tag:theconversation.com,2011:/africa/topics/cortisol-18361/articlesCortisol – The Conversation2023-10-19T15:18:36Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2159492023-10-19T15:18:36Z2023-10-19T15:18:36ZHitting snooze on your alarm might not actually make you more tired in the morning – new research<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554811/original/file-20231019-29-lm9pbr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=8%2C0%2C5982%2C3997&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">No need to worry if you like to hit 'snooze'. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/lazy-asian-young-woman-trying-snooze-2081704309">DG FotoStock/ Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>If you like to press snooze on your alarm a few times before getting up in the morning, you’re not alone. According to some surveys, about <a href="https://blog.withings.com/2017/03/16/to-snooze-or-not-to-snooze-the-truth-about-the-snooze-button/">50%</a>-<a href="https://academic.oup.com/sleep/article/45/10/zsac184/6661272">60%</a> of respondents report being snoozers. </p>
<p>Despite how common hitting the snooze button is, many of us have been told that it’s the wrong thing to do – and that catching a couple extra minutes of sleep in the morning before waking up will only make you <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/health-and-families/sleep-tips-snooze-button-makes-you-more-tired-a7395476.html">feel more tired</a>. </p>
<p>But a study my colleagues and I <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jsr.14054">recently published</a> indicates that this may not be true, showing that snoozing for a brief period in the morning may actually be beneficial for some people – in particular those who struggle with morning tiredness. </p>
<p>The study was conducted in two parts. First, more than 1,700 people answered an online questionnaire about their sleep and waking habits. This included questions about whether they press snooze on their alarm in the mornings.</p>
<p>Our team then compared those who reported snoozing at least sometimes with those who never snooze their alarm. We found that “snoozers” were on average six years younger (though there were snoozers of all ages) and got 13 minutes less sleep per night on workdays. </p>
<p>There was no difference in sleep duration on the weekends nor in sleep quality. But, those who snooze were four times more likely to classify themselves as evening people – and three times more likely to feel drowsy after waking up.</p>
<p>We also asked why people hit the snooze button and found that the main reason was being too tired to wake up. Many also said they snooze because it feels good and because they want to wake up more slowly. Around 10% of respondents set multiple alarms because they worried about not waking up when the first one goes off.</p>
<p>For the second part of the study, in order to learn about the effects of snoozing, 31 habitual snoozers were recruited to our sleep lab. We recorded their sleep using polysomnography, where several electrodes are placed on the head and body in order to assess sleep stages throughout the night. </p>
<p>After an initial night to allow them to adjust to their environment, they slept in the lab for two nights with different waking conditions.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A tired woman looks at her alarm clock." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554812/original/file-20231019-19-trwjjo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554812/original/file-20231019-19-trwjjo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554812/original/file-20231019-19-trwjjo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554812/original/file-20231019-19-trwjjo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554812/original/file-20231019-19-trwjjo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554812/original/file-20231019-19-trwjjo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554812/original/file-20231019-19-trwjjo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Many people hit snooze because they’re too tired to wake up.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/beautiful-young-woman-waking-early-morning-1993933235">Lordn/ Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>On one of the mornings they set their alarm to 30 minutes before they had to wake up and were allowed to snooze three times before getting up. On the other morning they slept through those 30 minutes and only had one alarm at the end.</p>
<p>After waking up, they performed some cognitive tests (such as memory tests and simple maths equations), provided saliva to measure cortisol (<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0074-7742(10)93007-9">a hormone believed to help us wake up</a>) and reported on their sleepiness and mood. The tests were repeated 40 minutes later and twice more during the day.</p>
<p>When the participants were able to hit snooze, their sleep was shown to be lighter and less restful during the last 30 minutes before waking up. But they still got around 23 minutes of sleep on average, only six minutes less than when not snoozing. </p>
<p>And, when the whole night was taken into account, there was no difference between snoozing and not snoozing in how much sleep participants got or the quality of that sleep. </p>
<p>Considering many people snooze because they feel tired and because it feels good, it’s perhaps surprising that participants felt equally sleepy, with no difference in mood regardless of how they woke up. But our study did find that after snoozing, participants actually performed slightly better on several of the cognitive tests right after getting up.</p>
<p>The most likely explanation for this effect is that participants got a chance to wake up more slowly when they were allowed to snooze. This may have helped ward off some <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/work-hour-training-for-nurses/longhours/mod7/03.html#:%7E:text=Sleep%20inertia%20is%20a%20temporary,reasoning%2C%20remembering%2C%20and%20learning.">sleep inertia</a> – that feeling of mental fog many people experience in the morning. </p>
<p>The waking up more slowly may be evidenced by the small difference in cortisol levels seen in participants right after waking – with levels being higher when participants could hit snooze. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2009.07.001">Previous research</a> has suggested that a stronger <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/cortisol-awakening-response">cortisol awakening response</a> – the sharp increase in cortisol that happens after waking up – is related to decreased sleep inertia. </p>
<p>In addition, because snoozing participants didn’t fall back into a deep sleep, this may have further affected the likelihood of them <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.3109/00207459008994241">waking up drowsy</a>. Many <a href="https://www.dovepress.com/sleep-inertia-current-insights-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-NSS">studies suggest</a> that it’s easier to wake up from lighter sleep than from deep sleep. </p>
<p>Although these findings may come as a relief for those who snooze, our research doesn’t imply that this way of waking up is optimal for everyone. If you’re the kind of person who wakes up alert and ready to go, snoozing will likely have no benefit for you. </p>
<p>There’s also no indication that the more you snooze the better off you are. Instead, there seems to be a trade-off between quality sleep and waking up slowly. </p>
<p>But if you enjoy snoozing and find it helps you wake up, our research suggests you can keep doing it without feeling bad –- as long as you’re getting enough sleep before that first alarm.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/215949/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tina Sundelin receives funding from the Swedish Research Council and Riksbankens Jubileumsfond. </span></em></p>If you struggle to get up, “snoozing” could help you perform better when you finally do.Tina Sundelin, Research Fellow in Psychology, Stockholm UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2131402023-10-15T12:27:54Z2023-10-15T12:27:54ZHow climate change-induced stress is altering fish hormones — with huge repercussions for reproduction<p>In <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.213.4507.577">1981, scientists discovered that female fish exposed to high temperatures developed testes instead of ovaries</a>. Since then, over 1,100 studies on different animal species, including 400 on freshwater fish, have found similar results.</p>
<p>This raises several questions.</p>
<p>Why does this happen? How can this be explained, and does it harm long-term fish populations? Our research has shown that a key factor in explaining this is the over-production of stress hormones as a result of higher temperatures.</p>
<h2>No time to adapt</h2>
<p>Fish reproductive organs are highly adaptable to environmental changes as, unlike mammals, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0044-8486(02)00057-1">they have simple structures</a>. Remarkably, even slight changes in water conditions can directly and significantly <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1132-4">impact fish metabolism and physiology</a>.</p>
<p>Fish use this to their advantage by using environmental cues to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00018-020-03532-9">align their reproductive success with seasonal conditions</a>. For example, several fish species, like the <a href="https://www.alberta.ca/lake-sturgeon">yellow sturgeon, breed in the springtime cued by the warmer water temperatures</a>.</p>
<p>However, sudden environmental changes brought about by climate change are drastically affecting fish populations and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2880135/pdf/rstb20100055.pdf">pushing some of them to move to more suitable breeding habitats</a>.</p>
<h2>Temperature can change female to male fish</h2>
<p>Studying how female fish become male (or are masculinized) through temperature change has led to a significant breakthrough. When fish are exposed to temperatures outside their normal range, they become stressed and experience a high level of the <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/22187-cortisol">stress hormone called cortisol</a>. This is the case for several fish species, such as the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8649.2010.02780.x">Argentinian silverside</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1159/000100035">medaka</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1609411114">zebrafish</a>. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/if-we-protect-mangroves-we-protect-our-fisheries-our-towns-and-ourselves-214390">If we protect mangroves, we protect our fisheries, our towns and ourselves</a>
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<p>Interestingly, the same enzyme that generates cortisol is also in charge of producing the most potent male hormone in fish called <a href="https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2016-2311">11-ketotestosterone</a>. The role of this male hormone is to trigger the development of male sexual characteristics in fish. </p>
<p>If fish experience stress — i.e., an increase in cortisol — from high temperatures, it can tilt the hormonal balance in fish larva and result in testes development. The overproduction of androgens results in more males developing than females under high temperatures.</p>
<h2>Not just stress</h2>
<p>In <a href="https://doi.org/10.1242/dev.172866">2019</a>, our research group demonstrated that blocking stress receptors through <a href="https://www.nih.gov/news-events/gene-editing-digital-press-kit">gene editing tools</a> completely suppressed fish masculinization induced by high temperatures. These results reveal, for the first time, that the brain acts as a driver of masculinization induced by thermal stress. </p>
<p>In our new study published in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00018-023-04913-6"><em>Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences</em></a> in 2023, we further demonstrated that thyroid hormones, in addition to stress hormones, are involved in fish masculinization. Once again, through gene editing, we were able to block stress receptors and show that the thyroid hormone pathway is affected when fish experience stress. </p>
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<img alt="Two fish larvae seen close-up." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553544/original/file-20231012-25-xn0fir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553544/original/file-20231012-25-xn0fir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553544/original/file-20231012-25-xn0fir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553544/original/file-20231012-25-xn0fir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553544/original/file-20231012-25-xn0fir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553544/original/file-20231012-25-xn0fir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553544/original/file-20231012-25-xn0fir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">The larvae of the fish species Centrarchid. Warming temperatures are causing fish larvae to disproportionately develop male sex organs.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Wikimedia Commons)</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
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<p>It was observed that when cortisol and thyroid hormone production were suppressed through the combined use of chemical drugs, no females were masculinized. Understanding the molecular mechanisms behind fish sex determination helps predict how climate change-induced temperature can affect fish populations in the future.</p>
<h2>Role of pollution</h2>
<p>Several environmental contaminants, like pesticides and plasticizers, are known to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2022.112849">upset the balance of hormones in animals</a>. These contaminants — known as endocrine-disrupting chemicals — <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2021.112584">can lead to sex organs developing abnormally in fish</a>. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/five-options-for-restoring-global-biodiversity-after-the-un-agreement-196835">Five options for restoring global biodiversity after the UN agreement</a>
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<p>With climate change, environmental factors that affect sexual development are now a major issue. Lately, temperatures have been fluctuating drastically, both low and high, exceeding the acceptable range for most fish species. Such changes cause high temperature events, acidification, and hypoxia <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2011.0529">that can distort fish sex ratio</a> by skewing it towards males, and even resulting in all-male fish populations. </p>
<p>In rivers and lakes, the inter-annual events of El Niño or La Niña can also be altered by climate change, which can cause severe periods of flood or drought. This can exacerbate stresses to fish and too few females in a fish population can cause it to collapse, with dire consequences in biodiversity for us all.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/213140/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Valérie S. Langlois has received funding from the Canada Research Chair Program to conduct this work.
</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Diana Castaneda-Cortes received funding from Doctoral fellow of the CONICET, Argentine National Research Council, 2015-2020. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Juan Ignacio Fernandino has received funding from the Argentinean National Agency for the Promotion of Science and Technology (AGENCIA) to conduct this work.</span></em></p>Climate change is causing higher levels of stress in fish, and the resulting hormonal imbalances are fundamentally altering entire populations.Valérie S. Langlois, Professor/Professeure titulaire, Institut national de la recherche scientifique (INRS)Diana Castañeda-Cortés, Postdoctoral, Institut national de la recherche scientifique (INRS)Juan Ignacio Fernandino, Associate research scientist, Developmental Biology Laboratory, Instituto Tecnológico de Chascomús (CONICET-UNSAM), Universidad Nacional de San MartínLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2033072023-05-03T12:15:54Z2023-05-03T12:15:54ZBlack mothers trapped in unsafe neighborhoods signal the stressful health toll of gun violence in the U.S.<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523312/original/file-20230427-18-2ufwkh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C2121%2C1412&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The stress of experiencing high levels of community violence harms entire families.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/african-american-mother-consoling-her-sad-girl-at-royalty-free-image/1077179266">skynesher/E+ via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Black mothers are the canaries in the coal mine when it comes to the mental and physical harms of stress from living with gun violence in America.</p>
<p>In the U.S., Black people are likelier than white people to reside in impoverished, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s12552-019-09280-1">racially segregated communities</a> with high levels of gun violence. Research has suggested that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2021.21060558">living in</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1590/S1413-81232006000200007">violent and unsafe</a> environments can result in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032484">continuous traumatic stress</a>, a constant form of PTSD. Researchers have also linked experiences of violence and poverty to an increased risk of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2022.102746">chronic disease</a> such as cancer and cardiovascular, respiratory and neurodegenerative diseases.</p>
<p>We are Black women and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=mrM-LJsAAAAJ&hl=en">public policy</a> and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=xIwwuN4AAAAJ&hl=en">sociology professors</a> who study health inequities and sustainable policy solutions. Our research has found that Black mothers who feel trapped in neighborhoods they perceived as unsafe because of high levels of community violence are more likely to report <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-022-01432-1">elevated PTSD and depression symptoms</a>, as well as elevated stress hormone levels.</p>
<p>The trauma of gun violence and systemic racism isn’t simply a Black mother’s story – it’s an American story. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Gun violence is an epidemic in the U.S.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Health effects of feeling trapped</h2>
<p>Our research team sought to understand <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-022-01432-1">how stress from structural violence affects the body</a>, specifically the immune system. We talked to 68 low-income single Black mothers living on the South Side of Chicago about how they deal with gun violence in their communities and how it affects their health. </p>
<p>We asked these Black mothers to complete surveys that measured depression and PTSD symptoms. We also asked them to provide blood samples to examine the effects of stress at the cellular level, measuring the activity of genes that code for the receptors for the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejphar.2007.11.071">stress hormone cortisol</a>. Looking at cortisol receptors offers a more cumulative measure of cortisol levels over time.</p>
<p>We found that about 65% of the mothers wanted to move out of their neighborhoods but could not afford to do so. These mothers felt trapped in areas with high levels of gun violence that fostered a sense of not feeling safe for adults and children. One mother in our study, whom we will call Ellan, described her neighborhood as dangerous and wanted to leave as soon as she could. “I’m very terrified of my kids going out to the park, playing in front of the house,” she said. “And I’m afraid that a car might come past shootin’ and one of my kids get hurt.” </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523308/original/file-20230427-2243-r895dy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Mother cradling child against chest" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523308/original/file-20230427-2243-r895dy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523308/original/file-20230427-2243-r895dy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523308/original/file-20230427-2243-r895dy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523308/original/file-20230427-2243-r895dy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523308/original/file-20230427-2243-r895dy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523308/original/file-20230427-2243-r895dy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523308/original/file-20230427-2243-r895dy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Black mothers who feel trapped in their neighborhoods feel terrified for their children.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/mother-holding-sleeping-son-royalty-free-image/84910809">Jose Luis Pelaez/The Image Bank via Getty Images</a></span>
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<p>Another mother in our study, whom we will call Skylar, felt she couldn’t escape to a safer community. “I don’t really want to raise my kids there, but I don’t have a choice. You know, cause it’s what I can afford. But it’s real violent.”</p>
<p>Mothers who felt trapped reported more symptoms of PTSD, like disturbing memories and dreams and reliving stressful experiences, than mothers who did not feel trapped. They also reported more depressive symptoms, such as feeling down and hopeless, taking little pleasure in doing things and having trouble sleeping. </p>
<p>Mothers unable to afford the move to safer neighborhoods had lower levels of glucocorticoid receptors. Having fewer glucocorticoid receptors helped protect their bodies from being overwhelmed by high cortisol levels caused by stress. Nevertheless, high cortisol levels from chronic stress are linked to a number of <a href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/article/racism-stress-covid-allostatic-load/">negative mental and physical health outcomes</a>.</p>
<h2>Environment determines health</h2>
<p>Where someone lives, learns, works, plays and worships can <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28845341">determine their health</a> and has the power to make them sick and cause premature death.</p>
<p>Researchers have estimated that around <a href="https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.24.2.459">83,570 Black people die prematurely</a> each year in the U.S. because of health disparities, using 2002 data. Some scholars have previously described this as equivalent to a <a href="https://unnaturalcauses.org/amazing_facts.php">plane full of Black passengers</a> falling out the sky every day every year.</p>
<p>It is important to note that it is not the racial makeup of where a person lives that shapes the significant disparities they face, but exposure to violence, poverty and lack of resources as a result of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-073014-112305">structural racism</a>. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1497358/">Redlining</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1089/env.2020.0019">environmental contamination</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/soc4.12846">food deserts</a> and gun violence are a part of the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1090198120922942">racial capitalism</a>, or exploitation of marginalized communities, that affect the health of Black women.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Black people face systemic economic and health disparities in the U.S.</span></figcaption>
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<p>What we are learning about the constant threats to the safety of Black mothers and their families also applies to the general American public. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2023/04/26/what-the-data-says-about-gun-deaths-in-the-u-s/">rate of mass shootings</a> is increasing. Firearm fatalities are a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMc2201761">leading cause of death among children</a> ages 1 to 19 in the U.S. Gun violence has harmed people while they are <a href="https://theconversation.com/scapegoating-rap-hits-new-low-after-july-fourth-mass-shooting-186443">watching a parade</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/rampage-at-virginia-walmart-follows-upward-trend-in-supermarket-gun-attacks-heres-what-we-know-about-retail-mass-shooters-195241">shopping at a store</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/fueled-by-virtually-unrestricted-social-media-access-white-nationalism-is-on-the-rise-and-attracting-violent-young-white-men-186896">worshipping</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/five-years-after-parkland-school-shootings-havent-stopped-and-kill-more-people-198224">attending school</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/hate-crimes-against-lgbtq-people-are-a-public-health-issue-61186">other</a> <a href="https://theconversation.com/stand-your-ground-laws-empower-armed-citizens-to-defend-property-with-violence-a-simple-mistake-can-get-you-shot-or-killed-204012">ordinary</a> <a href="https://theconversation.com/monterey-park-a-pioneering-asian-american-suburb-shaken-by-the-tragedy-of-a-mass-shooting-198373">events</a>.</p>
<h2>Increasing access to wellness</h2>
<p>Understanding the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.estlett.1c00648">complexity of the exposome</a> – the word researchers use for environmental factors like gun violence that affect an individual’s health and well-being – can help extend the <a href="https://theconversation.com/are-you-a-rapid-ager-biological-age-is-a-better-health-indicator-than-the-number-of-years-youve-lived-but-its-tricky-to-measure-198849">years of healthy life</a> of groups who typically experience premature death. Building this knowledge requires input from people of color and others who have traditionally been pushed to the margins of society.</p>
<p>We are currently creating a “<a href="https://www.youthwellnessproject.com/wellness-store">wellness store</a>” that places wellness tools and health knowledge at the fingertips of individuals, especially for those experiencing interlocking traumas such as racism, sexism, classism, incarceration, racial segregation and rural geographic isolation. These tools, co-created with community health workers and citizen scientists, range from phone apps to public policy designed to get stress “out from under the skin.” Our goal is to work with clinics, hospitals and community organizations to provide accessible tools to prevent illness.</p>
<p>Black communities are filled with resilient and vulnerable individuals who deserve urgent policy solutions that lead to societal change. We believe that more investment in disease prevention and health equity can help the U.S. use the knowledge, technology and finances that it already has to help people access its most precious resource: a healthy life and the ability to pursue wellness.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/203307/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Loren Henderson is affiliated with Association of Black Sociologists. I am the Executive Officer of the Association of Black Sociologists.
