tag:theconversation.com,2011:/africa/topics/coral-sea-1951/articlesCoral Sea – The Conversation2022-11-23T13:19:32Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1951122022-11-23T13:19:32Z2022-11-23T13:19:32ZScientists discover five new species of black corals living thousands of feet below the ocean surface near the Great Barrier Reef<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/496848/original/file-20221122-17-4lu9z6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=10%2C15%2C3375%2C1888&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Researchers discovered five new species of black corals, including this *Hexapathes bikofskii* growing out of a nautilus shell more than 2,500 feet (760 meters) below the surface.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jeremy Horowitz</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/research-brief-83231">Research Brief</a> is a short take about interesting academic work.</em> </p>
<h2>The big idea</h2>
<p>Using a remote-controlled submarine, my colleagues <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=inNswpIAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=sra">and I</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5213.1.1">discovered five new species of black corals</a> living as deep as 2,500 feet (760 meters) below the surface in the Great Barrier Reef and Coral Sea off the coast of Australia.</p>
<p>Black corals can be found growing both in <a href="https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.4821.3.7">shallow waters and down to depths of over 26,000 feet</a> (8,000 meters), and some individual corals <a href="https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/invertebrates/how-old-black-coral">can live for over 4,000 years</a>. Many of these corals are branched and look like <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-394282-1.00002-8">feathers, fans or bushes, while others are straight</a> like a whip. Unlike their colorful, shallow-water cousins that rely on the sun and photosynthesis for energy, black corals are <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-394282-1.00002-8">filter feeders and eat tiny zooplankton</a> that are abundant in deep waters.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/MYncyEIDr10?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The team of researchers collected 60 specimens of black corals over 31 dives using a remotely operated submarine.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In 2019 and 2020, I and a team of Australian scientists used the <a href="https://schmidtocean.org/">Schmidt Ocean Institute’s</a> remotely operated vehicle – a submarine named SuBastian – to explore the Great Barrier Reef and Coral Sea. Our goal was to collect samples of coral species living in waters from 130 feet to 6,000 feet (40 meters to 1,800 meters) deep. In the past, corals from the deep parts of this region were collected <a href="https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.4472.2.5">using dredging and trawling</a> methods that would often destroy the corals. </p>
<p>Our two expeditions were the first to send a robot down to these particular deep-water ecosystems, allowing our team to actually see and safely collect deep sea corals in their natural habitats. Over the course of 31 dives, my colleagues and I collected 60 black coral specimens. We would carefully remove the corals from the sandy floor or coral wall using the rover’s robotic claws, place the corals in a pressurized, temperature-controlled storage box and then bring them up to the surface. We would then examine the physical features of the corals and sequence their DNA. </p>
<p>Among the many interesting specimens were five new species – including one we found growing on the shell of a nautilus more than <a href="https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5213.1.1">2,500 feet (760 meters) below the ocean’s surface</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/496843/original/file-20221122-15-lxiyuo.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A robotic arm grabbing a thin coral off of a rock." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/496843/original/file-20221122-15-lxiyuo.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/496843/original/file-20221122-15-lxiyuo.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=541&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496843/original/file-20221122-15-lxiyuo.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=541&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496843/original/file-20221122-15-lxiyuo.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=541&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496843/original/file-20221122-15-lxiyuo.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=680&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496843/original/file-20221122-15-lxiyuo.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=680&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496843/original/file-20221122-15-lxiyuo.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=680&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Researchers used the robotic arm of their rover to collect over 100 samples of rare corals and brought them up to the surface for further study.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jeremy Horowitz</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p>Similarly to shallow-water corals that build colorful reefs full of fish, black corals act as important habitats where <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-394282-1.00002-8">fish</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.26496/bjz.2019.33">invertebrates</a> feed and hide from predators in what is otherwise a mostly barren sea floor. For example, a single black coral colony researchers collected in 2005 off the coast of California was <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228350918">home to 2,554 individual invertebrates</a>.</p>
<p>Recent research has begun to paint a picture of a deep sea that contains <a href="https://doi.org/10.5670/oceanog.2020.supplement.01">far more species</a> than <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2021.608665">biologists previously thought</a>. Considering there are only 300 known species of black corals in the world, finding five new species in one general location was very surprising and exciting for our team. Many black corals are <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/304623882_Illegal_harvesting_and_trading_of_black_corals_Antipatharia_in_Madagascar_the_necessity_of_field_studies">threatened by illegal harvesting for jewelry</a>. In order to pursue smart conservation of these fascinating and hard-to-reach habitats, it is important for researchers to know what species live at these depths and the geographic ranges of individual species. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/496830/original/file-20221122-25-tu2m7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A large, white, tree-like coral underwater." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/496830/original/file-20221122-25-tu2m7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/496830/original/file-20221122-25-tu2m7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=515&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496830/original/file-20221122-25-tu2m7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=515&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496830/original/file-20221122-25-tu2m7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=515&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496830/original/file-20221122-25-tu2m7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=647&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496830/original/file-20221122-25-tu2m7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=647&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496830/original/file-20221122-25-tu2m7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=647&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Black corals don’t form large reefs like shallow corals, but individuals can get quite large – like this <em>Antipathes dendrochristos</em> found off the coast of California – and act as habitat for thousands of other organisms.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Antipathes_dendrochristos.jpg#/media/File:Antipathes_dendrochristos.jpg">Mark Amend/NOAA via Wikimedia Commons</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What still isn’t known</h2>
<p>Every time scientists explore the deep sea, they discover new species. Simply exploring more is the best thing researchers can do to fill in knowledge gaps about what species live there and how they are distributed.</p>
<p>Because so few specimens of deep-sea black corals have been collected, and so many undiscovered species are likely still out there, there is also a lot to learn about the evolutionary tree of corals. The more species that biologists discover, the better we will be able to understand their evolutionary history – including how they have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-020-01291-1">survived at least four mass extinction events</a>.</p>
<h2>What’s next</h2>
<p>The next step for my colleagues and me is to continue to explore the ocean’s seafloor. Researchers have yet to <a href="https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5213.1.1">collect DNA from most of the known species of black corals</a>. In future expeditions, my colleagues and I plan to return to other deep reefs in the Great Barrier Reef and Coral Sea to continue to learn more about and better protect these habitats.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/195112/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jeremy Horowitz currently works for the Smithsonian Institution.
This research was funded through the ARC DECRA (DE170100516), the ARC
Centre of Excellence Program (CE140100020), and ARC Centre of Excellence Discovery Grant DP180103199.
</span></em></p>Black corals provide critical habitat for many creatures that live in the dark, often barren, deep sea, and researchers are learning more about these rare corals with every dive.Jeremy Horowitz, Post-doctoral Fellow in Invertebrate Zoology, Smithsonian InstitutionLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1601722021-05-03T08:16:34Z2021-05-03T08:16:34ZWhat are ‘internal waves’ that possibly sank the Indonesian sub? If you’ve ever suffered plane turbulence, you’ve been inside one<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/398283/original/file-20210503-15-1aem3te.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4256%2C2446&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sumburgh_Waves_IMG_5087_(28622722710).jpg">Ronnie Robertson/Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Last week might have been the first time you ever heard of “internal waves” — the phenomenon suspected of <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/science/2021-05-01/indonesian-sunken-submarine-internal-waves-what-do-we-know/100107196">causing the tragic sinking</a> of the Indonesian submarine KRI Nanggala the previous week, resulting in the deaths of the 53 crew members.</p>
<p>So it may surprise you to learn that you’ve doubtless encountered internal waves before. They exist all around us in the atmosphere and ocean, although they are usually invisible. If you’ve ever been on an aeroplane experiencing turbulence, you’ve felt their effects.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/398260/original/file-20210503-24-151jehm.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Satellite image showing atmospheric and oceanic waves" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/398260/original/file-20210503-24-151jehm.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/398260/original/file-20210503-24-151jehm.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=519&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/398260/original/file-20210503-24-151jehm.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=519&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/398260/original/file-20210503-24-151jehm.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=519&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/398260/original/file-20210503-24-151jehm.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=652&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/398260/original/file-20210503-24-151jehm.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=652&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/398260/original/file-20210503-24-151jehm.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=652&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Satellite image of internal waves in the atmosphere and ocean off the northwest coast of Australia. In the atmosphere we see the waves as lines of clouds. In the ocean, the waves appear in reflections of the suns rays off the sea surface.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">NASA</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Internal waves are generated when a strong wind passes over a steep hill. Air is lifted up and over the hill against the force of gravity, and then accelerates down the other side as gravity takes over. This up-and-down motion kicks off an oscillation downwind of the hill. The oscillating motion is an internal wave. </p>
