with the win rate slowing during the nighttime hours. Gaps in the data can also be seen. All times Eastern.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(author provided)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Missing data are common in real-world analysis. Examples include unreturned or incomplete surveys, patients missing medical appointments or even misplaced or corrupted data files.</p>
<h2>Statistical challenges</h2>
<p>This can present statistical challenges depending on how — and why — we have gaps in our records. A patient might miss their appointment because they were too unwell to travel, or maybe just because their car wouldn’t start. These two scenarios provide different information, requiring different solutions.</p>
<p>My missing data problem was comparatively simple. My goal was to fill in the gaps that arose when I was sleeping, travelling or otherwise away from my keyboard.</p>
<p>Using the data I did have, I looked for patterns. The most prizes were being won between 9 a.m. and 1 p.m. Eastern, the fewest around 3 a.m. This repeated each day and I was able to use this to my advantage.</p>
<p>To map our mathematical models onto the real world, statisticians often make assumptions. I assumed that player behaviour patterns would be similar day-to-day. This was a fairly strong assumption — I had some evidence of a slightly later start on Sunday mornings — but it seemed a reasonable one for my problem.</p>
<h2>Weighting the data</h2>
<p>I could then combine each day’s data and employ <a href="https://www.scb.se/contentassets/ca21efb41fee47d293bbee5bf7be7fb3/weighting-methods.pdf">a technique known as weighting</a>. Days where I had logged more observations were given more importance — or weight — in my calculations. I was then able to use statistical methods to “join the dots” and map out the overall shape of player behaviour.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518869/original/file-20230401-16-li9ktq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518869/original/file-20230401-16-li9ktq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=341&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518869/original/file-20230401-16-li9ktq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=341&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518869/original/file-20230401-16-li9ktq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=341&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518869/original/file-20230401-16-li9ktq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518869/original/file-20230401-16-li9ktq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518869/original/file-20230401-16-li9ktq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Stats professor Michael Wallace has needed a lot of coffee to record his data on the Roll up to Win game.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>With this, my educated guess of previous years became a data-driven estimate. The best time to play was 3:16 a.m. Eastern — over an hour earlier than I was playing in the past — and the worst was 11:46 a.m. There is always some statistical uncertainty in an analysis, but playing around these times should give you the highest and lowest chances of winning.</p>
<p>There was one last step: I had to test my results. My analysis was predicated on another assumption: that the number of available prizes was consistent through the day. Maybe fewer people were winning at 3 a.m. because there were fewer prizes, not fewer players. Luckily, this was an assumption I could test.</p>
<h2>3:16 a.m. is the golden hour</h2>
<p>I racked up 60 rolls and split them in half, playing 30 around the 3:16 a.m. mark and the rest just before lunchtime. I won 23 times in the early hours compared to just five times later on. No big prizes — mostly a lot of free coffee — but I got the result I was hoping for: statistically strong evidence that my theory was correct.</p>
<p>I reached out to a local journalist who’d worked with me in the past. I thought this might be a fun little story about applying statistics to the real world, with a hint of local colour as a University of Waterloo professor. Then things snowballed. By the end of the week I’d appeared on countless radio stations and even nationally broadcast television shows including CTV’s Your Morning and CBC’s The National.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/LGCfTZAOZMI?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>While the interviews were a great opportunity to showcase how stats can be more than just equations in a textbook, many outlets spotted a potential flaw. If everyone starts playing at 3:16 a.m., won’t the strategy change?</p>
<p>The short answer is yes, and it illustrates <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/game-theory/">a concept from another area of study: game theory</a>. Sometimes when everyone knows the best strategy it can turn into the worst strategy.</p>
<p>That said, I don’t think everyone will be getting up in the middle of the night to win a free coffee, so it should remain a good time to play. </p>
<p>I’ll be up in the early hours tracking the data for the last week of the contest — all entries must be played by April 9 — to see if the strategy needs updating. It’s a few more late nights, but I think I have enough caffeine for that.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/202949/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael Wallace does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Statistics have many real-world applications — including what’s the best time to play Tim Hortons’ Roll up to Win contest. A stats prof explains how he found the precise time with the best odds.Michael Wallace, Associate Professor, Department of Statistics and Actuarial Science, University of WaterlooLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1978972023-01-29T19:09:07Z2023-01-29T19:09:07ZNope, coffee won’t give you extra energy. It’ll just borrow a bit that you’ll pay for later<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505804/original/file-20230123-15-2ygfk7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=34%2C34%2C7715%2C5135&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://images.pexels.com/photos/459270/pexels-photo-459270.jpeg?auto=compress&cs=tinysrgb&w=1260&h=750&dpr=2">Pexels</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Many of us want (or should I say <em>need</em>?) our morning coffee to give us our “get up and go”. Altogether, the people of the world drink more than <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11906-021-01156-3">two billion cups of coffee each day</a>. </p>
<p>You might think coffee gives you the energy to get through the morning or the day – but coffee might not be giving you as much as you think.</p>
<p>The main stimulant in coffee is the caffeine. And the main way caffeine works is by changing the way the cells in our brain interact with a compound called <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1087079207000937">adenosine</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/plunger-espresso-filter-just-because-your-coffee-is-bitter-doesnt-mean-its-stronger-188905">Plunger, espresso, filter? Just because your coffee is bitter, doesn't mean it's 'stronger'</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Getting busy, getting tired</h2>
<p>Adenosine is <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1087079201902011">part of the system</a> that regulates our sleep and wake cycle and part of why high levels of activity lead to tiredness. As we go about our days and do things, <a href="https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/ben/ctmc/2011/00000011/00000008/art00008">levels of adenosine rise</a> because it is released as a by-product as energy is used in our cells. </p>
<p>Eventually <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1087079201902011">adenosine binds to its receptor</a> (parts of cells that receive signals) which tells the cells to slow down, making us feel drowsy and sleepy. This is why you feel tired after a big day of activity. While we are sleeping, <a href="https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/ben/cn/2009/00000007/00000003/art00008">energy use drops</a> lowering adenosine levels as it gets shuffled back into other forms. You wake up in the morning feeling refreshed. Well, if you get enough sleep that is. </p>
<p>If you are still feeling drowsy when you wake up caffeine can help, for a while. It works by binding to the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1600-0773.1995.Tb00111.X">adenosine receptor</a>, which it can do because it is a similar shape. But it is not so similar that it triggers the drowsy slow-down signal like adenosine does. Instead it just fills the spots and stops the adenosine from binding there. This is what staves off the drowsy feeling. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1617237578930954243"}"></div></p>
<h2>No free ride</h2>
<p>But there is a catch. While it feels energising, this little caffeine intervention is more a loan of the awake feeling, rather than a creation of any new energy. </p>
<p>This is because the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1471-4159.2007.05196.x">caffeine won’t bind forever</a>, and the adenosine that it blocks doesn’t go away. So eventually the caffeine breaks down, lets go of the receptors and all that adenosine that has been waiting and building up latches on and the drowsy feeling comes back – sometimes all at once. </p>
<p>So, the debt you owe the caffeine always eventually needs to be repaid, and the only real way to repay it is to sleep. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505803/original/file-20230123-17-uku54t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="cups of coffee on table in mug that reads life begins with coffee" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505803/original/file-20230123-17-uku54t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505803/original/file-20230123-17-uku54t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505803/original/file-20230123-17-uku54t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505803/original/file-20230123-17-uku54t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505803/original/file-20230123-17-uku54t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505803/original/file-20230123-17-uku54t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505803/original/file-20230123-17-uku54t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">But first, coffee.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://images.unsplash.com/photo-1504888527749-e68244b4d3d7?ixlib=rb-4.0.3&ixid=MnwxMjA3fDB8MHxwaG90by1wYWdlfHx8fGVufDB8fHx8&auto=format&fit=crop&w=2070&q=80">Unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Timing is everything</h2>
<p>How much free adenosine is in your system, that hasn’t attached to receptors yet, and how drowsy you are as a consequence will impact how much the caffeine you drink wakes you up. So, the coffee you drink <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/026988119100500205">later in the day</a>, when you have more drowsy signals your system may feel more powerful. </p>
<p>If it’s too late in the day, caffeine can make it hard to fall asleep at bedtime. The “half life” of caffeine (how long it takes to break down half of it) is about <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK223808/#:%7E:text=The%20mean%20half%2Dlife%20of,et%20al.%2C%201989">five hours</a>). That said, we all <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29514871/#:%7E:text=The%20pharmacokinetics%20of%20caffeine%20are,enzyme%2C%20N%2Dacetyltransferase%202.">metabolise caffeine</a> differently, so for some of us the effects wear off more quickly. Regular coffee drinkers might feel less of a caffeine “punch”, with <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1888264/">tolerance</a> to the stimulant building up over time.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505805/original/file-20230123-16-egstvh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="cup of coffee next to laptop" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505805/original/file-20230123-16-egstvh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505805/original/file-20230123-16-egstvh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505805/original/file-20230123-16-egstvh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505805/original/file-20230123-16-egstvh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505805/original/file-20230123-16-egstvh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505805/original/file-20230123-16-egstvh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505805/original/file-20230123-16-egstvh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Coffee drunk late in the day can hit differently.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://images.pexels.com/photos/414630/pexels-photo-414630.jpeg?auto=compress&cs=tinysrgb&w=1260&h=750&dpr=2">Pexels</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Caffeine can also <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2257922/">raise levels of cortisol</a>, a stress hormone that can make you feel more alert. This might mean caffeine feels more effective later in the morning, because you already have a natural rise in cortisol when you wake up. The impact of a coffee right out of bed might not seem as powerful for this reason. </p>
<p>If your caffeinated beverage of choice is also a sugary one, this can exacerbate the peak and crash feeling. Because while sugar does create actual energy in the body, the free sugars in your drink can cause a spike in blood sugar, which can then make you feel tired when the <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/diabetes/expert-answers/reactive-hypoglycemia/faq-20057778">dip comes afterwards</a>. </p>
<p>While there is no proven harm of drinking coffee on an empty stomach, <a href="https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/caffeine/#:%7E:text=Food%20or%20food%20components%2C%20such,drank%20it%20while%20eating%20breakfast.">coffee with or after a meal</a> might hit you more slowly. This is because the food might slow down the rate at which the caffeine is absorbed. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/does-coffee-burn-more-fat-during-exercise-what-the-evidence-tells-us-157739">Does coffee burn more fat during exercise? What the evidence tells us</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What about a strong tea or fizzy cola?</h2>
<p>Coffee, of course, isn’t the only caffeinated beverage that can loan you some energy. </p>
<p>The caffeine in tea, energy drinks and other beverages still impacts the body in the same way. But, since the ingredients mostly come from plants, each caffeinated beverage has its own profile of additional compounds which can have their <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0195666312000335">own stimulant effect</a>, or can interact with caffeine to change its impacts.</p>
<p>Caffeine can be useful, but it isn’t magic. To create energy and re-energise our bodies we need enough food, water and sleep. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/CnnSc1lvLgC","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/197897/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Emma Beckett has received funding for research or consulting from Mars Foods, Nutrition Research Australia, NHMRC, ARC, AMP Foundation, Kellogg, and the University of Newcastle. She is a member of committees/working groups related to nutrition or the Australian Academy of Science, the National Health and Medical Research Council and the Nutrition Society of Australia.</span></em></p>Feeling tired and groggy in the morning may well lead you to crave a coffee boost. But is it a gift or just a loan in terms of energy?Emma Beckett, Senior Lecturer (Food Science and Human Nutrition), School of Environmental and Life Sciences, University of NewcastleLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1983612023-01-25T13:24:37Z2023-01-25T13:24:37ZStarbucks fans are steamed: The psychology behind why changes to a rewards program are stirring up anger, even though many will get grande benefits<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505961/original/file-20230123-17-2qnxy0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=129%2C64%2C5245%2C3028&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The rewards price to get a free cup of hot coffee at Starbucks is going up. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/Starbucks-Prices/753e06140e904010985aa9054221808d/photo?Query=starbucks%20iced%20coffee&mediaType=photo&sortBy=arrivaldatetime:desc&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=22&currentItemNo=0">AP Photo/Elaine Thompson</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Starbucks, the coffee chain giant, is modifying its rewards program, and the news is <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/food/2023/01/13/starbucks-rewards-changes">full of stories</a> of <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/some-starbucks-customers-are-furious-about-rewards-program-changes-2022-12">outraged consumers</a>.</p>