</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ruby Mendenhall receives funding from the National Science Foundation, the MacArthur Foundation and the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.</span></em></p>Chronic stress from living with systemic racism and gun violence can lead to increased symptoms of PTSD and depression as well as elevated cortisol levels.Loren Henderson, Associate Professor of Public Policy, University of Maryland, Baltimore CountyRuby Mendenhall, Associate Professor in Sociology, African American Studies, Urban and Regional Planning and Social Work, University of Illinois at Urbana-ChampaignLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2031622023-04-30T20:02:48Z2023-04-30T20:02:48ZNo, you can’t blame all your health issues on ‘high cortisol’. Here’s how the hormone works<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/522916/original/file-20230426-16-47kfra.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=81%2C576%2C5826%2C3431&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/FVRTLKgQ700">Kinga Howard/Unsplash</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Have you been craving certain foods and gaining weight? Maybe you’re fatigued and can’t concentrate, then wake up in the middle of the night. The latest <a href="https://www.womenshealthmag.com/health/a43010856/balancing-cortisol-levels-tiktok/">TikTok wellness trend</a> would have you believe high cortisol levels are to blame.</p>
<p>It’s true that cortisol affects our weight, energy balance, metabolism and sleep. But so do <a href="https://theconversation.com/whats-the-weight-set-point-and-why-does-it-make-it-so-hard-to-keep-weight-off-195724">thyroid</a> hormones, <a href="https://theconversation.com/chemical-messengers-how-hormones-make-us-feel-hungry-and-full-35545">appetite</a> hormones and <a href="https://theconversation.com/chemical-messengers-how-hormones-help-us-sleep-44983">sex</a> hormones, as well as diet and physical activity. </p>
<p>Cortisol also does more than this and regulates many other biological functions. It affects nearly all the cells of our body and is essential for survival.</p>
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<p><iframe id="tc-infographic-847" class="tc-infographic" height="400px" src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/infographics/847/49670dd23fbe6ea3c64995f1b7a0cbc85f9e4fb3/site/index.html" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
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<h2>Why is cortisol portrayed as bad?</h2>
<p>Some of what is being blamed on cortisol are symptoms of chronic stress or depression – which makes sense, since these are linked.</p>
<p>Cortisol is the main “stress hormone” of the body. This might make people think cortisol is bad for them, but this is not the case. </p>
<p>Stress is an inevitable part of life, and our stress response has evolved as a <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4867107/">survival mechanism</a> so we can react quickly to dangerous situations. Both psychological and physical stresses elicit the <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnbeh.2018.00127/full">stress response</a>.</p>
<h2>Cortisol is essential for a healthy stress response</h2>
<p>Our immediate reaction to a sudden threat is the fight-or-flight response. Adrenaline is released from the adrenal glands into our bloodstream. This instantly increases our heart rate and breathing rate so we can be ready to act quickly to escape or avoid danger. However, the adrenaline response is only very short-lived. </p>
<p>When a threat or stress persists for minutes rather than seconds, cortisol is released from the adrenal glands. Its main role is to increase blood glucose (sugar) for energy. </p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/three-reasons-to-get-your-stress-levels-in-check-this-year-86764">Three reasons to get your stress levels in check this year</a>
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<p>Cortisol <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538239/">affects</a> the liver, muscle, fat and pancreas to increase glucose production and mobilise stored glucose. This increases glucose to the brain so that we are mentally alert and to the muscles so we can move. </p>
<p>In a healthy and normal stress response, cortisol rises quickly in response to the stress and then rapidly reduces back to baseline levels after the stress has passed. </p>
<p>However, chronic stress and ongoing increased cortisol secretion are not healthy. Chronic stress can cause dysregulated cortisol secretion: when cortisol remains high even in the absence of an immediate stress. </p>
<p>It can take weeks for cortisol dysregulation to <a href="https://www.embopress.org/doi/full/10.15252/msb.20209510">return to normal</a> after chronic stress.</p>
<h2>What’s the link with depression?</h2>
<p>Emerging evidence suggests chronic stress and dysregulated cortisol may contribute to the <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3425/11/10/1298#:%7E:text=Increased%20HPA%20axis%20activity%20can,cognitive%20dysfunction%20and%20reduced%20mood.">development of depression</a>. Our research team <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29096223/">has shown</a> that people with depression have, on average, higher cortisol than people who don’t have depression. We also found that higher cortisol was associated with <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00971/full">more negative thinking</a> and lower <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11136-019-02236-3">quality of life</a>.</p>
<p>The symptoms described on TikTok as being due to high cortisol may be caused by stress, depression or anxiety. Depression can also <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6176119/">cause</a> insomnia, increased appetite, and weight gain or loss. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Man looks at sugary drinks at the supermarket" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/522917/original/file-20230426-419-s8qq58.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/522917/original/file-20230426-419-s8qq58.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522917/original/file-20230426-419-s8qq58.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522917/original/file-20230426-419-s8qq58.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522917/original/file-20230426-419-s8qq58.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522917/original/file-20230426-419-s8qq58.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522917/original/file-20230426-419-s8qq58.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Tiredness and cravings can be caused by a number of different things.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/VHMvdS720Hc">Unsplash/Atoms</a></span>
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<p>The <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666497621000412">relationship</a> between cortisol, weight changes and depression are complex. High cortisol also increases the activity of adrenaline. This explains why when you are stressed you can be extra reactive and snap into fight-or-flight mode quickly.</p>
<p>However, some of the symptoms described on TikTok as due to “high cortisol” may actually reflect low cortisol. Low cortisol can be <a href="https://theconversation.com/stressed-female-infants-may-become-anxious-teens-10683">caused by</a> chronic stress and high cortisol during childhood or earlier in life. This is why some people with depression, particularly those with a long history of depression, have low rather than high cortisol. </p>
<p>Low cortisol causes fatigue and weight gain. This is <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30071417/">more common</a> in women and we found this was linked to leptin, a satiety hormone. </p>
<h2>How do you know if your cortisol is too high or low?</h2>
<p>Despite claims on TikTok, we cannot tell whether our cortisol is in balance or high or low. </p>
<p>The only way to know is to have your blood, urine or saliva analysed in a laboratory. This is not done routinely and would be a waste of resources. A doctor would only check this if they suspected you had a disorder of cortisol production, but these are rare.</p>
<p>Besides, your cortisol levels vary considerably across different times of the day and night. </p>
<h2>Cortisol affects your body clock</h2>
<p>One of the most important roles of cortisol is in the circadian system of the body. The hypothalamus in the brain sets the circadian (approximately 24-hour) rhythms of our biological functions to match the light-dark cycle. Cortisol communicates these signals from the brain to the rest of the body. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/chemical-messengers-how-hormones-help-us-sleep-44983">Chemical messengers: how hormones help us sleep</a>
</strong>
</em>
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<p>Cortisol secretion from the adrenal glands increases in the early hours of the morning, peaks at about 7am, and then is lowest from about midday until early morning. </p>
<p>Cortisol is our body’s natural alarm clock. Higher cortisol during the morning or at the end of the sleep period stimulates wakefulness, increased energy, and physical activity. Lower cortisol during the night encourages sleep and restorative functions.</p>
<h2>How can you maintain healthy cortisol levels?</h2>
<p>You can try to maintain healthy levels of cortisol by addressing the underlying causes of cortisol dysregulation.</p>
<p>Meditation, mindfulness and cognitive behavioural therapy <a href="https://theconversation.com/its-not-all-in-your-mind-how-meditation-affects-the-brain-to-help-you-stress-less-97777">can reduce</a> the reactivity of the stress response. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4688585/">Exercise</a> during the day and <a href="https://theconversation.com/health-check-three-reasons-why-sleep-is-important-for-your-health-41176">good sleeping habits</a> also help to reduce chronic stress and high cortisol. </p>
<p>Finally, a healthy balanced diet gives your body the building blocks for good hormone health.</p>
<p><em>If this article has raised issues for you, or if you’re concerned about someone you know, call Lifeline on 13 11 14.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/203162/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Some of what is being blamed on cortisol are symptoms of chronic stress or depression – which makes sense, since they’re linked.Theresa Larkin, Associate professor of Medical Sciences, University of WollongongSusan J Thomas, Associate professor, University of WollongongLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1992362023-03-24T16:20:19Z2023-03-24T16:20:19ZHow to rewire your brain to feel good on Mondays<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/515900/original/file-20230316-28-uln2jq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=43%2C0%2C5689%2C3315&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/woman-sleeplessness-early-morning-1152147830">izzet ugutmen/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>If you hate Mondays, you’re most certainly in good company. After a couple of days off, many of us have difficulty settling back into our routines and work duties. You may even have dread and anxiety that seeps into the weekend in the form of “<a href="https://theconversation.com/three-ways-to-tackle-the-sunday-scaries-the-anxiety-and-dread-many-people-feel-at-the-end-of-the-weekend-187313">Sunday scaries</a>”.</p>
<p>You can’t always change your schedule or obligations to make Mondays more appealing, but you may be able to “reprogram” your brain to think about the week differently.</p>
<p>Our brains love predictability and routine. Research has shown that lack of routine is associated with <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0003122418823184">decline in wellbeing and psychological distress</a>. Even though the weekend heralds a leisurely and pleasant time, our brain works hard to adjust to this sudden change to a routine.</p>
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<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Quarter life, a series by The Conversation" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><em><strong><a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/quarter-life-117947?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=UK+YP2022&utm_content=InArticleTop">This article is part of Quarter Life</a></strong>, a series about issues affecting those of us in our twenties and thirties. From the challenges of beginning a career and taking care of our mental health, to the excitement of starting a family, adopting a pet or just making friends as an adult. The articles in this series explore the questions and bring answers as we navigate this turbulent period of life.</em></p>
<p><em>You may be interested in:</em></p>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/postpartum-exercise-can-have-many-benefits-heres-how-to-do-it-safely-200388?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=UK+YP2022&utm_content=InArticleTop">Postpartum exercise can have many benefits – here’s how to do it safely</a></em></p>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/positive-affirmations-how-talking-to-yourself-can-let-the-light-in-199798?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=UK+YP2022&utm_content=InArticleTop">Positive affirmations: how talking to yourself can let the light in</a></em></p>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/taking-a-mental-health-day-can-be-good-for-you-heres-how-to-make-the-most-of-one-186493?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=UK+YP2022&utm_content=InArticleTop?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=UK+YP2022&utm_content=InArticleTop">Taking a mental health day can be good for you – here’s how to make the most of one</a></em></p>
<hr>
<p>The good news is that the brain does not need to make too much effort when adjusting to the weekend’s freedom and lack of routine. However, it’s a different story when coming back to the less pleasant activities, such as a to-do list on Monday morning. </p>
<p>One way to adjust to post-weekend change is introducing routines that last the whole week and have the power to make our lives <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0146167218795133">more meaningful</a>. These may include <a href="https://portal.research.lu.se/en/publications/routines-made-and-unmade">watching your favourite TV programme, gardening</a> or going <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22976286/">to the gym</a>. It is helpful to do these things at the same time every day.</p>
<p>Routines improve our <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16448317/">sense of coherence</a>, a process that allows us to make sense of the jigsaw of life events. When we have an established routine, be it the routine of working five days and taking two days off or engaging in a set of actions every day, our lives become <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0146167218795133">more meaningful</a>. </p>
<p>Another important routine to establish is your sleep routine. <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41746-021-00400-z">Research shows</a> that keeping consistent sleep time may be as important for enjoying Mondays as how long your sleep lasts or its quality. </p>
<p>Changes in sleep patterns during weekends trigger <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/13/12/4543">social jetlag</a>. For instance, sleeping
in later than usual and for longer on free days may trigger a discrepancy between your body clock and socially-imposed responsibilities. This is linked to higher stress levels on Monday morning.</p>
<p>Try to keep a set time for going to bed and waking up, avoid naps. You might also want to create a 30 minute “wind-down” routine before sleep, by turning off or putting away your digital devices and practising relaxation techniques.</p>
<h2>Hacking your hormones</h2>
<p>Hormones can also play a role in how we feel about Mondays. For instance, cortisol is a very important multifunction hormone. It helps our bodies to control our metabolism, regulate our sleep-wake cycle and our response to stress, among other things. It is usually released about an hour before we wake up (it helps us feel awake) and then its levels lower until the next morning, unless we’re under stress. </p>
<p>Under acute stress, our bodies release not only cortisol, but also adrenaline in preparation for fight or flight. This is when the heart beats fast, we get sweaty palms and may react impulsively. This is our amygdala (a small almond-shaped area in the base of our brains) hijacking our brains. It creates a super fast emotional response to stress even before our brains can process and think whether it was needed. </p>
<p>But as soon we can think – activating the brain’s prefrontal cortex, the area for our reason and executive thinking – this response will be mitigated, if there is no real threat. It is a constant battle between our emotions and reason. This might wake us up in the middle of the night when we’re too stressed or anxious.</p>
<p>It shouldn’t be surprising then that cortisol levels, measured in saliva samples of full-time working individuals, tend to be higher on Mondays and Tuesdays, with the lowest levels reported on <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2824866/">Sundays</a>. </p>
<p>As a stress hormone, cortisol fluctuates daily, but not consistently. On weekdays, as soon as we wake up, <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2007-18151-008">cortisol levels soar</a> and variations tend to be higher than on <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11324714/">weekends</a>.</p>
<p>To combat this, we need to trick the amygdala by training the brain to only recognise actual threats. In other words, we need to activate our prefrontal cortex as fast as possible.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A young office worker with short hair and glasses wearing a green button up shirt sits at their desk with their eyes closed and airpods in, meditating with their hands in a meditation position, forefingers touching thumbs" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/515902/original/file-20230316-20-j0c0yg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/515902/original/file-20230316-20-j0c0yg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/515902/original/file-20230316-20-j0c0yg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/515902/original/file-20230316-20-j0c0yg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/515902/original/file-20230316-20-j0c0yg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/515902/original/file-20230316-20-j0c0yg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/515902/original/file-20230316-20-j0c0yg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Take some time out of your day to help regulate your cortisol levels.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/young-non-binary-man-business-worker-2195482515">Krakenimages.com/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>One of the best ways to achieve this and lower overall stress is through relaxation activities, especially on Mondays. One possibility is mindfulness, which is associated with a <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23724462/">reduction in cortisol</a>. <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00722/full">Spending time in nature</a> is another method – going outside first thing on Monday or even during your lunch hour can make a significant difference to how you perceive the beginning of the week. </p>
<p>Give yourself time before checking your phone, social media and the news. It’s good to wait for cortisol peak to decrease naturally, which happens approximately one hour after waking up, before you expose yourself to external stressors.</p>
<p>By following these simple tips, you can train your brain to believe that the weekdays can be (nearly) as good as the weekend.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/199236/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Cristina receives funding from CURE Epilepsy, Irish Research Council and Epilepsy Ireland. She is Funded Investigator within FutureNeuro the Science Foundation Ireland Research Centre for Chronic and Rare Neurological Diseases.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jolanta Burke does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>You can train your brain to get excited about the start of the week – or at least cope with it.Cristina R. Reschke, Lecturer in the School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences & Funded Investigator in the FutureNeuro Research Centre, RCSI University of Medicine and Health SciencesJolanta Burke, Senior Lecturer, Centre for Positive Health Sciences, RCSI University of Medicine and Health SciencesLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1973432023-03-06T13:34:30Z2023-03-06T13:34:30ZSpringing forward into daylight saving time is a step back for health – a neurologist explains the medical evidence, and why this shift is worse than the fall time change<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512086/original/file-20230223-5904-84e4k9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5621%2C3677&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Daylight saving time is back again – amid some controversy. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/illustration/spring-forward-royalty-free-illustration/900655094?phrase=Daylight%2BSavings%2BTime">billhagolan/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>As people in the U.S. prepare to set their clocks ahead one hour on Sunday, March 12, 2023, I find myself bracing for the annual ritual of <a href="https://www.inquirer.com/news/standard-time-daylight-saving-time-clock-change-sleep-20201031.html">media stories</a> about <a href="https://qz.com/1114163/daylight-saving-time-dst-is-incredibly-disruptive-heres-how-to-reset/">the disruptions to daily routines</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.5664/jcsm.8780">caused by switching from standard time </a> to daylight saving time. </p>
<p>About one-third of Americans say they don’t look forward to these twice-yearly time changes. And nearly two-thirds <a href="https://today.yougov.com/topics/politics/articles-reports/2021/11/04/daylight-saving-time-americans-want-stay-permanent">would like to eliminate them completely</a>, compared to 21% who aren’t sure and 16% who would like to keep moving their clocks back and forth. </p>
<p>But the effects go beyond simple inconvenience. Researchers are discovering that “springing ahead” each March is connected with serious negative health effects, including an uptick in <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm8030404">heart attacks</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.5664/jcsm.4938">teen sleep deprivation</a>. In contrast, the fall transition back to standard time is not associated with these health effects, as my co-authors and I noted in a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaneurol.2019.3780">2020 commentary</a>.</p>
<p>I’ve studied the pros and cons of these twice-annual rituals for more than five years as a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=ZddlKEoAAAAJ&hl=en">professor of neurology and pediatrics</a> and the director of Vanderbilt University Medical Center’s sleep division. It’s become clear to me and many of my colleagues that the transition to daylight saving time each spring affects health immediately after the clock change and also for the nearly eight months that <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2022/11/06/health/permanent-daylight-savings-health-harms-wellness/index.html#">Americans remain on daylight saving time</a>.</p>
<h2>The strong case for permanent standard time</h2>
<p>Americans are split on whether they <a href="https://today.yougov.com/topics/politics/articles-reports/2021/11/04/daylight-saving-time-americans-want-stay-permanent">prefer permanent daylight saving time</a> or <a href="https://apnorc.org/projects/dislike-for-changing-the-clocks-persists/">permanent standard time</a>. </p>
<p>However, the two time shifts – jolting as they may be – are not equal. Standard time most closely approximates natural light, with the sun directly overhead at or near noon. In contrast, during daylight saving time from March until November, the clock change resulting from daylight saving time causes natural light to be present one hour later in the morning and one hour later in the evening according to clock time.</p>
<p>Morning light is essential for helping to set the body’s natural rhythms: It <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-36791-5">wakes us up and improves alertness</a>. Morning light also boosts mood – light boxes simulating natural light are prescribed for morning use <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.55.10.890">to treat seasonal affective disorder</a>.</p>
<p>Although the exact reasons why light activates us and benefits our mood are not yet known, this may be due to light’s effects on <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10253890.2020.1741543">increasing levels of cortisol</a>, a hormone that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41574-019-0228-0">modulates the stress response</a> or the effect of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-36791-5">light on the amygdala</a>, a part of the brain involved in emotions.</p>
<p>Adolescents also may be <a href="https://theconversation.com/school-start-times-and-screen-time-late-in-the-evening-exacerbate-sleep-deprivation-in-us-teenagers-179178">chronically sleep deprived due to school</a>, sports and social activities. For instance, many <a href="https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2020/2020006/index.asp">children start school around 8 a.m.</a> or earlier. This means that during daylight saving time, many young people get up and travel to school in pitch darkness.</p>
<p>The body of evidence makes a good case for adopting permanent standard time nationwide, as I testified at a <a href="https://democrats-energycommerce.house.gov/committee-activity/hearings/rescheduled-hearing-on-changing-times-revisiting-spring-forward-fall">March 2022 Congressional hearing</a> and argued in a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/zsac236">recent position statement</a> for the Sleep Research Society. The American Medical Association recently <a href="https://www.ama-assn.org/press-center/press-releases/ama-calls-permanent-standard-time">called for permanent standard time</a>. And in late 2022, <a href="https://www.timeanddate.com/news/time/mexico-abolishes-dst-2022.html#">Mexico adopted permanent standard time,</a>, <a href="https://thehill.com/policy/international/3708301-mexicos-senate-votes-to-end-daylight-saving-time-for-most-of-the-country/">citing benefits to health, productivity and energy savings</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="An illustration of two clocks depicting Daylight Savings Time changes: Fall backward, and spring forward." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446653/original/file-20220215-13-1d96ozk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446653/original/file-20220215-13-1d96ozk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446653/original/file-20220215-13-1d96ozk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446653/original/file-20220215-13-1d96ozk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446653/original/file-20220215-13-1d96ozk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446653/original/file-20220215-13-1d96ozk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446653/original/file-20220215-13-1d96ozk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In 2023, clocks spring forward one hour at 2 a.m. on Sunday, March 12. They fall back at 2 a.m. on Sunday, Nov. 5.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/illustration/daylight-saving-time-fall-backward-and-royalty-free-illustration/1356689682?adppopup=true">iam2mai/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The biggest advantage of daylight saving time is that it provides an extra hour of light in the late afternoon or evening, depending on time of year, for sports, shopping or eating outside. However, exposure to light later into the evening for almost eight months during daylight saving time comes at a price. This extended evening light delays the brain’s release of melatonin, the hormone that promotes drowsiness, which in turn interferes with sleep and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/zsac236">causes us to sleep less overall</a>.</p>
<p>Because puberty also causes <a href="https://www.neurologylive.com/view/teenage-circadian-rhythm">melatonin to be released later at night</a>, meaning that teenagers have a delay in the natural signal that helps them fall asleep, adolescents are <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.5664/jcsm.4938">particularly susceptible to sleep problems</a> from the extended evening light. This shift in melatonin during puberty lasts into our 20s.</p>
<h2>The ‘western edge’ effect</h2>
<p>Geography can also make a difference in how daylight saving time affects people. One study showed that people living on the western edge of a time zone, who get light later in the morning and later in the evening, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhealeco.2019.03.007">got less sleep</a> than their counterparts on the eastern edge of a time zone. </p>
<p>This study found that western-edge residents had higher rates of obesity, diabetes, heart disease and <a href="https://theconversation.com/breast-cancer-risk-higher-in-western-parts-of-time-zones-is-electric-light-to-blame-85803">breast cancer</a>, as well as lower per capita income and higher health care costs. Other research has found that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-16-1029">rates of certain other cancers are higher</a> on the western edge of a time zone. </p>
<p>Scientists believe that these health problems may result from a <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2019.00944">combination of chronic sleep deprivation and “circadian misalignment</a>.” Circadian misalignment refers to a mismatch in timing between our biological rhythms and the outside world. In other words, the timing of daily work, school or sleep routines is based on the clock, rather than on the sun’s rise and set. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/84aWtseb2-4?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">This video takes a deeper dive – all the way back to 1895 – into the history of daylight saving time.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A brief history of daylight saving time</h2>
<p><a href="https://blogs.loc.gov/teachers/2017/03/world-war-i-and-daylight-savings-time/">Congress instituted year-round daylight saving time</a> during World War I and World War II, and <a href="https://www.mercurynews.com/2016/10/30/the-year-daylight-saving-time-went-too-far/">once again during the energy crisis</a> of the early 1970s.</p>
<p>The idea was that having extra light later into the afternoon would save energy by decreasing the need for electric lighting. This idea has since been <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2014.03.012">proved largely inaccurate</a>, as heating needs may increase in the morning in the winter, while air conditioning needs can also increase in the late afternoon in the summer.</p>
<p>Another pro-daylight saving argument has been that crime rates drop with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1162/REST_a_00547">more light at the end of the day</a>. While this has been proved true, the change is very small, and <a href="https://theconversation.com/is-daylight-saving-time-worth-the-trouble-research-says-no-86739">the health effects appear to outweigh</a> the benefits to society from lower rates of crime.</p>
<p>After World War II, designating the start and end dates for daylight saving time fell to state governments. Because this created many railroad scheduling and safety problems, however, Congress passed the <a href="https://www.transportation.gov/regulations/time-act#">Uniform Time Act in 1966</a>. This law set the nationwide dates of daylight saving time from the last Sunday in April until the last Sunday in October. In 2007, <a href="https://www.bts.gov/geospatial/daylight-savings-time">Congress amended the act</a> to expand the period in which daylight saving time is in effect from the second Sunday in March to the first Sunday in November – dates that remain in effect today.</p>
<p>The Uniform Time Act allows states and territories to opt out of daylight saving time, however. Arizona and Hawaii are on permanent standard time, along with Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, Northern Mariana Islands, Guam and American Samoa. </p>