<p>You can visualise this more easily by imagining a bouncy ball rolling off a step on an otherwise level floor. If you roll it fast enough, the ball takes flight at the crest of the step and accelerates downwards under gravity. When the ball hits the ground it starts to bounce with a bounce-length (or wavelength) that depends on how fast you rolled it.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/398261/original/file-20210503-16-zxzk1z.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/398261/original/file-20210503-16-zxzk1z.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/398261/original/file-20210503-16-zxzk1z.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/398261/original/file-20210503-16-zxzk1z.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/398261/original/file-20210503-16-zxzk1z.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/398261/original/file-20210503-16-zxzk1z.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/398261/original/file-20210503-16-zxzk1z.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Internal waves are generated by fast flow over a steep hill, much like a ball bounces when rolled at speed off a step.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Unsurprisingly, atmospheric internal waves are most often found in mountainous regions. If you’ve ever looked up at the sky and seen long parallel bands of clouds, particularly near mountains, you’ve probably seen an internal wave propagating through the atmosphere. The waves propagate upwards at the same time as they are carried downwind of the mountain by the air flow.</p>
<p>The waves can reach all the way into the stratosphere, which begins <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2001RG000106">roughly 10 kilometres above the ground</a>, before changes in the atmospheric structure force the waves to break. Just as waves break on the beach as the water becomes shallower, internal waves break in the atmosphere when the properties of the air (such as flow speed or density) change rapidly with height. Such changes are common in the lower stratosphere (10-15km), which is where jet airliners fly.</p>
<p>And just like waves at the beach, this breaking creates a huge amount of chaotic motion - or turbulence - creating an unpleasant jolting motion for any aircraft (and their passengers) that happen to be in the vicinity!</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"846842493001879554"}"></div></p>
<p>So what about internal waves in the ocean? Just like in the atmosphere, they are generated by strong flows (in this case, ocean currents) over steep hills. But in this case the hills are on the seafloor. </p>
<p>The steeper the hills and the stronger the currents, the bigger the resulting waves. The seas around Indonesia have a <a href="https://www.internalwaveatlas.com/Atlas2_PDF/IWAtlas2_Pg453_Indonesia.pdf">perfect combination of these ingredients</a>: a network of deep basins connected by narrow, shallow channels, through which strong tidal currents flow. </p>
<p><img src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/static_files/files/1556/ezgif-6-6911622f3796.gif?1620029157" width="100%"></p>
<p>These currents are so strong they generate a particularly extreme kind of internal wave known as an “internal solitary wave”, which concentrates the entire wave energy into a single up-and-down motion, rather than many individual oscillations. These waves can be <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/srep30041">hundreds of metres high</a>, several kilometres long, and <a href="https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/phoc/30/9/1520-0485_2000_030_2172_solais_2.0.co_2.xml">travel at speeds of 10km per hour</a>.</p>
<p>Solitary waves are biggest at depths of around 50-200 metres, where there is a sharp temperature gradient between the warm surface layer and the cool ocean interior — the same depths at which submarines typically operate. If a submarine sitting at this kind of depth were suddenly hit by one of these waves, it would be carried downwards (or upwards, depending on its position relative to the wave) at a rate of perhaps 10 metres per minute for 10 minutes. </p>
<p><img src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/static_files/files/1552/soliton.gif?1620014156" width="100%"></p>
<p>Without swift action to counteract the wave motion, a submarine could quickly be carried below its maximum operational depth, leading to hull failure and sinking. An <a href="https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/632010.pdf">archive US Navy report</a> reveals submarine commanders were aware of the risks of internal waves as long ago as 1966.</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/indonesian-submarine-found-what-might-have-happened-to-the-kri-nanggala-in-its-final-moments-159703">Indonesian submarine found: what might have happened to the KRI Nanggala in its final moments?</a>
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</em>
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<p>Besides the danger they pose to submarines, internal waves also play an <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43017-020-0097-z">important role in ocean circulation</a>. They carry vast quantities of energy, helping to sustain ocean currents, mixing heat and carbon dioxide through the oceans, and thus influencing our global climate. </p>
<p>So next time you’re jolted by turbulence on a plane, or looking up at some strange stripes of cloud in the sky, give some thought to the internal waves propagating all around you.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/satellites-reveal-ocean-currents-are-getting-stronger-with-potentially-significant-implications-for-climate-change-159461">Satellites reveal ocean currents are getting stronger, with potentially significant implications for climate change</a>
</strong>
</em>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/160172/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Callum Shakespeare receives funding from the Australian Research Council Discovery Program and the Australian National University to pursue research related to internal waves and their role in the climate system.</span></em></p>Internal waves can create pretty cloud shapes in the sky, as well as making life unpleasant for passengers on aeroplanes. And in the oceans they can be a deadly hazard to submarines.Callum Shakespeare, Senior Lecturer in Climate and Fluid Physics, Australian National UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1073612018-12-14T06:39:50Z2018-12-14T06:39:50ZAre reef corals stressed or just pessimistic?<p><a href="https://climate.nasa.gov/">Climate change</a> threatens <a href="http://coralreefdiagnostics.com/high-coral-cover-reef/">coral reefs</a> around the globe. The high temperatures associated with this phenomenon can lead to “<a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/coral_bleach.html">bleaching</a>,” the breakdown of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbiosis">symbiosis</a> between <a href="https://www.livingoceansfoundation.org/video/what-is-coral/">corals</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbiodinium">the algae</a> that live within their cells. Since corals are nourished by these <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesis">photosynthetically</a> active algal “symbionts,” <a href="http://coralreefdiagnostics.com/bleaching/">bleaching</a> – so called because the coral tissues become clear/white, exposing the white skeleton beneath – typically results in coral death. </p>
<p>At least half-a-billion people on Earth rely directly on coral reefs for their livelihood. <a href="https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/invertebrates/corals-and-coral-reefs">Coral reefs</a> provide a wealth of ecosystem services not only to the plethora of marine creatures that live on coral reefs but also to humans. For example, reefs are nurseries for myriad commercially important fish species.</p>
<p>That’s why we need to actively monitor the <a href="http://coralreefdiagnostics.com/">health</a> of coral reefs around the globe. I am particularly interested in identifying reefs that are stress-sensitive or of limited resilience. Perhaps such reefs should be prioritised for conservation under the unfortunate assumption that saving all reefs may no longer be feasible. Then again, maybe we should instead focus our efforts on reefs featuring the strongest corals, as these will stand a better chance of survival. </p>
<p>Regardless, we need a way to determine whether a reef is healthy or sick. </p>
<h2>Reactionary diagnosis</h2>
<p>Historically, coral reef health assessment has been a retroactive endeavour. We strap on our SCUBA tanks, go diving and record the number of corals that are dying or <a href="http://coralreefdiagnostics.com/deaddying-reefs/">dead</a>. This would be akin to telling someone who just had a heart attack that they had high blood pressure. Ideally, that person would have liked to have known earlier so they could have made dietary or other lifestyle changes to prevent cardiac arrest. </p>
<p>If we only diagnose coral death, the data acquired during our surveys are of little use to living corals. Wouldn’t it be better if we could detect declines in coral health before severe, late-stage signs of sickness such as bleaching are evident? Then, we could alert managers so they could act to promote coral resilience at local scales by, for instance, closing the reef to fishing. </p>
<h2>We don’t know what truly healthy coral looks like</h2>
<p>Unfortunately, we don’t have <a href="http://coralreefdiagnostics.com/help-data-analysis-plea/">a physiological baseline</a> for corals. All coral reef research has been undertaken in the last 50 to 100 years. That’s well after the start of the Industrial Revolution, the point at which our collective human impact on the planet really jumped into high gear. </p>
<p>In other words, all data we currently possess are from corals that are already likely to be stressed to at least some degree. Even the most geographically isolated reefs, those of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chagos_Archipelago">Chagos</a> in the Indian Ocean, are bleaching <a href="https://theconversation.com/does-a-new-era-of-bleaching-beckon-for-indian-ocean-coral-reefs-73938">almost yearly</a>. </p>
<p>Although this means that no pristine reefs remain on Earth, it is still possible that healthy ones are out there to be found. But knowing what actually constitutes a healthy reef is tricky given the lack of baseline data. If we don’t know how to define the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenotype">phenotype</a> of a healthy coral, how can we be expected to document the degree of stress or the likelihood of bleaching? </p>
<h2>Studying coral health through molecular biology</h2>
<p>Over the last 15 years, I’ve developed a series of <a href="http://coralreefdiagnostics.com/contact/">molecular diagnostic procedures</a> geared towards making conjectures about coral health. For those who studied cell biology, you may recall that all cellular organisms possess a suite of proteins that protect, stabilise and/or repair their cells during stress events, such as high temperature exposure. Although some “stress proteins” may be synthesised at all times (even when cells are unstressed), the majority should be produced by the cells only when they are actually stressed. </p>
<p>By that logic, even if we lack baseline data, we should be able to develop a diagnostic system for corals based on concentrations of stress-indicative genes and proteins I will collectively refer to as “molecular <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomarker_(medicine)">biomarkers</a>.” Corals, after all, consist of cells with very <a href="https://phys.org/news/2016-06-corals-genes-human-genome.html">similar genomes</a> to ours (at least in the case of the hosts). </p>
<p>My idea, then, was to go to the world’s most “pristine” (tongue firmly implanted in cheek) ecosystems, sample corals, and analyse the concentrations of a number of gene and protein-level molecular biomarkers involved in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_stress_response">cellular stress response</a>. This would serve to generate “current baseline” data for reef corals against which we could compare future shifts as a result of climate change and other human activities. </p>
<p>From 2013 to 2016 I sampled corals from the most remote reaches of the Indo-Pacific as a postdoctoral researcher with <a href="http://www.livingoceansfoundation.org/">the Khaled bin Sultan Living Oceans Foundation</a> (LOF). As part of LOF’s “Global Reef Expedition” (<a href="https://www.livingoceansfoundation.org/global-reef-expedition/">GRE</a>), small crumbs of tissue (i.e., “biopsies”) were removed from each of thousands of coral colonies (focusing on the genus <a href="http://coralreefdiagnostics.com/pocillopora/">Pocillopora</a>), ranging from French Polynesia’s <a href="http://coralreefdiagnostics.com/french-polynesia/">Austral Islands</a> to the Chagos Archipelago (<a href="http://coralreefdiagnostics.com/biot-overview/">British Indian Ocean Territory</a>), and hundreds of <a href="http://coralreefdiagnostics.com/global-reef-expedition/">sites in between</a>. We focused on reefs that had not previously been surveyed or explored, which tended to be the ones farthest from human populations. </p>
<h2>Are corals in a constant state of stress?</h2>
<p>After carrying out a variety of molecular diagnostic <a href="http://coralreefdiagnostics.com/projects/">procedures</a>, I found that every coral I sampled appeared to be characterised by incredibly high concentrations of all stress biomarkers targeted (in both the coral host and endosymbiotic algal “compartments”). </p>