<p>The main focus of their ire is that, starting Feb. 13, 2023, it will <a href="https://www.today.com/food/restaurants/starbucks-announces-big-changes-popular-rewards-program-rcna63589">cost twice as many</a> of the program’s reward points, called stars, to earn a free cup of hot coffee.</p>
<p>When companies pare rewards programs back, there is often <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2023/01/14/business/best-buy-rewards-dunkin-starbucks-ctpr">significant customer pushback</a>. A recent example in the coffee market was seen in the fall of 2022 when <a href="https://www.bu.edu/articles/2022/why-dunkins-rewards-program-angered-people/">Dunkin’ made it harder to get free</a> items <a href="https://fortune.com/2022/10/10/dunkin-donuts-rewards-program-customer-backlash/">with its rewards program</a>, also leading to customer backlash. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.bu.edu/questrom/profile/huseyin-karaca/">We</a> <a href="https://www.bu.edu/questrom/profile/jay-zagorsky/">are</a> business school <a href="http://businessmacroeconomics.com/">professors</a> who study <a href="https://theconversation.com/whens-the-best-time-to-use-frequent-flyer-miles-to-book-flights-two-economists-crunched-the-numbers-on-maximizing-their-dollar-value-194893">frequent flyer</a> and other rewards programs. While we don’t drink very much Starbucks coffee, we are fascinated by the reaction of Starbucks customers – and what they seemed to miss. </p>
<h2>Building loyalty</h2>
<p>Reward and frequent flyer programs are designed to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1108/02634509810199535">build loyalty</a>, as they provide a form of rebate to regulars. They also are seen by consumers as a good way to save money, particularly when inflation is high.</p>
<p>They are also <a href="https://hbr.org/1995/05/do-rewards-really-create-loyalty">meant to lock customers</a> into a particular company or airline. In the case of Starbucks, the rewards program reduces the likelihood that its customers will buy coffee from <a href="https://www.investopedia.com/articles/markets/101315/who-are-starbucks-main-competitors.asp">competitors like Dunkin</a>, <a href="https://bstrategyhub.com/starbucks-competitors-alternatives/">Costa Coffee, Tim Hortons or Peet’s Coffee</a>. </p>
<p>Even though <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jairtraman.2012.05.003">airline rewards programs have been around</a> for years, rewards programs among large restaurant chains are relatively new. Sandwich chain Subway, for example, <a href="https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/subway-to-launch-north-america-loyalty-program-300602627.html">didn’t start one until 2018</a>. Fast-food company McDonald’s <a href="https://adage.com/article/marketing-news-strategy/mcdonalds-loyalty-program-year-old-how-its-doing/2420156">only launched its loyalty program</a> in 2021.</p>
<p>And now, even small businesses <a href="https://www.nrn.com/technology/loyalty-programs-are-leveling-playing-field-smaller-restaurants">are finding it valuable and easier</a> to start loyalty programs, thanks to the acceleration of digital technology in restaurants during the pandemic. About 57% of restaurant chains <a href="https://www.insiderintelligence.com/content/restaurants-double-down-on-loyalty-programs-retain-customers-maximize-revenues">now have a loyalty program</a>. </p>
<h2>Rewards math</h2>
<p>Starbucks, however, is an old-timer, having started its <a href="https://archive.starbucks.com/record/rewarding-our-customers">rewards program all the way back in 2008</a>. </p>
<p>The program, which <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/best-loyalty-programs-stores-2019-4">had been regarded by some</a> as one of the most rewarding, gained members steadily during its first two decades but <a href="https://s22.q4cdn.com/869488222/files/doc_downloads/2022/11/Q4-FY22-Digital-Dashboard.pdf">exploded in growth during the pandemic</a>. At the end of 2022, about 29 million people were enrolled, <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/starbucks-rewards-program-changes-explained-2019-4?r=US&IR=T">up from a little over 16 million</a> in early 2019.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.starbucks.com/rewards/terms/">rewards program’s rules are quite complex</a>: The legal language runs about five times longer than this article.</p>
<p>Briefly, customers earn credits by spending money. Each dollar spent on food or drinks earns one star. However, preloading money onto a Starbucks gift card or mobile app earns two times the stars.</p>
<p>Stars can then be spent on drinks, food or merchandise. Under the current program, the <a href="https://www.starbucks.com/rewards">simplest and cheapest reward</a>, for 25 stars, is adding a free shot, dairy substitute or flavoring to a drink. The highest cost items, for <a href="https://www.ncesc.com/starbucks-400-stars-merchandise-the-ultimate/">400 stars, are merchandise</a>, like a branded cup or a bag of ground coffee.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Several hands hold two clear plastic cups of iced coffee on a table" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/506117/original/file-20230124-25-5kl32r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/506117/original/file-20230124-25-5kl32r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506117/original/file-20230124-25-5kl32r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506117/original/file-20230124-25-5kl32r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506117/original/file-20230124-25-5kl32r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506117/original/file-20230124-25-5kl32r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506117/original/file-20230124-25-5kl32r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Iced drinks have become Starbucks’ most popular beverage – even in winter.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/couple-has-iced-coffee-drinks-at-a-starbucks-coffee-shop-in-news-photo/89988724?phrase=Starbucks%20iced%20coffee">Chris Hondros/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Consumer friendly?</h2>
<p>Starbucks <a href="https://www.restaurantdive.com/news/starbucks-updates-rewards-program/639478/">announced changes</a> to the <a href="https://www.starbucks.com/rewards/terms-coming-soon/">terms and conditions</a> of its rewards program in December, adjusting the “price” for some of its items. </p>
<p>The change that received the most attention was that the cost of a cup of plain hot coffee or tea would double from 50 stars to 100. </p>
<p>At first glance, Starbucks’ modification to its rewards program might be perceived as bad for consumers. But there is more to this change than meets the eye. What went less noticed is that the company is also lowering the price to get a free iced coffee or tea from 150 points to 100.</p>
<p>To an unsuspecting consumer, the points reduction for iced coffee may not mean as much against the points increase for hot coffee. The coffee business, however, has radically changed over the last few years. The change is best summarized by a recent New York Times headline, “<a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/09/08/style/iced-coffee-starbucks.html">Does anyone drink hot coffee anymore?</a>” Iced or <a href="https://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/cold-brew-coffee-market">cold-brewed coffee is now the rage</a> – even in winter – and <a href="https://www.ncausa.org/Industry-Resources/Cold-Brew">growing quickly</a>. Cold beverages <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/09/08/style/iced-coffee-starbucks.html">have accounted for at least 60%</a> of Starbucks’ total sales every quarter since early 2021, thanks in part to the popularity of iced drinks among Gen Z customers. </p>
<p>This means that for a large share of Starbucks customers, one part of the rewards program is actually getting more generous. </p>
<p>So why the uproar, if one of the more popular items on Starbucks’ menu is getting cheaper? </p>
<p><a href="https://www.behavioraleconomics.com/resources/mini-encyclopedia-of-be/loss-aversion/">Loss aversion</a>, a key concept in behavioral economics, provides a simple explanation. Loss aversion means people perceive something they lose as a bigger deal than something equivalent they gain. People who need to spend 50 more stars from now on to get a hot coffee feel more pain than customers who will spend 50 fewer stars to earn a free iced coffee. This extra pain leads to more complaints from those hurt and little praise from those benefiting.</p>
<h2>Rewarding customers</h2>
<p>Starbucks, for its part, <a href="https://customerservice.starbucks.com/app/answers/detail/a_id/6910">explained the new rewards system this way</a>: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“This change allows us to improve the health of our program while making member favorites like iced coffee easier to earn.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>While its critics may disagree about the reason for the decision, ongoing research by <a href="https://www.bu.edu/questrom/profile/huseyin-karaca/">one of us</a> conducted into a tea chain suggests retailers have a profit incentive to make their rewards programs more generous. The reason is simple: When rewards are easier to earn, customers become more motivated to collect points, especially as they <a href="https://home.uchicago.edu/ourminsky/Goal-Gradient_Illusionary_Goal_Progress.pdf">approach a reward</a> they can redeem. This is why airlines see some customers <a href="https://thepointsguy.com/guide/how-why-mileage-run/">doing mileage runs at the end of the year</a>, just to earn better status. </p>
<p>From the company’s perspective, the benefits from customers shopping more frequently can surpass the costs incurred by providing more rewards. And so for companies and consumers, rewards programs can benefit everyone.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/198361/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Many Starbucks customers are irked by recent changes to its popular rewards program. But they may not have as much to complain about as it seems.H. Sami Karaca, Professor of Business Analytics, Boston UniversityJay L. Zagorsky, Clinical associate professor, Boston UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1966482023-01-05T21:04:59Z2023-01-05T21:04:59ZHere’s how your cup of coffee contributes to climate change<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/503125/original/file-20230104-12-54ea61.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=213%2C81%2C4625%2C3172&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Scientists say that wasting coffee and water while making a cup of coffee has a larger carbon footprint than using coffee capsules.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Unsplash)</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/here-s-how-your-cup-of-coffee-contributes-to-climate-change" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>Global coffee consumption has been increasing steadily <a href="https://coffee-rank.com/world-coffee-consumption-statistics/">for almost 30 years</a>. With a daily average consumption of 2.7 cups of coffee per person, coffee is now Canada’s most popular drink. It is <a href="https://britishcoffeeassociation.org/coffee-consumption/">estimated that around two billion cups of coffee</a> are consumed daily worldwide.</p>
<p>This demand has led to considerable diversification in the ways of preparing coffee as well, including the creation of coffee capsules. <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-35605927">The popularity of these capsules has divided the public opinion</a> because this method of preparation, which uses single-use individual packaging, is harmful to the environment.</p>
<p>As researchers working on assessing the environmental impacts of products and services, we often discuss coffee’s carbon footprint. </p>
<p>We decided to study the carbon footprint of several techniques used to prepare coffee at home, and it turns out that coffee capsules aren’t the biggest carbon culprits.</p>
<h2>The life cycle of coffee</h2>
<p>The pollution resulting from the preparation of coffee at home is just the tip of the iceberg. </p>
<p>Before you can enjoy a cup of coffee, <a href="https://www.visualcapitalist.com/from-bean-to-brew-the-coffee-supply-chain/">it goes through several steps, starting</a> from the agricultural production of the coffee beans, their transport, the roasting and grinding of the beans, right up to the heating of the water for the coffee and the washing of the cups it is poured in. </p>
<p>These steps, common to all modes of coffee preparation, consume resources and emit greenhouse gases (GHG). </p>
<p>To adequately compare the carbon footprint of several coffee preparation methods, it is important <a href="https://www.oregon.gov/deq/filterdocs/pef-coffee-fullreport.pdf">to consider their entire life cycle</a>: from the production of coffee, through the manufacture of packaging and machinery, to the preparation of coffee and the waste produced.</p>
<h2>Comparing four coffee preparation methods</h2>
<p>We decided to study this further and conducted an <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/jiec.12487">extensive literature review</a> on the subject. We then measured the carbon footprint of coffee by comparing four methods of preparing 280 millilitres of coffee, namely:</p>
<p>1) Traditional filter coffee (25 grams of coffee) </p>
<p>2) Encapsulated filter coffee (14 grams of coffee) </p>
<p>3) Brewed coffee (French press) (17 grams of coffee)</p>
<p>4) <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2009.04.011">Soluble coffee</a> (12 grams of coffee), also known as instant coffee</p>
<p>Our analysis clearly showed that traditional filter coffee has the highest carbon footprint, mainly because a greater quantity of coffee powder is used to produce the amount of coffee. This process also consumes more electricity to heat the water and keep it warm. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/503215/original/file-20230105-24-1xo0se.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A bar chart showing carbon footprint across the life cycle of coffee preparation of different coffee forms and brewing methods" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/503215/original/file-20230105-24-1xo0se.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/503215/original/file-20230105-24-1xo0se.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=355&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503215/original/file-20230105-24-1xo0se.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=355&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503215/original/file-20230105-24-1xo0se.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=355&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503215/original/file-20230105-24-1xo0se.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503215/original/file-20230105-24-1xo0se.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503215/original/file-20230105-24-1xo0se.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The carbon footprint generated across the life cycle of coffee, preparation of different coffee forms and brewing methods.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Luciano Rodrigues Viana). Author provided.</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>When consumers use the recommended amounts of coffee and water, soluble coffee appears to be the most environmentally friendly option. This is due to the low amount of soluble coffee used per cup, the kettle’s lower electricity consumption compared to a coffee maker and the absence of organic waste to be treated.</p>
<p>On the other hand, when consumers use a 20 per cent surplus of coffee and heat twice the water needed (which is often the case), coffee capsules seem to be the best option. Why? Because the capsules allow you to optimize the amount of coffee and water per consumption.</p>
<p>Compared to traditional filter coffee, drinking a capsule filter coffee (280 ml) saves between 11 and 13 grams of coffee. Producing 11 grams of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/geo2.96">Arabica coffee in Brazil</a> emits about <a href="https://ecoinvent.org/the-ecoinvent-database/">59 grams of CO2e</a> (CO2 equivalent). This value is much higher than the 27 grams of CO2e emitted for manufacturing of coffee capsules and sending the generated waste to a landfill. These figures give an idea of the importance of avoiding overusing and wasting coffee.</p>
