tag:theconversation.com,2011:/africa/topics/eeg-1215/articlesEEG – The Conversation2023-12-22T02:25:14Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2192362023-12-22T02:25:14Z2023-12-22T02:25:14ZAlpha, beta, theta: what are brain states and brain waves? And can we control them?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/567204/original/file-20231222-17-kl638p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=69%2C77%2C5106%2C3368&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>There’s no shortage of apps and technology that claim to shift the brain into a “theta” state – said to help with relaxation, inward focus and sleep. </p>
<p>But what exactly does it mean to change one’s “mental state”? And is that even possible? For now, the evidence remains murky. But our understanding of the brain is growing exponentially as our methods of investigation improve.</p>
<h2>Brain-measuring tech is evolving</h2>
<p>Currently, no single approach to imaging or measuring brain activity gives us the whole picture. What we “see” in the brain depends on which tool we use to “look”. There are myriad ways to do this, but each one comes with trade-offs. </p>
<p>We learnt a lot about brain activity in the 1980s thanks <a href="https://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/200607/history.cfm">to the advent</a> of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).</p>
<p>Eventually we invented “functional MRI”, which allows us to link brain activity with certain functions or behaviours in real time by measuring the brain’s use of oxygenated blood during a task. </p>
<p>We can also measure electrical activity using EEG (electroencephalography). This can accurately measure the timing of brain waves as they occur, but isn’t very accurate at identifying which specific areas of the brain they occur in.</p>
<p>Alternatively, we can measure the brain’s response to magnetic stimulation. This is very accurate in terms of area and timing, but only as long as it’s close to the surface.</p>
<h2>What are brain states?</h2>
<p>All of our simple and complex behaviours, as well as our cognition (thoughts) have a foundation in brain activity, or “neural activity”. Neurons – the brain’s nerve cells – communicate by a sequence of electrical impulses and chemical signals called “neurotransmitters”. </p>
<p>Neurons are very greedy for fuel from the blood and require a lot of support from companion cells. Hence, a lot of measurement of the site, amount and timing of brain activity is done via measuring electrical activity, neurotransmitter levels or blood flow.</p>
<p>We can consider this activity at three levels. The first is a single-cell level, wherein individual neurons communicate. But measurement at this level is difficult (laboratory-based) and provides a limited picture.</p>
<p>As such, we rely more on measurements done on a network level, where a series of neurons or networks are activated. Or, we measure whole-of-brain activity patterns which can incorporate one or more so-called “brain states”. </p>
<p>According to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2023.04.001">a recent definition</a>, brain states are “recurring activity patterns distributed across the brain that emerge from physiological or cognitive processes”. These states are functionally relevant, which means they are related to behaviour.</p>
<p>Brain states involve the synchronisation of different brain regions, something that’s been most readily observed in animal models, usually rodents. Only now are we starting to see some evidence in human studies.</p>
<h2>Various kinds of states</h2>
<p>The most commonly-studied brain states in both rodents and humans are states of “arousal” and “resting”. You can picture these as various levels of alertness.</p>
<p>Studies show environmental factors and activity influence our brain states. Activities or environments with high cognitive demands drive “attentional” brain states (so-called task-induced brain states) with increased connectivity. Examples of task-induced brain states include <a href="https://www.cell.com/trends/neurosciences/fulltext/S0166-2236(23)00101-7#%20">complex behaviours</a> such as reward anticipation, mood, hunger and so on.</p>
<p>In contrast, a brain state such as “mind-wandering” seems to be divorced from one’s environment and tasks. Dropping into daydreaming is, by definition, without connection to the real world. </p>
<p>We can’t currently disentangle multiple “states” that exist in the brain at any given time and place. As mentioned earlier, this is because of the trade-offs that come with recording spatial (brain region) versus temporal (timing) brain activity.</p>
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<h2>Brain states vs brain waves</h2>
<p>Brain state work can be couched in terms such as alpha, delta and so forth. However, this is actually referring to brain <em>waves</em> which specifically come from measuring brain activity using EEG. </p>
<p>EEG picks up on changing electrical activity in the brain, which can be sorted into different frequencies (based on wavelength). Classically, these frequencies have had specific associations:</p>
<ul>
<li>gamma is linked with states or tasks that require more focused concentration</li>
<li>beta is linked with higher anxiety and more active states, with attention often directed externally</li>
<li>alpha is linked with being very relaxed, and passive attention (such as listening quietly but not engaging)</li>
<li>theta is linked with deep relaxation and inward focus</li>
<li>and delta is linked with deep sleep. </li>
</ul>