<p>This was the case in remote atolls of the <a href="https://www.nmmba.gov.tw/publication/News_Content.aspx?n=41570175D3B41EEE&sms=9463987D224BAA6B&s=8BF01D774A1BA42D">Austral and Cook Islands</a>, as well as <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/comments?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0177267">Fiji</a>, <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0185857">Tonga</a>, <a href="https://www.nmmba.gov.tw/publication/News_Content.aspx?n=41570175D3B41EEE&sms=9463987D224BAA6B&s=12DDAC5BAC5D82DE">New Caledonia</a>, <a href="http://coralreefdiagnostics.com/solomon-islands-overview/">the Solomon Islands</a>, <a href="http://coralreefdiagnostics.com/palau-overview/">Palau</a> and <a href="http://coralreefdiagnostics.com/biot-overview/">Chagos</a>.</p>
<p>The simplest explanation for the observation that every coral I sampled was displaying the cellular hallmarks of a stress response is that the corals were indeed stressed. However, <a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/110/4/1387">some</a> have argued that corals are different and, unlike other cell organisms, can stay “stressed” at all times to anticipate environmental change. </p>
<p>This is true in some ecosystems, such as <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/06/world/asia/06iht-coral.2.16721749.html">upwelling coral reefs of Southern Taiwan</a>, where seawater quality changes rapidly on a regular basis. That being said, we found few reefs encountering such extreme environments on our pan-global research expedition.</p>
<h2>Stressed or just ‘pessimistic’?</h2>
<p>Most stressed cells or organisms stop growing and reproducing since so much energy is being diverted to restoring cellular equilibrium, also known as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeostasis">homeostasis</a>. This was not the case for these “stressed” corals, nor did the majority show any signs of tissue necrosis or disease. Furthermore, although some went on to bleach at later dates, not all did. </p>
<p>In other words, the fact that the coral and internal algal cells were constantly utilising their stress responses did not necessarily mean that the coral “holobionts” (an amalgamation of host+symbiont) would eventually disintegrate. </p>
<p>Perhaps the mobilisation of reserve energy stores, such as fats, has allowed these corals to persist to date, despite being stressed. This would be a short-term survival strategy at best, though. Maybe they switched from relying on photosynthesis to simply <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature04565">eating</a> more plankton, as do many other marine animals lacking in algal symbionts. </p>
<p>Or maybe, as mentioned above, corals are just weird; rather than the ephemeral “fight or flight” response employed by other animals, they remain “physiologically pessimistic”, prepared for the worst at all times. Only return trips to these sites will tell whether this perceivable stressful lifestyle permits continual coral survival in the coming decades.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/107361/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anderson B. Mayfield was affiliated with the Khaled bin Sultan Living Oceans Foundation (LOF) during the Indo-Pacific portion of their "Global Reef Expedition." The opinions expressed herein are his own and do not necessarily reflect those of LOF. </span></em></p>A coral biologist sampled corals from the most remote reaches of the Indo-Pacific and discovered that all of them show signs of stress.Anderson B. Mayfield, International postdoctoral research fellow of marine studies, National Museum of Marine Biology and Aquarium TaiwanLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/813912017-07-24T05:40:04Z2017-07-24T05:40:04ZAustralia’s new marine parks plan is a case of the Emperor’s new clothes<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/179377/original/file-20170724-28505-1oghl27.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Orca family group at the Bremer Canyon off WA's south coast.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">R. Wellard</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The federal government’s new <a href="https://parksaustralia.gov.au/marine/management/draft-plans/">draft marine park plans</a> are based on an unsubstantiated premise: that protection of Australia’s ocean wildlife is consistent with activities such as fishing and oil and gas exploration. </p>
<p>Under the proposed plans, there would be no change to the boundaries of existing marine parks, which cover 36% of Commonwealth waters, or almost 2.4 million square kilometres. But many areas inside these boundaries will be rezoned to allow for a range of activities besides conservation.</p>
<p>The plans propose dividing marine parks into three types of zones:</p>
<ul>
<li><strong>Green</strong>: “National Park Zones” with full conservation protection</li>
<li><strong>Yellow</strong>: “Habitat Protection Zones” where fishing is allowed as long as the seafloor is not harmed</li>
<li><strong>Blue</strong>: “Special Purpose Zones” that allow for specific commercial activities.</li>
</ul>
<p>Crucially, under the new draft plans, the amount of green zones will be almost halved, from 36% to 20% of the marine park network, whereas yellow zones will almost double from 24% to 43%, compared with <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/topics/marine/marine-reserves/overview/resources">when the marine parks were established in 2012</a>.</p>
<p>The government has <a href="http://www.joshfrydenberg.com.au/guest/mediaReleasesDetails.aspx?id=394">said</a> that this approach will “allow sustainable activities like commercial fishing while protecting key conservation features”.</p>
<p>But like the courtiers told to <a href="http://www.andersen.sdu.dk/vaerk/hersholt/TheEmperorsNewClothes_e.html">admire the Emperor’s non-existent new clothes</a>, we’re being asked to believe something to be true despite strong evidence to the contrary. </p>
<h2>The Emperor’s unrobing</h2>
<p>The new plans follow on from last year’s release of an <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/marinereservesreview/home">independent review</a>, commissioned by the Abbott government after <a href="http://www.smh.com.au/environment/marine-reserves-ditched-despite-tide-of-research-20140825-1083js.html">suspending</a> the <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/topics/marine/marine-reserves/overview/resources">previous network of marine reserves</a> implemented under Julia Gillard in 2012.</p>
<p>Yet the latest draft plans, which propose to gut the network of green zones, ignore many of the recommendations made in the review, which was itself an erosion of the suspended 2012 plans.</p>
<p>The extent of green zones is crucial, because the <a href="http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v506/n7487/full/nature13022.html?foxtrotcallback=true">science says</a> they are the engine room of conservation. Fully protected marine national parks – with no fishing, no mining, and no oil and gas drilling – deliver far more benefits to biodiversity than other zone types. </p>
<p>The <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/conl.12247/abstract">best estimates</a> suggest that 30-40% of the seascape should ideally be fully protected, rather than the 20% proposed under the new plans.</p>
<p>Partially protected areas, such as the yellow zones that allow fishing while protecting the seabed, do not generate conservation benefits equivalent to those of full protection.</p>
<p>While some studies suggest that partial protection is <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/faf.12044/abstract">better than nothing</a>, others suggest that these zones offer <a href="http://www.int-res.com/articles/meps2008/367/m367p049.pdf">little to no improvement</a> relative to areas fully open to exploitation. </p>
<p>Environment minister Josh Frydenberg has pointed out that, under the new plans, the total area zoned as either green or yellow will rise from 60% to 63% compared with the 2012 network. But yellow is not the new green. What’s more, yellow zones have <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1755-263X.2011.00171.x/abstract">similar management costs</a> to green zones, which means that the government is proposing to spend the same amount of money for far inferior protection. And as any decent sex-ed teacher will tell you, partial protection is a risky business.</p>
<h2>What do the draft plans mean?</h2>
<p>Let’s take a couple of examples, starting with the <a href="https://parksaustralia.gov.au/marine/pub/draft-plans/coral-sea-draft-management-plan-2017.pdf">Coral Sea Marine Park</a>. This is perhaps the most disappointing rollback in the new draft plan. The green zone, which would have been one of the largest fully protected areas on the planet, has been reduced by half to allow for fishing activity in a significantly expanded yellow zone.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/179316/original/file-20170723-28478-1lc3sey.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/179316/original/file-20170723-28478-1lc3sey.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/179316/original/file-20170723-28478-1lc3sey.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=266&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/179316/original/file-20170723-28478-1lc3sey.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=266&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/179316/original/file-20170723-28478-1lc3sey.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=266&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/179316/original/file-20170723-28478-1lc3sey.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/179316/original/file-20170723-28478-1lc3sey.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/179316/original/file-20170723-28478-1lc3sey.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Coral Sea Marine Park zoning, as recommended by Independent Review (left) and in the new draft plan (right), showing the proposed expansion of partial protection (yellow) vs full protection (green).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">From http://www.environment.gov.au/marinereservesreview/reports and https://parksaustralia.gov.au/marine/management/draft-plans/</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This yellow zone would allow the use of <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/resources/629be75b-5c16-4d6e-944e-c104ee312ac6/files/fishing-risk-assessment.pdf">pelagic longlines</a> to fish for tuna. This is despite <a href="http://www.afma.gov.au/fisheries/eastern-tuna-and-billfish-fishery-page/">government statistics</a> showing that around 30% of the catch in the Eastern Tuna and Billfish fishery consists of species that are either overexploited or uncertain in their sustainability, and the government’s <a href="https://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/resources/629be75b-5c16-4d6e-944e-c104ee312ac6/files/fishing-risk-assessment.pdf">own risk assessment</a> that found these types of fishing lines are incompatible with conservation. </p>
<p>What this means, in effect, is that the plans to establish a world-class marine park in the Coral Sea will be significantly undermined for the sake of saving commercial tuna fishers A$4.1 million per year, or <a href="http://www.joshfrydenberg.com.au/guest/mediaReleasesDetails.aspx?id=394">0.3% of the total revenue</a> from Australia’s wild-catch fisheries. </p>
<p>Contrast this with the <a href="https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/au/Documents/Economics/deloitte-au-economics-great-barrier-reef-230617.pdf">A$6.4 billion</a> generated by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park in 2015-16, the majority of which comes from non-extractive industries.</p>
<p>This same erosion of protection is also proposed in Western Australia, where the government’s draft plan would reduce green zones by 43% across the <a href="https://parksaustralia.gov.au/marine/management/draft-plans/">largest marine parks</a> in the region.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/179320/original/file-20170723-28483-16vxtzl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/179320/original/file-20170723-28483-16vxtzl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/179320/original/file-20170723-28483-16vxtzl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=189&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/179320/original/file-20170723-28483-16vxtzl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=189&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/179320/original/file-20170723-28483-16vxtzl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=189&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/179320/original/file-20170723-28483-16vxtzl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=237&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/179320/original/file-20170723-28483-16vxtzl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=237&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/179320/original/file-20170723-28483-16vxtzl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=237&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Zoning for the Gascoyne Marine Park as recommended by the Independent Review (left) and the new draft plan (right).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">http://www.environment.gov.au/marinereservesreview/reports and https://parksaustralia.gov.au/marine/management/draft-plans/</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Again, this is despite clear evidence that the fishing activities occurring in these areas are not compatible with conservation. Such proposals also ignore future pressures such as deep-sea mining.</p>