<h2>Coffee production</h2>
<p>Regardless of the type of coffee preparation, coffee production is the most GHG-emitting phase. It contributed to around 40 per cent to 80 per cent of the total emission. There are many reasons for this.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A coffee plantation" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/503164/original/file-20230105-64877-jn7odg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/503164/original/file-20230105-64877-jn7odg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503164/original/file-20230105-64877-jn7odg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503164/original/file-20230105-64877-jn7odg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503164/original/file-20230105-64877-jn7odg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503164/original/file-20230105-64877-jn7odg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503164/original/file-20230105-64877-jn7odg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The process of coffee production is a major contributor of coffee’s carbon footprint because of the intensive irrigation, fertilization systems and pesticides adopted.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Moises Castillo)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://www.coffeehabitat.com/2006/02/what_is_shade_g/">The coffee plant</a> is a small stunted tree or shrub that was traditionally grown in the shade of the forest canopy. The modernization of the sector led to the transformation of many coffee plantations into vast fields that were fully exposed to the sun. This added the need for intensive irrigation, fertilization systems and the use of pesticides.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1065/lca2006.01.230">This mechanization, irrigation and use of nitrous oxide-emitting fertilizers</a> — the production of which requires large quantities of natural gas — greatly contribute to coffee’s carbon footprint.</p>
<h2>Reducing coffee’s carbon footprint</h2>
<p>At the consumer level, beyond reducing coffee consumption, avoiding wasting coffee and water is the most effective way to reduce the carbon footprint of traditional, brewed and soluble coffees.</p>
<p>Coffee capsules avoid the overuse of coffee and water. However, the convenience of capsule machines can lead consumers to double their coffee consumption, thus making this environmental advantage redundant. Consumers should also be aware of the capsule recycling options in the city where they live to avoid it getting sent to a landfill instead of a recycling facility. Better yet, they should switch to <a href="https://www.capsme.fr/">reusable capsules</a>.</p>
<p>If you live in a province or country with carbon-intensive electricity production, not using the coffee maker’s hot plate and rinsing the cup with cold water can help reduce carbon footprint. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2009.04.011">The electricity</a> used to wash a cup of coffee in Alberta, a <a href="https://www.cer-rec.gc.ca/en/data-analysis/energy-commodities/electricity/report/canadas-renewable-power/provinces/renewable-power-canada-alberta.html">high-carbon electricity production province</a>, emits more carbon (29 grams CO2e) than producing a coffee capsule and sending it to landfill (27 grams CO2e). In Québec, <a href="https://www.cer-rec.gc.ca/en/data-analysis/energy-commodities/electricity/report/canadas-renewable-power/provinces/renewable-power-canada-quebec.html">thanks to hydroelectricity</a>, washing your cup in a dishwasher has a negligible impact (0.7 grams of CO2e per cup). </p>
<p>By the way, don’t forget to fill your dishwasher!</p>
<h2>Shared responsibilities</h2>
<p>Limiting your contribution to climate change requires an adapted diet, and coffee is no exception. Choosing a mode of coffee preparation that emits less GHGs and moderating your consumption are part of the solution.</p>
<p>However, more than half of the carbon footprint of coffee comes from the steps taken by coffee producers and suppliers. They must take <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11027-013-9467-x">action to reduce the environmental and social impacts of coffee production</a>. </p>
<p>Our research reveals that assessments based on a life cycle analysis, or the holistic vision, of products like coffee make it possible to challenge our intuitive reasoning, which is sometimes misleading. So instead of avoiding products based on speculation, we need to take a holistic look at our own consumption habits. Change begins at home.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/196648/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Luciano Rodrigues Viana receives funding from Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC). </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jean-François Boucher receives funding from Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Charles Marty and Pierre-Luc Dessureault do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Coffee capsules aren’t the biggest carbon culprits. It’s better to use a capsule than to waste coffee and water.Luciano Rodrigues Viana, Doctorant en sciences de l'environnement, Département des sciences fondamentales, Université du Québec à Chicoutimi (UQAC)Charles Marty, Adjunct professor, Université du Québec à Chicoutimi (UQAC)Jean-François Boucher, Professeur, Eco-consulting, Université du Québec à Chicoutimi (UQAC)Pierre-Luc Dessureault, Assistant researcher, Université du Québec à Chicoutimi (UQAC)Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1895592022-10-13T19:21:42Z2022-10-13T19:21:42ZGlobal warming puts Arabica coffee at risk, and we’re barrelling towards a crucial threshold<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/488918/original/file-20221010-58588-rm2gvl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C6210%2C4081&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jason Betz/Unsplash</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Coffee may be a major casualty of a hotter planet. Even if currently declared commitments to reduce emissions are met, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43016-022-00614-8">our new research</a> suggests coffee production will still rapidly decline in countries accounting for 75% of the world’s Arabica coffee supply. </p>
<p>Arabica coffee (<em>Coffea arabica</em>) is one of two main plant species we harvest coffee beans from. The plant evolved in the high-altitude tropics of Ethiopia, and is hypersensitive to changes in the climate. </p>
<p>Our research shows there are global warming thresholds beyond which Arabica coffee production plummets. This isn’t just bad news for coffee lovers – coffee is a multi-billion dollar industry <a href="https://www.fao.org/markets-and-trade/commodities/coffee/en/">supporting millions of farmers</a>, most in developing countries.</p>
<p>If we manage to keep global warming below 2°C this century, then producers responsible for most global Arabica supply will have more time to adapt. If we don’t, we could see crashes in Arabica productivity, interruptions to supply, and price hikes on our daily cup.</p>
<h2>Where our coffee comes from</h2>
<p>Most of our Arabica is grown in <a href="https://www.coffeeandhealth.org/coffee-and-caffeine/coffee-production-today">the tropics</a>, throughout Latin America, Central and East Africa and parts of Asia. Brazil, Colombia and Ethiopia are the world’s <a href="https://www.indexmundi.com/agriculture/?commodity=green-coffee&graph=arabica-production">top three producers of Arabica</a>, and the crop has crucial social and economic importance elsewhere, too. </p>
<p>Millions of farmers, mostly in the developing world, depend on productive Arabica for their livelihood. If coffee productivity declines, the economic consequences for farmers, some of which <a href="https://perfectdailygrind.com/2017/07/many-fairtrade-coffee-farmers-dont-earn-enough-to-live-on/">do not earn a living income</a> as it is, are dire. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-tale-of-two-coffee-farmers-how-they-are-surviving-the-pandemic-in-honduras-139897">A tale of two coffee farmers: how they are surviving the pandemic in Honduras</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Arabica coffee is typically most productive in cool high elevation tropical areas with a local <a href="https://www.scielo.br/j/bjpp/a/bDfpJwLr4xLcznSwy4b9zkf/abstract/?lang=en">annual temperature of 18-23°C</a>.
Higher temperatures and drier conditions invariably <a href="https://www.scielo.br/j/bjpp/a/bDfpJwLr4xLcznSwy4b9zkf/abstract/?lang=en">lead to declines</a> in yield. </p>
<p>Last year, for example, one of the worst droughts in Brazil’s history saw coffee production there drop by <a href="https://borgenproject.org/coffee-and-orange-production/">around one-third</a>, with global coffee prices <a href="https://theconversation.com/coffee-bean-prices-have-doubled-in-the-past-year-and-may-double-again-whats-going-on-169000%22%22">spiking as a result</a>.</p>
<h2>What we found</h2>
<p>Previous research has focused on how changes in temperature and rainfall affect coffee yields. While important, temperature and rainfall aren’t the best indicators of global Arabica coffee productivity. Instead, we found that it’s more effective to measure how dry and hot the air is, which we can do using “Vapour Pressure Deficit”.</p>
<p>Vapour pressure deficit tells us how much water gets sucked out of a plant. Think of when you walk outside on a hot, dry day and your lips dry and crack – the moisture is being sucked out of you because outside, the vapour pressure deficit is high. It’s the same for plants.</p>
<p>We built scientific models based on climate data that was linked to decades of <a href="https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#home">coffee productivity data</a> across the most important Arabica producing countries. We found once vapour pressure deficit gets to a critical point, then Arabica coffee yields fall sharply.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/488917/original/file-20221010-58516-nqf4dp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/488917/original/file-20221010-58516-nqf4dp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/488917/original/file-20221010-58516-nqf4dp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/488917/original/file-20221010-58516-nqf4dp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/488917/original/file-20221010-58516-nqf4dp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/488917/original/file-20221010-58516-nqf4dp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/488917/original/file-20221010-58516-nqf4dp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/488917/original/file-20221010-58516-nqf4dp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Coffee crops have crucial social and economic importance.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Yanapi Senaud/Unsplash</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This critical point, we found, is 0.82 kilopascals (a unit of pressure, calculated from temperature and humidity). After this point, Arabica yields start falling fast – a loss of around 400 kilograms per hectare, which is 50% lower than the long-term global average. </p>
<p>Vapour pressure deficit thresholds have already been exceeded in Kenya, Mexico and Tanzania.</p>
<p>Unabated global warming will see the world’s coffee producing powerhouses at risk. If global warming temperatures increase from 2°C to 3°C, then
Peru, Honduras, Venezuela, Ethiopia, Nicaragua, Colombia and Brazil -
together accounting for 81% of global supply - are much more likely to pass the vapour pressure deficit threshold. </p>
<h2>What can we do about it?</h2>
<p>While there are ways farmers and the coffee industry can adapt, the viability of applying these on a global scale is highly uncertain. </p>
<p>For example, irrigating coffee crops could be an option, but this costs money – money many coffee farmers in developing countries don’t have. What’s more, it may not always be effective <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/gcb.15548">as high vapour pressure deficits</a> can still inflict damage, even in well-watered conditions.</p>
<p>Another option could be switching to other coffee species. But again, this is fraught. For example, robusta coffee (<em>Coffea canephora</em>) – the other main species of production coffee – <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/gcb.15097">is also sensitive</a> to temperature rises. Others, such as <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41477-021-00891-4">Coffea stenophylla</a></em> and <em>Coffea liberica</em> could be tested, but their production viability at large scales under climate change is unknown.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/plunger-espresso-filter-just-because-your-coffee-is-bitter-doesnt-mean-its-stronger-188905">Plunger, espresso, filter? Just because your coffee is bitter, doesn't mean it's 'stronger'</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>There is only so much adapting we can do. Our research provides further impetus, if we needed any, to cut net global greenhouse gas emissions. </p>
<p>Limiting global warming in accordance with the Paris Agreement is our best option to ensure we can all keep enjoying coffee. More importantly, keeping global warming below 2°C is the best way to ensure the millions of vulnerable farmers who grow coffee globally have a livelihood that supports them and their families well into the future.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/189559/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jarrod Kath receives funding from the Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety—International Climate Initiative (IKI). </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Scott Power receives funding from DFAT as a climate science advisor to the Australia Pacific Climate Partnership, from DAFF as a technical adviser on DR.SAT and Climate Services for Agriculture, and from the Australian Water Partnership, and he manages Climate Services International. </span></em></p>The livelihoods of millions of farmers depend on productive Arabica coffee. New research gives further impetus, if we needed any, to urgently cut emissions.Jarrod Kath, Senior Lecturer in Ecology and Conservation, University of Southern QueenslandScott Power, Director, Centre for Applied Climate Sciences, University of Southern QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1899402022-09-28T18:10:26Z2022-09-28T18:10:26ZGood coffee, bad coffee: the curious tastes of cultural omnivores<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/484146/original/file-20220912-18095-so06fl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C1181%2C6986%2C3116&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">French coffee culture offers us some insights into the way cultural omnivores appreciate different activities and products. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Some people who love classical music <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/culture/2014/may/10/why-do-we-feel-the-need-to-apologise-for-mainstream-tastes">also dance to Celine Dion</a>. Others are craft beer aficionados who also enjoy a cold bottle of mass market beer at the beach. Some love independent movies while indulging in the guilty pleasure of blockbuster franchises and “<a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/posteverything/wp/2015/05/27/why-do-we-watch-trashy-tv/">trashy</a>” reality TV. </p>
<p>Social scientists call these people “cultural omnivores.” <a href="https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199756384/obo-9780199756384-0134.xml">Research has shown</a> that these omnivores are economically and culturally privileged people who can enjoy both “highbrow” and “lowbrow” cultural products simultaneously. </p>
<p>As consumer researchers, we’ve looked into the phenomenon of cultural omnivores. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/jcr/ucac036">We’ve studied</a> coffee consumption in France for 7 years. That’s helped us understand how people develop their omnivorous tastes. </p>
<h2>Traditional cafés vs. specialty coffee shops</h2>