<p>Now, many other states are considering whether to <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2021/11/04/daylight-saving-time-legislation-fall-back/6233980001/">stop falling back and springing ahead</a>. Several U.S. states have legislation and resolutions under consideration to support permanent standard time, while many others have been or are <a href="https://www.npr.org/2022/11/06/1134562545/daylight-saving-time-permanent-states">considering permanent daylight saving time</a>. Legislation and resolutions for permanent standard time have increased from 15% in 2021 to 31% in 2023. </p>
<p>In March 2022, the U.S. Senate <a href="https://www.congress.gov/bill/117th-congress/senate-bill/623">passed the Sunshine Protection Act </a> in a bid to <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/us/us-senate-approves-bill-that-would-make-daylight-savings-time-permanent-2023-2022-03-15/">make daylight saving time permanent</a>. But the House did not move forward with this legislation. Florida Sen. Marco Rubio <a href="https://thehill.com/homenews/nexstar_media_wire/3880009-bill-to-make-daylight-saving-time-permanent-reintroduced-in-congress/">reintroduced the bill</a> on March 1, 2023. </p>
<p>The spike in activity among states seeking to break from these twice-yearly changes reflects how more people are recognizing the downsides of this practice. Now, it’s up to legislators to decide whether we end the time shift altogether, and to choose permanent standard or daylight saving time.</p>
<p><em>This is an updated version of an article <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-daylight-saving-time-is-unhealthy-a-neurologist-explains-175427">originally published on March 10, 2022</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/197343/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Beth Ann Malow receives funding from the NIH as well as foundation funding, though none have been related to Daylight Saving Time.</span></em></p>Americans are divided on their preference for daylight saving time versus standard time. But research shows that our bodies fare better when aligned with the natural light of standard time.Beth Ann Malow, Professor of Neurology and Pediatrics, Vanderbilt UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1978972023-01-29T19:09:07Z2023-01-29T19:09:07ZNope, coffee won’t give you extra energy. It’ll just borrow a bit that you’ll pay for later<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505804/original/file-20230123-15-2ygfk7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=34%2C34%2C7715%2C5135&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://images.pexels.com/photos/459270/pexels-photo-459270.jpeg?auto=compress&cs=tinysrgb&w=1260&h=750&dpr=2">Pexels</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Many of us want (or should I say <em>need</em>?) our morning coffee to give us our “get up and go”. Altogether, the people of the world drink more than <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11906-021-01156-3">two billion cups of coffee each day</a>. </p>
<p>You might think coffee gives you the energy to get through the morning or the day – but coffee might not be giving you as much as you think.</p>
<p>The main stimulant in coffee is the caffeine. And the main way caffeine works is by changing the way the cells in our brain interact with a compound called <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1087079207000937">adenosine</a>. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/plunger-espresso-filter-just-because-your-coffee-is-bitter-doesnt-mean-its-stronger-188905">Plunger, espresso, filter? Just because your coffee is bitter, doesn't mean it's 'stronger'</a>
</strong>
</em>
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<h2>Getting busy, getting tired</h2>
<p>Adenosine is <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1087079201902011">part of the system</a> that regulates our sleep and wake cycle and part of why high levels of activity lead to tiredness. As we go about our days and do things, <a href="https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/ben/ctmc/2011/00000011/00000008/art00008">levels of adenosine rise</a> because it is released as a by-product as energy is used in our cells. </p>
<p>Eventually <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1087079201902011">adenosine binds to its receptor</a> (parts of cells that receive signals) which tells the cells to slow down, making us feel drowsy and sleepy. This is why you feel tired after a big day of activity. While we are sleeping, <a href="https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/ben/cn/2009/00000007/00000003/art00008">energy use drops</a> lowering adenosine levels as it gets shuffled back into other forms. You wake up in the morning feeling refreshed. Well, if you get enough sleep that is. </p>
<p>If you are still feeling drowsy when you wake up caffeine can help, for a while. It works by binding to the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1600-0773.1995.Tb00111.X">adenosine receptor</a>, which it can do because it is a similar shape. But it is not so similar that it triggers the drowsy slow-down signal like adenosine does. Instead it just fills the spots and stops the adenosine from binding there. This is what staves off the drowsy feeling. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1617237578930954243"}"></div></p>
<h2>No free ride</h2>
<p>But there is a catch. While it feels energising, this little caffeine intervention is more a loan of the awake feeling, rather than a creation of any new energy. </p>
<p>This is because the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1471-4159.2007.05196.x">caffeine won’t bind forever</a>, and the adenosine that it blocks doesn’t go away. So eventually the caffeine breaks down, lets go of the receptors and all that adenosine that has been waiting and building up latches on and the drowsy feeling comes back – sometimes all at once. </p>
<p>So, the debt you owe the caffeine always eventually needs to be repaid, and the only real way to repay it is to sleep. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505803/original/file-20230123-17-uku54t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="cups of coffee on table in mug that reads life begins with coffee" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505803/original/file-20230123-17-uku54t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505803/original/file-20230123-17-uku54t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505803/original/file-20230123-17-uku54t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505803/original/file-20230123-17-uku54t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505803/original/file-20230123-17-uku54t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505803/original/file-20230123-17-uku54t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505803/original/file-20230123-17-uku54t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">But first, coffee.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://images.unsplash.com/photo-1504888527749-e68244b4d3d7?ixlib=rb-4.0.3&ixid=MnwxMjA3fDB8MHxwaG90by1wYWdlfHx8fGVufDB8fHx8&auto=format&fit=crop&w=2070&q=80">Unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Timing is everything</h2>
<p>How much free adenosine is in your system, that hasn’t attached to receptors yet, and how drowsy you are as a consequence will impact how much the caffeine you drink wakes you up. So, the coffee you drink <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/026988119100500205">later in the day</a>, when you have more drowsy signals your system may feel more powerful. </p>
<p>If it’s too late in the day, caffeine can make it hard to fall asleep at bedtime. The “half life” of caffeine (how long it takes to break down half of it) is about <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK223808/#:%7E:text=The%20mean%20half%2Dlife%20of,et%20al.%2C%201989">five hours</a>). That said, we all <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29514871/#:%7E:text=The%20pharmacokinetics%20of%20caffeine%20are,enzyme%2C%20N%2Dacetyltransferase%202.">metabolise caffeine</a> differently, so for some of us the effects wear off more quickly. Regular coffee drinkers might feel less of a caffeine “punch”, with <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1888264/">tolerance</a> to the stimulant building up over time.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505805/original/file-20230123-16-egstvh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="cup of coffee next to laptop" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505805/original/file-20230123-16-egstvh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505805/original/file-20230123-16-egstvh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505805/original/file-20230123-16-egstvh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505805/original/file-20230123-16-egstvh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505805/original/file-20230123-16-egstvh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505805/original/file-20230123-16-egstvh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505805/original/file-20230123-16-egstvh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Coffee drunk late in the day can hit differently.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://images.pexels.com/photos/414630/pexels-photo-414630.jpeg?auto=compress&cs=tinysrgb&w=1260&h=750&dpr=2">Pexels</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>Caffeine can also <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2257922/">raise levels of cortisol</a>, a stress hormone that can make you feel more alert. This might mean caffeine feels more effective later in the morning, because you already have a natural rise in cortisol when you wake up. The impact of a coffee right out of bed might not seem as powerful for this reason. </p>
<p>If your caffeinated beverage of choice is also a sugary one, this can exacerbate the peak and crash feeling. Because while sugar does create actual energy in the body, the free sugars in your drink can cause a spike in blood sugar, which can then make you feel tired when the <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/diabetes/expert-answers/reactive-hypoglycemia/faq-20057778">dip comes afterwards</a>. </p>
<p>While there is no proven harm of drinking coffee on an empty stomach, <a href="https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/caffeine/#:%7E:text=Food%20or%20food%20components%2C%20such,drank%20it%20while%20eating%20breakfast.">coffee with or after a meal</a> might hit you more slowly. This is because the food might slow down the rate at which the caffeine is absorbed. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/does-coffee-burn-more-fat-during-exercise-what-the-evidence-tells-us-157739">Does coffee burn more fat during exercise? What the evidence tells us</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What about a strong tea or fizzy cola?</h2>
<p>Coffee, of course, isn’t the only caffeinated beverage that can loan you some energy. </p>
<p>The caffeine in tea, energy drinks and other beverages still impacts the body in the same way. But, since the ingredients mostly come from plants, each caffeinated beverage has its own profile of additional compounds which can have their <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0195666312000335">own stimulant effect</a>, or can interact with caffeine to change its impacts.</p>
<p>Caffeine can be useful, but it isn’t magic. To create energy and re-energise our bodies we need enough food, water and sleep. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/CnnSc1lvLgC","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/197897/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Emma Beckett has received funding for research or consulting from Mars Foods, Nutrition Research Australia, NHMRC, ARC, AMP Foundation, Kellogg, and the University of Newcastle. She is a member of committees/working groups related to nutrition or the Australian Academy of Science, the National Health and Medical Research Council and the Nutrition Society of Australia.</span></em></p>Feeling tired and groggy in the morning may well lead you to crave a coffee boost. But is it a gift or just a loan in terms of energy?Emma Beckett, Senior Lecturer (Food Science and Human Nutrition), School of Environmental and Life Sciences, University of NewcastleLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1861442022-07-07T14:45:17Z2022-07-07T14:45:17ZExercise can reduce stress and improve sleep – particularly for women with breast cancer<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/472774/original/file-20220706-16-3evqrl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=46%2C0%2C5206%2C3460&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Regulating cortisol levels simultaneously improves sleep quality.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/healthy-group-mature-people-jogging-on-1439017070">Rido/ Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When you’re suffering from stress, it can affect almost every aspect of your life – even down to how well you sleep at night. While it’s normal to experience stress over things every now and again, if it continues to affect your sleep in the long-term it can lead to poorer quality sleep and even insomnia. </p>
<p>This may, in turn, lead to other health problems, such as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2007.02.007">depression</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2012.07.019">cancer relapse</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2010-2137">early death</a>. </p>
<p>But <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2022.105843">our recent review</a> suggests that physical activity may be key to improving both stress levels and sleep.</p>
<p>To conduct our review, we looked at all possible studies ever published on this topic. Around 60% of the studies we looked at happened to be done on women with breast cancer, while the other 40% were done on a more diverse range of participants, including men and women without breast cancer. It’s uncertain why so many studies in this area looked at women with breast cancer, but it may be to do with the fact that chemotherapy causes a lot of side effects – such as stress and poor sleep.</p>
<p>Our findings suggest that, in general, exercise was effective for reducing stress levels and improving sleep. Other studies that have looked at a more diverse group of participants have also shown that physical activity can help <a href="https://doi.org/10.1123/JAPA.2012-0082">lower stress</a> and can help people get a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-015-9617-6">better night’s sleep</a>. Research also suggests exercise may be beneficial for people with other health conditions such as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-10-0278">depression</a> or <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1534735415624141">sleep disturbances</a>.</p>
<p>Cortisol is an <a href="https://journals.lww.com/psychosomaticmedicine/Abstract/1995/09000/Effect_of_Chronic_Stress_Associated_With.8.aspx">essential hormone</a> in the body. It works with our brain to regulate a number of important body processes including mood, immune system function and metabolism. It also triggers our “fight-or-flight” response when we encounter things that are scary or stressful – hence why it’s often called our “<a href="https://journals.lww.com/psychosomaticmedicine/Abstract/1995/09000/Effect_of_Chronic_Stress_Associated_With.8.aspx">stress hormone</a>”.</p>
<p>Cortisol also plays an important role in sleep. Cortisol levels change throughout the day, but are generally at their <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2009.06.011">peak in the morning</a>, around <a href="https://doi.org/10.1159/000118611">30-45 minutes</a> after waking up, helping us feel alert and ready to take on the day. But gradually these levels decline throughout the day, which helps us feel tired and fall asleep at night. </p>
<p>But in times of stress you may experience higher cortisol levels in the evening – which makes it <a href="https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2004-1056">harder to get a good night’s sleep</a>. Poor sleep in turn increases stress by affecting <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2015.01.004">the way the body produces cortisol</a>. </p>
<p>According to our review, physical activity counterbalances this negative spiral by regulating cortisol levels – which simultaneously improves sleep quality. We found that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2022.105843">light-to-moderate intensity exercise</a> (such as running and yoga) seem to be the most beneficial in improving stress and sleep. But our study also suggests that exercise works best at reducing stress and improving sleep when it’s tailored to each person’s preference.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A diagram showing how much exercise, the intensity of it, and how many times a week is needed to improve stress levels and sleep quality." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/471876/original/file-20220630-24-m9topd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/471876/original/file-20220630-24-m9topd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471876/original/file-20220630-24-m9topd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471876/original/file-20220630-24-m9topd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471876/original/file-20220630-24-m9topd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471876/original/file-20220630-24-m9topd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471876/original/file-20220630-24-m9topd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This is the formula for less stress and a better night’s sleep, according to our review.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Len De Nys</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Why exercise works</h2>
<p>Previous research suggests a couple of possible reasons why exercise is so good for reducing stress and improving sleep.</p>
<p>First, exercise can be seen as a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arr.2007.08.007">“hormetic” stressor</a>. Hormesis is that sort of good stress that keeps your body alert. During exercise, your body is exposed to various forms of stress – such as the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.01055.2014">stress your muscles experience</a> because of the extra demand placed on them. These stressors simulate existing mechanisms that your body uses to withstand greater stress.</p>
<p>Either too little or too much exposure to exercise stressors can lead to <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/article-abstract/387973?casa_token=O5FwNq-zvMoAAAAA:pgsbkhOK2Vh0JuKwdvGfKl2NhfKCNuAR1kTw2TtJZvUnq6BI3-yuXuIpxgDIebo0K2hs8X-zEg">poor health</a>. It’s that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02895966">sweet spot</a> that regulates cortisol and improve sleep (and overall health). But this sweet spot differs from person to person – and may even <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00081">be affected by your own mental state</a> when you exercise.</p>
<p>Second, it’s important to consider the type of exercise you do – as this can determine whether or not it makes you feel relaxed or more stressed. This is why it’s essential that you enjoy the exercise you do. You may also want to change the intensity of the exercise you do <a href="https://doi.org/10.2147/VHRM.S73688">depending on the time of day</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://europepmc.org/article/med/2540392">Since exercise releases cortisol</a> (especially more intense types of exercise, such as weightlifting or high-intensity interval training), morning exercise can help your body <a href="https://doi.org/10.1113/JP276943">feel more energised</a> during the day and help you feel more tired in the evening. For this same reason, if you’re someone who likes to exercise in the evening it’s best to choose exercises – such as yoga or tai chi – that help you wind down and don’t spike cortisol levels too much. </p>
<p>But of course, not everyone can exercise first thing in the morning. The good news is that exercise almost any time of day can help reduce your stress levels and improve sleep – and this is true of almost every type of exercise, too.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/186144/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anna Catriona Whittaker receives funding from UKRI-ESRC. She is affiliated with Christadelphian Care Homes and Christadelphian Support Network as a Trustee.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Len De Nys does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The clue is in exercise’s ability to control levels of our “stress” hormone, cortisol.Len De Nys, PhD researcher, Stress, Healthy Ageing and Physical Exercise, University of StirlingAnna Catriona Whittaker (previously Phillips), Professor of Behavioural Medicine, University of StirlingLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1774582022-02-28T00:20:06Z2022-02-28T00:20:06ZWater really can provide some relief from anxiety and help us see the glass half full<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/448474/original/file-20220225-21-pufn2y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=39%2C0%2C6534%2C4376&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/smiling-millennial-biracial-woman-look-distance-1835655406">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Many Australians can feel overwhelmed at some stage of their life with feelings of tension, nervousness and fear for the worst. A staggering <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/health/mental-health/mental-health/latest-release#:%7E:text=reverse_axis%22%3Afalse%7D%5D-,Anxiety,15.7%25%20compared%20with%2010.6%25">3.2 million Australians</a> have an anxiety-related condition, with the largest increases over recent years witnessed in those between the ages of 15–24 years. </p>
<p>The growing field of <a href="https://academic.oup.com/eurpub/article/31/Supplement_3/ckab164.019/6405367?login=false">nutritional psychiatry</a> focuses on the effects of foods and drinks on our mental health. Despite water constituting 60–80% of the human body, it is often overlooked as a significant nutrient. A recent tweet by <a href="https://twitter.com/healthgovau/status/1492038209181728770">federal health authorities</a> suggesting water could help reduce anxiety was received with some online scepticism. </p>
<p>In fact, the evidence shows water and hydration can play a role in preventing and managing the symptoms of anxiety.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1492038209181728770"}"></div></p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-psychology-of-comfort-food-why-we-look-to-carbs-for-solace-135432">The psychology of comfort food - why we look to carbs for solace</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>A well-oiled machine</h2>
<p>We all enjoy the cooling sensation a cold drink of water provides on a sweltering summer day. Our bodies are masterfully programmed to let us know when it’s time to rehydrate. We may be nourishing our brain too. </p>
<p>Several years ago, a group of researchers undertook a <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26290294/">review</a> that focused on the various ways hydration impacts health. The results were promising. </p>
<p>Overall, negative emotions such as anger, hostility, confusion and tension as well as fatigue were found to increase with dehydration. One <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21736786/">trial</a> induced mild dehydration and found increased reports of tension or anxiety and fatigue in participants. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/labs/pmc/articles/PMC3984246/">Researchers</a> have also found people who usually drink lots of water feel less calm, less content, and more tense when their water intake drops. When researchers increased the participants’ water intake, people in the study felt more happiness, no matter how much water they normally drank. </p>
<p>Another <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/labs/pmc/articles/PMC6147771/">large study</a> found people who drink five cups or more of water per day were at lower risk of depression and anxiety. In comparison, drinking less than two cups per day doubles the risk. This link was less noticeable for anxiety alone (although feelings of depression and anxiety often influence each other). </p>
<p>More recently, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/labs/pmc/articles/PMC6769552/">researchers</a> found water with electrolytes may prevent anxiety more than plain water, but it was noted that the placebo effect may explain this connection as study participants were aware when they were given the electrolyte drink. </p>
<p>The link between dehydration and anxiety is also observed in <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/labs/pmc/articles/PMC3257694/">children</a>, who are a group at risk of dehydration. Dehydration might also affect how well we <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30395316/">sleep</a>. Poor sleep can exacerbate feelings of anxiety.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/food-as-medicine-your-brain-really-does-want-you-to-eat-more-veggies-74685">Food as medicine: your brain really does want you to eat more veggies</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Water on the brain?</h2>
<p>Almost every bodily function relies on water. Because 75% of brain tissue is water, dehydration reduces energy production in the brain and can change brain <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/labs/pmc/articles/PMC4916775/#:%7E:text=They%20reported%20no%20significant%20effect,et%20al%20found%20no%20changes.&text=Duning%20et%20al13%20showed,0.72%25%20increase%20after%20subsequent%20rehydration.">structure</a>, causing the brain to <a href="https://www.karger.com/Article/Fulltext/463060">slow down</a> and not function properly. </p>
<p>At the molecular level, if water levels are too low, our brain cells cannot function properly, with the brain showing signs of working <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30136401/">harder</a> to complete tasks. </p>
<p>Our cells recognise a state of dehydration as a threat to survival, leading to a state of anxiety. Serotonin is a neurotransmitter (a chemical messenger between brain cells) that stabilises our mood and regulates emotions. During dehydration, we struggle to get the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07315724.2007.10719666">chemicals</a> required to produce serotonin into our brain. </p>
<p>Being just half a litre dehydrated may also increase the stress hormone <a href="https://academic.oup.com/nutritionreviews/article/68/8/439/1841926?login=false">cortisol</a>, which has been associated with a range of mental disorders, including anxiety.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/448475/original/file-20220225-23-mriiwr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="graphic of water being poured into clear brain structure" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/448475/original/file-20220225-23-mriiwr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/448475/original/file-20220225-23-mriiwr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/448475/original/file-20220225-23-mriiwr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/448475/original/file-20220225-23-mriiwr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/448475/original/file-20220225-23-mriiwr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=548&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/448475/original/file-20220225-23-mriiwr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=548&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/448475/original/file-20220225-23-mriiwr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=548&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Water makes up 75% of brain tissue.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://image.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/brain-filled-water3d-illustration-600w-1121751374.jpg">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/want-to-improve-your-mood-its-time-to-ditch-the-junk-food-107358">Want to improve your mood? It's time to ditch the junk food</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>The big picture</h2>
<p>So, based on what is currently known and emerging evidence, the <a href="https://twitter.com/healthgovau/status/1492038209181728770">government health communication</a> provides some good advice. Addressing lifestyle factors including your water intake in the context of your overall diet, physical activity levels, and sleep are important foundations that can support a person’s mental health. And there is evidence to suggest dehydration can affect our mood. </p>
<p>But it’s important to note there are a wide range of factors that affect an individual’s level of anxiety. No single thing is likely to be responsible for completely resolving those feelings. This is particularly true in people experiencing significant anxiety, where simply drinking more water is unlikely to be helpful on its own.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/177458/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nikolaj Travica receives funding from Deakin University as a post-doctoral research fellow </span></em></p>Drinking more water can make you feel happier – and not drinking enough may contribute to feelings of anxiety and fatigue.Nikolaj Travica, Postdoctoral research fellow, Deakin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1730712021-12-22T13:12:42Z2021-12-22T13:12:42ZStress is contagious in relationships – here’s what you can do to support your partner and boost your own health during the holidays and beyond<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/438128/original/file-20211216-13-18dcd12.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C8660%2C5769&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Relationship stress can hit new highs during the holidays.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/young-latin-couple-on-problems-with-sad-expression-royalty-free-image/1327845728?adppopup=true">Aaron Amat/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>With the flurry of shopping, spending money and traveling to see family, stress can feel inevitable during the holidays. </p>
<p>You might already know stress can affect your own health, but what you may not realize is that your stress – and how you manage it – is catching. Your stress can spread around, particularly to your loved ones. </p>
<p>As a <a href="https://www.purdue.edu/hhs/hdfs/directory/faculty/shrout_rosie.html">social-health psychologist</a>, I have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbih.2021.100328">developed a model</a> on how partners and their stress influence each other’s psychological and biological health. Through that and my other research, I’ve learned that the quality of intimate relationships is crucial to people’s health. </p>
<p>Here’s just a sample: <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721420949521">Relationship stress can alter</a> the immune, endocrine and cardiovascular systems. <a href="https://doi.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0022-006X.71.1.176">A study of newlyweds</a> found levels of stress hormones were higher when couples were hostile during a conflict – that is, when they were critical, sarcastic, spoke with an unpleasant tone and used aggravating facial expressions, like eyerolls.</p>
<p>Likewise, in another study, people in hostile relationships had <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.62.12.1377">slower wound healing, higher inflammation</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0031-9384(03)00160-4">higher blood pressure and greater heart rate changes</a> during conflict. Middle-aged and older men <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbv023">had higher blood pressure</a> at times when their wives reported greater stress. And partners who felt they weren’t being cared-for or understood had poorer well-being and higher mortality rates <a href="https://doi.org/10.1097/PSY.0000000000000618">10 years later</a> when compared with those who felt more cared-for and appreciated by their partners.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">“How to deal with holiday stress.”</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Conflict and cortisol</h2>
<p>Cortisol is a hormone that plays a key role in the body’s stress response. Cortisol has a diurnal rhythm, so its levels are usually highest soon after waking and then gradually decline during the day. But chronic stress can lead to unhealthy cortisol patterns, such as low cortisol levels upon waking or cortisol not tapering off much by the end of the day. These patterns are associated with an increase in disease development and mortality risks. </p>