<p>The overall effect is summarised neatly by <a href="http://www.joshfrydenberg.com.au/guest/mediaReleasesDetails.aspx?id=394">Frydenberg’s statement</a> that the government’s plans will: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>…increase the total area of the reserves open to fishing from 64% to 80% … (and) make 97% of waters within 100 kilometres of the coast open for recreational fishing. </p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Building ocean resilience</h2>
<p>Science shows that full protection creates resilience by supporting intact ecosystems. Fully protected green zones recover faster from <a href="https://theconversation.com/marine-reserves-saved-coral-reefs-from-queensland-floods-26053">flooding</a> and <a href="http://www.wri.org/chagos-archipelago-case-study-rapid-reef-recovery">coral bleaching</a>, have reduced rates of <a href="https://theconversation.com/banning-fishing-has-helped-parts-of-the-great-barrier-reef-recover-from-damage-55828">disease</a>, and fend off <a href="https://theconversation.com/marine-reserves-help-fish-resist-climate-change-invaders-20960">climate invaders</a> more effectively than areas that are open to fishing. </p>
<p>Green zones also contribute indirectly to the blue economy. They help <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms3347">support fisheries</a> and function as <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982212003958">“nurseries” for fish larvae</a>. For commercial fisheries, these sanctuaries are more important than ever in view of the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms10244">declines in global catches since we hit “peak fish” in 1996</a>. </p>
<p>Of course it is important to balance conservation with sustainable economic use of our oceans. Yet the government’s new draft plan leaves a huge majority of Australia’s waters open to business as usual. It’s a brave Emperor who thinks this will protect our oceans. </p>
<p>So let’s put some real clothes on the Emperor and create a network of marine protection that supports our blue economy and is backed by science.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/81391/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jessica Meeuwig has received funding from the National Environmental Science Programme and the Ian Potter Foundation in relation to understanding offshore marine protected areas.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Booth has received funding from the Australia Research Council. He is affiliated with Australian Coral Reef Society and Australian Marine Science Association </span></em></p>The government aims to dramatically reduce the areas offered full protection and expand zones where fishing is allowed, while also claiming that this will still deliver good conservation.Jessica Meeuwig, Professor & Director, Marine Futures Lab, The University of Western AustraliaDavid Booth, Professor of Marine Ecology, University of Technology SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/652242016-10-27T19:09:09Z2016-10-27T19:09:09ZChanges to Australia’s marine reserves leave our oceans unprotected<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/143412/original/image-20161027-11239-15k8nbo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Marlin are one of the prized fish in Australia's oceans. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Marlin image from www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Ocean health relies on a strong backbone of protection and management. Marine reserves can be part of the solution, but only if they’re constructed in the right way. <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/marinereservesreview/home">Recent recommendations on Australia’s marine reserves</a> would leave more ocean unprotected. </p>
<p>Marine reserves are a mix of multiple-use zones that allow activities such as mining and fishing, and highly-protected zones called marine national parks that are free of extractive activities. These marine national parks are the gold standard for protecting our oceans. Globally, <a href="http://www.mpatlas.org/">less than 1%</a> of the world’s oceans are fully protected in no-take marine national parks or their equivalents. </p>
<p>Australia is currently deciding how much of its ocean territory it will place in marine national parks and where. To this end, the government recently released its <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/marinereservesreview/home">commissioned review</a> of Australia’s Commonwealth Marine Reserve Network. </p>
<p>Such a review is welcome as Australia has yet to provide <a href="https://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/resources/ef577ee6-e36e-4435-adf9-cbb5600728a3/files/nrsmpa-principles.pdf">comprehensive, adequate and representative</a> protection for its oceans. This is despite the general recognition within the Australian community that <a href="http://www.marinescience.net.au/blue-economy/">economic growth</a> depends on a healthy and properly functioning environment.</p>
<p>Marine national parks play a fundamental role in contributing to ocean ecosystem function and provide a means to assess the health of areas outside of these zones that are open to greater use by humans.</p>
<p>This understanding of the interdependence of how we protect and sustainably use our oceans is, unfortunately, largely missing from the review’s recommendations.</p>
<h2>The gold standard</h2>
<p>In early 2016 the <a href="http://oceansciencecouncil.org/">Ocean Science Council of Australia</a> (OSCA) prepared a <a href="http://oceansciencecouncil.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/OSCA-CMR-Review-2016_02_04-FINAL.pdf">scientific analysis</a> aimed at helping define what Australia’s marine reserves should deliver. </p>
<p>Based on hundreds of peer-reviewed publications and myriad international consensus statements from researchers on the need for strong ocean protection, the Council concluded that science-based decisions and actions should:</p>
<p>(1) Prevent fishing, mining and other extractive activities on at least 30% of each marine habitat, according to the <a href="https://portals.iucn.org/congress/motion/053">international standard for ocean protection</a> to deliver protection of both biodiversity and ecosystem services</p>
<p>(2) Improve representation of marine national parks in bioregions (regions of the ocean defined by particular species and climate) and <a href="https://www.environment.gov.au/sprat-public/action/kef/search">key ecological features</a> (such as the continental shelf and offshore reefs) that were already under-represented in the 2012 marine reserve plans</p>
<p>(3) Build and maintain large, contiguous, highly-protected marine national parks in regions such as the Coral Sea</p>
<p>(4) Quantify the benefits of Australia’s marine reserves so as to make their value to Australia clearer.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/143408/original/image-20161027-11256-1pafgts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/143408/original/image-20161027-11256-1pafgts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/143408/original/image-20161027-11256-1pafgts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=431&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/143408/original/image-20161027-11256-1pafgts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=431&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/143408/original/image-20161027-11256-1pafgts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=431&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/143408/original/image-20161027-11256-1pafgts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=542&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/143408/original/image-20161027-11256-1pafgts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=542&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/143408/original/image-20161027-11256-1pafgts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=542&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">We need to monitor and study our ocean ecosystems to understand how they work.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">David Booth</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What the review says</h2>
<p>The government review reflects science and community concerns in some respects, recommending for instance that more bioregions have at least one marine national park. This review also recommends more protection for some important coral reefs and there is an expansion of protection from mining in some areas.</p>
<p>Most importantly, the review recognises the fundamental role of highly-protected marine national park zones in the conservation of species and ecosystems. As a corollary of this, the review also recognises that “partial protection” zones within reserves are primarily used to address narrow sector-based concerns such as fishing, and result in reduced conservation outcomes (as reviewed <a href="http://www.int-res.com/abstracts/meps/v367/p49-56/">here</a> and <a href="https://environmentalevidencejournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/2047-2382-2-4">here</a>). </p>
<p>It requires explanation therefore that the review mostly fails to recommend zoning changes consistent with its own findings on the science. In comparison with the <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/fed/catalog/search/resource/details.page?uuid=%7B2E8DD19C-1B93-4D90-BD1C-128DDC4A2998%7D">2013 recommended zoning</a>, the <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/fed/catalog/search/resource/details.page?uuid=%7B9A273DA2-9D3A-49F8-A158-A1A9A319C505%7D">review’s recommended zoning</a> would: </p>
<p>(1) Remove a total of 127,000 square kilometres of marine national park from the overall network, an area 1.9 times the size of Tasmania, with a net loss of 76,000 sq km</p>
<p>(2) Reduce by 25% the contiguous Coral Sea marine national park</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/142856/original/image-20161024-26504-r42j87.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/142856/original/image-20161024-26504-r42j87.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/142856/original/image-20161024-26504-r42j87.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/142856/original/image-20161024-26504-r42j87.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/142856/original/image-20161024-26504-r42j87.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/142856/original/image-20161024-26504-r42j87.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=534&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/142856/original/image-20161024-26504-r42j87.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=534&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/142856/original/image-20161024-26504-r42j87.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=534&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Changes to Coral Sea marine national park proposed by review. Map generated from shape files provided by the Department of the Environment.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>(3) Demote 18 areas from marine national park zones to varying forms of partial protection</p>
<p>(4) Shift the location of some marine national parks from the continental shelf to offshore areas as a way of maintaining cover but further eroding representation and indeed reducing protection on the shelf where it is most needed. </p>
<p>Overall, the review’s recommendations would see only approximately 13% of Australia’s Exclusive Economic Zone protected in marine national parks. This falls well below the recommended international standard of at least 30% of habitats being under <a href="https://portals.iucn.org/congress/motion/053">high protection</a>, or indeed higher levels as recently <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/conl.12247/full">determined</a>.</p>
<h2>Smoke and mirrors</h2>
<p>The recommendations in the review are tainted by a feeling of smoke and mirrors. While some of the review’s authors suggest that their recommendations would <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-story-behind-australias-marine-reserves-and-how-we-should-change-them-65220">increase protection</a>, there would indeed be a net loss of highly-protected zones should these recommendations be adopted by the government. </p>
<p>Under the review’s recommendations, Australia would do a great job of protecting the deep water abyss, but achieve little to protect ocean wildlife on the continental shelf where human pressures are highest. This out-of-sight-out-of-mind approach does not address the principles of marine conservation and also departs from recommendations from the research community.</p>
<p>Australian marine national parks are too-often relegated to <a href="https://theconversation.com/australias-new-marine-protected-areas-why-they-wont-work-11469">residual areas</a> of relatively little conservation value simply because these areas are of little value to commercial interests.</p>