<p>France has a well-established coffee culture. Paris’ <a href="https://theculturetrip.com/europe/france/paris/articles/how-the-modern-cafe-was-born-in-seventeenth-century-paris/">first cafés opened in the 17th century</a>. Today, cafés are <a href="https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id=737">sociable places that welcome people from various social classes</a>. When customers ask for a coffee (usually the cheapest drink on the menu), the waiters bring them a bitter espresso that many would <a href="https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2014/01/coffee-in-france-is-terrible-why-cant-the-french-brew-a-good-cup-of-coffee.html">call bad</a>. But despite the coffee’s quality, cafés still remain as important cultural institutions.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/484149/original/file-20220912-6373-x84t5h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="People sitting on chairs outside a café." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/484149/original/file-20220912-6373-x84t5h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/484149/original/file-20220912-6373-x84t5h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=361&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/484149/original/file-20220912-6373-x84t5h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=361&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/484149/original/file-20220912-6373-x84t5h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=361&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/484149/original/file-20220912-6373-x84t5h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=454&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/484149/original/file-20220912-6373-x84t5h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=454&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/484149/original/file-20220912-6373-x84t5h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=454&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cultural omnivores are economically and culturally privileged people who are able to enjoy both highbrow and lowbrow activities simultaneously.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Over the last decade, many specialty coffee shops have <a href="https://www.euronews.com/green/2018/05/17/specialty-coffee-is-taking-paris-by-storm">opened in France</a>. Unlike the traditional cafés, these coffee shops use <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2009/04/for-good-espresso-insist-on-arabica/12972/">higher quality coffee beans,</a> roasted by artisans and brewed by trained baristas. The coffee comes in numerous variations and <a href="https://projectbarista.com/coffee-tasting-notes/">complex notes</a>. It is often also twice as expensive as coffee from traditional cafés. </p>
<p>French consumers who were once satisfied with the taste of café coffee first found specialty coffee unfamiliar. But once they gave it a chance, they understood why it tasted better. Still, surprisingly, they continued to go to traditional cafés. To understand why, we first need to look at the <a href="https://www.econstor.eu/handle/10419/156021">“market work”</a> of baristas and the efforts they make to attract consumers to a new market. </p>
<h2>Rise of the skilled barista</h2>
<p>Specialty coffee professionals establish specific criteria about <a href="https://sca.coffee/research/protocols-best-practices">what good coffee is and how to make it</a>. These include the balance of flavours, aromatic complexity, precision and skill of creating of a cup of coffee. They also include service interactions like the friendliness of the barista and their ability to give clear information about the beans to customers. These features of specialty coffee are reinforced by organizations like the <a href="https://sca.coffee/">Specialty Coffee Association</a> and events like <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vgAZe2hLd1s">barista championships</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/dude-food-vs-superfood-were-cultural-omnivores-53978">Dude food vs superfood: we're cultural omnivores</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Secondly, specialty coffee shops create opportunities to attract customers into their establishment and make them come back. To do this, they play on their curiosity. They might design their space in a unique way or regularly change the <a href="https://perfectdailygrind.com/2018/03/what-is-terroir-and-how-does-it-affect-your-coffee/">coffee beans on offer</a>.</p>
<p>Thirdly, specialty coffee shops educate consumers about the formal qualities of coffee and encourage them to see coffee as more than just a caffeine fix or an opportunity to socialize. To achieve this goal, baristas might present the geographical origin of each coffee, describe its main flavors and explain the <a href="https://theconversation.com/plunger-espresso-filter-just-because-your-coffee-is-bitter-doesnt-mean-its-stronger-188905">difference between brewing methods</a>.</p>
<p>Little by little, consumers come to appreciate coffee like they would a good wine or work of art. They detect the flavors, observe the technical skills of the barista and listen to the information about the origins of beans.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/adCKCOCSGpg?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Inside the World of High-End Coffee | Annals of Obsession | The New Yorker.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Cultural omnivores not always snobs</h2>
<p>You’d expect that after all this marketing, those who frequent specialty coffee shops would turn their noses up at the coffee sold at traditional cafés. Interestingly, they do not. Cultural omnivores know that “lowbrow” coffee may not be prepared as well or taste as good. However, the taste is not the primary draw for consumers. </p>
<p>For them, the traditional café is still a space to enjoy the culture that surrounds it. A space to get a shot of energy and spend time with friends, colleagues and family. Although omnivores can have a lot of enthusiasm for “highbrow” coffee, they keep appreciating the energizing and socializing experience of “lowbrow” coffee. </p>
<p>Of course, that duality goes beyond coffee. Think about cinema, for example. Omnivores might watch independent films and appreciate their originality and complexity. But they also watch action-filled blockbusters as a way to clear their head after a long day at work.
When it comes to wine, they might drink an expensive wine for its body and structure. But they might also drink a cheap rosé in summer. They might even add an ice cube to it, despite <a href="https://www.decanter.com/learn/advice/put-ice-cubes-in-wine-318618/">protest from a sommelier</a>.</p>
<p>Omnivores appreciate highbrow activities as aesthetic forms and lowbrow activities as a way to have fun, socialize and to relax. Switching between different modes of appreciation allows them to form more democratic relationships with different cultural forms and maintain social connections with different social classes.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/189940/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Zeynep Arsel receives funding from Concordia University and Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anissa Pomiès does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Cultural omnivores are economically and culturally privileged people who can enjoy both “highbrow” and “lowbrow” cultural products, like good and bad coffee, simultaneously.Anissa Pomiès, Professeur Assistant de Marketing, EM Lyon Business SchoolZeynep Arsel, Concordia University Chair in Consumption, Markets, and Society, Concordia UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1889052022-08-26T01:42:15Z2022-08-26T01:42:15ZPlunger, espresso, filter? Just because your coffee is bitter, doesn’t mean it’s ‘stronger’<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/480984/original/file-20220825-26-9rqpig.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=840%2C9%2C4829%2C3848&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/rwwMB7kTNes">Devin Avery/Unsplash</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Coffee – one bean with many possibilities. A big choice is how to brew it: espresso, filter, plunger, percolator, instant and more. Each method has unique equipment, timing, temperature, pressure, and coffee grind and water needs.</p>
<p>Our choices of brewing method can be <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13507486.2013.833717">cultural</a>, <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/proceedings-of-the-nutrition-society/article/food-choice-and-intake-the-human-factor/346D4AA3CECC6EFCCF5824435953122E">social</a> or practical. But how much do they really impact what’s in your cup?</p>
<h2>Which is the strongest brew?</h2>
<p>It depends. If we focus on <a href="https://theconversation.com/whats-the-buzz-on-caffeine-12669">caffeine</a> <em>concentration</em>, on a milligram per millilitre (mg/ml) basis espresso methods are <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0963996918308093">typically the most concentrated</a>, able to deliver up to 4.2 mg/ml. This is about three times higher than other methods like <a href="https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/make-coffee-moka-pot">Moka pot</a> (a type of boiling percolator) and cold brewing at about 1.25 mg/ml. Drip and plunger methods (including French and Aero-press) are about half that again. </p>
<p>Espresso methods extract the most caffeine for a few reasons. Using the finest grind means there is more contact between the coffee and water. Espresso also uses pressure, pushing more compounds out into the water. While other methods brew for longer, this doesn’t impact caffeine. This is because caffeine is water soluble and easy to extract, so it’s released early in brewing.</p>
<p>But these comparisons are made based on typical <em>extraction</em> situations, not typical <em>consumption</em> situations.</p>
<p>So, while espresso gives you the most concentrated product, this is delivered in a smaller volume (just 18–30ml), compared to much larger volumes for most other methods. These volumes of course vary depending on the maker, but a recent <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0963996918308093">Italian study</a> defined a typical final serve of filter, percolator and cold brews as 120ml.</p>
<hr>
<p><iframe id="m6tf9" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/m6tf9/1/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<hr>
<p>Based on this maths, cold brew actually comes out as the highest dose of caffeine per serve with almost <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0963996918308093">150mg</a> – even higher than the 42–122mg totals found in finished espresso. Although cold brew uses cold water, and a larger grind size, it is brewed with a high coffee to water ratio, with extra beans needed in the brew. Of course, “standard serves” are a concept not a reality – you can multiply serves and supersize any coffee beverage!</p>
<p>With the rising price of coffee, you might also be interested in extraction efficiency – how much caffeine you get for each gram of coffee input. </p>
<p>Interestingly, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0963996918308093">most methods are actually pretty similar</a>. Espresso methods vary but give an average of 10.5 milligrams per gram (mg/g), compared to 9.7–10.2mg/g for most other methods. The only outlier is the French press, with just 6.9mg/g of caffeine.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A glass beaker in a dark plastic frame with coffee steeping inside, the plunger laid next to it" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481003/original/file-20220825-14-g2scbc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481003/original/file-20220825-14-g2scbc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481003/original/file-20220825-14-g2scbc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481003/original/file-20220825-14-g2scbc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481003/original/file-20220825-14-g2scbc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481003/original/file-20220825-14-g2scbc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481003/original/file-20220825-14-g2scbc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The French press or coffee plunger was actually invented in Italy, despite its modern name.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/A1wzMskhU_c">Rachel Brenner/Unsplash</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>‘Strength’ is more than just caffeine</h2>
<p>Caffeine content only explains <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5488350/#:%7E:text=Although%20coffee%20contains%20multiple%20bitter,especially%20important%20for%20caffeine%20taste">a small part of the strength</a> of coffee. Thousands of compounds are extracted, contributing to aroma, flavour and function. Each has their own pattern of extraction, and they can <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.jafc.0c01373">interact with each other to inhibit or enhance effects</a>. </p>
<p>The oils responsible for the crema – the rich brown ‘foam’ on top of the brew – are also <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128035207000177">extracted more easily with high temperatures</a>, pressures, and fine grinds (another potential win for espresso and Moka). These methods also give <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0963996918308093">higher levels of dissolved solids</a>, meaning a less watery consistency – but, again, this all depends on how the final product is served and diluted. </p>
<p>To further complicate matters – the receptors that detect caffeine and the other bitter compounds are highly variable between individuals due to <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/twin-research-and-human-genetics/article/genetic-analysis-of-coffee-consumption-in-a-sample-of-dutch-twins/A0E54A955F4C207D83797E2183E51AFB">genetics and training from our usual exposures</a>. This means the same coffee samples could invoke diverse perceptions of their bitterness and strength in different people.</p>
<p>There are also differences in <a href="https://www.healthline.com/health/caffeine-sensitivity#:%7E:text=People%20with%20caffeine%20sensitivity%20experience,may%20last%20for%20several%20hours">how sensitive we are</a> to the stimulant effects of caffeine. So what we are looking for in a cup, and getting from it, is dependent on our own unique biology.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A multifaceted aluminium pot with a black handle, with steam coming from the spout" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481002/original/file-20220825-19-adzw5q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481002/original/file-20220825-19-adzw5q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481002/original/file-20220825-19-adzw5q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481002/original/file-20220825-19-adzw5q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481002/original/file-20220825-19-adzw5q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481002/original/file-20220825-19-adzw5q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481002/original/file-20220825-19-adzw5q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Moka pot, another iconic Italian invention, brews coffee at high temperatures on a stovetop.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ccu.bat/Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Is there a healthier brew?</h2>
<p>Depending on the headline or the day, <a href="https://theconversation.com/mixed-messages-is-coffee-good-or-bad-for-us-it-might-help-but-it-doesnt-enhance-health-187343">coffee might be presented as a healthy choice, or an unhealthy one</a>. This is partly explained by our optimism bias (of course we want coffee to be good for us!) but may also be due to the difficulty of studying products like coffee, where it is difficult to capture the complexity of brewing methods and other variables. </p>
<p>Some studies have suggested that coffee’s health impacts are brew type specific. For example, filter coffee has been <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/2047487320914443">linked to more positive cardiovascular outcomes in the elderly</a>.</p>
<p>This link might be a coincidence, based on other habits that coexist, but there is some evidence that filter coffee is healthier because more diterpenes (a chemical found in coffee which might be <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9242972/">linked to raising levels of bad cholesterol</a>) are <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28873752/">left in the coffee and the filter</a>, meaning less make it to the cup. </p>
<h2>The bottom line?</h2>
<p>Each brewing method has its own features and inputs. This gives each one a unique profile of flavour, texture, appearance and bioactive compounds. While the complexity is real and interesting, ultimately, how to brew is a personal choice.</p>