<p>Brain wave patterns are used a lot to monitor sleep stages. When we fall asleep we go from drowsy, light attention that’s easily roused (alpha), to being relaxed and no longer alert (theta), to being deeply asleep (delta).</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/567205/original/file-20231222-16-r93ni6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/567205/original/file-20231222-16-r93ni6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/567205/original/file-20231222-16-r93ni6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/567205/original/file-20231222-16-r93ni6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/567205/original/file-20231222-16-r93ni6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/567205/original/file-20231222-16-r93ni6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/567205/original/file-20231222-16-r93ni6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/567205/original/file-20231222-16-r93ni6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Brainwaves are grouped into five different wavelength categories.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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</figure>
<h2>Can we control our brain states?</h2>
<p>The question on many people’s minds is: can we judiciously and intentionally influence our brain states? </p>
<p>For now, it’s likely too simplistic to suggest we can do this, as the actual mechanisms that influence brain states remain hard to detangle. Nonetheless, researchers are investigating everything from the use of drugs, to environmental cues, to practising mindfulness, meditation and sensory manipulation.</p>
<p>Controversially, brain wave patterns are used in something called “neurofeedback” therapy. In these treatments, people are given feedback (such as visual or auditory) based on their brain wave activity and are then tasked with trying to maintain or change it. To <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36416067/">stay in a required state</a> they may be encouraged to control their thoughts, relax, or breathe in certain ways. </p>
<p>The applications of this work are predominantly around mental health, including for individuals who have experienced trauma, or who have difficulty self-regulating – which may manifest as poor attention or emotional turbulence.</p>
<p>However, although these techniques have intuitive appeal, they don’t account for the issue of multiple brain states being present at any given time. Overall, clinical studies have been <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33370575/">largely inconclusive</a>, and proponents of neurofeedback therapy remain frustrated by a lack of orthodox support.</p>
<p>Other forms of neurofeedback are delivered by MRI-generated data. Participants engaging in mental tasks are given signals based on their neural activity, which they use to try and “up-regulate” (activate) regions of the brain involved in positive emotions. This could, for instance, be useful for helping <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33370575/">people with depression</a>.</p>
<p>Another potential method claimed to purportedly change brain states involves different sensory inputs. Binaural beats are perhaps the most popular example, wherein two different wavelengths of sound are played in each ear. But the evidence for such techniques <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37205669/">is similarly mixed</a>.</p>
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<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-are-binaural-beats-and-do-they-affect-our-brain-180235">What are 'binaural beats' and do they affect our brain?</a>
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<p>Treatments such as neurofeedback therapy are often very costly, and their success likely relies as much on the therapeutic relationship than the actual therapy.</p>
<p>On the bright side, there’s no evidence these treatment do any harm – other than potentially delaying treatments which have been proven to be beneficial.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/219236/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Susan Hillier receives funding from Medical Research Future Fund/NHMRC. </span></em></p>What we ‘see’ in the brain depends on which tool we use to ‘look’ – but each one comes with trade-offs.Susan Hillier, Professor: Neuroscience and Rehabilitation, University of South AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2178892023-12-06T13:27:31Z2023-12-06T13:27:31ZHow electroconvulsive therapy heals the brain − new insights into ECT, a stigmatized yet highly effective treatment for depression<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563043/original/file-20231201-17-j1qrjt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C2059%2C1454&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Electroconvulsive therapy involves inducing a controlled seizure under anesthesia.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/illustration/human-brain-impulse-concept-futuristic-royalty-free-illustration/1177917141">Inkoly/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When most people hear about <a href="https://theconversation.com/electroconvulsive-therapy-a-history-of-controversy-but-also-of-help-70938">electroconvulsive therapy, or ECT</a>, it typically conjures terrifying images of cruel, outdated and pseudo-medical procedures. Formerly known as electroshock therapy, this perception of ECT as dangerous and ineffective has been reinforced in pop culture for decades – think the 1962 novel-turned-Oscar-winning film “<a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/One-Flew-over-the-Cuckoos-Nest-film-by-Forman">One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest</a>,” where an unruly patient is subjected to ECT as punishment by a tyrannical nurse.</p>
<p>Despite this stigma, ECT is a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1056/nejmra2034954">highly effective treatment for depression</a> – up to 80% of patients experience at least a 50% reduction in symptom severity. For one of the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30925-9">most disabling illnesses</a> around the world, I think it’s surprising that ECT is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1097/yct.0000000000000320">rarely used</a> to treat depression.</p>