<p>The significant erosion of protection in the <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-coral-sea-an-ocean-jewel-that-needs-more-protection-65219">Coral Sea</a> is further evidence of this failure. Much of the erosion of this important reserve reflects a shift from full protection to partial protection in order to open up more ocean to tuna fishing. </p>
<p>The 25% reduction in large marine national park would increase tuna catch and value by 8-10% across the fishery, worth a mere <a href="https://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/pages/23061bf8-df19-4b74-b867-5a57ccbc5c8b/files/commercial-fishing-displacement-panel-recommended-zoning-scheme-abares.pdf">A$26,376</a> to individual tuna fishers. This recommendation fails both the science and the economic test. </p>
<h2>Where to from here?</h2>
<p>The changes recommended by the review in many cases appear to prioritise economic benefits, no matter how trivial, over conservation. This is despite conservation being the core reason behind the marine reserves.</p>
<p>This stands in stark contrast to international moves towards protection of large areas of the ocean as a response to ongoing declines in ocean health. </p>
<p>Key examples of such large-scale protection are US President Barack Obama’s recent expansion of the <a href="http://www.papahanaumokuakea.gov/">Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument</a> over the North West Hawaiian Islands and New Zealand Prime Minister John Key’s declaration of the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/sep/29/new-zealands-new-ocean-sanctuary-will-be-one-of-worlds-largest-protected-areas">Kermadec Marine Sanctuary</a> in New Zealand’s waters.</p>
<p>Australia still has a major opportunity to protect and secure its marine ecosystems and make a significant contribution to global ocean conservation. At the same time we can develop important economic activities such as fishing and mining. Large and well-managed areas are going to become more important, not less, as climate change intensifies. </p>
<p>This will require the federal government to acknowledge and build on the global body of science and create a backbone of representative marine national parks. This will include retention of the Coral Sea’s high level protection and resisting the temptation to shift of marine national parks offshore. At a time of great environmental change, these moves are not just important, but urgent.</p>
<p><em>This is a contribution from the <a href="http://oceansciencecouncil.org/">Ocean Science Council of Australia</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/65224/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jessica Meeuwig receives funding from a range of government and philanthropic organisations to support primary research on the state of our oceans and their response to management. She is a member of the Ocean Science Council of Australia.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Craig Johnson receives funding from the Australian Research Council and several other research providers to work on elucidating and predicting marine ecosystem dynamics, how these dynamics are influenced by human activity, and the spatial distribution of marine species and diversity. He works at the Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies (IMAS) at the University of Tasmania, and is a member of the Ocean Sciences Council of Australia (OSCA).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Booth is affiliated with the Australian coral Reef Society and OSCA. He has received funding from the Australia Research Council for research into coral and fish dynamics on the Great Barrier Reef.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Professor Hoegh-Guldberg undertakes research on coral reef ecosystems and their response to rapid environmental change, which is supported primarily by the Australian Research Council (Canberra), National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (Washington, D.C.), Catlin Group (London), and Great Barrier Reef Foundation (Brisbane). He not receive salary for writing this article.</span></em></p>Australia’s oceans would be less protected under recent recommendations.Jessica Meeuwig, Professor & Director, Centre for Marine Futures, The University of Western AustraliaCraig Johnson, Professor, University of TasmaniaDavid Booth, Professor of Marine Ecology, University of Technology SydneyOve Hoegh-Guldberg, Director, Global Change Institute, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/652192016-10-05T19:16:38Z2016-10-05T19:16:38ZThe Coral Sea: an ocean jewel that needs more protection<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/140460/original/image-20161005-14208-1o63xy1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A booby family on a sandy cay in the Coral Sea</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Daniela Ceccarelli</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>The federal government is considering changes to Australia’s marine reserves to implement a national system. This week The Conversation is looking at the science behind marine reserves and how to protect our oceans.</em></p>
<p>Off Australia’s northeastern coastline, extending eastwards from the outer edge of the Great Barrier Reef, is a vast extent of ocean known as <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780124080966000043">the Coral Sea</a>.</p>
<p>Almost a million square kilometres of the Coral Sea is within Australian waters, making up one of six regions used for planning national networks of marine reserves. Unlike the other regions, virtually all of the Coral Sea is within <a href="https://www.environment.gov.au/topics/marine/marine-reserves/coral-sea">a single reserve</a>. </p>
<p>On the face of it, this should encourage people who are concerned with conservation of marine biodiversity. But, as often happens, the devil is in the detail. </p>
<p>The effectiveness of the reserve hinges on its internal zones – subdivisions that vary in the uses and activities they allow. So “protected” is a slippery concept. Just how protected the Coral Sea is depends on where and how large the different zones are. </p>
<p>The <a href="http://www.parksaustralia.gov.au/marine/review/reports.html">review of Commonwealth marine reserves</a>, released earlier this month, recommended changes to the zoning arrangements put in place when the network was declared in 2012, but not for the better.</p>
<h2>A world-class sea</h2>
<p>The Coral Sea is almost entirely open ocean, reaching depths of more than 4,000m. Scattered through this expanse of deep blue are important patches of coral and rock: cays and islets, 30 atoll systems with shallow-water and <a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00338-011-0725-7?LI=true">low-light coral reefs</a>, and <a href="http://deepreef.org/images/stories/publications/conference-proceedings/ColdwaterCoralGBR_Deepsea2008.pdf">seamounts and pinnacles</a> supporting <a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12526-015-0434-5">deep-sea</a>, cold-water ecosystems.</p>
<p>The global significance of the Coral Sea for marine biodiversity – including corals, fish, turtles, seabirds, and whales - has been <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780124080966000043">reviewed recently</a>, but new discoveries continue. </p>
<p>Recent exploration of the <a href="http://www.palaeontologie.geo.uni-muenchen.de/DDU/">deep slopes</a> of Coral Sea atolls has found unique and previously undocumented biodiversity, such as <a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00338-011-0802-y?LI=true">precious corals and glass sponges</a>. Many of these species are “<a href="http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/news/2016/01/secrets-of-the-coral-sea-revealed">living fossils</a>”, now restricted to the deep, dark waters of the Coral Sea. </p>
<p>The southern Coral Sea is also a <a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/100/17/9884.short">global hotspot for predators</a>. The protection of large predatory species such as sharks and marlin is particularly important, given their key roles in open ocean ecosystems and the <a href="http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v423/n6937/abs/nature01610.html">massive worldwide decline</a> of these animals at the hands of industrialised fishing.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/140461/original/image-20161005-14243-asu3d4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/140461/original/image-20161005-14243-asu3d4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/140461/original/image-20161005-14243-asu3d4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140461/original/image-20161005-14243-asu3d4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140461/original/image-20161005-14243-asu3d4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140461/original/image-20161005-14243-asu3d4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=460&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140461/original/image-20161005-14243-asu3d4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=460&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140461/original/image-20161005-14243-asu3d4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=460&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Coral Sea is a global hotspot for marine predators.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Daniela Ceccarelli</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The Coral Sea’s remoteness does not make it immune from human impacts. Some fishing methods alter the structure and composition of seabed ecosystems. <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308597X14003546">Globally</a> and in <a href="http://www.afma.gov.au/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/ETBF-ERM-Feb-2012.pdf">eastern Australia</a>, pelagic long-lining takes a large toll in bycatch (non-target fish that are discarded, often dead, including shark species listed as vulnerable). </p>
<p>Many reefs in the Coral Sea are open to line fishing, which is known to <a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/107/43/18278.full?sid=ac4f4508-e4e9-45d4-8496-945ca17c119a">deplete target populations</a> and adversely affect <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1890/14-1952.1/full">corals</a> in the neighbouring Great Barrier Reef. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/2016-coral-bleaching-event-26991">2016 coral bleaching event</a> that affected 93% of the Great Barrier Reef also caused significant death on reefs in the northern and central Coral Sea.</p>
<p>The importance and vulnerability of the Coral Sea call for well-planned protection. That protection should also be precautionary - where impacts are unknown or uncertain we should increase protection, or at least not put marine ecosystems at risk. This is one of the explicit principles of marine planning in Australia. </p>
<p>Commercial and recreational fishing present ecological risks that need to be managed carefully. Precaution is also called for because most parts of the Coral Sea, even those in relatively shallow water, are still largely unexplored, with the discovery of new species likely.</p>
<h2>The Coral Sea reserve</h2>
<p>In November 2012, the Labor federal government announced massive increases to Australia’s marine reserves, including large additions to existing smaller reserves in the Coral Sea. The zoning of the Coral Sea Marine Reserve that resulted was typical of the larger picture. </p>
<p>Zones that prohibited fishing (“no-take” zones, shown in green in the left-hand map below) were mostly far offshore in very deep waters where little or no fishing occurred.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/140436/original/image-20161005-15889-x3x1g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/140436/original/image-20161005-15889-x3x1g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/140436/original/image-20161005-15889-x3x1g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=316&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140436/original/image-20161005-15889-x3x1g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=316&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140436/original/image-20161005-15889-x3x1g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=316&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140436/original/image-20161005-15889-x3x1g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140436/original/image-20161005-15889-x3x1g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140436/original/image-20161005-15889-x3x1g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Coral Sea zones as established (left) and recommended by the review (right)</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Zones that protected the marine environment from open ocean long-lining were placed in areas where <a href="http://www.colinhunt.com.au/files/9413/8246/9841/Published_article_saved_pdf.pdf">little or no long-lining</a> occurred. Most reefs, cays and seamounts remained open to fishing. So did the world’s only known black marlin spawning aggregation. </p>
<p>Overall, the no-take zones were strongly “<a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/aqc.2445/full">residual</a>” – placed in areas left over from commercial and recreational uses, and least in need of protection – rather than designed to mitigate known threats. </p>
<p>The approach could be described as “business as usual”, with priority given to existing uses and conservation coming a poor second.</p>
<h2>The Coral Sea reserve, take two</h2>