<p>Different information and situations will drive different choices in different people and on different days. Not every food and drink choice needs to be optimised!</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-dark-brew-coffee-covid-and-colonialism-have-left-millions-struggling-to-make-a-living-143274">A dark brew: coffee, COVID and colonialism have left millions struggling to make a living</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/188905/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Emma Beckett does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>From espresso to plunger, our choice of coffee brewing method depends on many factors. But how much does it impact what’s actually in your cup?Emma Beckett, Senior Lecturer (Food Science and Human Nutrition), School of Environmental and Life Sciences, University of NewcastleLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1873432022-07-26T13:23:41Z2022-07-26T13:23:41ZMixed messages: Is coffee good or bad for us? It might help, but it doesn’t enhance health<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/475002/original/file-20220720-26-x38x1u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C6468%2C3234&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The chemical properties of coffee are what produce its waking-up effects.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Coffee is good for you. Or it’s not. Maybe it is, then it isn’t, then it is again. If you drink coffee, and follow the news, then perhaps you’ve noticed this pattern. </p>
<p>A recent study showed that coffee, even sweetened, <a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/life/health-and-fitness/article-beck-coffee-delivers-health-perks-even-with-some-sugar-new-study/">was associated with health benefits</a>. But other studies <a href="https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/news/hsph-in-the-news/is-coffee-good-or-bad-for-your-health/">have come to more mixed conclusions</a>.</p>
<p>What’s driving these pendulum swings in the health status of coffee? Like a good cup of coffee, the answer is complex, but seems to boil down to human nature and scientific practice.</p>
<h2>Wishful optimism</h2>
<p>Globally, we consume about <a href="https://britishcoffeeassociation.org/coffee-consumption/">two billion cups of coffee each day</a>. That’s a lot of coffee, and many of those who imbibe want to know what that coffee is doing to us, in addition to waking us up. </p>
<p>As a species, we are often <a href="https://grist.org/article/80-percent-of-humans-are-delusionally-optimistic-says-science/">delusionally optimistic</a>. We want the world to be better, maybe simpler, than it is. We squint at our morning cup through those same rosy glasses: We really want coffee to bring us health, not just a sunny disposition.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/tnjjZR-59Wg?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">CBC News reports on the World Health Organization’s announcement that drinking coffee does not cause bladder cancer.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But is that likely? In drinking coffee, we’re ingesting a complex brew that includes literally thousands of chemicals, including one that evolved to dissuade herbivores from munching on the coffee plant: caffeine.</p>
<h2>Coffee for the caffeine</h2>
<p>Our morning kickstart comes from a plant toxin. The possible health benefits of coffee are generally attributed to other molecules in the brew, often antioxidants including polyphenols, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00217-019-03388-9">a group that are found in substantial concentrations in coffee</a>. But they, and other antioxidants, are also found <a href="https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/antioxidants/">in many plants like broccoli or blueberries, and in higher concentrations</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-biology-of-coffee-one-of-the-worlds-most-popular-drinks-129179">The biology of coffee, one of the world’s most popular drinks</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>We drink coffee for the caffeine, not the antioxidants. The best we can realistically hope for is that we aren’t harming ourselves by drinking coffee. With any luck, coffee isn’t killing us nearly as quickly as other things that we’re doing to our bodies. I’m looking at you <a href="https://health.clevelandclinic.org/sluggish-start-the-5-worst-breakfast-foods/">doughnuts</a>, <a href="https://www.verywellhealth.com/microwave-popcorn-and-cancer-5085309">microwave popcorn</a> and <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/quit-smoking/expert-answers/cigar-smoking/faq-20057787">celebratory cigars</a>. </p>
<p>The dynamic nature of science also drives our on-again, off-again medical love affair with coffee. Scientists like to study coffee almost as much as we like to drink it; there are almost three and a half million scientific articles focused on coffee (thanks Google Scholar). Even the number of cups we consume is surprisingly contentious, with many aspects <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjnph-2018-000013">being subject to scrutiny, study and debate</a>.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/CVnyCfKNHhq","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<h2>Changing research findings</h2>
<p>The dizzying swings in coffee’s health status highlight a fundamental challenge in modern science. Research is an ongoing process, and our understanding of the world around us changes as we explore and learn. We question, examine and make decisions based on the best information we have. Those decisions can, and should, change as we get new information.</p>
<p>In 1981, a high profile <em>New York Times</em> opinion piece loudly proclaimed that <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1981/03/14/opinion/coffee-and-cancer.html">our morning cup was driving us to an early grave</a>. The writers wrung their hands as they swore off coffee and faced the grey reality of their post-coffee world. Their passionate convictions were driven by a then-recent study in which researchers clearly linked even moderate coffee consumption with a substantial rise in premature death.</p>
<p>Three years later the study was refuted by some of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM198608283150918">the same scientists</a>, and the editors were, presumably, back in their coffee cups – if they had ever actually stepped away.</p>
<p>The initial study was well done, included more than 1,000 patients from almost a dozen hospitals and five reputable scientists. The results were clear and the conclusions seemed justified. But a follow-up study failed to replicate the, admittedly shocking, conclusions: the authors found no link between drinking coffee and premature death.</p>
<p>What went wrong? One thing may have been the researchers’ reliance on a common measure of statistical significance, the <em>p</em> value. The value was developed as a way to explore data, but is often treated as a magic bullet that identifies significant results. </p>
<p>But there simply isn’t a foolproof, objective or irrefutable way to identify or quantify the significance of a result. We can reach reasonable conclusions in which we have some kind of confidence, but that is about as good as it is going to get.</p>
<p>We need to question conclusions that seem to be too good to be true, like the idea that consuming a plant toxin could make us live longer, that <a href="https://theconversation.com/hoping-to-get-in-shape-for-summer-ditch-the-fads-in-favour-of-a-diet-more-likely-to-stick-122648">only eating a fictional caveman diet will make us healthier</a>, <a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/canada/article-covid-19-pandemic-not-over/">acting as though the COVID-19 pandemic is over</a>, even in the face of daily evidence that it isn’t, will make it go away, or that <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/nilsrokke/2022/04/07/why-we-cant-ignore-the-latest-un-climate-change-report/">simply ignoring massive fluctuations in weather will make global climate change disappear</a>. Common sense can go a long way.</p>
<h2>Health benefits</h2>
<p>Is coffee good for you? Yes, in the sense that it will wake you up, brighten your mood, maybe even give you an excuse to get out of the house and chat with friends at a local coffee house. </p>
<p>Will drinking coffee make you healthier or help you live longer? Probably not. Sure, the antioxidants in our morning cup could actually be helping our bodies, but there are far better ways to boost your antioxidant intake.</p>
<p>So, wake up with a strong cup of coffee, <a href="https://theconversation.com/food-variety-is-important-for-our-health-but-the-definition-of-a-balanced-diet-is-often-murky-149126">but stay healthy with a complex and varied diet</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/187343/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Thomas Merritt receives funding from the Natural Sciences Engineering and Research Council of Canada. </span></em></p>Drinking a cup of coffee means ingesting a complex mixture of chemicals. Research has given us mixed messaging about whether coffee is beneficial or harmful.Thomas Merritt, Professor, Chemistry and Biochemistry, Laurentian UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1875072022-07-25T16:47:57Z2022-07-25T16:47:57ZThe craft revolution helped develop the market for specialty coffee<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/475621/original/file-20220722-234-55zxxu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4896%2C3261&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The specialty coffee industry privileges handcrafting and authenticity over the pursuit of profit.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Austin Park/Unsplash)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://blog.bham.ac.uk/business-school/2018/03/19/the-rise-and-rise-of-craft-business-the-craft-takeover/">The craft revolution is everywhere</a>: Craft beers, specialty coffee, handmade soaps and artisanal ice cream. While some may think <a href="https://ideas.time.com/2012/09/19/the-perils-of-coffee-snobbery/">this is foolish snobbery</a>, others revel in the esthetics of craft experiences.</p>
<p>The craft revolution is often seen as a reaction against excessive industrialization or as a way <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0001839218817520">to keep traditions and culture alive</a> in the face of a homogenized, corporatized world. Instead of privileging the pursuit of profit, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ccs.2011.01.004">craft businesses and professionals are part of the rise of creative professions</a>. They are driven by <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/00222429221093624">esthetic engagement, creative expression and an aspiration for quality</a>. </p>
<p>Craft work gives professionals the opportunity to create unique products that align with their personal visions. This helps the makers distinguish themselves and express their identity through their work.</p>
<p>Craft brings forth the growing desire of producers and professionals for esthetic engagement, creative expression and aspiration for quality. The coffee market offers us an array of cultural resources and expressions, such as “handcrafted,” “connoisseur,” “artisanal” and “coffee snob.”</p>
<h2>Making a market</h2>
<p>The values and beliefs behind craft work and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/nvsm.1525">esthetic engagement</a>, creativity and quality have seeped into many markets, including those for barbering, beer, butchering, chocolate, cocktails, tattoos, cuisine, denim, fashion, motorcycles and coffee.</p>
<p>Between 1991 and 1998, the number of specialty coffee shops in the United States grew to about 10,000 from 1,650. By 2015, <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/196590/total-number-of-snack-and-coffee-shops-in-the-us-since-2002">there were 31,490 specialty shops</a>. Specialty coffee is now <a href="http://www.scaa.org/?page=resources&d=facts-and-figures">more than half of the $48 billion retail value of the U.S. market</a>. </p>
<p>This rise in demand and popularity of a craft-oriented approach to a consumer good has shifted a large part of the market towards craft values and beliefs.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-the-third-wave-of-coffee-shops-is-transforming-high-streets-45118">How the third wave of coffee shops is transforming high streets</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Values and beliefs</h2>
<p>Businesses conduct their activities based on key values and beliefs. Craft firms undertake theirs striving for esthetic engagement, creative expression and an aspiration to quality. In contrast, commercial firms such as McDonald’s McCafé and Tim Horton’s privilege the maximization of profits. </p>
<p>Consequently, each type of business — commercial or craft — innovates in different ways. In coffee, craft business have pushed toward ways of farming, processing, roasting and brewing coffee to bring out the distinctive flavors of specific coffee beans associated with their origin, <a href="https://perfectdailygrind.com/2018/03/what-is-terroir-and-how-does-it-affect-your-coffee/">terroir</a> (how the circumstances of its growth affects its taste) and <a href="https://dailycoffeenews.com/2019/02/07/the-coffee-roasters-complete-guide-to-coffee-varieties-and-cultivars/">varieties</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/475626/original/file-20220722-18-855z6w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="a man wearing a blue shirt watches as he makes a coffee pourover" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/475626/original/file-20220722-18-855z6w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/475626/original/file-20220722-18-855z6w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=750&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475626/original/file-20220722-18-855z6w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=750&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475626/original/file-20220722-18-855z6w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=750&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475626/original/file-20220722-18-855z6w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=943&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475626/original/file-20220722-18-855z6w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=943&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475626/original/file-20220722-18-855z6w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=943&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Products used to make coffee are designed to enhance the experience for both barista and consumer.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Oak & Bond Coffee/Unsplash)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Innovative products, such as the <a href="https://www.kruveinc.com/pages/kruve-sifter">Kruve coffee sifter</a>, the <a href="https://decentespresso.com/de1plus">Decent DE1+ espresso machine</a> or the <a href="https://weberworkshops.com/products/eg-1">Weber EG-1 coffee grinder</a>, all share the same key characteristic: to offer baristas and consumers more control over coffee-making variables so that they can perfect the coffee’s esthetic experience.</p>
<p>Commercial firms introduce products that have profit potential. The infamous <a href="https://www.starbucks.com/menu/product/418/hot?parent=%2Fdrinks%2Fhot-coffees%2Flattes">Starbucks’ Pumpkin Spice Latte</a>, the <a href="https://www.nespresso.com/ca/en/order/machines/vertuo/vertuo-vertuoline-black">Nespresso Vertuo</a> and <a href="https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/tim-hortons-launches-new-lineup-of-richer-bolder-handcrafted-espresso-beverages-and-invites-canadians-to-sample-them-with-2-any-size-promotion-857321965.html">Tim Horton’s recently launched line of espresso-based drinks</a> are not concerned with the coffee experience or bringing out the distinctive flavors of a bean. Rather, they offer consumers fun, affordable or convenient products and services that help increase firms’ profit margins. </p>
<h2>Crafting language</h2>
<p>Whatever the values and beliefs of craft or commercial businesses, it is the interactions between them that push markets such as the one for coffee to become more craft-like. Commercial firms take inspiration from craft businesses’ desire for esthetic engagement and creativity. </p>
<p>They borrow from the vocabulary that craft firms brought to the coffee market, such as <a href="https://news.dunkindonuts.com/news/sipping-is-believing-dunkin-takes-aim-at-winning-over-espresso-drinkers-with-an-entirely-new-handcrafted-espresso-experience">Dunkin’ Donuts’ “Handcrafted” coffee drinks</a> or <a href="https://nestle-nespresso.com/news/introducing_barista_creations">Nespresso’s coffee pods “inspired by” Brooklyn’s and Melbourne’s baristas</a>. </p>