<p>My colleagues and I found that conflict <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2020.104839">altered cortisol levels</a> of couples on the day they had a dispute; people with stressed partners who used negative behaviors during the conflict had higher cortisol levels even four hours after the conflict ended. </p>
<p>These findings suggest that arguing with a partner who is already stressed could have lasting biological health effects for ourselves. </p>
<h2>Managing stress</h2>
<p>Here are three ways you can reduce the stress in your relationship, during and after the holidays.</p>
<p>First, talk to and validate each other. Tell your partner you understand their feelings. Talk about big and little things before they escalate. Sometimes partners hide problems to protect each other, but this can actually <a href="https://doi.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0893-3200.21.3.380">make things worse</a>. Share your feelings, and when your partner shares in return, don’t interrupt. Remember, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797615575022">feeling cared-for and understood</a> by a partner is good for your emotional well-being and promotes healthier cortisol patterns, so being there for each other and listening to each other can have good health effects for both you and your partner.</p>
<p>Next, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1097/PSY.0b013e318185c4fc">show your love</a>. Hug each other, hold hands and be kind. This too lowers cortisol and can make you feel happier. One study found that a satisfying relationship can even help improve <a href="https://www.doi.org/10.1097/PSY.0b013e318185c4fc">vaccination response</a>.</p>
<p>Then remind yourself that you’re part of a team. Brainstorm solutions, be each other’s cheerleaders and celebrate the wins together. <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00571">Couples who unite</a> to tackle stress are healthier and more satisfied with their relationships. Some examples: Make dinner or run errands when your partner is stressed; relax and reminisce together; or try a new restaurant, dance or exercise class together.</p>
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<p>That said, it’s also true that sometimes these steps aren’t enough. Many couples will still need help managing stress and overcoming difficulties. Couples therapy helps partners learn to communicate and resolve conflicts effectively. It’s critical to be proactive and seek help from <a href="https://www.aamft.org/Directories/Find_a_Therapist.aspx">someone who is trained</a> to deal with ongoing relationship difficulties. </p>
<p>So this holiday season, tell your partner that you’re there for them, preferably while you’re hugging. Take each other’s stress seriously, and no more eyerolls. It’s not so much the stress itself; it’s the way that both of you manage the stress together. Working as an open and honest team is the key ingredient to a healthy and happy relationship, during holiday season and into the new year.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/173071/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rosie Shrout does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Hostile partners can experience jumps in stress and blood pressure after an argument. But there are ways to cool conflicts, even during a pandemic holiday season.Rosie Shrout, Assistant Professor of Human Development and Family Studies, Purdue UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1678222021-09-28T14:17:19Z2021-09-28T14:17:19ZCold showers are said to be good for you – here’s what the evidence shows<p>A cold shower in the morning is a pretty unpleasant way to start the day. Yet many have been tempted to take up the habit because being immersed in cold water has many purported health benefits, both physical and mental.</p>
<p>Cold showers were first administered for health reasons in the early 19th century when <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0957154X18801766?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%20%200pubmed">doctors designed them</a> for use on asylum and prison inmates to “cool hot, inflamed brains, and to instil fear to tame impetuous wills”. </p>
<p>By the mid-19th century, the Victorians realised that the shower had other uses, namely washing people – and it would be better if the water was warm. So the shower went from being a device used to inflict unpleasantness for an hour and a half to one that was very pleasant and lasted about five minutes.</p>
<p>And yet the practice of taking a cold shower for health benefits never truly went away, and, indeed, seems to be <a href="https://www.reddit.com/r/coldshowers/">enjoying a resurgence</a>. Especially among <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/jack-dorsey-daily-routine-mediation-ben-greenfield-podcast-a8864651.html">Silicon Valley types</a>.</p>
<h2>But what does the evidence show?</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5025014/pdf/pone.0161749.pdf">A large study</a> from the Netherlands found that people who took a cold shower were less likely than those who took a warm shower to take time off work due to sickness. </p>
<p>A group of over 3,000 people was split into four groups and asked to have a warm shower every day. But one group was asked to end it with 30 seconds of cold water, another with 60 seconds of cold water, another with 90 seconds of cold water. The control group could merely enjoy a warm shower. The participants were asked to follow this protocol for a month. (Although, 64% continued with the cold-water regimen because they liked it so much.)</p>
<p>After a three-month follow-up period, they found that the groups that had cold water had a 29% reduction of self-reported sick leave from work. Interestingly, the duration of the cold water did not affect the sickness absence. </p>
<p>The reason a blast of cold water might stop people from getting ill is not clear, but some research suggests it may have something to do with boosting the immune system. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8925815/">A study</a> from the Czech Republic showed that when “athletic young men” were immersed in cold water three times a week for six weeks, it gave a slight boost to their immune system. However, more and larger studies are needed to confirm these findings.</p>
<p>Cold water also appears to activate the sympathetic nervous system, the part of the nervous system that governs the <a href="https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-the-fight-or-flight-response-2795194">fight-or-flight</a>’ response (an automatic physiological reaction to an event that is perceived as dangerous, stressful or frightening). When this is activated, such as during a cold shower, you get an increase in the hormone <a href="https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s004210050065.pdf">noradrenaline</a>. This is what most likely causes the increase in heart rate and blood pressure observed when people are immersed in cold water, and is linked to the suggested health improvements. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/m2GywoS77qc?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Fight-or-flight response explained.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Cold water immersion has also been shown to improve circulation. When exposed to cold water, there is decreased blood flow to the skin. When the cold water stops, the body has to warm itself up, so there is an increase in blood flow to the surface of the skin. Some scientists think that this could improve circulation. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31842246/">A study</a> that looked at cold-water immersion after exercise found that, after four weeks, blood flow to and from muscles had improved. </p>
<p>There is also some evidence that a cold shower can help you lose weight. <a href="https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s004210050065.pdf">A study</a> found that cold-water immersion at 14°C increased metabolism by 350%. Metabolism is the process by which your body converts what you eat and drink into energy, so a higher metabolism roughly equals more energy burned.</p>
<p>Aside from the physical benefits, cold showers could have mental health benefits too. There is a school of thought that cold water immersion causes increased mental alertness due to the stimulation of the previously mentioned fight-or-flight response. In older adults, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10378499/">cold water applied to the face and neck</a> has been shown to improve brain function. </p>
<p>A cold shower may also help relieve symptoms of depression. A <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17993252/">proposed mechanism</a> is that, due to the high density of cold receptors in the skin, a cold shower sends an overwhelming amount of electrical impulses from peripheral nerve endings to the brain, which may have an anti-depressive effect.</p>
<p>There is a fair amount of evidence that cold water immersion or having a cold shower is good for your health – even if the reasons why are still a little unclear. But before you start turning the cold tap on towards the end of your shower, you should know that there are some risks to a cold shower. Because a sudden gush of cold water shocks the body, it can be <a href="https://physoc.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1113/EP086283">dangerous for people with heart disease</a> and could precipitate a heart attack or heart-rhythm irregularities.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/167822/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lindsay Bottoms does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Evidence is accumulating that a cold shower has many physical and mental health benefits.Lindsay Bottoms, Reader in Exercise and Health Physiology, University of HertfordshireLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1642812021-07-15T12:55:23Z2021-07-15T12:55:23ZWhat stress does to the body – and how practice can help athletes react better under pressure<p>It isn’t easy being a professional athlete. Not only are the physical demands greater than most people could handle, athletes also face intense psychological pressure during competition.</p>
<p>This is something 18-year-old British tennis player Emma Raducanu <a href="https://twitter.com/EmmaRaducanu/status/1412423562577780746">wrote about on social media</a> following her <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/tennis/57737252">retirement from Wimbledon</a>. Though the young player had been doing well in the tournament, she began having difficulty regulating her breathing and heart rate during a match, which she later chalked up to “the accumulation of the excitement and the buzz.” </p>
<p>She isn’t the first athlete to experience the physical effects of stress, with <a href="https://twitter.com/MarcusRashford/status/1412440891931963399">English footballer Marcus Rashford</a> revealing he’d also had a similar experience in the past.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1412440891931963399"}"></div></p>
<p>There are many reasons why stress can cause such powerful bodily reactions. But with training, this response can be changed so that a person reacts positively under pressure.</p>
<h2>Evaluating stress</h2>
<p>Performance stress is almost unavoidable. But there are many different factors that dictate just how our <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=i-ySQQuUpr8C&oi=fnd&pg=PR5&ots=DgERqoliSg&sig=Ipb0Ikpvo0HN_Sg85S-QeMr88Ac&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false">minds and bodies respond</a> to stressful events. </p>
<p>Typically, stress is the result of an exchange between two factors: demands and resources. A person might feel stressed about an event if they feel the demands on them are greater than they can handle. So for an athlete, demands include the high level of physical and mental effort required to succeed, their levels of uncertainty about the event or their chance of succeeding, and any potential dangers to their health (such as injury) or their self-esteem.</p>
<p>Resources, on the other hand, are a person’s ability to cope with these demands. These include factors such as confidence levels, how much control they believe they have over the situation’s outcome, and whether they’re looking forward to the event or not.</p>
<p>Each new demand or change in circumstances affects whether a person responds positively or negatively to stress. Typically the more resources a person feels they have in handling the situation, the more positive their stress response. This positive stress response is known as a <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17509840902829331?casa_token=h3N1RUQH0z8AAAAA%3AGxYCGGgtScJ-5V1MFJqt3YlYNqMJm_lGpV2hoPNFCypbx9NkoPCany9x2d8G6KnihiL_yuy2G_E">challenge state</a>. </p>
<p>But should the person feel there are too many demands placed on them, the more likely they are to experience a negative stress response – known as a threat state. Research shows that challenge states lead to <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/buy/2018-26658-001">good performance</a>, while threat states lead to poorer performance.</p>
<p>So in Raducanu’s case, a much larger audience, higher expectations and facing a more skillful opponent, may all have led her to feel there were greater demands being placed on her – but she didn’t have the resources to tackle them. This led to her <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books/about/Tipping_the_Balance.html?id=OBo6tAEACAAJ&source=kp_book_description&redir_esc=y">experiencing a threat response</a>. </p>
<h2>Consequences of Stress</h2>
<p>Our challenge and threat responses essentially influence how our body responds to stressful situations, as both affect the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022103104000071?casa_token=xMVg9wQCVcsAAAAA:6OOPjU_v3QQ4IGUkv0DmxbUHIaFg2MQFghV3UmulEJ8hivn_cHv3GX__EaQ_-b9yU9XTntnI">production of adrenaline and cortisol</a> (also known as “stress hormones”). </p>
<p>During a challenge state, adrenaline increases the amount of blood pumped from the heart and expands the blood vessels. This is good for the body, as adrenaline allows more energy to be delivered to the muscles and brain. This increase of blood and decrease of pressure in the blood vessels has been consistently related to superior <a href="https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/65672592/L_Behnke_L_D_Kaczmarek_Successful_performance_and_cardiovascular_markers.pdf?1613144025=&response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DSuccessful_performance_and_cardiovascula.pdf&Expires=1626342567&Signature=LCPXn45OHcJC1-IJMyq6HaZ2eGxX1n3Jj3yvudpqFNnl3OPnvU8pL-vM1KzinRK5FadpOtrFOVJRXsr7rMFneLVS6ZY2eQTD4AgEcOFp9sqctY9AhEWOz2djSD8OLcASiZ3xOcGEtOhOiPcE0gi92qjO9gHtBX-M%7E8wegkQHWPflhPgP-R0MXpeBmRN3A4qmriFebAe5C26l-tgtPsUVkAAVk5cAv%7EvZRaS9bdXLKZqPbikYiiLlcg3728DzLv-WOBJG8ZmnJ8rwQj6bXIRea1%7EqauWHyaexiSN3QLM5odXvGnihgr3m81yLQx9ZXkTjI8NNUXAnlLA-s%7EeB8fSpGA__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA">sport performance</a> in everything from <a href="https://journals.humankinetics.com/view/journals/jsep/35/4/article-p387.xml">cricket batting</a>, <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1469-8986.2012.01449.x">golf putting</a> and <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/buy/2018-56865-001">penalty taking</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A football player takes a penalty kick, while the goal waits in the net to stop it." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/411476/original/file-20210715-32662-qvisrz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/411476/original/file-20210715-32662-qvisrz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411476/original/file-20210715-32662-qvisrz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411476/original/file-20210715-32662-qvisrz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411476/original/file-20210715-32662-qvisrz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411476/original/file-20210715-32662-qvisrz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411476/original/file-20210715-32662-qvisrz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Adrenaline can improve penalty performance.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/young-beautiful-footballers-train-football-353411210">BRG.photography/ Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But during a threat state, cortisol inhibits the positive effect of <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/spc3.12052?casa_token=Ce4tg4wT0dMAAAAA%3AMfd6Ep3PBMIdXduRFx64D2oP96lnKO0YLZf6zadQy_sgLtVN_xbYwprY-l7uSh9wZxXGwb6LbZ_G">adrenaline</a>, resulting in tighter blood vessels, higher blood pressure, slower psychological responses (such as <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fa0026657">poorer decision making</a>), and a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0149763411000467?casa_token=Cupr5_u2IHQAAAAA:G60EJzgl4Ac0knTBPqIzI7GYUgGckIr6OoF-Oq4V49l6JMT69vt3_R8av_gEtlxUkNt3eQJr">higher heart rate</a>. In short, a threat state makes people more anxious – they make worse decisions and perform more poorly. </p>
<p>In tennis players, higher levels of cortisol have been associated with more unsuccessful <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306453014000250?casa_token=O73cUWvDeT0AAAAA:fOh52rLUbIZgJTKCe3tdQbT7-0F1jX641Tx9oZTPKtRuN7yKA2hoj9yehkA8DhJrUyA8pGyj#bib0025">serves</a>, and greater levels of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S030645300800228X?casa_token=1ZYczrGH2R8AAAAA:S1z6dhpw5PzGJ8m2AQosx2YwrNaQhFz_5xAOsJfA1XnYzHrJM8C-tMnUD-xLyCeCdOc7E25s">anxiety</a>.</p>
<p>That said, anxiety is also a common experience for athletes when they’re under pressure. Anxiety can increase heart rate and perspiration, cause heart palpitations, muscle tremors and <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Salahuddin-Khan-11/publication/320893282_Effects_of_Anxiety_on_Athletic_Performance/links/5a016354aca2725286e2efd8/Effects-of-Anxiety-on-Athletic-Performance.pdf">shortness of breath</a>, as well as headaches, nausea, stomach pain, weakness and a desire to escape in more <a href="https://so06.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/IJBS/article/view/2205">severe cases</a>. Anxiety can also reduce concentration and <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00314/full">self-control</a> (such as being able to stay calm), and cause overthinking. </p>
<p>How intensely a person experiences anxiety depends on the demands and resources they have. Anxiety may also manifest itself in the form of excitement or nervousness depending on the stress response.</p>
<h2>Coping mechanisms</h2>
<p>Negative stress responses can be harmful to both <a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.1.102803.144141?casa_token=Uoefo1leQgYAAAAA%3A_EehDcG0I2znXcblwE1EkCajaGcUz5p8SDTVdpB5QuPSmgTBdNNjJuY1MgWRqYpI5rzfDzJMjNo">physical and mental health</a> – and repeated responses can increase risk of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0149763416304614?casa_token=yPUxohE9oV0AAAAA:kzSPtAMjmfnGoqfK4mFe2W8X6gjdUT9G27TTGCF8wUzsq5Jlw4iuDvdAQfOtWamr9ziY3gFW">heart disease</a> and <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/psychological-medicine/article/not-fade-away-the-hpa-axis-and-depression/0C0E0D12EDE56C8FAD94CBC90EA83BD2">depression</a>. </p>
<p>But there are many ways athletes can ensure they respond positively under pressure. Positive stress responses can be promoted by encouraging feelings of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S016787601400172X?casa_token=IY3r4berhVwAAAAA:F7FHEzgxEIHJkM9ztPZ4GSSD1RXUL9CgbQFq4-e-6AR5yurmOPWY-3K-ZmltIAkWA-GRJyex">confidence and control</a> through the language we and others (such as coaches or parents) use. Psychologists can also help athletes change how they see their <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10615806.2017.1330952?casa_token=uHTex2sV4hkAAAAA%3AmSWSnlKEqnhzsdlc4f346seExw63oAft9xi7D5wdt4ESn9jy-A08Q2XO0uyLpAiV_YIGxvX_WBE">physiological responses</a> – such as helping them see a higher heart rate as excitement, rather than nerves. </p>
<p>Psychological skills – such as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167876016308455?casa_token=eEPizB-OU_IAAAAA:39VknXktbqTy3veF1TumBGjXP9spj9Ca9bMTPoYvbVbaRLwgyfKSbBGkA8kh-4hNHz_q0Osh">visualisation</a> – can also help decrease our physiological responses to threat. This may involve <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jennifer-Cumming/publication/267749244_The_Role_of_Imagery_in_Performance/links/545901b30cf26d5090acfdb2/The-Role-of-Imagery-in-Performance.pdf">creating a mental picture</a> of a time when the athlete performed well, or picturing themselves doing well in the future. This can help create feelings of confidence and control over the stressful event. </p>
<p>Recreating competitive pressure during training can also help athletes learn how to <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/21520704.2016.1255496?casa_token=Z4z5QXQ9M5AAAAAA%3AzFcKQGlrZAZpvBOUw2IbX6bIgwhmsirncM776YLoCKLjqNxJYryOrPzYlfZ28x63TqhH2s5zrkY">cope with stress</a>. An example of this might be scoring athletes against their peers to create a sense of competition. This would increase the demands players experience compared to a normal training session, while still allowing them to practice coping with stress.</p>
<p>It is therefore possible to learn to have a better reaction to <a href="https://www.ted.com/talks/kelly_mcgonigal_how_to_make_stress_your_friend?language=en#t-4101">stressful situations</a>. Learning this skill may be just one of the many reasons athletes are able to perform many of the feats they do.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/164281/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jamie Barker receives funding from the Economic and Social Research Council. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrew Wilkinson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Many elite athletes experience intense pressure, which can often manifest itself in many physical ways.Andrew Wilkinson, PhD Candidate, Sport and Exercise Psychology, Loughborough UniversityJamie Barker, Senior Lecturer in Sport and Exercise Psychology, Loughborough UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1620752021-06-28T12:40:12Z2021-06-28T12:40:12ZThe neuroscience behind why your brain may need time to adjust to ‘un-social distancing’<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/408408/original/file-20210625-24-9uvzcz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=65%2C95%2C3401%2C2437&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Maybe you're not quite feeling ready to get back out there.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/man-covers-face-with-sweater-royalty-free-image/1289733087">Grace Cary/Moment via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>With COVID-19 <a href="https://covid.cdc.gov/covid-data-tracker/#trends_dailytrendscases">vaccines working</a> and restrictions lifting across the country, it’s finally time for those now vaccinated who’ve been hunkered down at home to ditch the sweatpants and reemerge from their Netflix caves. But your brain may not be so eager to dive back into your former social life.</p>
<p>Social distancing measures proved essential for slowing COVID-19’s spread worldwide – <a href="https://www.globalpolicy.science/covid19">preventing upward of an estimated 500 million cases</a>. But, while necessary, 15 months away from each other has taken a toll on people’s mental health.</p>
<p>In a <a href="https://mcc.gse.harvard.edu/reports/loneliness-in-america">national survey</a> last fall, 36% of adults in the U.S. – including 61% of young adults – reported feeling “serious loneliness” during the pandemic. Statistics like these suggest people would be itching to hit the social scene.</p>
<p>But if the idea of making small talk at a crowded happy hour sounds terrifying to you, you’re not alone. <a href="https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/stress/2021/sia-pandemic-report.pdf">Nearly half of Americans reported feeling uneasy</a> about returning to in-person interaction regardless of vaccination status.</p>
<p>So how can people be so lonely yet so nervous about refilling their social calendars?</p>
<p>Well, the brain is remarkably adaptable. And while we can’t know exactly what our brains have gone through over the last year, neuroscientists <a href="https://fbri.vtc.vt.edu/research/labs/pan.html">like me</a> have some insight into how social isolation and resocialization affect the brain.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/408409/original/file-20210625-18-1w3keoz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="view from behind of woman sitting on bed and looking out window" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/408409/original/file-20210625-18-1w3keoz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/408409/original/file-20210625-18-1w3keoz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408409/original/file-20210625-18-1w3keoz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408409/original/file-20210625-18-1w3keoz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408409/original/file-20210625-18-1w3keoz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408409/original/file-20210625-18-1w3keoz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408409/original/file-20210625-18-1w3keoz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Too much time alone can make your social thermostat feel on the fritz.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/lone-woman-sitting-on-the-bed-looking-out-of-the-royalty-free-image/1223940270">Massimiliano Finzi/Moment via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Social homeostasis – the need to socialize</h2>
<p>Humans have an evolutionarily hardwired need to socialize – though it may not feel like it when deciding between a dinner invite and rewatching “Schitt’s Creek.”</p>
<p>From insects to primates, maintaining social networks is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.es.05.110174.001545">critical for survival</a> in the animal kingdom. Social groups provide mating prospects, cooperative hunting and protection from predators. </p>
<p>But <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.14016">social homeostasis</a> – the right balance of social connections – must be met. Small social networks can’t deliver those benefits, while large ones increase competition for resources and mates. Because of this, human brains developed specialized circuitry to gauge our relationships and make the correct adjustments – much like a social thermostat.</p>
<p>Social homeostasis involves <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2021.02.028">many brain regions</a>, and at the center is the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2015.02.018">mesocorticolimbic circuit</a> – or “reward system.” That same circuit motivates you to eat chocolate when you crave something sweet or swipe on Tinder when you crave … well, you get it.</p>
<p>And like those motivations, a recent study found that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41593-020-00742-z">reducing social interaction causes social cravings</a> – producing brain activity patterns similar to food deprivation.</p>
<p>So if people hunger for social connection like they hunger for food, what happens to the brain when you starve socially?</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/408411/original/file-20210625-25-1421uoc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="billboard with public health message 'Stay home, stay safe.'" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/408411/original/file-20210625-25-1421uoc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/408411/original/file-20210625-25-1421uoc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408411/original/file-20210625-25-1421uoc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408411/original/file-20210625-25-1421uoc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408411/original/file-20210625-25-1421uoc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408411/original/file-20210625-25-1421uoc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408411/original/file-20210625-25-1421uoc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Pandemic health precautions meant many people have spent a lot more time than usual at home – possibly alone.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/mounds-view-minnesota-billboard-sign-telling-people-to-stay-news-photo/1222959851">Education Images/Universal Images Group via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Your brain on social isolation</h2>
<p>Scientists can’t shove people into isolation and look inside their brains. Instead, researchers rely on lab animals to learn more about social brain wiring. Luckily, because social bonds are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.es.05.110174.001545">essential in the animal kingdom</a>, these same brain circuits are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.14016">found across species</a>.</p>
<p>One prominent effect of social isolation is – you guessed it – increased anxiety and stress.</p>
<p>Many studies find that removing animals from their cage buddies <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2012.05.011">increases anxiety-like behaviors and cortisol</a>, the primary stress hormone. Human studies also support this, as people with <a href="http://website60s.com/upload/files/archives-of-gerontology-and-geriatrics-vol-82-6.pdf">small social circles have higher cortisol levels</a> and other anxiety-related symptoms similar to socially deprived lab animals.</p>
<p>Evolutionarily this effect makes sense – animals that lose group protection must become <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2005.11.007">hypervigilant</a> to fend for themselves. And it doesn’t just occur in the wild. One study found that self-described “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/17588928.2015.1070136">lonely” people are more vigilant of social threats</a> like rejection or exclusion.</p>
<p>Another important region for social homeostasis is the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2021.02.028">hippocampus</a> – the brain’s learning and memory center. Successful social circles require you to learn social behaviors – such as <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28699275/">selflessness and cooperation</a> – and recognize friends from foes. But your brain stores tremendous amounts of information and must <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2017.05.039">remove unimportant connections</a>. So, like most of your high school Spanish – if you don’t use it, you lose it.</p>
<p>Several animal studies show that even temporary adulthood isolation impairs both <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-36871-6">social memory</a> – like recognizing a familiar face – and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2019.03.011">working memory</a> – like recalling a recipe while cooking.</p>
<p>And isolated humans may be just as forgetful. Antarctic expeditioners had <a href="https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMc1904905">shrunken hippocampi</a> after just 14 months of social isolation. Similarly, adults with small social circles are more likely to <a href="https://doi.org/10.3233/JAD-180501">develop memory loss and cognitive decline</a> later in life.</p>
<p>So, human beings might not be roaming the wild anymore, but social homeostasis is still critical to survival. Luckily, as adaptable as the brain is to isolation, the same may be true with resocialization.</p>
<h2>Your brain on social reconnection</h2>
<p>Though only a few studies have explored the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopha.2018.05.086">reversibility of the anxiety and stress associated with isolation</a>, they suggest that resocialization repairs these effects.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/408412/original/file-20210625-23-ni8osh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="several marmosets lying together" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/408412/original/file-20210625-23-ni8osh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/408412/original/file-20210625-23-ni8osh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=462&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408412/original/file-20210625-23-ni8osh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=462&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408412/original/file-20210625-23-ni8osh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=462&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408412/original/file-20210625-23-ni8osh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=580&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408412/original/file-20210625-23-ni8osh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=580&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408412/original/file-20210625-23-ni8osh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=580&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Like humans, marmosets take comfort in companionship.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/baby-marmoset-is-viewed-at-an-exotic-animal-and-wildlife-news-photo/959712880">George Rose/Getty Images News</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>One study, for example, found that formerly isolated marmosets <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2011.06.014">first had higher stress and cortisol levels when resocialized</a> but then quickly recovered. Adorably, the once-isolated animals even spent more time grooming their new buddies.</p>