<p>Following a backlash against the new marine reserves by <a href="http://theconversation.com/government-review-supports-australias-marine-reserves-now-its-time-to-move-on-64884">commercial and recreational fishing interests</a> the then opposition leader Tony Abbott fished for votes by promising to review the reserves. </p>
<p>Just over a year after they were established, the new reserves were “re-proclaimed” by the Coalition government, effectively rendering them empty outlines on the map. The strength of the <a href="http://saveourmarinelife.org.au/resources/fact-sheet-coral-sea-mythbuster-2/">pushback</a> against the reserves was perplexing, given that they were obviously designed to have <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/aqc.2445/full">minimal effect on fishing</a> and no effect on extraction of oil and gas.</p>
<p>Before the release of <a href="http://www.parksaustralia.gov.au/marine/review/reports.html">the review</a>, a cynic might have predicted, given <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/aug/26/marine-life-fishing-coalition-review">statements</a> when the review began, that the process was intended to convert a largely residual reserve system into a completely residual one. As it happens, that is close to what has been recommended for the Coral Sea.</p>
<p>A major feature of the recommended zoning is a reduction of no-take by more than 93,000km², or 9.3% of the Coral Sea Marine Reserve (no-take zones, or national park, now cover 40% of the reserve). No-take zoning is now even more strongly concentrated in remote, deep water where it will make even less difference to fishing than before. </p>
<p>The panel recommended new no-take zones in areas next to those in the central and southern Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, but large parts of the same region in the Coral Sea are proposed to be reopened to demersal trawling.</p>
<p>Some reefs have less protection than before, and some have more. Notably, two of the most <a href="http://www.hsi.org.au/editor/assets/marine_conservation/082011%20Australias%20Coral%20Sea_%20A%20Biophysical%20Profile%20by%20marine%20ecologist%20Dr%20%20Daniela%20Ceccarelli.pdf">important reefs</a> in the Coral Sea – Osprey and Marion – are partly open to fishing and partly no-take. Split zones are known to pose <a href="https://mcbi.marine-conservation.org/publications/pub_pdfs/Day_2002.pdf">problems for compliance</a> and are typically avoided in conservation planning. Fishing on Osprey could also compromise its value as a globally significant dive destination, specifically for its sharks and pelagic fish.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/140463/original/image-20161005-14208-4eal7s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/140463/original/image-20161005-14208-4eal7s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/140463/original/image-20161005-14208-4eal7s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140463/original/image-20161005-14208-4eal7s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140463/original/image-20161005-14208-4eal7s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140463/original/image-20161005-14208-4eal7s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=548&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140463/original/image-20161005-14208-4eal7s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=548&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140463/original/image-20161005-14208-4eal7s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=548&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A giant trevally in the Coral Sea.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Daniela Ceccarelli</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There are net increases in areas open to gear types known to pose ecological risks: sea floor longlines (2,400km² of the reserve, including the Fraser Seamount), sea floor trawl (26,300km²), and open sea long-lining (269,000km²). These changes appear inconsistent with advice on ecological risks. </p>
<p>The <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/pages/23061bf8-df19-4b74-b867-5a57ccbc5c8b/files/cmrreviewbioregionaladvisorypanelreportfinalchapter45.pdf">Bioregional Advisory Panel for the Coral Sea</a> found that seafloor long-lining is incompatible with the conservation values of the Coral Sea Marine Reserve, particularly on seamounts. </p>
<p>Two target species for open sea long-lining are either <a href="http://www.afma.gov.au/fisheries/eastern-tuna-and-billfish-fishery-page/">overfished or at risk of overfishing</a>, and this fishery poses a <a href="http://www.afma.gov.au/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/ETBF-ERM-Feb-2012.pdf">high risk</a> for whales, sharks, and turtles.</p>
<p>When evidence was limiting, it appears that the Expert Scientific Panel placed the burden of proof on the environment, not on commercial and recreational users. </p>
<h2>Protecting the Coral Sea from what?</h2>
<p>Protected areas are meant to protect biodiversity from threats to its survival. Why bother saying that? </p>
<p>Because the 2012 marine reserves made almost no difference to activities threatening marine biodiversity. There is a key difference between protection, which stops threats from affecting species and ecosystems, and re-badging large tracts of ocean in ways that make no difference. </p>
<p>At least for the Coral Sea, the proposed new zones involve further re-badging but less overall protection. A similar mentality appears to underlie both the 2012 and recommended zonings: marine protected areas are good things to have, providing they don’t get in the way of socioeconomic interests.</p>
<p>While the new zones largely failed to protect the Coral Sea’s biodiversity, the review’s <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/pages/23061bf8-df19-4b74-b867-5a57ccbc5c8b/files/cmrreviewexpertscientificpanelreportfinal.pdf">Expert Scientific Panel</a> favourably assessed the “performance” of the Coral Sea Marine Reserve in ways that are simply uninformative and distracting. </p>
<p>For instance, one of the measures used by the review is the number of conservation features (such as seafloor types) in reserves. This measure is misleading in three ways: many of the represented features don’t need protection, others are affected to varying, but unstated, degrees by fishing, and we don’t know how much of each feature needs protection.</p>
<p>At the core of systematic conservation planning, which is widely accepted as the most effective way of designing reserve systems, are <a href="http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v405/n6783/full/405243a0.html">quantitative objectives</a> for features, preferably reflecting ecosystem structure and function, scaled to reflect <a href="http://www.cell.com/trends/ecology-evolution/abstract/S0169-5347(07)00280-7">levels of threat</a>. But these objectives were notably absent from the assessment of performance of the Coral Sea Marine Reserve, and from the review process that recommended the new zones. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/140464/original/image-20161005-14243-1ktazaf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/140464/original/image-20161005-14243-1ktazaf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/140464/original/image-20161005-14243-1ktazaf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140464/original/image-20161005-14243-1ktazaf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140464/original/image-20161005-14243-1ktazaf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140464/original/image-20161005-14243-1ktazaf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140464/original/image-20161005-14243-1ktazaf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140464/original/image-20161005-14243-1ktazaf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Fish gather over reefs in the Coral Sea.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Daniela Ceccarelli</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>How to do things better</h2>
<p>Better planning for the Coral Sea would move beyond the qualitative goals and principles advocated by the <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/pages/23061bf8-df19-4b74-b867-5a57ccbc5c8b/files/cmrreviewexpertscientificpanelreportfinal.pdf">Expert Scientific Panel</a>, which can be readily interpreted to favour economic considerations over conservation. </p>
<p>Because of the global significance of the Coral Sea and uncertainty around the actual risks posed by fishing, effective planning would be truly precautionary, prioritising the persistence of biodiversity where there is doubt. It would also engage with managers and governments in adjacent marine regions to limit cross-boundary threats. </p>
<p>The amount of protection needed for species and other conservation features, including <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ecog.01450/full">types of open sea</a> and <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780124080966000043">other significant habitats</a>, would be identified quantitatively by experts on marine biodiversity, considering distinctiveness, threats, and reliance on Australian waters for their persistence. </p>
<p>Those conservation objectives would be achieved by a mix of zones that varied levels of protection from place to place and perhaps seasonally to limit the adverse effects of fishing and other extractive activities. The relative contributions of those zones to each objective would be assessed and put into the mix.</p>
<p>Such an explicit approach was a major reason for the lasting, worldwide recognition of the Great Barrier Reef <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2005.00302.x/full">rezoning in 2004</a>, but has been avoided elsewhere in Commonwealth waters to maximise flexibility for extractive interests. </p>
<p>And finally, effective planning would acknowledge that no-take zones in areas with no fishing make no contribution to conservation.</p>
<hr>
<p>*<em>Update: this article has been updated to clarify the use of conservation features in measuring reserve performance</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/65219/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bob Pressey receives funding from the Australian Research Council and is a member of WWF Australia's Eminent Scientists Group. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span><a href="mailto:tjward@bigpond.net.au">tjward@bigpond.net.au</a> is affiliated with Seafood Watch, USA. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alana Grech does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The marine reserves review has recommended major changes to the Coral Sea, but not for the better.Bob Pressey, Professor and Program Leader, Conservation Planning, ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook UniversityAlana Grech, Senior lecturer, Macquarie UniversityTrevor J Ward, Adjunct professor, University of Technology SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/662742016-10-03T19:15:44Z2016-10-03T19:15:44ZMarine parks and fishery management: what’s the best way to protect fish?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/140033/original/image-20161003-15278-1txbgdk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Closing parts of the ocean to fishing displaces fishers to other areas. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Tuna image from www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>The federal government is considering changes to Australia’s marine reserves to implement a national system. This week The Conversation is looking at the science behind marine reserves and how to protect our oceans.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>While academics often focus on biodiversity objectives for marine parks, the public and political debate tends to come down to one thing: fishing. </p>
<p>When former federal MP <a href="http://www.smh.com.au/federal-politics/political-opinion/with-barely-one-vote-to-spare-marine-reserve-patchwork-was-saved-20130610-2nzvy.html">Rob Oakeshott cast one of the deciding votes</a> in support of the Commonwealth marine parks plan in 2013, he explained that he believed they <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2013-06-04/coalition-motion-to-kill-off-marine-reserve-parks-fails/4733306">benefit fisheries</a>. The federal government has also emphasised the <a href="https://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/resources/5eaad4f9-e8e0-45d1-b889-83648c7b2ceb/files/benefits-mpas.pdf">benefit of marine parks to fisheries production</a>. </p>
<p>There’s also an academic debate. When a study showed that the <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1890/14-1427.1/full">Great Barrier Reef marine park had harmed fisheries production</a>, there was a <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1890/15-0457/full">passionate response from other experts</a>. This is despite advocates arguing that reserves are primarily about biodiversity conservation, rather than fishing production. </p>
<p>Clearly, fishing is a hot issue for marine parks. So what does the science say?</p>
<h2>How do marine parks protect fish?</h2>
<p>The proposed benefits to fisheries from marine parks include: protection or insurance against overfishing; “spillover”, where larvae or juveniles from the parks move out and increase the overall production; habitat protection from damaging fishing gear; and managing the ecosystem effects of fishing such as resilience against climate change.</p>