<p>They automate the complicated and ritualistic coffee-making processes of craft baristas, increasing profitability but also introducing everyday consumers to some aspects of craft coffee-making. </p>
<p>Craft companies esthetically engage with commercial innovation. They transform the Pumpkin Spice Latte by using <a href="https://www.baltimoremagazine.com/section/fooddrink/the-best-places-to-get-your-pumpkin-spice-fix-this-fall/">artisan syrup and curated spices</a> that ideally match the taste characteristics of a specific coffee bean. Some craft companies have also leveraged the convenience offered by pod machines and <a href="https://mtpak.coffee/exploring-rise-specialty-coffee-capsules/">developed their own versions</a> to provide consumers with the opportunity to experience high-end coffee at home.</p>
<p>Over time, these interactions evolve the market as a whole, bringing in craft values and transforming the experience of all consumers. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/CfGS_6BoIak","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<h2>Engagement, expression and authenticity</h2>
<p>The complexities associated with craft products have also allowed people <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/jcr/ucw054">to develop and distinguish themselves through their tastes</a>. Cultural resources and expertise are key in how we express ourselves and define who we are. </p>
<p>The craft revolution has <a href="https://www.doi.org/10.23943/princeton/9780691165493.001.0001">supported the professionalization of many fields</a>. Professions such as barber, butcher, barista and mixologist are now infused with elevated cultural cachet. It has also supported the emergence of new identities, from <a href="https://www.taylorlane.com/blogs/read/coffee-connoisseur">coffee connoisseurs</a> to <a href="https://www.beardedvillains.com/">bearded villains</a> to <a href="https://www.thealchemistmagazine.ca/2022/03/16/vancouver-cocktail-week-nerd-edition/">cocktail nerds</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0022242921997081">Some have argued that craft offers more authentic products</a>, perhaps because craft work creates a kind of one-to-one relationship between the producer and consumer that is different from the standardized mass market production that dominates so much of our economy. But while craftspeople’s creative expression might be found in their products and presentation, commercial firms have become skilled at mimicking the artistry of craft professionals, <a href="https://www.mensjournal.com/food-drink/is-that-really-craft-beer-21-surprising-corporate-brewers-20150923/">making it difficult to identify which is which</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/00222429221087987">Authenticity is an ambiguous concept</a> — what one might find authentic might be seen as elitist by others. Perhaps the success of craft might lie in its capacity to tap into our nostalgic ideals of work and our increasing desires for connection with the origins of products and the stories and people behind them.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/187507/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Pierre-Yann Dolbec receives funding from Concordia University and the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council. </span></em></p>Consumers’ demand for authentic handcrafted products and experiences has led to elevated cultural cachet for professions like baristas and bartenders.Pierre-Yann Dolbec, Assistant professor in marketing and Research Chair in Complexity and Markets, Concordia UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1811892022-07-05T12:07:27Z2022-07-05T12:07:27ZHow the birds and the bees help coffee plants<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/472331/original/file-20220704-23-fbnet4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=49%2C0%2C5446%2C3658&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/coffee-picker-show-red-cherries-on-1707181633">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Sipping a coffee on your way to work is a ritual most people take for granted without thinking about how the delicious coffee beans reached their cup. You probably know it comes from tropical regions. But what is less well-known is that coffee is the product of an incredible partnership between the birds and the bees.</p>
<p>A <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2119959119">recent</a> study researched how birds helped control pests and how bees helped pollinate coffee farms. The research showed how working with wildlife can help farmers make more money. But it is just one example of the benefits nature gives us that we take for granted. </p>
<p>Nature purifies the water we drink and the air we breathe, it helps control disease and nature reserves give us amazing spaces to relax and exercise. It also gives us direct financial benefits. For example, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-020-01043-w">global crop pollination</a> by bees and other pollinators such as birds is worth $195 billion (£160 million). Recent estimates show 75% of leading <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2006.3721">global food crops</a>), such as potatoes, soybeans, and tomatoes, are dependent upon animal pollination. </p>
<h2>A hot commodity</h2>
<p>This includes coffee, an important tropical plant with a worldwide export value of <a href="http://www.fao.org/3/i4985e/i4985e.pdf">US$24 billion in 2012</a>. About 20-25 million households depend on <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-007-1309-3_4">coffee growing</a> for their livelihoods, which includes traders, export managers, farmers and coffee shop baristas.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/472332/original/file-20220704-26-xboyb1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/472332/original/file-20220704-26-xboyb1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/472332/original/file-20220704-26-xboyb1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/472332/original/file-20220704-26-xboyb1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/472332/original/file-20220704-26-xboyb1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/472332/original/file-20220704-26-xboyb1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/472332/original/file-20220704-26-xboyb1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Bee on coffee flower.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/bee-coffe-flower-1183655359">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Although Arabica coffee (<em>Coffea arabica</em>) can self-pollinate, pollinators increase fruit set (when a flower transforms into a berry) size, and yield. Farmers often think of birds as a <a href="https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/68/11/896/5103316?login=true">pest species</a>, eating seeds and crops. But birds forage on the coffee berry borer (<em>Hypothenemus hampei</em> Ferrari), a small beetle which is one the most harmful pests to coffee crops. </p>
<h2>Value of nature</h2>
<p>On 30 small coffee farms in Costa Rica, researchers compared how crops grew when cut off from birds and bees. The experiment helped researchers quantify the economic value of pest control, pollination and the combined effect on coffee production. </p>
<p>On each site, four plants were enclosed with a plastic mesh small enough to exclude foliage feeding birds but large enough to allow bees and other small animals to access the plant. The four other plants were left unenclosed. On each of the eight plants, four similar branches were selected, and bees were excluded from visiting flowers on these branches by fine nylon mesh gauze bags.</p>
<p>The results showed that birds and bees increased fruit set and weight by 4-11% and decreased broca infestation. These effects were greatest when both birds and bees were both allowed to visit coffee plants. The authors of the study estimate that excluding both birds and bees would lead to an average yield loss of 24.7 %, which equates to a $1,066/ha (£830/ha). </p>
<p>Synergistic interactions are when two processes connect and the result or product is greater than the sum of the separate effects. Interactions between different animal pollinators can improve yields. Sometimes honeybees managed by beekeepers are used to pollinate crops. The presence of wild bees can change managed honeybees’ behaviour, for example the different bee types may have different foraging patterns which leads to overall increased movement and number of flights. This behaviour can lead to a significant increase in crop yield in <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2012.2767">almond orchards</a>. </p>
<p>Approximately 35–40% of potential crops world-wide are <a href="https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-1-4020-8992-3">destroyed by pests</a>, such as desert locusts (<em>Schistocerca gregaria</em>) or armyworms (<em>Spodoptera exempta</em>). These insects make a <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rspb.2012.2243">tasty snack</a> for birds. Birds also help <a href="https://academic.oup.com/condor/article/118/2/215/5153253">disperse seeds</a>. When we protect nature, we help ourselves. </p>
<p>Coffee is cultivated in some of the most wildlife-rich habitats on earth, but farming methods are becoming increasingly intense. This is threatening bird species which are already listed as of <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/btp.12642?casa_token=xsZeqbbMox0AAAAA:CrsqzIk_c2W8GduF-b9SU_UJIuRbbPpH4u9LqZVJDdwJdAvHhvJDclAaVJFsnESAWz9NopXjRYzGlg">conservation concern</a>, such as Cerulean (<em>Setophaga cerulea</em>) and Golden-winged warblers (<em>Vermivora
chrysoptera</em>). Many of these bird species rely on insects from forests which have been largely replaced by coffee farms. One way to help wildlife on farms is shade-grown coffee, planted under a canopy of trees. It not only provides a home for birds and the insects they feed on but also produces <a href="https://www.scirp.org/journal/paperinformation.aspx?paperid=87589">higher-quality coffee</a>. Shade-grown coffee farms help endangered primate species such as Javan slow loris (<em>Nycticebus javanicus</em>). </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/472329/original/file-20220704-22-n2w3oi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=78%2C23%2C5182%2C3478&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/472329/original/file-20220704-22-n2w3oi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/472329/original/file-20220704-22-n2w3oi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/472329/original/file-20220704-22-n2w3oi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/472329/original/file-20220704-22-n2w3oi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/472329/original/file-20220704-22-n2w3oi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/472329/original/file-20220704-22-n2w3oi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Golden-winged warbler.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/adult-male-goldenwinged-warbler-vermivora-chrysoptera-1217784661">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Conservationists need to help farmers design plantations which balance the needs of wildlife while turning a good profit. Intense farming is a problem for wildlife closer to home too. In the UK, <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2000.1325">farmland bird</a> populations of species such as turtle doves (<em>Streptopelia turtur</em>) and skylarks (<em>Alauda arvensis</em>) have plummeted. Farmers can make a huge <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1474-919X.2004.00357.x">difference for nature</a> by leaving patches of rough grassland and scrub. But they need government support to make up for lost crops.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/181189/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Many people can’t get by without the buzz from their daily coffee habit.Claudia Wascher, Associate Professor in Behavioural Biology, Anglia Ruskin UniversityThomas Ings, Associate professor, Anglia Ruskin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1757662022-01-27T13:27:24Z2022-01-27T13:27:24ZCoffee may become more scarce and expensive thanks to climate change – new research<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/442956/original/file-20220127-6942-n58tvo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C333%2C2448%2C1363&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Colombia's coffee region: the country could lose two thirds of its best coffee-growing land.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Javier Crespo / shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The world could lose half of its best coffee-growing land under a moderate climate change scenario. Brazil, which is the currently world’s largest coffee producer, will see its most suitable coffee-growing land decline by 79%. </p>
<p>That’s one key finding of a <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/authors?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0261976">new study</a> by scientists in Switzerland, who assessed the potential impacts of climate change on coffee, cashews and avocados. All three are important globally traded crops that are mainly produced by small-scale farmers in the tropics. </p>
<p>Coffee is by far the most important with an expected revenue of <a href="https://www.statista.com/outlook/cmo/hot-drinks/coffee/worldwide">US$460 billion (£344 billion) in 2022</a>, while the figures for avocado and cashew are respectively $13 billion and $6 billion. While coffee mainly serves as a stimulatory beverage, avocados and cashews are widely consumed food crops that are rich in monounsaturated plant oils and other <a href="https://kale.world/avocado-oil-vs-cashews/">beneficial nutrients</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/442960/original/file-20220127-18-10nf2eg.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Map of suitable coffee growing regions" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/442960/original/file-20220127-18-10nf2eg.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/442960/original/file-20220127-18-10nf2eg.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=299&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/442960/original/file-20220127-18-10nf2eg.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=299&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/442960/original/file-20220127-18-10nf2eg.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=299&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/442960/original/file-20220127-18-10nf2eg.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/442960/original/file-20220127-18-10nf2eg.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/442960/original/file-20220127-18-10nf2eg.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Coffee requires a tricky mix of climate, land and soil conditions and can’t just be grown anywhere in the tropics.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0261976#sec002">Grüter et al / PLOS</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The major take-home message from the new study is that predicted climatic changes are likely to result in significant declines in the amount of land suitable for growing these crops in some of the main regions where they are currently cultivated. In turn this could impact both growers and consumers around the world.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/442962/original/file-20220127-16-3ucnf2.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Map of coffee suitability change by 2050" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/442962/original/file-20220127-16-3ucnf2.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/442962/original/file-20220127-16-3ucnf2.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=299&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/442962/original/file-20220127-16-3ucnf2.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=299&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/442962/original/file-20220127-16-3ucnf2.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=299&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/442962/original/file-20220127-16-3ucnf2.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/442962/original/file-20220127-16-3ucnf2.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/442962/original/file-20220127-16-3ucnf2.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Many areas will become less suitable for coffee if there is moderate climate change (neither worst nor best-case emissions scenario).</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0261976#sec002">Grüter et al / PLOS</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>To date, most research into the future impacts of climate change on food has focused on principal staple crops such as wheat, maize, potatoes and oilseeds that are grown in temperate regions. This has mirrored the tendency of climate scientists to focus on the potentially severe impacts of climate change on temperate ecosystems, especially due to altered temperature and rainfall patterns. </p>