<p>Social memory and cognitive function also seem to be highly adaptable.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2018.09.033">Mouse</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nlm.2015.07.002">rat</a> studies report that while animals cannot recognize a familiar friend immediately after short-term isolation, they quickly regain their memory after resocializing.</p>
<p>And there may be hope for people emerging from socially distanced lockdown as well. A recent Scottish study conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic found that residents had <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3821">some cognitive decline during the harshest lockdown weeks</a> but quickly recovered once restrictions eased.</p>
<p>Unfortunately, studies like these are still sparse. And while animal research is informative, it likely represents extreme scenarios since people weren’t in total isolation over the last year. Unlike mice stuck in cages, many in the U.S. had virtual game nights and Zoom birthday parties (lucky us).</p>
<p>So power through the nervous elevator chats and pesky brain fog, because “un-social distancing” should reset your social homeostasis very soon.</p>
<p>[<em>Understand new developments in science, health and technology, each week.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/science-editors-picks-71/?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=science-understand">Subscribe to The Conversation’s science newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/162075/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kareem Clark does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Ready to party post-pandemic, but at the same time feeling shy? Here’s how social isolation affects the brain – and what research suggests about the effects of resocialization.Kareem Clark, Postdoctoral Associate in Neuroscience, Virginia TechLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1609352021-05-17T13:09:59Z2021-05-17T13:09:59ZFour health benefits of hugs – and why they feel so good<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/401033/original/file-20210517-23-c14522.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=17%2C0%2C5973%2C3997&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Our sense of touch is important for creating and maintaining social bonds.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/african-american-couple-wear-medical-face-1952299942">DimaBerlin/ Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>For many people, the thing they’ve missed most during the pandemic is being able to hug loved ones. Indeed, it wasn’t until we lost our ability to hug friends and family did many realise just how important touch is for many aspects of our health – <a href="https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/why_physical_touch_matters_for_your_well_being">including our mental health</a>. </p>
<p>But now that vaccine programmes are being rolled out and restrictions are beginning to ease in much of the UK, many people will be keen to hug again. And the good news is that not only do hugs feel good – they also have many health benefits.</p>
<p>The reason hugs feel so good has to do with our sense of touch. It’s an extremely important sense which allows us not only to physically explore the world around us, but also to communicate with others by creating and <a href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/82120998.pdf">maintaining social bonds</a>.</p>
<p>Touch consists of two distinct systems. The first is “fast-touch”, a system of nerves which allows us to rapidly detect contact (for example, if a fly landed on your nose, or you touched something hot). The second system is “slow-touch”. This is a population of recently discovered nerves, called <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0149763408001693">c-tactile afferents</a>, which process the emotional meaning of touch.</p>
<p>These c-tactile afferents have essentially evolved to be “cuddle nerves” and are typically activated by a very specific kind of stimulation: a gentle, skin-temperature touch, the kind typical of a hug or caress. We see c-tactile afferents as the neural input stage in signalling the rewarding, pleasurable aspects of social tactile interactions such as hugging and touching. </p>
<p>Touch is the first sense to start working in the womb (around 14 weeks). From the moment we’re born, the gentle caress of a mother has multiple health benefits, such as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0031938418308126">lowering heart rate</a> and promoting the growth of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2865952/">brain cell connections</a>.</p>
<p>When someone hugs us, the stimulation of c-tactile afferents in our skin sends signals, via the spinal cord, to the brain’s emotion processing networks. This induces a cascade of neurochemical signals, which have proven health benefits. Some of the neurochemicals include the hormone <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01529/full">oxytocin</a>, which plays an important role in social bonding, slows down heart rate and reduces stress and anxiety levels. The release of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0149763420306898?via%25253Dihub">endorphins</a> in the brain’s reward pathways supports the immediate feelings of pleasure and wellbeing derived from a hug or caress.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A young girl runs to hug her grandpa, who is wearing a mask outdoors." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/401034/original/file-20210517-15-ztze7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/401034/original/file-20210517-15-ztze7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/401034/original/file-20210517-15-ztze7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/401034/original/file-20210517-15-ztze7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/401034/original/file-20210517-15-ztze7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/401034/original/file-20210517-15-ztze7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/401034/original/file-20210517-15-ztze7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Hugging releases many important neurochemicals.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/virus-rules-stay-there-grandfather-granddaughter-1703507518">Mladen Zivkovic/ Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Hugging has such a relaxing and calming effect that it also benefits our health in other ways.</p>
<p><strong>It improves our sleep:</strong>
From the benefits of <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31655427/">co-sleeping</a> with infants to <a href="https://www.sleep.org/cuddling-and-sleep/">cuddling your partner</a>, gentle touch is known to regulate our sleep, as it lowers levels of the hormone cortisol. Cortisol is a key regulator of our sleep-wake cycle but also increases when we’re stressed. So it’s no wonder high levels of stress can delay sleep and cause fragmented <a href="https://jcsm.aasm.org/doi/full/10.5664/jcsm.7100">sleep patterns or insomnia</a>.</p>
<p><strong>It reduces reactivity to stress:</strong>
Beyond the immediate soothing and pleasurable feelings provided by a hug, social touch also has longer-term benefits to our health, making us <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/ejn.14951">less reactive to stress</a> and building resilience. </p>
<p>Nurturing touch, during early developmental periods, produces higher levels of oxytocin receptors and lower levels of cortisol in brain regions that are vital for <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01529/full">regulating emotions</a>. Infants that receive high levels of nurturing contact grow up to be less reactive to stressors and show <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0045446">lower levels of anxiety</a>.</p>
<p><strong>Increases wellbeing and pleasure:</strong>
Across our lifespan, social touch bonds us together and helps <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306452220307405">maintain our relationships</a>. As noted, this is because it releases endorphins, which makes us see hugs and touch as rewarding. Touch provides the “glue” that holds us together, underpinning our physical and emotional wellbeing. </p>
<p>And when touch is desired, the benefits are shared by both people in the exchange. In fact, even stroking your pet can have benefits on health and wellbeing – with oxytocin levels increasing in both the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5645535/">pet and the owner</a>.</p>
<p><strong>It could help us fight off infections:</strong>
Through regulation of our hormones – including oxytocin and cortisol – touching and hugging can also affect our body’s immune response. Whereas high levels of stress and anxiety can suppress our ability to <a href="http://www.sakkyndig.com/psykologi/artvit/segerstrom2004.pdf">fight infections</a>, close, supportive <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/imm.12341">relationships benefit health and well-being</a>. </p>
<p>Research even suggests that cuddling in bed could <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25526910/">protect us against the common cold</a>. By monitoring hugging frequency among just over 400 adults who were then exposed to a common cold virus, researchers found the “huggers” won hands-down in being less likely to get a cold. And even if they did, they had less severe symptoms.</p>
<h2>Hug it out</h2>
<p>While it’s important we continue to keep ourselves safe, it’s equally as important that we don’t give up hugs forever. Social isolation and loneliness are known to <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1745691614568352?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&amp;rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org&amp;rfr_dat=cr_pub%252520%2525200pubmed">increase our chances of premature death</a> – and perhaps future research should investigate whether it’s a lack of hugs or social touch that may be driving this. Touch is an instinct that is all-around beneficial for our <a href="https://www.cell.com/neuron/fulltext/S0896-6273(14)00387-0">mental and physical health</a> – so we should celebrate its return.</p>
<p>Of course, not everyone craves a hug. So for those that don’t, there’s no reason to worry about missing out on the benefits of hugs – as giving yourself a hug has also been shown to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006899314001395">regulate emotional processes</a> and reduce stress.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/160935/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Francis McGlone has received funding from The Leverhulme Trust, BIAL, </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Susannah Walker receives funding from The Leverhulme Trust and BIAL. </span></em></p>Touch is the first sense to develop in the womb.Francis McGlone, Professor in Neuroscience, Liverpool John Moores UniversitySusannah Walker, Senior Lecturer, Natural Sciences & Psychology, Liverpool John Moores UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1390962020-06-11T22:02:36Z2020-06-11T22:02:36ZStrange physical symptoms? Blame the chronic stress of life during the COVID-19 pandemic<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/340478/original/file-20200609-165397-btma4q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=502%2C10%2C5985%2C4456&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Chronic stress can lead to inflammation, which can result in physical symptoms as well as mental health symptoms.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>During the current COVID-19 pandemic have you been wondering why you’re getting headaches more often? Or stomach aches? Or feeling itchy or getting pimples? Or why your periods are irregular or more painful than usual? Exciting recent science suggests that the answers may lie in our body’s <a href="https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190681777.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190681777">biological reactions to stress</a>. </p>
<p>Our biological stress response system — the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3181830/pdf/DialoguesClinNeurosci-8-383.pdf">hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal</a> (HPA) axis — evolved hundreds of millions of years ago to help our vertebrate ancestors quickly mobilize energy to confront imminent, life-or-death threats, such as predator attacks. In the short term, this system is exquisite in its efficiency and crucial to survival. </p>
<p>The problem with our current situation is that it has been going on for months, and the end is not clearly in sight. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F2470547017692328">Chronic stress</a> sends the HPA axis into overdrive, with effects felt throughout the body. These symptoms can even serve as further sources of stress. Understanding why our bodies are reacting in these ways can help us develop strategies to prevent stress from getting under our skin.</p>
<h2>The biological stress response</h2>
<p>When animals perceive a threat in their environment, the HPA axis stimulates the adrenal glands to release the hormone cortisol. Cortisol, along with adrenaline, work to pump oxygen to the major muscles to enable the animal to fight or escape. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/341207/original/file-20200611-80746-1izi19h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/341207/original/file-20200611-80746-1izi19h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/341207/original/file-20200611-80746-1izi19h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/341207/original/file-20200611-80746-1izi19h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/341207/original/file-20200611-80746-1izi19h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/341207/original/file-20200611-80746-1izi19h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/341207/original/file-20200611-80746-1izi19h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Human stress response was designed to cope with short-term threats like predator attacks, not the chronic stress of things like COVID-19.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This “fight/flight” response produces physical symptoms such as heart palpitations and chest tightness (the heart pumping oxygen to the major muscles), and stomach butterflies, nausea and tingling (blood leaving the stomach and extremities to get to the major muscles). </p>
<p>The HPA axis also interacts with the <a href="http://www.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190681777.013.24">immune system</a> to help with the aftermath. Cortisol is a potent anti-inflammatory and binds to large numbers of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/403908">receptors in the skin</a> to help repair wounds and fight infection.</p>
<p>The HPA axis doesn’t know the difference between the life-or-death threat of a predator attack and modern stressors. So, in the early stages of this crisis, if your stomach did flip-flops, or you felt your heart racing, when reading about surges in COVID-19 cases, your body was doing what it was designed to do even though at that moment you were not in any imminent physical danger.</p>
<h2>The problem of chronic stress</h2>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/341210/original/file-20200611-80770-1q5jfpa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/341210/original/file-20200611-80770-1q5jfpa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/341210/original/file-20200611-80770-1q5jfpa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/341210/original/file-20200611-80770-1q5jfpa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/341210/original/file-20200611-80770-1q5jfpa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/341210/original/file-20200611-80770-1q5jfpa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/341210/original/file-20200611-80770-1q5jfpa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Chronic stress can lead to inflammation, which can result in physical symptoms as well as mental health symptoms.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Piqsels)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A predator attack is time-limited. In contrast, the COVID-19 pandemic has been going on for weeks, and may be compounded by social isolation, job or financial insecurity and care-taking responsibilities. Unfortunately, all the HPA axis knows is that it needs to release stress hormones when we perceive a threat in our environment. So, if we perceive our environment as threatening all the time, then the HPA axis will release these chemicals all the time. </p>
<p>One of the most pronounced effects of long-term cortisol release is <a href="http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2012.06633.x">glucocorticoid resistance</a>. This is when cells in the immune system become less sensitive to the anti-inflammatory effects of cortisol. As a result, cortisol starts to increase inflammation throughout the body and brain. </p>
<p>So, your itchiness and rashes? All of the cortisol receptors in your skin may no longer be receptive to cortisol’s anti-inflammatory effects and instead, chemicals are released that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/403908">inflame the skin</a>. </p>
<p>Your <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41582-019-0216-y">headaches or stomach aches</a>? <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/oem.2003.012302">Painful periods</a>? All of these symptoms can also be the result of inflammation in these organ systems caused by chronic HPA axis activation. </p>
<p>Even psychological symptoms, such as feelings of <a href="http://www.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190681777.013.24">depression or loneliness</a>, have been linked to the release of pro-inflammatory chemicals caused by chronic stress. </p>
<h2>Taking control of your stress response</h2>
<p>Much of what is perceived as stressful on a day-to-day level is not specific to contracting the COVID-19 virus, but instead is the result of changes that we have had to make in our lives. A switch to working from home, or not working, has disrupted our sleeping, eating and activity schedules that regulate our internal circadian clock. Staying indoors means lower exercise and activity levels. Many people, especially those living alone, are socially isolated from friends and loved ones. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s41606-017-0019-2">Disrupted circadian routines</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0078350">lack of exercise</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.02.002">social isolation</a> have all been strongly linked to dysregulation of the body’s stress and immune systems, and release of pro-inflammatory chemicals in the body and brain. </p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/340248/original/file-20200608-176560-6u5bkq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/340248/original/file-20200608-176560-6u5bkq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/340248/original/file-20200608-176560-6u5bkq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/340248/original/file-20200608-176560-6u5bkq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/340248/original/file-20200608-176560-6u5bkq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/340248/original/file-20200608-176560-6u5bkq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/340248/original/file-20200608-176560-6u5bkq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Physical distancing during COVID-19 shouldn’t mean losing contact with loved ones.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Unsplash)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Fortunately, even small positive changes in these areas can have strong stress-reducing effects. Keeping a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nri3386">regular routine</a> by going to bed, getting up and eating at consistent times each day has been linked to greater overall health by promoting healthy function of the HPA axis and immune system. Even 20 minutes of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2016.12.017">moderate exercise</a>, which inside could include exercise videos or jogging around at home, regulates the HPA axis, reduces inflammation and has strong mood-lifting effects. </p>
<p>Finally, talking regularly with friends and loved ones, even remotely or at a distance, is one of the best things you can do to protect against the biological and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/aphw.12000">psychological</a> effects of stress. Remember, we’re all in this together!</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/139096/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kate Harkness receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council. Kate Harkness receives royalties from sales of the Oxford Handbook of Stress and Mental Health. </span></em></p>Itchy skin? More aches and pains? Unusual rash? Headaches? Pimples? If you’ve been experiencing unusual physical symptoms recently, the stress of the COVID-19 pandemic may be the reason.Kate Harkness, Professor of Psychology and Psychiatry and Director of the Mood Research Laboratory, Queen's University, OntarioLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1331942020-03-11T15:13:28Z2020-03-11T15:13:28ZHow chronic stress changes the brain – and what you can do to reverse the damage<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/319821/original/file-20200311-116281-1ifjjue.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Stress can make your life considerably less colourful.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/brain-scan-273127421">Semnic</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>A bit of stress is a normal part of our daily lives, which can even be <a href="https://time.com/5434826/stress-good-health/">good for us</a>. Overcoming stressful events can <a href="https://theconversation.com/is-it-true-that-what-doesnt-kill-us-makes-us-stronger-63376">make us more resilient</a>. But when the stress is severe or chronic – for example caused by the breakdown of a marriage or partnership, death in the family or bullying – it needs to be dealt with immediately.</p>
<p>That’s because repeated stress can have a huge impact on our brain, putting us at risk of a number of physical and psychological problems.</p>
<p>Repeated stress is a major trigger for persistent inflammation in the body. Chronic inflammation can lead to a range of health problems, <a href="https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/full/10.1161/circulationaha.114.009990">including diabetes and heart disease</a>. The brain is normally protected from circulating molecules by a blood-brain barrier. But under repeated stress, this barrier becomes leaky and circulating inflammatory proteins <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/npp201690/">can get into the brain</a>. </p>
<p>The brain’s hippocampus is a critical brain region for learning and memory, and is particularly vulnerable to such insults. Studies in humans have shown that inflammation can <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/mp2015168/">adversely affect brain systems</a> linked to motivation and mental agility. </p>
<p>There is also evidence of chronic stress effects on hormones in the brain, including <a href="https://www.hormone.org/your-health-and-hormones/glands-and-hormones-a-to-z/hormones/cortisol">cortisol</a> and <a href="https://www.yourhormones.info/hormones/corticotrophin-releasing-hormone/">corticotropin releasing factor (CRF)</a>. High, prolonged levels of cortisol <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1053811906010676">have been associated</a> with mood disorders as well as shrinkage of the hippocampus. It can also cause many physical <a href="https://www.hormone.org/your-health-and-hormones/glands-and-hormones-a-to-z/hormones/cortisol">problems</a>, including irregular menstrual cycles. </p>
<h2>Mood, cognition and behaviour</h2>
<p>It is <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/depression">well established</a> that chronic stress can lead to depression, which is a leading cause of disability worldwide. It is also a recurrent condition – people who have experienced depression are at risk for future bouts of depression, particularly under stress.</p>
<p>There are many reasons for this, and they can be linked to changes in the brain. The reduced hippocampus that a persistent exposure to stress hormones and ongoing inflammation can cause is more commonly seen in depressed patients <a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/full/10.1146/annurev.neuro.31.060407.125618">than in healthy people</a>.</p>
<p>Chronic stress ultimately also changes the chemicals in the brain which modulate cognition and mood, <a href="https://www.hormone.org/your-health-and-hormones/glands-and-hormones-a-to-z/hormones/serotonin">including serotonin</a>. Serotonin is important for mood regulation and wellbeing. In fact, <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/ssri-antidepressants/">selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors</a> (SSRIs) are used to restore the functional activity of serotonin in the brain in people with depression.</p>
<p>Sleep and circadian rhythm disruption is a common feature in many psychiatric disorders, including depression and anxiety. Stress hormones, such as cortisol, play a key modulatory role in sleep. Elevated cortisol levels can therefore interfere with our sleep. The restoration of sleep patterns and circadian rhythms may therefore <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959438813000858">provide a treatment</a> approach for these conditions.</p>
<p>Depression can have huge consequences. Our own work <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/cns-spectrums/article/hot-and-cold-cognition-indepression/9AB200FFF1C4DF3EF8FC5D314070A643">has demonstrated</a> that depression impairs cognition in both non-emotional domains, such as planning and problem-solving, and emotional and social areas, such as creating attentional bias to negative information.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/319873/original/file-20200311-168563-lyjj9v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/319873/original/file-20200311-168563-lyjj9v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/319873/original/file-20200311-168563-lyjj9v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/319873/original/file-20200311-168563-lyjj9v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/319873/original/file-20200311-168563-lyjj9v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/319873/original/file-20200311-168563-lyjj9v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/319873/original/file-20200311-168563-lyjj9v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Burning out? Be careful.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/high-angle-view-stressed-businessman-sleeping-297569852">Andrey_Popov</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In addition to depression and anxiety, chronic stress and its impact at work <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-recover-from-burnout-and-chronic-work-stress-according-to-a-psychologist-133259">can lead to burnout symptoms</a>, which are also linked to <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02678370500065275">increased frequency of cognitive failures</a> in daily life. As individuals are required to take on increased workload at work or school, it may lead to reduced feelings of achievement and increased susceptibility to anxiety, creating a vicious cycle. </p>
<p>Stress can also <a href="https://theconversation.com/coronavirus-how-to-stop-the-anxiety-spiralling-out-of-control-133166">interfere with our balance</a> between rational thinking and emotions. For example, the stressful news about the global spread of the <a href="https://theconversation.com/coronavirus-latest-a-weekly-update-from-the-conversations-global-network-of-academics-133294">novel Coronavirus</a> has caused people to <a href="https://theconversation.com/coronavirus-why-people-are-panic-buying-loo-roll-and-how-to-stop-it-133115">hoard hand sanitisers, tissues and toilet paper</a>. Shops are becoming empty of these supplies, despite reassurance by the government that there is plenty of stock available. </p>
<p>This is because stress may force the brain to switch to a “habit system”. Under stress, brain areas such as the <a href="https://www.healthline.com/human-body-maps/putamen">putamen</a>, a round structure at the base of the forebrain, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4894125/">show greater activation</a>. Such activation has been associated with hoarding behaviour. In addition, in stressful situations, the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5862740/">ventromedial prefrontal cortex</a>, which plays a role in emotional cognition – such as evaluation of social affiliations and learning about fear – may enhance irrational fears. Eventually, these fears essentially override the brain’s usual ability for cold, rational decision-making.</p>
<h2>Overcoming stress</h2>
<p>So what should you do if you are suffering from chronic stress? Luckily there are ways to tackle it. The UK Government Foresight Project on Mental Capital and Wellbeing has recommended <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/4551057a">evidenced-based ways to mental wellbeing</a>.</p>
<p>We know, for example, that exercise has established benefits against chronic stress. Exercise tackles inflammation by <a href="https://journals.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/japplphysiol.00164.2004?utm_source=Tren%20dMD&utm_medium=cpc&utm_campaign=Journal_of_Applied_Physiology_TrendMD_1&">leading to an anti-inflammatory response</a>. In addition, exercise <a href="https://journals.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/japplphysiol.00164.2004?utm_source=Tren%20dMD&utm_medium=cpc&utm_campaign=Journal_of_Applied_Physiology_TrendMD_1&">increases neurogenesis</a> – the production of new brain cells – in important areas, such as the hippocampus. It also improves your mood, your cognition and your physical health.</p>
<p>Another key way to beat stress involves connecting with people around you, such as family, friends and neighbours. When you are under stress, relaxing and interacting with friends and family will distract you and help reduce the feelings of stress.</p>
<p>Learning may be a less obvious method. Education leads to a <a href="https://www.ageuk.org.uk/information-advice/health-wellbeing/mind-body/staying-sharp/thinking-skills-change-with-age/cognitive-reserve/">cognitive reserve</a> – a stockpile of thinking abilities – which provides some protection when we have negative life events. In fact, we know that people are less likely to suffer from depression and problems in cognition <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/psychological-medicine/article/cognitive-reserve-in-neuropsychiatry/598FF651F7B6F1A3E6BCEF0425A36891">if they have better cognitive reserve</a>.</p>
<p>Other methods include mindfulness, allowing us to take notice and be curious of the world around us and spend time in the moment. Giving is another – volunteering or donating to a charity activates the reward system in your brain and promotes positive feelings about life. </p>
<p>Importantly, when you experience chronic stress, do not wait and let things get the better of you. Early detection and early effective treatment is the key to a good outcome and good wellbeing. Remember to act in a holistic manner to improve your mood, your thinking and your physical health.</p>
<p>And you don’t have to wait until you are overwhelmed with stress. Ultimately, it is important that we learn from an early age to keep our brain fit throughout our whole life course.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/133194/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Muzaffer Kaser holds a clinical lectureship funded by National Institute of Health Research. Dr Kaser has received research grant from the Academy of Medical Sciences.