<p>Marine parks regulate activities, mainly fishing, within a specified area. They come in a variety of categories. Some allow fishing, but the most contentious are “no-take” marine parks.</p>
<p>Fishery managers also sometimes close areas of the ocean to fishing. This is different to how no-take marine parks work in two ways: the legislative authority is different (being through fisheries rather than environmental legislation); and the closures usually target a specific fishery, whereas no-take marine parks usually ban all fishing.</p>
<p>Fishery closures, rather than no-take marine parks, are usually applied to protect special areas for particular fish, such as spawning sites or nursery areas. They are also used to protect habitats, such as in the case of trawl closures, which allow the use of other gear such as longlines in the same location. </p>
<p>Fisheries legislation bans damaging fishing gear outright, while benign gears are allowed. In contrast, no-take marine parks tend to exclude all gear types.</p>
<h2>Displacing fishers</h2>
<p>Neither marine parks nor fishery closures regulate the amount of catch and fishing effort. They only control the location. Commercial fishers take most fish caught in Commonwealth waters and most of this is limited by catch quotas.</p>
<p>When a no-take marine park closes an area to fishing, fishers and their catch are displaced into other areas of the ocean. This occurs for all types of fishing, including recreational fishing. Recreational fishers displaced by marine parks don’t stop fishing, they just fish somewhere else – and the same number of fishers are squeezed into a smaller space. </p>
<p>Marine parks increase the intensity of fishing impacts across the wider coast, which is an uncomfortable outcome for marine park advocates. <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00288330.2005.9517344?needAccess=true&#aHR0cDovL3d3dy50YW5kZm9ubGluZS5jb20vZG9pL3BkZi8xMC4xMDgwLzAwMjg4MzMwLjIwMDUuOTUxNzM0ND9uZWVkQWNjZXNzPXRydWVAQEAw">Modelling of Victorian marine parks</a> showed that displaced catch would harm lobster stocks and associated ecosystems, and was counterproductive to their fishery management objective of rebuilding stock.</p>
<p>Because ecosystems don’t respond in predictable ways, depletion of fish stocks from the fishing displaced from marine parks could lead to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2793314/">severe ecosystem outcomes</a>. </p>
<p>For this reason, a second and separate management change is often needed after marine parks are declared, which is to reduce the number of fishers and fish caught to prevent risk of impacts from the park. </p>
<p>Controlling how many fish are caught (which is what traditional fisheries management does) has substantially more influence on overall fish abundance than controlling where fish are caught with parks, as <a href="http://www.cell.com/current-biology/abstract/S0960-9822(16)30344-X">shown recently on the Great Barrier Reef</a>.</p>
<h2>Public cost</h2>
<p>Commonwealth fisheries catch quotas are routinely reduced <a href="http://www.afma.gov.au/about/objectives-functions-powers/">if a fishery harms the sustainability of the marine environment</a>. There’s no compensation to fishers, so there’s no cost to the public, other than a possible reduced supply of fish. </p>
<p>Catches can also be reduced to manage fishing displaced by marine reserves and the outcome is identical except in terms of the public cost. Creation of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park led to over <a href="https://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/resources/4b3d907c-a200-40ce-88b0-c377c371357f/files/gbrmp-sap-review.doc">A$200 million in payments to displaced fishers</a>. <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/node/20736">Another publicly funded package</a> is planned for the Commonwealth marine reserves. </p>
<p>Marine parks also have high recurring public cost because boundaries need to be policed at sea. Catch quotas can be policed at the wharf, with <a href="http://www.afma.gov.au/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/Levy-Guide-2014-15.pdf">compliance costs fully recovered from industry</a>. </p>
<h2>Do marine parks help fish and fishers?</h2>
<p><a href="http://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms3347">Evidence of a benefit to fisheries</a> from marine parks is scarce. However, there are some clear examples of <a href="http://www.int-res.com/abstracts/meps/v384/p47-60/">fishing displacement that is so minor</a> that there has been an <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0073922">overall increase in fish</a> inside and outside the park. </p>
<p>These examples show that marine parks can sometimes benefit fish stocks, the fishery and also the overall marine ecosystem. However, these examples come from situations where traditional fishery management has not been applied to prevent overfishing.</p>
<p>This is consistent with modelling of marine parks that shows they only increase overall fish populations when there has been severe overfishing. This generally means that if there’s already <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0107032">effective traditional fisheries management</a>, marine reserves cannot benefit fish stocks and fisheries, or restock fish outside the reserve (spillover) (<a href="http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/abs/10.1139/f05-243">see also here</a>). </p>
<p>In jurisdictions where fisheries management is lacking, any regulation, including through marine reserves, is better than nothing. But this isn’t the situation with Australia’s Commonwealth fisheries where harvest strategies are used and <a href="http://www.agriculture.gov.au/abares/media-releases/2015/fishery-status-reports-released">overfishing has been eliminated</a>.</p>
<p>The conclusions from <a href="http://icesjms.oxfordjournals.org/content/66/1/122">modelling of marine reserves</a> mean that the areas of the reserves that limit fishing would be expected to reduce fishery production and harm our ability to contribute to global food security. </p>
<p>The Coral Sea marine reserve, in particular, represents an area with known large stocks of fish, especially tuna, that could be harvested sustainably. Limiting fishing in the Coral Sea eliminates any potential for these resources to help feed Australians or contribute to global food supplies. </p>
<p>The potential sustainable, ecologically acceptable harvest from the Coral Sea is unknown, so we don’t know the full scale of what’s being lost and how much the recent changes reduce this problem, although Papua New Guinea sustainably harvests 150,000-300,000 tonnes of tuna in its part of the sea.</p>
<p>Allowing fishing doesn’t mean the oceans aren’t protected. Existing fisheries management is already obliged to ensure fishing doesn’t affect <a href="http://www.afma.gov.au/about/objectives-functions-powers/">sustainability of the marine environment</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/66274/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Caleb Gardner has received funding from the Australian Research Council, the Fisheries Research and Development Corporation, the Australian Seafood CRC, and the Tasmanian Government to assess sustainability of fisheries, conduct research on fishery harvest systems and provide advice on improving fisheries sustainability. This includes research evaluating the effectiveness of fishery closures and marine parks. He is affiliated with the University of Tasmania and has participated or is participating in roles on committees that provide management advice to the Tasmanian, Victorian and Australian Commonwealth Government and fishing industry groups including the Tasmanian Lobster Fishermen's Association as a Director (unpaid research representative) of Southern Rock Lobster Ltd. </span></em></p>The public and political debate about marine reserves often comes down to one thing: fishing.Caleb Gardner, Principal Research Fellow, Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, University of TasmaniaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/548842016-02-23T19:04:21Z2016-02-23T19:04:21ZThe Great Barrier Reef faces a mixed future in acidifying oceans<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/112049/original/image-20160219-1274-p108km.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The Great Barrier Reef is made up of thousands of individual reefs. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/gsfc/5182094443/in/photolist-cQZbq5-ukfNhp-97XHGx-cipyLA-6FEunP-8L4Ae8-6z8wKk-8NtT54-aWehNF-8RNcKi-dR3NXB-czVKFW-dR4v9P-9go8E4-akJmN3-8TVA8V-eeiQ1b-qQmRxF-gZUt1U-3Wea31-xJn7Ke-sy5aEc-be67X-4nnqHb-wVc94B-4ninPK-4ninY6-4nnrCw-4nimSk-4noLhy-4noyAq-4njuV4-4njrLt-4nju2i-4njF7F-4njujg-4nnsSo-4noGnA-4nipGx-4njE2p-4nnt35-4noE8m-4noDLC-4noCYE-4njyb2-4noDsU-4njysc-4njAxD-4nntj3-4nnkph">NASA Goddard Space Flight Center/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Those of us who have been fortunate enough to have travelled to spectacular coral reefs marvel at their colour and biodiversity. </p>
<p>At around 2,000 km long, the Great Barrier Reef is the largest coral reef system in the world. It includes 3,581 individual reefs and an immense lagoon. But the likelihood of future generations being able to enjoy the beauty of the Great Barrier Reef is dwindling, as it <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/great-barrier-reef-threats-series">comes under increasing pressure</a> from the degradation of water quality and climate change.</p>
<p>Warming water is one of the greatest threats facing the reef in the long term. But what about another consequence of rising carbon dioxide, <a href="https://theconversation.com/global-warmings-evil-twin-ocean-acidification-19017">ocean acidification</a>? </p>
<p>When carbon dioxide dissolves in water it (slightly) increases the water’s acidity, or lowers its pH. This affects the ability of marine creatures such crustaceans, corals and coralline algae to build their skeletons. But exactly how it will affect the whole reef ecosystem is unknown. </p>
<p>In research published in Nature Communications, <a href="http://nature.com/articles/doi:10.1038/ncomms10732">we mapped parts of the reef that are most exposed to ocean acidification</a>. As you’d expect, there will be some regions more strongly affected than others, indicating where we might focus our efforts to preserve the reef. </p>
<h2>Building skeletons</h2>
<p>Conditions in the marine tropics are becoming less friendly for coral. Coral bleaching, cyclones, outbreaks of pest species and nutrient-impacted river run-off are now regular events that impact coral reef health. </p>
<p>What’s more, and perhaps more ominously, as the world’s oceans take up more carbon dioxide, it becomes harder for corals to secrete and maintain their calcium carbonate skeletons. While the exact response remains unknown, at some point thresholds will be reached at which dissolution exceeds calcification, leading to overall coral loss.</p>
<p>But ocean acidification doesn’t affect the whole reef equally. Corals change the chemistry of the seawater around them. In fact, corals are constantly building and dissolving their skeletons, taking up and releasing calcium carbonate into the water, thus increasing or lowering the pH.</p>
<p>The fine balance between these processes changes over the course of the day. Ocean circulation, as well as photosynthesis and respiration of other non-calcifying marine organisms, also determine the overall variability in pH of water above reefs, and therefore a coral’s ability to produce and maintain their structure.</p>
<p>While scientists have researched these effects on individual reefs, how do they play out on the thousands of reefs that make up the entire Great Barrier Reef? </p>
<p>To find the answer we used a new information system developed for the Great Barrier Reef. We found that some inshore reefs experience a lower pH now than is projected for offshore reefs in the future. </p>
<h2>Which reefs are most threatened?</h2>
<p>On the Great Barrier Reef, the ability for coral to build skeletons tends to decrease towards the coast. This is a consequence of the lower pH, and more nutrients, fresh water and sediment coming from the land.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/111914/original/image-20160218-1240-1ktsoow.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/111914/original/image-20160218-1240-1ktsoow.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/111914/original/image-20160218-1240-1ktsoow.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=778&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/111914/original/image-20160218-1240-1ktsoow.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=778&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/111914/original/image-20160218-1240-1ktsoow.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=778&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/111914/original/image-20160218-1240-1ktsoow.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=978&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/111914/original/image-20160218-1240-1ktsoow.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=978&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/111914/original/image-20160218-1240-1ktsoow.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=978&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">GBR Coral reef’s exposure to global ocean acidification, green reefs have some protection, white are neutral and red are already exposed.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">CSIRO</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But details of a more complex picture emerged from the study, highlighting the interaction between the thousands of reefs.</p>