<p>In contrast, there has been <a href="https://www.science.org/content/article/expanding-tropics-will-play-greater-global-role-report-predicts">less work on the tropical ecosystems</a> that constitute about 40% of global land area where more than 3 billion people make their living, with as many as <a href="https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/tropical-countries">1 billion more people</a> expected to do so by the 2050s.</p>
<p>The tropics also sustain vast reservoirs of biodiversity, as well as areas to <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43016-020-0076-z">grow many important crops</a> that provide income and food for their huge human populations. The new research confirms and significantly extends findings from the relatively small number of existing studies on coffee, cashew and avocado crops. </p>
<p>An important innovation in the study is to examine land and soil parameters in addition to purely climatic factors such as temperature and rainfall patterns. This enables them to provide a more nuanced view of future impacts that might significantly change the suitability of some tropical regions for growing certain crops due to changes in factors such as soil pH or texture.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/442968/original/file-20220127-7574-wtn5j5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Man tosses coffee beans on a plantation" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/442968/original/file-20220127-7574-wtn5j5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/442968/original/file-20220127-7574-wtn5j5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/442968/original/file-20220127-7574-wtn5j5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/442968/original/file-20220127-7574-wtn5j5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/442968/original/file-20220127-7574-wtn5j5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/442968/original/file-20220127-7574-wtn5j5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/442968/original/file-20220127-7574-wtn5j5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Different factors limit the coffee-suitability of different regions. The Amazon basin has a suitable climate but the soil is too acidic.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jair Ferreira Belafacce / shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The new study complements other recent research into oil palm. Though controversial and often <a href="https://theconversation.com/growing-palm-oil-on-former-farmland-cuts-deforestation-co-and-biodiversity-loss-127312">linked to deforestation</a>, oil palm is still one of the most important tropical crops in terms of human nutrition, helping feed more than 3 billion people. </p>
<p>Colleagues and I recently reviewed several modelling analyses of how climate change could impact the <a href="https://cabiagbio.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s43170-021-00058-3">incidence of disease and overall mortality in oil palm</a>. The stark conclusion was that tree mortality is likely to increase significantly after 2050, possibly wiping out much of the crop in the Americas. In addition, incidence of the major stem rot disease was predicted to increase drastically across south-east Asia.</p>
<h2>Surprising extent and complexity</h2>
<p>Collectively, these studies are beginning to reveal the surprising extent and complexity of the impacts of climate change and associated factors on some of the most grown crops in the tropics. Importantly, the impacts will not be distributed evenly and some regions might even benefit from climate change. </p>
<p>For instance, parts of China, Argentina and the US are likely to become more suitable for coffee growing just as the likes of Brazil and Colombia see their land become less suitable. It is likely that many of these changes are now “locked in” at least for the rest of this century, irrespective of the <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-ultimate-guide-to-why-the-cop26-summit-ended-in-failure-and-disappointment-despite-a-few-bright-spots-171723">disappointingly sluggish response of global leaders</a> in terms of reducing greenhouse gas emissions.</p>
<p>Therefore, it will be necessary for us to adapt to the ongoing changes in the tropics, for example by shifting cultivation of specific crops to different regions where climate impacts will be more benign. However, it seems likely that, whatever mitigation measures are adopted, many tropical crops will become scarcer and hence more expensive in the future. In terms of coffee, it might even move from a cheap everyday beverage to a <a href="https://wineeconomist.com/2009/10/19/cracking-the-coffee-wine-paradox/">prized treat</a> to be sampled on special occasions, rather like a fine wine.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong><em>Don’t have time to read about climate change as much as you’d like?</em></strong>
<br><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/newsletters/imagine-57?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=Imagine&utm_content=DontHaveTimeTop">Get a weekly roundup in your inbox instead.</a> Every Wednesday, The Conversation’s environment editor writes Imagine, a short email that goes a little deeper into just one climate issue. <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/newsletters/imagine-57?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=Imagine&utm_content=DontHaveTimeBottom">Join the 10,000+ readers who’ve subscribed so far.</a></em></p>
<hr><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/175766/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Denis J Murphy does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>More than half of the world’s best growing land could become less suited for coffee.Denis J Murphy, Professor of Biotechnology, Head of Genomics & Computational Biology Research, University of South WalesLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1729072021-12-16T14:23:10Z2021-12-16T14:23:10ZCoffee’s health benefits aren’t as straightforward as they seem – here’s why<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/437989/original/file-20211216-17-4fznuz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5760%2C3828&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Every cup of coffee is different.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/different-types-coffee-cups-on-dark-413980987">Africa Studio/ Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>You’ve probably heard it before: drinking coffee is good for your health. Studies have shown that drinking a moderate amount of coffee is associated with many health benefits, including a lower risk of developing <a href="https://www.acpjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.7326/0003-4819-140-1-200401060-00005">type 2 diabetes</a> and <a href="https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.113.005925?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%20%200pubmed">cardiovascular disease</a>. But while these associations have been demonstrated many times, they don’t actually prove that coffee reduces disease risk. In fact, proving that coffee is good for your health is complicated.</p>
<p>While it’s suggested that consuming three to five cups of coffee a day will provide <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0939475321002374#tbl3">optimal health benefits</a>, it’s not quite that straightforward. Coffee is chemically complex, containing many components that can affect your health in different ways. </p>
<p>While caffeine is the most well-known compound in coffee, there is more to coffee than caffeine. Here are a few of the other compounds found in coffee that might affect your health.</p>
<p><strong>Alkaloids.</strong> Aside from caffeine, trigonelline is another important alkaloid found in coffee. Trigonelline is less researched than caffeine, but research suggests that it may have health benefits, such as reducing the risk of <a href="https://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/diacare/32/6/1023.full.pdf">type 2 diabetes</a>. </p>
<p><strong>Polyphenols.</strong> Some research shows that these compounds, which are found in many plants, including cocoa and blueberries, are good for your <a href="https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/8c23/2f7a7744309e370e8ac25bafe01909c08a3d.pdf">heart and blood vessels</a>, and may help to prevent neurodegenerative diseases such as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0891584911005764?casa_token=IOJ2NHQy-vkAAAAA:LCRWlOmiFFzQvbNiq3g2bPjQIQv4sSlfiDp7-qNW7jzQdis4zwCufAgbdRfHzm9h1mYQwcBcU6U">Alzheimer’s</a>. Coffee predominantly contains a class of polyphenols called chlorogenic acids. </p>
<p><strong>Diterpenes.</strong> Coffee contains two types of diterpenes – cafestol and kahweol – that make up coffee oil, the natural fatty substance released from coffee during brewing. Diterpenes may increase the risk of <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/mnfr.200400109">cardiovascular disease</a>.</p>
<p><strong>Melanoidins.</strong> These compounds, which are produced at high temperatures during the roasting process, give roasted coffee its colour and provide the characteristic flavour and aroma of coffee. They may also have a prebiotic effect, meaning they increase the amount of <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/mnfr.200500011">beneficial bacteria in your gut</a>, which is important for overall health.</p>
<p>The way your coffee is grown, brewed and served can all affect the compounds your coffee contains and hence the health benefits you might see.</p>
<p>First, growing conditions can affect the levels of caffeine and chlorogenic acids the coffee contains. For example, coffee grown at <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0963996917307858">high altitudes</a> will have both lower caffeine and chlorogenic acid content. The two types of coffee beans, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212429221004983?via%3Dihub#bib2">arabica and robusta</a>, have also been shown to have different caffeine, chlorogenic acid and trigonelline levels. Although neither type has been shown to be more beneficial to health. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A picture of a coffee plant on a farm." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/437990/original/file-20211216-25-9hn8p9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/437990/original/file-20211216-25-9hn8p9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/437990/original/file-20211216-25-9hn8p9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/437990/original/file-20211216-25-9hn8p9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/437990/original/file-20211216-25-9hn8p9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/437990/original/file-20211216-25-9hn8p9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/437990/original/file-20211216-25-9hn8p9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">It isn’t just how you brew it – even where coffee is grown affects what compounds it contains.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/fresh-organic-coffee-arabica-beans-1702130041">alexan888/ Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Processing will also affect the coffee’s <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8620865/">chemical composition</a>. For example, some coffee is decaffeinated. This is typically done before roasting, and depending on the decaffeination method, it may further affect other compounds. For example, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16417293/">small levels of chlorogenic</a> acids are lost during the decaffeination process. </p>
<p>The extent that coffee is roasted is also key. The more severe the roasting, the more <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1021/jf800999a">melanoidins formed</a> (and the more intense the flavour). But this lowers <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23993490/">chlorogenic acids</a> and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S030881460500614X">trigonelline</a> content. </p>
<p>In the UK, instant coffee is the most commonly consumed type of coffee. This is typically freeze-dried. Research shows that instant coffee contains <a href="https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2011/FO/c0fo00156b">higher levels of melanoidins</a> per serving compared with filter coffee and espresso.</p>
<p>How you <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-18247-4">prepare your coffee</a> will also affect its chemical composition. For example, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0278691596001238">boiled coffee</a> contains a higher level of diterpenes compared with filter coffee. Other factors – such as the amount of coffee used, how <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29230816/">finely it was ground</a>, water temperature and cup size – will also affect the coffee’s chemical composition.</p>
<h2>Health effects</h2>
<p>Every compound has different effects on your health, which is why the way coffee is produced and brewed can be important.</p>
<p>Chlorogenic acids, for example, are thought to reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease by improving the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28012692/">function of your arteries</a>. There’s also evidence they may reduce the <a href="https://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/diacare/32/6/1023.full.pdf">risk of type 2 diabetes</a> by controlling blood sugar spikes after eating. </p>
<p>On the other hand, diterpenes have been shown to increase levels of low-density lipoprotein, a type of cholesterol associated with <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22713771/">cardiovascular disease</a>. While less research has focused on <a href="https://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/diacare/32/6/1023.full.pdf">trigonelline</a> and <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/mnfr.200500011">melanoidins</a>, some evidence suggests both may be good for your health.</p>
<p>Adding cream, <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/live-well/eat-well/how-does-sugar-in-our-diet-affect-our-health">sugar</a> and syrup will change the nutritional content of your cup. Not only will they increase the calorie content, they may also increase your intake of saturated fats and sugars. Both of these are associated with increased risk of type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease and may counter the beneficial effects of the other compounds your cup of coffee contains.</p>
<p>There’s also evidence that people may respond differently to some of these compounds. Regularly drinking three to four cups of coffee daily has been shown to <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31900579/">build tolerance</a> to the blood pressure raising effects of caffeine. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29569539/">Genetics</a> may also play a role in how your body handles caffeine and other compounds.</p>
<p>Increasing evidence also points to the gut microbiome as an important factor in determining what health effects coffee may have. For example, some research suggests the gut microbes play an important role in <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jn/article/133/6/1853/4688142">chlorogenic acid metabolism</a>, and hence may determine if they will benefit your health or not.</p>
<p>Researchers need to conduct large studies to confirm the findings of these smaller studies, which seem to show that coffee is good for your health. But in the meantime, minimise the sugar and cream you use in your coffee. And if you’re in good health and aren’t pregnant, continue to take a moderate approach to coffee consumption, choosing filter coffee where possible.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/172907/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dr Charlotte Mills is currently in receipt of a BBSRC DTP award to support a PhD student to investigate the impact of coffee on cardiometabolic health. She has previously worked on a BBSRC DRINC funded project on coffee processing and health which was also supported by Nestec Ltd, a subsidiary of Nestlé Ltd via BBSRC DRINC.