</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Barbara Jacquelyn Sahakian and Christelle Langley do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Chemical changes in the brain associated with chronic stress can put our cognition and mood under serious strain.Barbara Jacquelyn Sahakian, Professor of Clinical Neuropsychology, University of CambridgeChristelle Langley, Postdoctoral Research Associate, Cognitive Neuroscience, University of CambridgeMuzaffer Kaser, Clinical Lecturer, University of CambridgeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1164262019-11-06T19:04:56Z2019-11-06T19:04:56ZHow to deal with smartphone stress<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/300022/original/file-20191104-88394-gn07j5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=27%2C0%2C5979%2C4007&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">We spend on average four hours a day looking at our phones. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>In the past decade, smartphones have gone from being a status item to an indispensable part of our everyday lives. And we spend <a href="https://www2.deloitte.com/au/mobile-consumer-survey">a lot of time</a> on them, around <a href="https://www.emarketer.com/corporate/coverage/be-prepared-mobile">four hours a day on average</a>.</p>
<p>There’s an increasing body of research that shows smartphones can interfere with our <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0749597814000089">sleep</a>, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352853217300159">productivity</a>, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165032716303196">mental health</a> and <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/s13423-016-1011-z">impulse control</a>. Even having a <a href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/691462">smartphone within reach</a> can reduce available cognitive capacity. </p>
<p>But it’s recently been suggested we should be more concerned with the potential for smartphones to shorten our lives by chronically <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/24/well/mind/putting-down-your-phone-may-help-you-live-longer.html">raising our levels of cortisol</a>, one of the body’s main stress hormones.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/three-reasons-to-get-your-stress-levels-in-check-this-year-86764">Three reasons to get your stress levels in check this year</a>
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<h2>The stress hormone</h2>
<p>Cortisol is often mislabelled as the primary fight-or-flight hormone that springs us into action when we are facing a threat (it is actually adrenaline that does this). Cortisol is produced when we are under stress, but its role is to keep the body on high alert, by increasing blood sugar levels and <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/buy/2004-15935-004">suppressing the immune system</a>. </p>
<p>This serves us well when dealing with an immediate physical threat that resolves quickly. But when we’re faced with ongoing emotional stressors (like 24/7 work emails) chronically elevated cortisol levels can lead to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10732263">all sorts of health problems</a> including diabetes, obesity, high blood pressure and depression. The long term risks for disease, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2010-0192">heart attack, stroke</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2019.00043">dementia</a> are also increased, all of which can lead to premature death.</p>
<p>While many people say they feel more stressed now than <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/science/2017-10-13/smartphone-survey-results-show-fascinating-differences-in-usage/9042184">before they had a smartphone</a>, research has yet to determine the role our smartphones play in actually elevating our levels of cortisol throughout the day. </p>
<p>A recent study found greater smartphone use was associated with a greater rise in the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0747563217306908">cortisol awakening response</a> – the natural spike in cortisol that occurs around 30 minutes after waking to prepare us for the demands of the day. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/300024/original/file-20191104-88378-14tmhxu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/300024/original/file-20191104-88378-14tmhxu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/300024/original/file-20191104-88378-14tmhxu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300024/original/file-20191104-88378-14tmhxu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300024/original/file-20191104-88378-14tmhxu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300024/original/file-20191104-88378-14tmhxu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=567&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300024/original/file-20191104-88378-14tmhxu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=567&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300024/original/file-20191104-88378-14tmhxu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=567&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In the past, we couldn’t receive angry emails from our bosses 24/7.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Awakening responses that are too high or too low are associated with <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0167876008007940">poor physical and mental health</a>. But smartphone use did not affect participants’ natural pattern of cortisol rises and falls throughout the rest of the day. And no other studies have pointed to a link between smartphone use and chronically elevated cortisol levels.</p>
<p>However people still do report feelings of <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15213269.2015.1121832">digital stress</a> and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0747563215300893">information</a> and <a href="https://academic.oup.com/ct/article/27/3/269/4651866">communication overload</a>.</p>
<p>Checking work emails in the evening or first thing upon waking can lead to the kind of stress that could potentially interfere with natural cortisol rhythms (not to mention <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0749597814000089">sleep</a>). <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0747563214007018">Social media can also be stressful</a>, making us feel tethered to our social networks, exposing us to conflict and cyberbullying, and fostering social comparison and <a href="https://clutejournals.com/index.php/JBER/article/view/9554">FoMO</a> (fear of missing out).</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/new-years-resolutions-how-to-get-your-stress-levels-in-check-34539">New year's resolutions: how to get your stress levels in check</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Despite being aware of these stressors, the dopamine hit we get thanks to social media’s <a href="http://sheu.org.uk/sheux/EH/eh363mdg.pdf">addictive design</a> means there is still a compulsion to check our feeds and notifications whenever we find ourselves with idle time. More than half of under 35s regularly check their smartphone <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/science/2017-10-13/smartphone-survey-results-show-fascinating-differences-in-usage/9042184">when on the toilet</a>.</p>
<h2>Some tips</h2>
<p>Dealing with smartphone-induced stress is not as simple as having periods of going cold turkey. The withdrawals associated with the unofficial condition known as <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4036142/">nomophobia</a> (an abbreviation of “no-mobile-phone phobia”) have also been shown to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6143708/">increase cortisol levels</a>. </p>
<p>Rather than going on a digital detox, which has been likened to the fad of the <a href="https://qz.com/1229311/digital-detoxing-is-the-tech-equivalent-of-a-juice-cleanse-and-neither-of-them-work/">juice cleanse diet</a>, we should be aiming for <a href="https://www.digitalnutrition.com.au/">digital nutrition</a>. That is, maintaining a healthier relationship with our smartphones where we are more mindful and intentional about what we consume digitally, so we can maximise the benefits and minimise the stress they bring to our lives.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/300027/original/file-20191104-88368-9qo4rf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/300027/original/file-20191104-88368-9qo4rf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/300027/original/file-20191104-88368-9qo4rf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300027/original/file-20191104-88368-9qo4rf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300027/original/file-20191104-88368-9qo4rf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300027/original/file-20191104-88368-9qo4rf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300027/original/file-20191104-88368-9qo4rf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300027/original/file-20191104-88368-9qo4rf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Making the bed and kitchen table phone-free zones can help to reduce their effect on our lives.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Here are some tips for healthier smartphone use:</p>
<ol>
<li><p>Use Apple’s “<a href="https://support.apple.com/en-au/HT208982">Screen Time</a>”, Android’s <a href="https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.actiondash.playstore&hl=en_AU">ActionDash</a> or the <a href="https://inthemoment.io/">Moment app</a> to take an audit of how often you use your phone and which apps take up most of your time</p></li>
<li><p>Turn off all but the most important app notifications (such as private messages) so you can take back control of when you look at your phone. You can also allocate certain times of the day to be notification free</p></li>
<li><p>Turn off the “push” or “fetch new data” option on your smartphone’s email. This way emails will only appear when you open the mail app and refresh it. As an added bonus this will help extend your phone’s battery life</p></li>
<li><p>Take some time to complete a digital declutter, which includes unfollowing people/pages (there’s an <a href="https://blogs.systweak.com/how-to-mass-unfollow-on-instagram/">app</a> for that!) and unsubscribing from email lists (<a href="https://www.cleanfox.io/en/">that too</a>!) that cause you stress or don’t benefit you. Remember you can unfollow friends on Facebook without defriending them</p></li>
<li><p>Create tech-free zones in your house, such as the kitchen table or bedrooms. An “out of sight out of mind” approach will help keep smartphone-delivered stress from creeping into your downtime</p></li>
<li><p>Set a digital curfew to support better restorative sleep and don’t keep your phone next to your bed. Instead of reaching for your phone first thing in the morning, start your day with a brief meditation, some exercise, or a slow breakfast</p></li>
<li><p>Be mindful and curious about how often you pick up your phone during the day simply out of boredom. Instead of bombarding your mind with information, use these opportunities to clear your mind with a <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4Bs0qUB3BHQ">short breathing exercise</a>. There’s even a mindfulness exercise that challenges you to hold your phone while you <a href="https://www.mindful.org/addicted-to-your-phone-try-this-practice-phone-in-hand/">meditate on your relationship with it</a>, so you can reclaim your phone as a cue to check-in with yourself, rather than your emails or social media feed.</p></li>
</ol><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/116426/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Brad Ridout does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The relationship between our smartphones and levels of the stress hormone cortisol isn’t yet clear, but people report feeling more stressed than they were before they had a smartphone.Brad Ridout, Research Fellow; Registered Psychologist; Deputy Chair, Cyberpsychology Research Group, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1020212018-08-27T17:17:08Z2018-08-27T17:17:08ZChronic pain after trauma may depend on what stress gene variation you carry<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/233488/original/file-20180824-149469-1au9ti0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">More than 100 million American suffer from chronic pain -- in which pain signals continue in the nervous system for weeks, months, or even years. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/portrait-stressed-unhappy-young-handsome-man-265172729?src=U4oxvO_29MOWa8Cu_2E6GA-1-1">pathdoc/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Unfortunately, almost every individual in the world will experience <a href="http://doi.org/10.1002/jts.21848">at least one traumatic event</a>, such as a car crash, assault, exposure to war combat or a natural disaster during their lifetime. Many will endure more than one. </p>
<p>Although the majority of individuals recover from a traumatic incident, a substantial proportion will develop chronic problems, including post-traumatic stress symptoms, depression and chronic pain. </p>
<p>Chronic pain? Isn’t pain caused by nerve injury? Well, not always. Chronic pain can develop and is <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=10.1016%2Fj.pain.2013.10.016">quite</a> <a href="http://doi.org/10.1097/AJP.0000000000000446">common</a> <a href="http://doi.org/10.1002/j.1532-2149.2013.00395">following</a> trauma exposure. This fact might surprise you given the fact that many traumas involve very little or no tissue damage. </p>
<p>I am a geneticist and molecular biologist studying predictors and mediators of chronic pain and other chronic neuropsychiatric conditions that develop following a traumatic experience. I am particularly interested in understanding the biological reasons why some individuals are more vulnerable to chronic pain than others. </p>
<p>Towards that end, based on <a href="http://doi.org/10.1016/j.pain.2013.04.037">previous findings</a> from our group and <a href="http://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2015.235">other groups</a>, my colleagues and I hypothesized that individual genetic variation affects who develops pain, and who recovers following trauma exposure. To test this hypothesis, our group at the <a href="https://www.med.unc.edu/itr/">Institute for Trauma Recovery</a>, led by <a href="https://www.med.unc.edu/itr/team/investigators/samuel-mclean/">Dr. Samuel McLean</a>, enrolled individuals in a longitudinal study of European and African-Americans who had been involved in a traumatic motor vehicle accident. We collected blood samples from over 1,500 such individuals and assessed their DNA and their pain levels six weeks following the car crash.</p>
<h2>How might trauma and stress cause chronic pain?</h2>
<p>Before I go into details about our most recent study, let’s brainstorm how chronic pain might develop following trauma. This is an important question because if we know how pain develops, we can find treatments that prevent its onset. And by preventing the onset of chronic pain, we completely alleviate the need to use those addictive and <a href="https://www.sciencenews.org/article/opioid-crisis-overdose-death">potentially deadly opioids</a> you might have heard about. </p>
<p>Exposure to traumatic events causes your <a href="http://doi.org/10.1038/nrn.2016.155">stress system to activate</a>. This stress system sends signals between your hypothalamus in the brain, your pituitary gland and your adrenal gland, and ultimately results in the release of cortisol, commonly known as the “stress hormone.”</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/233483/original/file-20180824-149490-xk7xk7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/233483/original/file-20180824-149490-xk7xk7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/233483/original/file-20180824-149490-xk7xk7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/233483/original/file-20180824-149490-xk7xk7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/233483/original/file-20180824-149490-xk7xk7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/233483/original/file-20180824-149490-xk7xk7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=630&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/233483/original/file-20180824-149490-xk7xk7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=630&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/233483/original/file-20180824-149490-xk7xk7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=630&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Too much of the stress hormone, cortisol, causes damage throughout the body.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/role-cortisol-body-diagram-illustration-1108014995?src=TGk5jS7Bi2Tcl7P0u-sbkQ-1-5">brgfx/Shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Cortisol is a critical link between trauma and chronic pain. This is because <a href="http://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0256-08.2008">cortisol and another stress hormone called adrenaline have been shown</a> to directly <a href="http://doi.org/10.1152/jn.1999.81.3.1104">sensitize peripheral nerves</a> – giving it the ability to signal pain in the absence of nerve injury. For this reason, it is vital for our bodies to carefully regulate cortisol levels, and to quickly and effectively resolve the stress response.</p>
<h2>Regulating the stress hormone cortisol</h2>
<p>Fortunately all of our bodies have natural regulators of blood cortisol levels. Typically, a protein called the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) binds to cortisol that has been released after stress exposure and causes cells to alter activities of the immune system and <a href="http://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2010.03.007">brain</a>. But another protein called FKBP5 can also manipulate cortisol levels by binding GR and preventing it from binding cortisol.</p>
<p>If FKBP5 levels are high, it sequesters the GR and prevents the GR from binding and lowering blood cortisol levels. Consequently, levels of cortisol in the blood can rise and potentially cause harm by binding nerve endings and causing pain sensations. <a href="http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2017.08.066">Previous</a> <a href="http://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2015.235">studies</a> have shown that a person’s genes can influence relative levels of these proteins. </p>
<p>Based on this knowledge, we hypothesized that the ability of FKBP5 to regulate cortisol and potentially affect pain levels might originate in our DNA. We tested this hypothesis using data from our cohort of individuals enrolled following motor vehicle collision. Importantly, these individuals who experienced trauma did not have bone fractures or tissue injury. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/233485/original/file-20180824-149466-1wl2g6i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/233485/original/file-20180824-149466-1wl2g6i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/233485/original/file-20180824-149466-1wl2g6i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/233485/original/file-20180824-149466-1wl2g6i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/233485/original/file-20180824-149466-1wl2g6i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/233485/original/file-20180824-149466-1wl2g6i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/233485/original/file-20180824-149466-1wl2g6i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Even when an individual is physically unharmed after a car crash, the traumatic event can still cause chronic pain.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/upset-driver-after-traffic-accident-167990879?src=ptsNMpd1b_pJ2AIxLSgpyg-2-54">Tom Wang/Shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We chose motor vehicle collision as our trauma exposure because it is common and highly traumatic, and allows us to capture data in the immediate aftermath of the traumatic incident. Physicians in emergency departments across the country helped us enroll individuals and collect blood from them so that we could measure DNA, RNA, microRNA and hormone levels. This was important because for this study we wanted to understand how all of these types of molecules are related and how their composition can vary from one individual to the next. </p>
<h2>How much pain you experience depends on your genes</h2>
<p>In our recent study, we <a href="http://www.jneurosci.org/content/early/2018/08/27/JNEUROSCI.3458-17.2018">discovered</a> that which genetic variant of the FKBP5 gene a person carries is predictive of how much post-traumatic chronic pain an individual will experience following motor vehicle collision. </p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/233543/original/file-20180824-149481-xw8e2j.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/233543/original/file-20180824-149481-xw8e2j.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=580&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/233543/original/file-20180824-149481-xw8e2j.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=580&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/233543/original/file-20180824-149481-xw8e2j.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=580&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/233543/original/file-20180824-149481-xw8e2j.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=729&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/233543/original/file-20180824-149481-xw8e2j.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=729&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/233543/original/file-20180824-149481-xw8e2j.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=729&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A study of more than 1,500 motor vehicle accident survivors reveals that rare variants TG and GG in the ‘stress response’ gene FKBP5 increases vulnerability to developing chronic pain.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Linnstaedt et al., JNeurosci (2018)</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Our genetic analyses revealed that in both African-American and European-American individuals who carry at least one copy of the less common variants, FKBP5-TG or FKBP5-GG, experienced more pain than the individuals carrying only the more common FKBP5-TT variant. (Remember, we all have two copies of every chromosome and this is why we can carry two different versions or variants of the same gene). </p>
<p>We then wanted to know how these variations affect the stress response and subsequent chronic pain. </p>
<p>At this point we knew that individuals who have the less common variants, FKBP5-TG or FKBP5-GG are more likely to experience pain following trauma exposure. We then predicted that in these individuals with higher pain, FKBP5 regulation of cortisol would be abnormal. Therefore, we measured cortisol in these individuals and indeed found that their cortisol levels were higher with respect to FKBP5 levels when compared to individuals carrying the FKBP5-TT who have less pain. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/233542/original/file-20180824-149481-z7z01z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/233542/original/file-20180824-149481-z7z01z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/233542/original/file-20180824-149481-z7z01z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=301&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/233542/original/file-20180824-149481-z7z01z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=301&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/233542/original/file-20180824-149481-z7z01z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=301&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/233542/original/file-20180824-149481-z7z01z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=378&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/233542/original/file-20180824-149481-z7z01z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=378&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/233542/original/file-20180824-149481-z7z01z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=378&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The common TT gene variant causes less cortisol to build up in the blood leading to less pain. The rare TG and GG variants cause cortisol levels to surge and can trigger chronic pain.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Sarah Linnstaedt</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Overall this recent discovery from <a href="https://www.med.unc.edu/itr/linnstaedt-lab">our group</a> is important because it suggests a way that humans can develop chronic pain following trauma exposure without experiencing tissue injury. It also highlights an important gene involved in the development of post-traumatic chronic pain that could be a promising new target for drug therapies. And it proposes a mechanism through which this important gene is naturally regulated. </p>
<p>This last point can help us in our quest to discover specific types of therapeutics because, for instance, if we didn’t want to try to target FKBP5 directly, we could mimic the action of this naturally occurring regulatory mechanism. Additionally, our work suggests that with such a potential therapeutic, we’d only need to treat individuals with the DNA variant that causes more pain.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/102021/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sarah Linnstaedt receives funding from the National Institute of Arthritis, Musculoskeletal, and Skin Diseases (K01AR071504), the Mayday Fund and previously received funding from the American Pain Society (Future Leaders in Pain Grant). None of the above funding agencies had any role in the design and conduct of the study, in the collection, management, analysis and interpretation of the data, or in the preparation and review of the above article.</span></em></p>Did you know that trauma, even when there is no tissue or nerve damage, can cause chronic pain? Exactly how much pain and who is most vulnerable depends on which ‘stress genes’ we carry.Sarah Linnstaedt, Assistant Professor of Anesthesiology, University of North Carolina at Chapel HillLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/991662018-07-11T11:32:27Z2018-07-11T11:32:27ZThe psychology of roller coasters<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/227175/original/file-20180711-27021-x73mii.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/blurred-roller-coaster-ride-amusement-park-460967056">I-ing/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Roller coasters may seem like a very modern type of entertainment – constantly getting bigger, faster and scarier thanks to advances in technology. But they actually date back to the mid-1800s. Gravity-propelled railways built to transport coal from up in the mountains down to the town in Pennsylvania, US, <a href="http://entertainmentdesigner.com/history-of-theme-parks/history-of-roller-coasters-the-switchback-railway-americas-first-roller-coaster/">were hired out at weekends</a> by fare-paying passengers riding purely for the fun of it. </p>
<p>Today theme parks are big business. But with queues <a href="https://www.ultimaterollercoaster.com/forums/roller-coasters-theme-parks/165123">occasionally as long as eight hours</a> for an average ride of <a href="https://www.chegg.com/homework-help/questions-and-answers/average-length-roller-coaster-ride-112-seconds-known-population-standard-deviation-505-sec-q24955648">under two minutes</a> – not to mention reports of riders suffering <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0009922816684614">strokes</a>, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28683585">brain deformation</a> and <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-32980354">serious injury due to crashes</a> – how come we put ourselves through it? What is it about roller coasters that some love so much, and is it an experience we tend to like less as we get older?</p>
<p>Enjoying roller coasters is linked to sensation seeking – the tendency to enjoy varied, novel and intense physical experiences such as rock climbing and parachute jumping. But what sensation do roller coasters provide that is so alluring? At first glance, it may seem to be down to the experience of speed. But the evidence for linking sensation seeking to speed is not compelling. For example, when it comes to driving at speeds above the legal limit, <a href="https://trl.co.uk/reports/TRL421">many people do it</a>, not just sensation seekers. </p>
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<p>Perhaps the draw of roller coasters is the enjoyment of the visceral sensation of fear itself, much like watching a horror movie. Physical signs of fear such as a pounding heart, faster breathing and an energy boost caused by the release of glucose are known collectively as the “fight or flight response”. We know that a roller coaster ride is likely to trigger this response thanks to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1838817/">researchers who measured the heart rates of riders</a> on the <a href="https://rcdb.com/2873.htm">double-corkscrew Coca Cola Roller in 1980s Glasgow</a>. Heart beats per minute more than doubled from an average 70 beforehand to 153 shortly after the ride had begun. Some older riders got uncomfortably close to what would be deemed medically unsafe for their age.</p>