<p>The outer reefs generally have Coral Sea water flowing over them, and for a thin band, especially in the north, their ability to build skeletons is actually driven by large scale oceanographic processes. But as the outer reef corals build their skeletons, the water flowing off them has lowered pH (more acidic). Circulation carries this water onto parts of the inner reefs, changing the average pH above their corals. </p>
<p>In other words, good coral health in the outer reefs, especially in the northern and southern regions, creates less favourable conditions for the mid lagoon central reefs. </p>
<h2>What can we do?</h2>
<p>While atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations are increasing, focus should shift to conserve parts of the Great Barrier Reef and its corals which can be achieved through changes in the way we manage the reef. The new map of pH on the Great Barrier Reef presents the exposure to ocean acidification on each of the 3,581 reefs, providing managers with the information they need to tailor management to individual reefs.</p>
<p>Thus we see the Great Barrier Reef is not a singular reef nor a physical barrier that prevents exchange between reefs; it is a mixture of thousands of productive reefs and shallow areas lying on a continental shelf with complex oceanic circulation. </p>
<p>We cannot treat the Great Barrier Reef as one entity. We cannot summarise the impact of global ocean acidification as one number, and we cannot have one management strategy (aside from cutting global carbon emissions) to protect it.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/54884/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mathieu Mongin receives funding from the CSIRO Oceans and Atmosphere, and through resources made available through the eReefs project and the CSIRO Marine and Coastal Carbon Biogeochemistry Cluster,</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrew Lenton receives funding from CSIRO Oceans and Atmosphere. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jennifer Skerratt receives funding from the CSIRO Oceans and Atmosphere, and through resources made available through the eReefs project </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span><a href="mailto:mark.baird@csiro.au">mark.baird@csiro.au</a> receives funding from the eReefs project, a public-private collaboration between Australia's leading operational and scientific research agencies, government, and corporate Australia</span></em></p>Ocean acidification will hurt some parts of the Great Barrier Reef more than others.Mathieu Mongin, Biogeochemical Modeller, CSIROAndrew Lenton, Senior Research Scientist, CSIRO Oceans and Atmosphere Flagship, CSIROJennifer Skerratt, Coastal and enivronmental modeller, CSIROMark Baird, Team leader, Coastal and Environmental Modelling, CSIROLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/44742011-11-25T22:13:39Z2011-11-25T22:13:39ZDoes the Coral Sea marine park proposal provide enough protection?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/5898/original/babasteve-jpg-1322225205.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The Coral Sea could soon become the world's largest marine park.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">babasteve</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The release of the <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/coasts/mbp/coralsea/consultation/index.html">Coral Sea Commonwealth marine reserve proposal</a> is a milestone achievement in marine protection.</p>
<p>The area proposed to be covered is larger than that of many small European nations. In fact, if it comes to fruition, it will be one of the largest marine parks on the planet.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/5897/original/coral-sea-islands-gif-1322224964.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/5897/original/coral-sea-islands-gif-1322224964.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=645&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/5897/original/coral-sea-islands-gif-1322224964.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=645&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/5897/original/coral-sea-islands-gif-1322224964.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=645&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/5897/original/coral-sea-islands-gif-1322224964.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=811&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/5897/original/coral-sea-islands-gif-1322224964.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=811&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/5897/original/coral-sea-islands-gif-1322224964.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=811&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But there is a caveat here: more than half of the marine reserve is not afforded full protection, with recreational fishing and some forms of commercial fishing to continue unabated. This is clearly a compromise to appease the recreational fishing lobby and to maintain some commercial fisheries.</p>
<p>It is <a href="http://www.fao.org/fishery/topic/12273/en">well supported scientifically</a> that fisheries extraction is a major threat to world fish populations. The selective removal of top predators — such as sharks, gropers and mackerels — may also indirectly affect whole ecosystems, so fishing needs to be managed closely.</p>
<p>In addition, while it is commendable that the fully protected “Marine National Park Zone” spans a huge range of latitudes, it has been relegated to the easternmost side of the reserve.</p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/5896/original/imagebloomfield-lodge-colyn-huber-jpg-1322224705.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/5896/original/imagebloomfield-lodge-colyn-huber-jpg-1322224705.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=980&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/5896/original/imagebloomfield-lodge-colyn-huber-jpg-1322224705.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=980&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/5896/original/imagebloomfield-lodge-colyn-huber-jpg-1322224705.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=980&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/5896/original/imagebloomfield-lodge-colyn-huber-jpg-1322224705.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1232&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/5896/original/imagebloomfield-lodge-colyn-huber-jpg-1322224705.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1232&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/5896/original/imagebloomfield-lodge-colyn-huber-jpg-1322224705.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1232&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The proposal has balanced conservation needs with those of the fishing industry.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Bloomfield Lodge/Colyn Huber</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This means a huge swag of ocean adjacent to the World Heritage listed <a href="http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/zoning-permits-and-plans/zoning/zoning-maps">Great Barrier Reef Marine Park</a>, and ocean containing critical spawning sites for black marlin, is poorly protected from key extractive threats. </p>
<p>Many marine organisms travel through zones and these “pathways of connectivity” mean the zoning of one region can affect the conservation performance of adjacent zones, even if the latter zone is fully protected.</p>
<p>In 2009 I travelled to the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wreck_Reefs">Wreck Reefs</a> in the southern section of the proposed new Coral Sea Marine Reserve. Under the proposal, this entire region would be a “multiple use zone” allowing many forms of recreational and commercial fishing.</p>
<p>I found Wreck Reefs to be in excellent condition — a pristine paradise of corals and associated fishes and invertebrates. In addition, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cay">cays</a> (sandy islands) supported abundant seabirds, and are of historical significance.</p>
<p>(At the start of the 19th century, <a href="http://anmm.wordpress.com/2009/12/04/wreck-reefs-expedition-history-of-the-area/">several vessels from Matthew Flinders’ fleet</a> were <a href="http://nla.gov.au/nla.pic-an4910322">wrecked</a> at Porpoise Reefs. <a href="http://www.sims.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2011/08/Newsletter-2010-02-23-page-1-62.pdf">Remnants of these vessels still exist today</a>.)</p>
<p><a href="http://environment.gov.au/coasts/mbp/coralsea/consultation/pubs/coralsea-map.pdf"><figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/5894/original/map-jpg-1322224014.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/5894/original/map-jpg-1322224014.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/5894/original/map-jpg-1322224014.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/5894/original/map-jpg-1322224014.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/5894/original/map-jpg-1322224014.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=531&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/5894/original/map-jpg-1322224014.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=531&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/5894/original/map-jpg-1322224014.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=531&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The proposed Commonwealth marine reserve (click for larger image)</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Commonwealth of Australia</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure></a></p>
<p>While fish life at the Wreck Reefs was plentiful at the time of my visit, populations of reef predators — such as gropers, snappers and mackerels — seemed depleted. I noted at the time that:</p>
<p>“It is likely that fishing pressure (charters mainly), coupled with isolation (reducing connectivity with other fish populations, and so lowering replenishment potential) are to blame, which is a sobering reminder that human influence extends into apparently pristine locations”.</p>
<p>The Commonwealth <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/coasts/mbp/coralsea/publications/pubs/coralsea-reserve-proposal.pdf">consultation paper</a> suggests the Wreck reefs are “shallow reef systems” that are “remote and relatively pristine”. I would argue these reefs may already have been negatively affected by human exploitation.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/5895/original/peter-nijenhuis-jpg-1322224345.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/5895/original/peter-nijenhuis-jpg-1322224345.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/5895/original/peter-nijenhuis-jpg-1322224345.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/5895/original/peter-nijenhuis-jpg-1322224345.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/5895/original/peter-nijenhuis-jpg-1322224345.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/5895/original/peter-nijenhuis-jpg-1322224345.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/5895/original/peter-nijenhuis-jpg-1322224345.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Coral Sea marine park proposal could do more to protect marine environments.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Peter Nijenuis</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Such isolated reefs probably have reduced linkages to sources of larvae on the Great Barrier Reef, and might therefore be more vulnerable to human interference and likely to recover more slowly.</p>
<p>Therefore, while I consider the Coral Sea Commonwealth marine reserve proposal to be a great step forward in marine biodiversity conservation, I would have preferred a higher level of protection in western and southern regions.</p>
<p>Rigorous monitoring of the performance of the new reserve will also be critical in evaluating its effectiveness. This won’t be a cheap exercise, given the isolation of the region, and at this stage, it’s unclear what resources and committment will be allocated to this task.</p>
<p><em>The Commonwealth marine reserve proposal for the Coral Sea has been released for public consultation. For more information about the proposal, visit the <a href="http://environment.gov.au/coasts/mbp/coralsea/index.html">Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities website</a>.</em></p>
<p><strong>Further reading:</strong></p>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://theconversation.com/commonwealth-proposes-coral-sea-marine-reserve-4471">Commonwealth proposes Coral Sea marine reserve</a></li>
</ul><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/4474/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Booth does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The release of the Coral Sea Commonwealth marine reserve proposal is a milestone achievement in marine protection. The area proposed to be covered is larger than that of many small European nations. In…David Booth, Professor of Marine Ecology, University of Technology SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.