</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ashley Hookings is currently completing a BBSRC DTP funded PhD, investigating the impact of coffee on cardiometabolic health.</span></em></p>Everything from where your coffee is grown right down to how it’s brewed can affect what health benefits it might have.Charlotte Mills, Lecturer in Human Nutrition, University of ReadingAshley Hookings, PhD Candidate, Coffee Intake and Cardiometabolic Health, University of ReadingLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1690002021-09-30T14:30:23Z2021-09-30T14:30:23ZCoffee bean prices have doubled in the past year and may double again – what’s going on?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/423995/original/file-20210930-12-18pvll8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Beans are booming. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/OmOvMdiaZZ0">Robert Shunev/Unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>International Coffee Day feels very different this year. Introduced by the <a href="https://www.ico.org/">International Coffee Organization</a> (ICO) on October 1 2015 to raise awareness of the product and the challenges faced by producers, the day has usually focused on how low prices paid for unroasted beans barely cover farmers’ costs – let alone support their families. </p>
<p>Not this year, though. In the past 12 months, the C price – the benchmark price for commodity-grade Arabica coffee on the New York International Commodity Exchange – has risen from US$1.07 (£0.80) per pound (454g) to around US$1.95. Back in July, <a href="https://www.macrotrends.net/2535/coffee-prices-historical-chart-data">it touched US$2.08</a>. </p>
<p><strong>Arabica bean prices (US$/lb)</strong></p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/423998/original/file-20210930-18-1hbqr1t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Long-term price chart for Arabica coffee" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/423998/original/file-20210930-18-1hbqr1t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/423998/original/file-20210930-18-1hbqr1t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=308&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423998/original/file-20210930-18-1hbqr1t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=308&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423998/original/file-20210930-18-1hbqr1t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=308&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423998/original/file-20210930-18-1hbqr1t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=387&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423998/original/file-20210930-18-1hbqr1t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=387&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423998/original/file-20210930-18-1hbqr1t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=387&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://tradingeconomics.com/commodity/coffee">Trading Economics</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Nearly all contracts for coffee delivery are benchmarked against the C price, with the result that prices for green Arabica (unroasted beans) have risen by over 80% during the past year. Those for Robusta coffee – a cheaper, less palatable alternative – have <a href="https://ycharts.com/indicators/world_coffee_robusta_price">risen over 30%</a>. And there is every chance that these prices will rise higher in the coming months. We may be on the verge of a major price correction that shifts the market upwards for years to come.</p>
<h2>Why coffee got expensive</h2>
<p>The principal reason for surging prices is a series of environmental events in Brazil. By far the world’s leading coffee producer, Brazil accounts for <a href="https://www.ico.org/historical/1990%20onwards/PDF/1a-total-production.pdf">around 35%</a> of global harvest. The volume of production regularly fluctuates between “on” and “off” years, and usually this is not sufficient to greatly affect prices because producers mitigate their risks through stock management and hedging prices using the <a href="https://perfectdailygrind.com/2019/01/what-is-coffee-hedging-how-does-it-impact-producers/">coffee futures market</a>. </p>
<p>However, yields in 2021 are likely to be dramatically lower. This is due to <a href="https://www.npr.org/2021/09/22/1039800090/how-brazils-severe-drought-affects-the-entire-worlds-coffee-supply-chain">a combination</a> of a severe drought earlier in the season, which reduced the numbers of coffee cherries, and recent intense frosts that might further damage the fruit and even the trees. The Brazilian authorities <a href="https://www.comunicaffe.com/brazil-conab-cut-its-official-estimate-for-the-2021-22-coffee-crop-to-46-9-million-bags/">are projecting</a> the lowest Arabica harvest for 12 years.</p>
<p>The big question is how this affects future production. Coffee trees can take up to five years to mature, so it will take a few seasons before the scale of the damage is clear. If, as <a href="http://www.spilling-the-beans.net/">some respected reporters</a> are suggesting, the frost causes maximum damage – potentially <a href="https://stir-tea-coffee.com/tea-coffee-news/brazil-frost-damage-worsens-global-coffee-supply-challenges-/">hitting two-thirds</a> of trees – there may be a long-lasting drop in world supplies. This could see prices breaking through the US$3.00 and even US$4.00 barrier.</p>
<h2>The long coffee cycle</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.amazon.co.uk/Coffee-Global-History-Jonathan-Morris/dp/1789140021/ref=tmm_hrd_swatch_0?_encoding=UTF8&qid=&sr=">The history</a> of coffee has been characterised by extreme price volatility. Periods of excessive supplies have progressively driven down prices until a catastrophic event – either environmental or political – results in a correction. </p>
<p>During the 1930s, a combination of bumper harvests and weak consumer demand in the depression era led to a massive supply glut. To reduce excess stock, Brazil resorted to dumping coffee at sea and also converting it into locomotive fuel. At the other extreme, many coffee trees were killed in 1975 when Brazil was struck by a series of “black” frosts. This led to a 60% fall in output in the following harvest, and prices trebling between 1975 and 1977. </p>
<p>In 1962, the ICO introduced producer quotas to try and keep prices buoyant in the face of such highs and lows. This was supported by the United States to avoid communism spreading from Cuba to mainland Latin America, but it was abandoned on American insistence after 1989. This led to an over-supply and ultimately a coffee crisis at the end of the century in which the C price remained under US$1.00 for four straight years. It had tended to trade between about US$1.00 and US$2.00 per pound, and the price crash saw many producers <a href="http://www.ico.org/documents/globalcrisise.pdf">going hungry</a>. </p>
<p>The price only recovered when a <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/coffee-rust">coffee leaf rust</a> infected a significant portion of Central American and Colombian production. The bitter irony of the coffee market is that prices for producers only improve when many of them suffer unsustainable losses.</p>
<h2>The Robusta problem</h2>
<p>Coffee prices fell in the latter part of the 2010s primarily as a result of the expansion of global production. Most notable <a href="https://farrerscoffee.co.uk/blogs/blog/top-10-coffee-producing-countries-around-the-world">was Vietnam</a>, which is now the world’s second largest coffee producer and accounts for around 18% of total global production. As much as 95% of Vietnamese output is Robusta.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.amazon.co.uk/Coffee-Not-Forever-History-Ecology-ebook/dp/B07ZH85TNK/ref=sr_1_1?dchild=1&keywords=coffee+is+not+forever&qid=1632757826&qsid=257-4439212-9979455&s=books&sr=1-1&sres=0821423878%2CB09FSCKT9B%2C1398703427%2C1529105102%2CB086Y7D5S2%2C1785945149%2C178452087X%2C0008366276%2C0008375526%2C0008422982%2CB092PCTWBG%2C139870167X%2C1648450660%2CB09DTHQHQ7%2CB00VT94WXW%2C1640309470">Robusta was actually</a> first used for coffee cultivation because of an environmental catastrophe, when east Asia’s coffee production was virtually wiped out by coffee leaf rust during the late 19th century. In more recent times, procedures for “cleaning” Robusta to reduce off-flavours have improved to the point that <a href="https://www.thecoffeeguide.org/coffee-guide/coffee-quality/steam-cleaning/">roasters increasingly</a> resort to raising its proportion within a blend. This is particularly done when targeting markets which are primarily driven by price, such as instant coffee.</p>
<p>If prices keep spiking now, using more Robusta in blends could prevent coffee from becoming too expensive for consumers. But this will be difficult to do, at least short-term, because of severe COVID restrictions in Vietnam. This has caused <a href="https://www.comunicaffe.com/supply-concerns-in-vietnam-push-robusta-futures-prices-to-their-highest-levels-since-2017/">considerable disruptions</a> both to transporting coffee from the central highlands to the export hub of Ho Chi Minh city, and then managing the onward shipping logistics. The same issues have arisen in many coffee-producing nations. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.spillerandtait.co.uk/blogs/news/coffee-price-rises-for-small-roasters-imminent">Consequently we have</a> brokers battling to secure sufficient stocks, roasters contemplating how to pass on price rises to their business customers, and consumers facing the prospect of paying higher prices for household coffee products. </p>
<p>But will producers be the winners in this latest price surge? Those Brazilian agribusinesses that survive the immediate impact of the frosts surely will, as too the well-capitalised, medium-sized farms of Latin America. </p>
<p>What, though, of the smallholders and subsistence farmers who make up 95% of coffee farmers? For years, the ICO and its member states have presented these farmers as the victims of global market forces; now we will find out if these players are capable of delivering back to farmers the increased value their coffee is generating. If so, then International Coffee Day will indeed be something to celebrate.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/169000/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jonathan Morris does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The black stuff is suddenly much more expensive – the question is whether smallhold farmers will see any of the proceeds.Jonathan Morris, Professor of History, University of HertfordshireLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1668642021-09-27T12:55:25Z2021-09-27T12:55:25ZShould teens taking ADHD, anxiety and depression drugs consume energy drinks and coffee?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421941/original/file-20210917-17-ye29c2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5308%2C3112&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The American Academy of Pediatrics says teens should never consume energy drinks.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/teenage-girl-drinking-caffeine-energy-drink-gaming-royalty-free-image/1190647906?adppopup=true">monkeybusinessimages/istock via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/curious-kids-us-74795">Curious Kids</a> is a series for children of all ages. If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, send it to <a href="mailto:curiouskidsus@theconversation.com">CuriousKidsUS@theconversation.com</a>.</em></p>
<hr>
<blockquote>
<p><strong>Should teens taking ADHD, anxiety or depression drugs consume energy drinks or coffee? – Angela S.</strong></p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<p>About <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/adhd/data.html">6.1 million children in the U.S.</a>, more than 9% of all kids and teens, have been <a href="https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/adhd/what-is-adhd">diagnosed at some point in their lives with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder</a>. Known as ADHD, it causes inattention, hyperactivity and impulsivity.</p>
<p>Many kids and teens diagnosed with ADHD take <a href="https://drugfree.org/drugs/prescription-stimulants/">prescription stimulants</a>, such as Adderall and Ritalin. These drugs increase brain activity to counteract a lack of focus and poor concentration.</p>
<p>In addition, 6 in 10 children diagnosed with ADHD have <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/adhd/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20350895">at least one other mental, emotional or behavioral disorder</a>, such as anxiety or depression. As a result, many of them take other kinds of prescription drugs too.</p>
<p>Meanwhile, Monster, Red Bull and other <a href="https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/energy-drinks">energy drinks are commonly marketed to teens</a> as a way to boost stamina, physical performance and alertness. This is troubling because of the <a href="https://theconversation.com/is-it-ok-for-teens-to-drink-coffee-129133">high levels of caffeine</a> those drinks contain.</p>
<p>Ingesting large amounts of caffeine <a href="https://www.healthline.com/health/caffeine-effects-on-body#Central-nervous-system">overstimulates the nervous system</a>, which interferes with sleep and can increase stress as well as anxiety.</p>
<p>According to recommendations from the American Academy of Pediatrics, teenagers can consume <a href="https://www.aacap.org/AACAP/Families_and_Youth/Facts_for_Families/FFF-Guide/Caffeine_and_Children-131.aspx">up to 100 milligrams of caffeine a day</a>, the <a href="https://www.aacap.org/AACAP/Families_and_Youth/Facts_for_Families/FFF-Guide/Caffeine_and_Children-131.aspx">equivalent of two 12-ounce cans of soda</a>, without any trouble. </p>
<p>However, <a href="https://cspinet.org/eating-healthy/ingredients-of-concern/caffeine-chart">just one energy drink</a>, and some specialty coffee beverages, can have more than triple this amount of caffeine. In addition, the large amount of sugar in many of these drinks can <a href="https://sph.umich.edu/pursuit/2019posts/mood-blood-sugar-kujawski.html">disrupt blood sugar</a> levels, causing changes in brain chemistry and consequently contributing to mental health problems.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/127/6/1182">academy also states teens should never consume energy drinks</a>, regardless of prescription drug intake. And yet about <a href="https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/energy-drinks">one-third of Americans from 12 to 17 years old</a> drink these beverages on a regular basis.</p>
<p>I believe that consuming energy drinks is even more dangerous for teens taking prescription drugs for ADHD, anxiety or depression because of the additional stimulants they are getting. They should also curb their <a href="https://theconversation.com/is-it-ok-for-teens-to-drink-coffee-129133">coffee consumption</a>.</p>
<p><iframe id="qwlNR" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/qwlNR/4/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>The situation is even more complicated, though, because there are signs that <a href="https://www.tctmd.com/news/adhd-drug-overprescribing-raises-concerns-over-future-cv-events">not all of the young people taking those drugs need them</a>. </p>
<p>There is evidence that quite often, several ADHD symptoms could be caused by other conditions, such as <a href="https://www.healthline.com/health/brain-fog">stress, certain medications, insomnia and poor nutrition</a>. Among the drugs that may trigger these symptoms are those prescribed to treat <a href="https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/323666">anxiety and depression</a>.</p>
<p>As a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=sOMbzQ0AAAAJ">nutritional neuroscientist</a> who studies the connections between what people eat and their lifestyle, stress and mental health, I believe that many teens diagnosed with ADHD, anxiety and depression may benefit from changing what they eat before they begin to take any prescription drugs.</p>
<p>One reason for this is that the <a href="https://raisingchildren.net.au/pre-teens/development/understanding-your-pre-teen/brain-development-teens">brain has a growth spurt</a> during the teen years. This growth requires essential nutrients, such as <a href="https://theconversation.com/want-to-eat-fish-thats-truly-good-for-you-here-are-some-guidelines-to-reeling-one-in-72933">omega-3 fatty acids</a> – typically found in high amounts in fish – that not all teens get enough of through their <a href="https://nutritionj.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12937-018-0328-z">usual diet</a>. A poor-quality diet can interfere with this growth and development, contributing to poor concentration and even mental distress.</p>
<p>Perhaps even more troubling, many teens and college students without any symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/news/story/2892/binghamton-university-student-research-group-examines-adderall-abuse">take ADHD drugs for non-medical reasons</a>. They often do this because of a <a href="https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/encyclopedia/content.aspx?ContentTypeID=1&ContentID=23617">mistaken belief</a> that the drugs will help them do better at school.</p>
<p>In summary, whether or not a young person has a prescription for ADHD drugs, taking them makes avoiding energy drinks essential. </p>
<p><em>Hello, curious kids! Do you have a question you’d like an expert to answer? Ask an adult to send your question to <a href="mailto:curiouskidsus@theconversation.com">CuriousKidsUS@theconversation.com</a>. Please tell us your name, age and the city where you live.</em></p>
<p><em>And since curiosity has no age limit – adults, let us know what you’re wondering, too. We won’t be able to answer every question, but we will do our best.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/166864/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lina Begdache does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Energy drinks and coffee both contain lots of caffeine. That’s a problem for teens, especially those who take prescription stimulants.Lina Begdache, Assistant Professor of Nutrition, Binghamton University, State University of New YorkLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.