<p>In another adrenalin-boosting pastime, novice bungee jumpers not only reported increased feelings of well-being, wakefulness and euphoria just after completing a jump, they also had <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8127421">raised levels of endorphins</a> in the blood, well known to produce feelings of intense pleasure. Interestingly, the higher the levels of endorphins that were present, the more euphoric the jumper reported feeling. Here, then, is clear evidence that people enjoy the sensations that accompany the fight or flight response within a non-threatening environment. </p>
<h2>Good vs bad stress</h2>
<p>And yet, paradoxically, these bungee jumpers also showed increased levels of the hormone cortisol, known to increase when people experience stress. How, then, can a person simultaneously experience stress and pleasure? The answer is that not all stress is bad. Eustress – from the Greek “eu”, meaning good, as in euphoria – is a positive kind of stress that people actively seek out.</p>
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<p>We know that a roller coaster ride can be experienced as a “eustressful” experience <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16989773">thanks to an intriguing study</a> carried out by two Dutch psychologists. They were interested in asthma, and specifically its relationship with stress. Having noted previous research findings that stress leads asthma sufferers to perceive their asthma symptoms as more severe, they wondered whether an opposite effect might be possible by applying eustress.</p>
<p>And so, in the name of science, some asthmatic student volunteers were transported to a theme park and rode a roller coaster while their respiratory function was checked. The research findings were remarkable. While lung function predictably reduced from the screaming and general upheaval, so did the feeling of shortness of breath. This suggests that thrill seekers riding roller coasters perceive the experience as stressful in a positive way. </p>
<h2>The role of dopamine</h2>
<p>But roller coasters are not everybody’s cup of tea. Could differences in brain chemistry explain sensation seeking behaviours? The experiment with bungee jumpers suggest that people with higher levels of endorphins feel higher levels of euphoria. But there is no evidence that resting levels of endorphins might explain sensation seeking, they are more likely a response to the thrill than a predictor of whether we enjoy it.</p>
<p>A recent review instead <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0166432815002570">looked at the role of dopamine</a>, another chemical messenger substance in the brain that is important in the functioning of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dopamine">neurological reward pathways</a>. The review found that individuals who happen to have higher levels of dopamine also score more highly on measures of sensation seeking behaviour. While this is a correlation rather than a causation, another study found that taking a substance called haloperidol, which disrupts dopamine’s effects within the brain, led to a <a href="https://academic.oup.com/ijnp/article/18/10/pyv041/623632">measurable decrease in sensation seeking behaviour</a>.</p>
<p>This line of research sets out the intriguing possibility that enjoyment of intense physical experiences such as riding on roller coasters may reflect individual differences in brain chemistry. People who have higher levels of dopamine may be more prone to a number of sensation seeking behaviours, ranging from harmless roller coaster rides to taking drugs or even shoplifting.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/226158/original/file-20180704-73300-quen6i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/226158/original/file-20180704-73300-quen6i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/226158/original/file-20180704-73300-quen6i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/226158/original/file-20180704-73300-quen6i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/226158/original/file-20180704-73300-quen6i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/226158/original/file-20180704-73300-quen6i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/226158/original/file-20180704-73300-quen6i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Love it or hate it?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jacob Lund/Shutterstock</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>The question as to whether roller coaster riding still appeals as we get older has not been researched directly, but a recent survey looked at how <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07053436.1996.10715527">keen people of different ages</a> were on thrill-seeking holidays such as rock climbing trips. It showed that interest in these kinds of holidays peaks in early adulthood, declining with each passing decade. This indicates that older adults are less inclined to participate in activities similar to riding roller coasters. Perhaps experiencing one’s heart rate spiking dangerously close to medically accepted risk levels is not such a draw for the over 50s.</p>
<p>Though hard to pin down, people enjoy roller coasters thanks to a combination of speed, conquering fear and the positive effects associated with a massive rise in physiological arousal. A roller coaster ride is a legal, generally safe and relatively cheap means of experiencing a natural high. Understandably, people have been happy to pay money in exchange for doing it for centuries, and there is no sign of any waning in the appreciation of a bit of eustress.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/99166/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Richard Stephens does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Why do some people love roller coasters while others hate them?Richard Stephens, Senior Lecturer in Psychology, Keele UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/982922018-07-05T10:38:56Z2018-07-05T10:38:56ZWhat is it about yawning?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/226025/original/file-20180703-116135-13dik4i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=517%2C561%2C6070%2C4341&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">You can't resist the yawn.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/baby-girl-on-bed-sleepy-1093370366">Chayanin Wongpracha/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>You know the feeling. It’s impossible to resist. You just need to yawn.</p>
<p>A yawn consists of an extended gaping of the mouth followed by a more rapid closure. In mammals and birds, a long intake of breath and shorter exhale follows the gaping of the mouth, but in other species such as fish, amphibians and snakes there is no intake of breath. </p>
<p>But what’s behind a yawn, why does it occur? </p>
<p>In the past, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1159/000307069">people have had many hypotheses</a>. As far back as 400 B.C., Hippocrates thought yawning removed bad air from the lungs before a fever. In the 17th and 18th century, doctors believed yawning increased oxygen in the blood, blood pressure, heart rate and blood flow itself. More recently, consensus moved toward the idea that <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fnevo.2011.00003">yawning cools down the brain</a>, so when ambient conditions and temperature of the brain itself increase, yawning episodes increase.</p>
<p>Despite all these theories, the truth is that scientists do not know the true biological function of a yawn. </p>
<p>What we do know is that yawning occurs in just about every species. It happens <a href="https://doi.org/10.4103/2229-516X.112230">when an animal is tired</a>. It can be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.09.009">used as a threat display</a> in some species. Yawning can occur during times of social conflict and stress, something researchers call <a href="http://www.animalbehavioronline.com/displacementbehavior.html">a displacement behavior</a>. </p>
<p>And that wide-open mouth <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10329-013-0375-1">can be contagious</a>, especially in social species such as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0028472">humans</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2004.0224">chimpanzees</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0049613">bonobos</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2005.0411">macaques</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0105963">wolves</a>. </p>
<p>Watching someone yawn – heck, even reading about yawns – can lead you to yawn yourself. Why? </p>
<p>Research on humans tell us that people who are more empathetic tend to be more susceptible to contagious yawning. When you see someone else yawn, the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2004.11.011">networks in your brain responsible for empathy and social skills</a> are activated. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/225551/original/file-20180629-117430-f0m6lv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/225551/original/file-20180629-117430-f0m6lv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/225551/original/file-20180629-117430-f0m6lv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/225551/original/file-20180629-117430-f0m6lv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/225551/original/file-20180629-117430-f0m6lv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/225551/original/file-20180629-117430-f0m6lv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/225551/original/file-20180629-117430-f0m6lv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/225551/original/file-20180629-117430-f0m6lv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Yawning happens in many animal species – and seems to pass from one to another.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/N6YQfPn_9N4">Robert Gramner on Unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>Is yawning contagious for dogs, too? In 2011, U.K. biologists tested for contagious yawning <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2010.11.005">between people and man’s best friend</a>. Although 5 of the 19 dogs they studied did yawn in response to an unfamiliar person’s yawn, the researchers couldn’t prove the yawns were contagious.</p>
<p>In 2013, cognitive and behavioral scientists at the University of Tokyo once again tested contagious yawning in canines while controlling for stress. This time the researchers found that dogs were more likely to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0071365">yawn in response to a familiar person</a>. They concluded that dogs can “catch” a yawn from humans and that yawning is a social rather than a stress-based behavior. </p>
<p>In 2014, University of Nebraska psychologists looked at contagious yawning in shelter dogs. They found that some dogs that yawned when exposed to human yawning had elevated cortisol levels – a proxy for stress. Levels of the cortisol stress hormone did not rise in dogs that didn’t yawn in response to a human yawn. This finding suggests <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-013-0641-z">some dogs find human yawning stressful</a> and others do not. More research is needed to evaluate this aspect of the human-dog relationship.</p>
<p>So the jury’s still out on the true why of yawning. But when it comes to inter-species yawning, you can collect your own anecdotal data. Try an experiment at home: Yawn and see if your pet yawns back.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/98292/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Christine Calder does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Everybody does it, but why? Scientists aren’t really sure if exhaustion, stress or some other social factor is at the root of yawning – and how it can be so contagious.Christine Calder, Assistant Clinical Professor of Behavior, College of Veterinary Medicine, Mississippi State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/976502018-06-12T10:37:17Z2018-06-12T10:37:17ZStress is bad for your body, but how? Studying piglets may shed light<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/222639/original/file-20180611-191965-1g834yf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Pigs and humans have a lot in common, particularly their digestive tracts. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/small-piglet-sleep-farm-group-pig-639942640?src=KuRK9LIlIySn2C9uAFfCjA-1-7">Krumanop/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/145855.php">Stress</a> affects most of us to one degree or another, and that even includes animals. My lab studies early-life stress in pigs and how it impacts their health later in life, specifically in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Pigs, whose GI tracts are extremely similar to those of humans, may be one of the clearest windows we have into researching stress, disease, and new therapies and preventatives – both in livestock and people.</p>
<p>In my study of how stress makes humans and pigs vulnerable to disease, I have seen the profound impact that stress-related chemical substances, such as hormones and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/story/what-is-the-difference-between-a-peptide-and-a-protein">peptides</a>, can have on a body’s tissues. I’m hopeful that our research in piglets could eventually lead to treatments for both people and animals designed to mitigate the adverse effects of stress on the GI health. </p>
<h2>How stress can save your life</h2>
<p>Not all stress is bad. When we perceive a threat, our hypothalamus – one of our most basic parts of the brain – kicks in to protect us by triggering what many recognize as the <a href="https://www-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.proxy2.cl.msu.edu/pubmed/19488073">“fight or flight”</a> response. It is a primal evolutionary response programmed in our brains to help us first survive and then restore us to a normal set point, or what feels like stability.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/222633/original/file-20180611-191947-80dbur.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/222633/original/file-20180611-191947-80dbur.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/222633/original/file-20180611-191947-80dbur.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/222633/original/file-20180611-191947-80dbur.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/222633/original/file-20180611-191947-80dbur.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/222633/original/file-20180611-191947-80dbur.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/222633/original/file-20180611-191947-80dbur.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">The stress response is essential to helping escape a dangerous situation, such as an attacking dog.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/thief-running-away-dog-118767052?src=P9qrPEPnPnh0--VL52_4Pg-1-3">Dmitri Ma/Shutterstock.com</a></span>
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<p>What actually is happening has to do with something called the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3860380/">hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis</a>, which is at the core of the stress response. During stress, the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/hypothalamus">hypothalamus</a>, a region in the brain, makes and sends out a chemical called <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19811447">corticotrophin-releasing factor</a>, which signals for the pituitary gland to release another chemical, <a href="http://www.yourhormones.info/hormones/adrenocorticotropic-hormone/">adrenocorticotrophic hormone</a>. </p>
<p>This stimulates the adrenal gland to release <a href="https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/adrenalin">adrenalin</a> and <a href="http://www.yourhormones.info/hormones/cortisol/">cortisol</a>. Adrenalin and cortisol, two of the most well-known stress hormones, power our bodies to react during the fight or flight response. They can heighten our response time in a fight. They can pump blood to our extremities when we flee. They can boost our immune system to protect against pathogens. That stress response gives us what we need to resolve the situation.</p>
<h2>How stress can harm your life</h2>
<p>Fortunately for many of us, we don’t have to deal with life-threatening situations on a regular basis. However, we still experience stress. This stress can be chronic, due to a specific situation or overall lifestyle. </p>
<p>But, our stress response is meant for short-term resolvable conflict. So, in a way, the stress response is misplaced in today’s world of enduring stressors. Danger comes when we experience repeated elevations of these stress hormones, or when we are exposed to too much of these stress hormones at a young age. Instead of physical threats, many of us experience psychosocial stress, which triggers a similar stress response but is often not resolvable. </p>
<p>For example, stress in the workplace, such as feeling overworked or undervalued, could be perceived as a threat and in turn activate the stress response. However, in these situations, the survival aspects of the stress response, such as increased heart rate and immune activation, is not effective in resolving this threat. </p>
<p>This results in continued production and higher levels of these stress chemicals in the body. They bind to <a href="https://www.hormone.org/hormones-and-health/hormones/cortisol">target receptors</a> in many organs, which can have profound effects on physiology and function. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/222634/original/file-20180611-191965-ekbrpl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/222634/original/file-20180611-191965-ekbrpl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/222634/original/file-20180611-191965-ekbrpl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/222634/original/file-20180611-191965-ekbrpl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/222634/original/file-20180611-191965-ekbrpl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/222634/original/file-20180611-191965-ekbrpl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/222634/original/file-20180611-191965-ekbrpl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Stress is particularly damaging to the developing brain.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/adorable-baby-girl-sitting-on-play-543251734?src=1LFWrpjyagGeFUivQGNiUg-1-43">Mcimage/Shutterstock.com</a></span>
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<p>High levels of stress are also especially harmful when they occur at a young age, when many of the body’s important stress regulatory systems – for example, the brain and nervous systems – are still developing. Exposure to stress in early life can alter the normal development and physiology of many organ systems, resulting in increased sensitivity to stress and lifelong health risks in offspring. </p>
<p>Also, a mother’s stress during pregnancy can be “transmitted” to the fetus, resulting in permanent changes to the stress response system and health in offspring. </p>
<p>This early-life stress can fuel a constant stress response inside the body. This can include inflammation, or increased activity of the immune system, or immune suppression as its new “normal.” </p>
<p>Inflammation and immune suppression are unpredictable and can manifest in many parts of our body, with different consequences. For example, stress and inflammation near blood vessels can cause blood vessels to constrict. This causes <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28415916">elevated blood pressure</a>, which can lead to a slew of other conditions like coronary artery disease and heart attack. </p>
<p>Immune suppression can reduce the body’s ability to heal wounds and make it more susceptible to other pathogens. Inflammation and immune suppression can affect anything, including our mental health. Chronic stress can traffic immune cells into the brain, where they can cause <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26404713">neuroinflammation</a>, which can affect our mood and fuel diseases like depression and anxiety.</p>
<h2>Your GI tract and you</h2>
<p>The GI tract is our largest interface with the outside world. If you think about it, your GI system is “outside” your body; it experiences many of the pathogens and other foreign entities with which we come into contact. If you unfolded your entire GI system, it would cover a tennis court. The GI system also contains just as many neurons as your spinal cord and houses the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2515351/">largest collection of immune cells</a> in the body. A system of that size is as powerful as it is susceptible.</p>
<p>Chronic stress that affects your GI tract can manifest as abdominal pain, diarrhea or constipation and can lead to common diseases such as <a href="https://www.webmd.com/ibs/guide/stress-anxiety-ibs#1">irritable bowel syndrome</a> or <a href="https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/715811">inflammatory bowel disease</a>. </p>
<p>Early-life stress is especially concerning; scientists only now are beginning to understand the long-term consequences. My research demonstrates the impacts of early-life stress on animal health and productivity, as well as human health. In pigs, this stress can result from early weaning and other management practices. In humans, it could be from physical or emotional trauma like abuse or neglect. </p>
<h2>What we can learn from piglets</h2>
<p>Pigs and humans have similar digestive tracts, making pigs an excellent model for human GI disease. My research team has demonstrated early stress in piglets results in GI symptoms (e.g. diarrhea, GI infections) that are remarkably similar to stress-related GI disorders in people: Irritable bowel syndrome, inflammatory bowel disease and food allergies are examples.</p>
<p>Through my lab’s research of piglets and early-life stress, we have been able to significantly lower the stress and GI disease that they experience through their life by eliminating individual early-life stressors. </p>
<p>Much of their stress is caused through early weaning, social change due to maternal separation and mixing with unfamiliar pigs. These pigs then experience a higher rate of gastrointestinal and respiratory diseases, as well as <a href="https://www-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.proxy2.cl.msu.edu/pubmed/29767141">reduced growth performance</a> and feed efficiency into adulthood.</p>
<p>We also learned that a particular type of immune cell, called the mast cell, becomes highly activated during stress, which in turn causes much of the <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/too-much-stress-can-make-you-physically-ill-researchers-now-ncna839371">stress-associated GI disease</a>. By focusing on animal welfare and implementing new management practices to eliminate individual stressors or intervene therapeutically with mast cell blockers, we can lower the overall threshold of stress that the piglets experience. </p>
<p>This basic research could result in future breakthroughs regarding how we combat stress in humans. Maybe with more fundamental research in animal models, we can develop a therapy to help lessen the impact of bad stress on our bodies.</p>
<p>In the meantime, those of us experiencing stress can take action. If you experience a lot of stress on a daily basis, focus on what you can and cannot control, and then apply your energy to the things within your control while taking care of your body by eating properly, getting enough sleep, and maintaining some level of physical activity. Then, learn to cope with the things you cannot control through therapy, meditation and other stress management practices.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/97650/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Adam Moeser receives funding from The National Institutes of Health and United State Department of Agriculture. </span></em></p>Stress makes people tired and irritable, but its dangers to the body do not stop there. Chemicals that were meant to work under an immediate threat harm organs in the body and can elevate blood pressure.Adam Moeser, Matilda R. Wilson Endowed Chair, Associate Professor of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, Michigan State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/979702018-06-08T10:51:24Z2018-06-08T10:51:24ZWhy Mister Rogers’ message of love and kindness is good for your health<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/222226/original/file-20180607-137306-nwj9r6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Fred Rogers at a taping of his famous show on June 28, 1989. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Mr-Rogers-Anniversary/a4bf47e9eab047c58f230ac6c45e86f5/207/0">Gene J. Puskar/AP File</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The release of the Mister Rogers documentary, <a href="https://slate.com/culture/2018/06/mr-rogers-documentary-wont-you-be-my-neighbor-reviewed.html">“Won’t You Be My Neighbor?”</a> calls to mind the essential message of Rogers’ long-running children’s program, “Mister Rogers’ Neighborhood.” <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2003/02/28/arts/mister-rogers-tv-s-friend-for-children-is-dead-at-74.html">Fred McFeely Rogers</a>, who died in 2003, was also an ordained Presbyterian minister. Over the course of three decades on public broadcasting, he brought to millions of children what his faith’s <a href="https://www.pcusa.org/resource/minutes-215th-general-assembly-2003-part-i-journal/">General Assembly</a> referred to as “unconditional love.”</p>
<p>In preaching love, Rogers wasn’t just attending to the moral character of his youthful audience. He believed that he was also promoting their health. As he said in <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/copyright/cases/464_US_417.htm#464us417n27">1979</a>, “My whole approach in broadcasting has always been, ‘You are an important person just the way you are. You can make healthy decisions.’ Maybe I’m going on too long, but I just feel that anything that allows a person to be more active in the control of his or her life, in a healthy way, is important.”</p>
<p>Since Rogers’ death, evidence has mounted that he was on to something – namely, that love and kindness truly are healthful, and that people who express them regularly really do lead healthier lives. Simply put, people who are generous and volunteer their time for the benefit of others seem to be happier than those who don’t, and <a href="https://www.dartmouth.edu/wellness/emotional/rakhealthfacts.pdf">happy people</a> tend to have fewer health complaints and live longer than those who are unhappy.</p>
<h2>Love gave rise to a calling</h2>
<p>Born in Pennsylvania in 1928, as a young minister Rogers regretted the messages television was conveying to children in the 1960s. He <a href="https://www.salon.com/1999/08/10/rogers_2/">said</a>, “I went into television because I hated it so, and I thought there’s some way of using this fabulous instrument to nurture those who would watch and listen.” “Mr. Rogers’ Neighborhood” debuted nationally in 1968 and won its creator and host many <a href="https://www.fredrogers.org/fred-rogers/bio/">accolades</a>, including a Presidential Medal of Freedom, two Peabody Awards, and over 40 honorary degrees.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/222241/original/file-20180607-121234-1xjmawt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/222241/original/file-20180607-121234-1xjmawt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=488&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/222241/original/file-20180607-121234-1xjmawt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=488&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/222241/original/file-20180607-121234-1xjmawt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=488&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/222241/original/file-20180607-121234-1xjmawt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=613&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/222241/original/file-20180607-121234-1xjmawt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=613&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/222241/original/file-20180607-121234-1xjmawt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=613&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Fred Rogers with Pres. George W. Bush, who is about to place the Presidential Medal of Freedom on Rogers in a July 9, 2002 ceremony.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Associated-Press-Domestic-News-Dist-of-Columbi-/ce46a8a7dfe6da11af9f0014c2589dfb/2/0">Kenneth Lambert/AP Photo</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Rogers believed that the need to love and be loved was universal, and he sought to cultivate these capacities through every program, saying in a 2004 <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0433376/">documentary</a> hosted by actor Michael Keaton, one of his former stagehands, “You know, I think everybody longs to be loved, and longs to know that he or she is lovable. And consequently, the greatest thing we can do is to help somebody know they’re loved and capable of loving.”</p>
<h2>Love and health</h2>
<p>As it turns out, there are many ways in which love and kindness are good for health. For one thing, they tend to reduce <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27100366">factors</a> that undermine it. Doing something nice for someone causes the release of endorphins, which help to relieve pain. People who make kindness a habit have lower levels of <a href="https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2015/12/17/460030338/be-kind-unwind-how-helping-others-can-help-keep-stress-in-check">stress hormones</a> such as cortisol. Intentionally helping others can even lower levels of <a href="https://health.clevelandclinic.org/acts-kindness-can-ease-social-anxiety/">anxiety</a> in individuals who normally avoid social situations.</p>
<p>Carrying out acts of kindness, or even merely <a href="https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/how_our_bodies_react_human_goodness">witnessing</a> them, also increases levels of <a href="https://www.hormone.org/hormones-and-health/hormones/oxytocin">oxytocin</a>, a hormone with <a href="https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0ac8/c14228b62b9c87636f5b6eb536a434fd04de.pdf">health benefits</a> as diverse as lowering blood pressure, promoting good sleep and reducing cravings for drugs such as cocaine and alcohol. That oxytocin should have so many health benefits is not so surprising when we recall its central role in stimulating uterine contractions during birth, the letdown of milk during lactation, the pleasure associated with orgasm and pair bonding.</p>
<p>Acts of generosity and compassion also appear to be good for mood. A <a href="https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/11189976/dunn,%20aknin,%20norton_prosocial_cdips.pdf?sequence=1">2010 study</a> showed that while people with money tend to be somewhat happier than those without it, people who spend money on others report even greater levels of happiness, an effect that can be detected even in toddlers. When people give money to others, areas of the brain associated with <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17569866">pleasure</a> are activated, and this response is greater when the transfer is voluntary rather than mandatory.</p>
<p>Such happiness can have big benefits in longevity. For example, a <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1758-0854.2010.01045.x">review</a> of 160 published studies concluded that there is compelling evidence that life satisfaction and optimism are associated with better health and enhanced longevity. Another <a href="http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2011/10/happiness-associated-longer-life">study</a> of older people showed that, even after correcting for other factors such as age, disease and health habits, those who rated their happiness highest were 35 percent less likely to die in five years than those who were least content.</p>
<h2>What would Mister Rogers say?</h2>
<p>Of course, Rogers would remind us that there are reasons to be committed to love and kindness that extend far beyond their health benefits. Rogers was, after all, not a physician but a minister, and ultimately he was ministering to an aspect of human wholeness that cannot be analyzed by blood tests or visualized with CT scans. In a <a href="https://news.dartmouth.edu/news/2018/03/revisiting-fred-rogers-2002-commencement-address">commencement address</a> at Dartmouth College in 2002, he focused less on the body than what he might have called the spirit:</p>
<p>“When I say it’s you I like, I’m talking about that part of you that knows that life is far more than anything you can ever see or hear or touch. That deep part of you that allows you to stand for those things without which humankind cannot survive. Love that conquers hate, peace that rises triumphant over war, and justice that proves more powerful than greed.”</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/222240/original/file-20180607-137309-1diror5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/222240/original/file-20180607-137309-1diror5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=437&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/222240/original/file-20180607-137309-1diror5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=437&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/222240/original/file-20180607-137309-1diror5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=437&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/222240/original/file-20180607-137309-1diror5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=549&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/222240/original/file-20180607-137309-1diror5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=549&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/222240/original/file-20180607-137309-1diror5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=549&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">A pair of Mister Rogers’ sneakers at the LBJ Library exhibition to celebrate the 50th anniversary of Pres. Johnson signing the public broadcasting act in 1967.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jay Godwin/LBJ Foundation</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>When Rogers encouraged children to be kinder and more loving, he believed that he was not only promoting public health but also nurturing the most important part of a human being – the part that exhibits a divine spark. As Rogers indicated in another <a href="https://archive.org/details/rogers_speech_5_27_01">commencement speech</a> the year before at Middlebury College, “I believe that appreciation is a holy thing, that when we look for what’s best in the person we happen to be with at the moment, we’re doing what God does; so in appreciating our neighbor, we’re participating in something truly sacred.”</p>
<p>In expressing such deeply religious sentiments, Rogers was not trying to undermine a concern with bodily health. In fact, he regularly encouraged his viewers to adopt healthy life habits, and Rogers himself was a committed <a href="https://www.huffingtonpost.com/michael-g-long/what-would-mister-rogers-eat_b_6193910.html">vegetarian</a> and lifelong swimmer who maintained a low body weight his entire life. Yet he also believed that health alone does not a full life make, and he regarded the soundness of the body as but part of the wellness of whole persons and communities, which may explain why he was able to face his own mortality with such equanimity.</p>
<p>Just a few months before he died, Rogers recorded a <a href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/nation/watch-fred-rogers-heart-warming-final-message-grownup-fans">message</a> for the many adult fans who had grown up watching “Mister Rogers’ Neighborhood.” In it, he practiced what he preached, saying:</p>
<p>“I would like to tell you what I often told you when you were much younger. I like you just the way you are. And what’s more, I’m so grateful to you for helping the children in your life to know that you’ll do everything you can to keep them safe. And to help them express their feelings in ways that will bring healing in many different neighborhoods. It’s such a good feeling to know that we’re lifelong friends.”</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/97970/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Richard Gunderman does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>As the documentary about ‘Mister Rogers’ Neighborhood’ hits theaters, it’s worth noting that Rogers’ emphasis on kindness and love is proving to be very important to good health.Richard Gunderman, Chancellor's Professor of Medicine, Liberal Arts, and Philanthropy, Indiana UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/912102018-02-09T17:01:14Z2018-02-09T17:01:14ZHow a thrill-seeking personality helps Olympic athletes<p>One of the main draws of the Winter Olympics is the opportunity to witness some of the most exciting and nail-biting athletic feats. </p>
<p>The daring events include the bobsled and downhill skiing. Then there’s the terrifying skeleton: Imagine barreling down a narrow chute of twisted ice-coated concrete at 125 miles per hour. Now imagine doing that head first, like a human battering ram. </p>
<p>Athletes train for years for these events, but most of these elite athletes possess something that helps them succeed during these high-stakes events: their personality.</p>
<p>Some people have a personality trait that helps them focus in highly chaotic environments like the ones you’ll see during the Winter Olympics. It’s called a high sensation-seeking personality, and it’s a trait that, as a psychologist, I’ve long been fascinated with.</p>
<h2>Calm in the face of danger</h2>
<p>To some extent, we all crave complex and new experiences – that is, we all seek new sensations. </p>
<p>Whether it’s our attraction to the latest shiny gadget or the newest fashion trend, novelty tugs at us. But even though we all share an interest in new sensations, what sets high sensation-seeking personalities apart is that they crave these exotic and intense experiences to an extent that they’re willing to risk their health.</p>
<p>What’s amazing is that some high sensation-seeking individuals experience less stress and are fearless and calm in the face of danger. For example, 2014 Olympic slalom gold medalist Mikaela Shiffrin tears down mountains at speeds of 80 mph. But she recently <a href="https://view.imirus.com/209/document/12827/page/34">told Sky Magazine</a> that the experience can feel like it unfolds in slow motion while she’s “finding a way to control the controllable.”</p>
<p>There’s <a href="http://www.dana.org/News/Details.aspx?id=43484">neurological evidence</a> to back up the sense of calm that athletes like Shiffrin feel in midst of chaos and danger. </p>
<p>You may have heard of <a href="https://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/what-is-cortisol#1">cortisol</a> – it’s the “fight or flight” hormone, and it can make us feel stressed and overwhelmed. </p>
<p>However, when people with high sensation-seeking personalities have intense experiences, they don’t produce that much cortisol. On top of that, they produce higher levels of “pleasure” chemicals like dopamine. </p>
<p>What’s more, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4763828/">researchers have found</a> that people with high sensation-seeking personalities have increased sensitivity to things that could be rewarding (like landing <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HfSf8QZwHwY">a perfect switch backside 1620</a>) and decreased sensitivity to potential dangers (like the fear of wiping out after doing a triple jump).</p>
<p>High sensation-seeking isn’t exclusive to Winter Olympians, of course. It can creep into every aspect of life, influencing the way you interact with other people, the things you do for fun, the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0191886986901364">music you like</a>, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9316713">the way you drive</a> and even the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0191886994901791">jokes you tell</a>.</p>
<h2>Leaping before you look</h2>
<p>In the 1950s, while studying sensory deprivation, psychologist <a href="http://www.euroformhealthcare.biz/temperament-traits/the-biological-theory-of-sensation-seeking-developed-by-zuckerman.html">Robert Zuckerman</a> stumbled upon this sensation-seeking trait. Zuckerman was eventually able to show that sensation-seeking is made up of four distinct components. </p>
<p>Each contributes to an individual’s unique way of seeking (or avoiding) sensation. (And you can actually <a href="http://buzz.drkencarter.com">take a test</a> to see where you fall for each of these four components on the sensation-seeking scale.)</p>
<p>The first two – thrill-seeking and experience-seeking – were mentioned earlier. But the sensation-seeking personality trait also involves disinhibition and boredom susceptibility.</p>
<p>Disinhibition has to do with our willingness to be spontaneous and our ability to let loose. People with low levels of disinhibition always look before they leap. Those high in disinhibition? They just leap. </p>
<p>Boredom susceptibility boils down to your ability to tolerate the absence of external stimuli. Those with high scores in boredom susceptibility dislike repetition: They tire easily of predictable or dull people, and they get restless when forced to perform mundane tasks. </p>
<p>This last component might be the toughest thing for Olympic athletes who are high-sensation seekers to deal with. In order to be a successful Olympian, you need to spend countless hours practicing dull, repetitive workouts and drills.</p>
<p>It’s easy to see how all of these aspects of sensation-seeking personalities might exist in Olympic athletes, whether it’s a snowboarder experimenting with a daring new trick or a hockey forward navigating a puck through a maze of defenders. </p>
<p>People with high sensation-seeking personalities don’t just crave these situations. In those moments, they’re in their element. Where a low sensation-seeking person might crumble, they thrive. </p>
<p>So when you’re watching the Winter Olympics and wondering how the athletes can handle the pressures and dangers of competition, just remember: For some of them, chaos and intensity are secret weapons of success.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/91210/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kenneth Carter does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>When faced with chaos or danger, most people retreat. Not so for those who possess a certain personality trait.Kenneth Carter, Charles Howard Professor of Psychology, Oxford College, Emory UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/888382018-01-08T14:16:03Z2018-01-08T14:16:03ZHow we discovered the link between childhood trauma, a faulty stress response and suicide risk in later life<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/200935/original/file-20180105-26139-win2wr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/download/confirm/368105075?src=boqdd6jQZ8QGJQr_VwRbLQ-1-3&size=medium_jpg">Photographee.eu/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When people experience stress, the adrenal glands that sit on top of the kidneys release a steroid hormone called cortisol. However, our <a href="http://www.psyneuen-journal.com/article/S0306-4530(17)31218-0/fulltext">latest study</a> shows that people who have experienced high levels of trauma in childhood, and who have attempted suicide, tend to release less cortisol when put under stress. These findings build on <a href="http://www.psyneuen-journal.com/article/S0306-4530(16)30843-5/pdf">our earlier work</a> that showed that the stress response system may be “faulty” or “damaged” in people who have recently tried to take their own life.</p>
<p>Every 40 seconds a person dies by suicide somewhere in the world, making suicide a <a href="http://www.who.int/mental_health/suicide-prevention/world_report_2014/en/">global health issue</a>. The causes of suicide are not well understood. For many years, researchers have been trying to uncover the risk factors for suicide in order to prevent deaths. Many <a href="http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(09)60372-X/abstract">biological</a>, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26360404">psychological</a> and social factors have been identified, but there are also many gaps in understanding why people try to end their lives. </p>
<p>We looked at whether stress and childhood trauma were related to the risk of suicide. Childhood trauma has been linked to a damaged or faulty stress response system in people with <a href="http://www.psyneuen-journal.com/article/S0306-4530(08)00069-3/fulltext">depression</a> later in life, but little is known about it in relation to suicide. </p>
<p>In our study, 160 people were grouped according to whether they had a history of previous suicide attempt, had thoughts of suicide but did not attempt suicide, or had neither attempted nor considered suicide (the controls). </p>
<p>Participants were asked to complete a questionnaire about emotional, physical and sexual abuse they may have suffered as a child or as a teenager, as well as emotional and physical neglect. They were then asked to complete a stressful task in the laboratory. We measured the participants’ cortisol levels from saliva before and during the task. </p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/201141/original/file-20180108-83553-11ceqty.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/201141/original/file-20180108-83553-11ceqty.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/201141/original/file-20180108-83553-11ceqty.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/201141/original/file-20180108-83553-11ceqty.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/201141/original/file-20180108-83553-11ceqty.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/201141/original/file-20180108-83553-11ceqty.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/201141/original/file-20180108-83553-11ceqty.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Location of the adrenal glands (in red).</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/download/confirm/222303967?src=_ehI8VKI8j-ZGNqHmkYPjw-1-35&size=medium_jpg">Sebastian Kaulitzki/Shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Our analysis of the results showed that people who had attempted suicide in the past released low levels of cortisol when stressed compared with controls. The lowest levels were in people who had tried to take their own life within the past year. More alarmingly, those people who released lower cortisol when stressed in the laboratory reported higher levels of wanting to die – known as “suicide ideation” – four weeks later. </p>
<p>We also found very high levels of childhood trauma in people vulnerable to suicide, in particular in people who had previously made a suicide attempt. Nearly 80% of people who had attempted suicide had experienced at least one type of childhood trauma compared with less than 40% in those who had thought about suicide only, and less than 20% in the controls. </p>
<p>People who reported more than one moderate or severe type of childhood trauma released the lowest amount of cortisol during the stress test and during rest. Importantly, these effects were not explained by current depression.</p>
<h2>Glimmer of hope</h2>
<p>These findings suggest that the stress response system may be “broken” or impaired in people at risk of suicide. While this is concerning, the difference between the cortisol levels in people who had recently attempted suicide compared with those with a lifetime history are promising because they suggest that the stress response system may recover over time.</p>
<p>The reason these results are important is because people’s ability to release cortisol when stressed has been linked to poor <a href="http://jpn.ca/vol35-issue6/35-6-399/">mental control</a> (ability to inhibit or stop inappropriate or maladaptive behaviour and responses), emotional processing (ability to control emotions) and <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167876012006228?via%3Dihub">risky behaviours</a> (such as drug taking, alcoholism and being impulsive) – all factors associated with suicide risk.</p>
<p>High levels of trauma in childhood and the associated stress may lead to excessive wear and tear of people’s stress response system that may increase suicide risk later in life. </p>
<p>Our findings suggest that the amount of cortisol a vulnerable person releases when stressed may be an additional biological marker of suicide that could help identify those people at risk of suicide. For example, it might be possible to include a cortisol stress test as part of an assessment in people vulnerable to suicide. </p>
<p>Important next steps for prevention might involve developing suicide prevention treatments that restore cortisol levels. These may involve psychological therapies, such as <a href="http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev-psych-042716-051139">mindfulness</a>, that have been shown to hold great promise for improving health and well-being. Alternatively, a future avenue of research might look at whether pharmacological interventions, such as providing cortisol supplements, might help repair the stress response system in people vulnerable to suicide.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>The Samaritans can be contacted in the UK on 116 123. In the US, the National Suicide Prevention Hotline is 1-800-273-8255. In Australia, the crisis support service Lifeline is on 13 11 14. Hotlines in other countries can be found <a href="http://www.suicide.org/international-suicide-hotlines.html">here</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/88838/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Daryl O'Connor does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Understanding the role of cortisol in suicide risk may lead to new treatments.Daryl O'Connor, Professor of Psychology, University of LeedsLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/860032017-10-27T10:06:03Z2017-10-27T10:06:03ZWhy the clocks changing are great for your brain<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192055/original/file-20171026-13327-120j1dq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">shutterstock</span> </figcaption></figure><p>October is a dismal time of year. The clocks go back, which accelerates the onset of darker evenings and the “shorter days” inevitably lead to calls for the tradition of putting clocks forward or backward to stop. </p>
<p>Of course, the annual return to <a href="https://greenwichmeantime.com/">Greenwich Mean Time</a> (GMT) from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Summer_Time">British Summer Time</a> (BST) doesn’t make the days any shorter, it merely shifts an hour of available daylight from the evening to the morning. For many, lighter evenings are a priority and little attention is given to the benefits of lighter mornings. Arguments over clock changes tend to revolve around benefits for easier travel in lighter evenings. Nevertheless <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0074774210930079">research suggests</a> that holding onto lighter mornings might have hitherto unforeseen advantages. Light in the morning – more than any other time of day – leads to powerful <a href="https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/362a/c4ffaba0adf504415beb5778591a6368be43.pdf">brain-boosting effects</a>, helping us <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.3109/10253890.2014.905533">to function</a> as best we can, despite the approaching winter. </p>
<p>All life on Earth has evolved around the 24-hour cycle of light and dark. An obvious sign is our desire for night-time sleep, but most biological functions are fine-tuned around day and night. Our bodies are honed to environmental light via a biological chain reaction. </p>
<h2>Chain reactions</h2>
<p>Light intensity is detected by <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/content/295/5557/1065">special cells in the retina</a> and this information is relayed to the internal body clock, located deep in a part of the brain called the suprachiasmatic nucleus. This sits in the hypothalamus, responsible for regulation of internal body processes using the endocrine system, which is linked to hormone secretion, via the pituitary gland. We are unaware of these light messages as they have nothing to do with conscious vision. Their sole job is to internalise information about environmental light intensity. </p>
<p>The biological chain reaction continues with the brain driving the secretion of the hormone cortisol appropriate for the time of day – low levels in the dark and higher levels in the light. Cortisol is a powerful hormone with widespread effects on the brain and body. It is well known as “the stress hormone” but it is this underlying 24-hour pattern that keeps us healthy. </p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192051/original/file-20171026-13327-yr0fp7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C4%2C3264%2C2819&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192051/original/file-20171026-13327-yr0fp7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=713&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192051/original/file-20171026-13327-yr0fp7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=713&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192051/original/file-20171026-13327-yr0fp7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=713&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192051/original/file-20171026-13327-yr0fp7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=895&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192051/original/file-20171026-13327-yr0fp7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=895&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192051/original/file-20171026-13327-yr0fp7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=895&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Lighter feeling.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/woman-enjoying-her-morning-wake-up-741160501?src=JnGXcmniW6Pg0N3WF7xB0A-1-14">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
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<p>A robust burst in cortisol secretion occurs in the first 30 minutes after waking up. This is called the cortisol awakening response (CAR), and crucially this CAR is bigger when we wake up with light. So lighter mornings increase the CAR which in turn promotes better brain function so that we can tackle the day ahead. </p>
<p>We have <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306453010002817">previously shown</a> that people most badly affected by the changing seasons (those with <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/seasonal-affective-disorder/Pages/Introduction.aspx">seasonal affective disorder</a> (SAD)) had lower CARs when waking up in the dark winter months. This was compared to a group of people not affected by changing seasons in winter as well as themselves in summer. </p>
<p>Furthermore, those reporting greater seasonal depression, stress, anxiety and lower arousal exhibited the lowest winter CARs. However, winter awakening with the aid of an artificial light (dawn simulation) was <a href="https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/e5d0/07e39917dfbb49f154f7db2818d2efc623c7.pdf">able to restore the CAR</a>. This finding is consistent with light exposure, especially morning light, being <a href="http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/abs/10.1176/appi.ajp.162.4.656">the most effective treatment</a> for the winter blues.</p>
<p>More <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.3109/10253890.2015.1076789">recent research</a> has explored what the CAR does in more detail, as part of healthy cortisol secretion. A bigger burst of cortisol in the morning (the CAR) has been linked <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.3109/10253890.2014.905533">with better brain plasticity</a> (the capacity to learn) and function – especially better goal-setting, decision-making and planning (what we call the executive function). Indeed the decline in the CAR with ageing <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167876012000694">has been associated</a> with worse executive function.</p>
<p>Morning awakening is a striking and important biological event – the tipping point of the day. A rapid burst of cortisol secretion kickstarts the day by synchronising widespread biological systems. This powerful hormone rapidly sweeps throughout the body where it is recognised by receptors on all body cells. These receptors generate the next stage in the biological chain reaction to ensure we are appropriately prepared and energised for the challenges of the day ahead. Smaller CARs mean we do not function optimally.</p>
<p>So on dark winter mornings it can be more difficult to mount a robust burst of cortisol in the morning. This is because both awakening and light are the stimuli for this crucial tipping point of the day. A lack of light in the morning can diminish the biological chain reaction and make many of us feel below par and not function at full throttle. Ironically this would be most marked for those that are in any way affected by the seasons. So those who complain most about the dark days are probably the most likely to benefit from light in the morning, rather than the evening.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/86003/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Angela Clow received funding from The Bial Foundation and the British Academy </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nina Smyth received funding from The Bial Foundation and the British Academy</span></em></p>Lighter mornings set off a vital biological chain reaction that sets you up for the day.Angela Clow, Emeritus Professor, University of WestminsterNina Smyth, Senior Lecturer in Psychology, Psychophysiology, Stress, Well-being, University of WestminsterLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.