<p>Contributing to the stigma around ECT, psychiatrists still don’t know exactly how it heals a depressed person’s brain. ECT involves using <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538266/">highly controlled doses of electricity</a> to induce a brief seizure under anesthesia. Often, the best description you’ll hear from a physician on why that brief seizure can alleviate depression symptoms is that ECT <a href="https://www.uhhospitals.org/services/adult-psychiatry-psychology/ect-suite/about-ect-procedure">“resets” the brain</a> – an answer that can be fuzzy and unsettling to some.</p>
<p>As a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=tDUCQ3UAAAAJ">data-obsessed neuroscientist</a>, I was also dissatisfied with this explanation. In <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-023-02631-y">our newly</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-023-02634-9">published research</a>, my colleagues and I in <a href="https://voyteklab.com">the lab of</a> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=ydFvGx0AAAAJ&hl=en">Bradley Voytek</a> at UC San Diego discovered that ECT might work by resetting the brain’s electrical background noise.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/AcmarVpo2xE?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Despite its high effectiveness in alleviating depression symptoms, misperceptions about ECT made it unpopular.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Listening to brain waves</h2>
<p>To study how ECT treats depression, my team and I used a device called an <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK563295/">electroencephalogram, or EEG</a>. It measures the brain’s electrical activity – or brain waves – via electrodes placed on the scalp. You can think of brain waves as music played by an orchestra. Orchestral music is the sum of many instruments together, much like EEG readings are the sum of the electrical activity of millions of brain cells.</p>
<p>Two <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41593-020-00744-x">types of electrical activity</a> make up brain waves. The first, oscillations, are like the highly synchronized, melodic music you might hear in a symphony. The second, aperiodic activity, is more like the asynchronous noise you hear as musicians tune their instruments. These two types of activities coexist in the brain, together creating the electrical waves an EEG records.</p>
<p>Importantly, tuning noises and symphonic music shouldn’t be mistaken for one another. They clearly come from different processes and serve different purposes. The brain is similar in this way – aperiodic activity and oscillations are different because the biology driving them is distinct.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563769/original/file-20231205-27-cj7f46.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Diagram showing EEG reading of neural oscillations and aperiodic activity" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563769/original/file-20231205-27-cj7f46.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563769/original/file-20231205-27-cj7f46.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=134&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563769/original/file-20231205-27-cj7f46.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=134&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563769/original/file-20231205-27-cj7f46.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=134&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563769/original/file-20231205-27-cj7f46.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=169&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563769/original/file-20231205-27-cj7f46.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=169&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563769/original/file-20231205-27-cj7f46.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=169&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This diagram shows two EEG readings: One signal contains slow neural oscillations and the other contains only aperiodic activity. Although these signals can be tricky to visually distinguish, certain data analysis methods can help tease them apart.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Sydney Smith</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
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<p>However, the methods neuroscientists have traditionally used to analyze these signals are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41593-020-00744-x">unable to differentiate</a> between the oscillations (symphony) and the aperiodic activity (tuning). Both are critical for the orchestra, but so far neuroscientists have mostly ignored – or entirely missed – aperiodic signals because they were thought to be just the brain’s background noise.</p>
<p>In our new research, my team and I show that ignoring aperiodic brain activity <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-023-02631-y">likely explains</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-023-02634-9">the confusion</a> behind about how ECT treats depression. It turns out we’ve been missing this signal all along.</p>
<h2>Connecting aperiodic activity and ECT</h2>
<p>Since the 1940s, ECT has been associated with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.99.4.525">increases in slow oscillations</a> in the brain waves of patients. However, those slow oscillations have never been linked to how ECT works. The degree to which slow oscillations appear is not consistently related to how much symptoms improve following ECT. Nor have ideas about how the brain produces slow oscillations connected those processes to the pathology underlying depression. </p>
<p>Because these two types of brain waves are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s12021-022-09581-8">difficult to separate in measurements</a>, I wondered if these slow oscillations were in fact incorrectly measured aperiodic activity. Returning to our orchestra analogy, I believed that scientists had misidentified the tuning sounds as symphony music.</p>
<p>To investigate this, my team and I gathered three EEG datasets: one from nine patients with depression undergoing ECT in San Diego, another from 22 patients in Toronto receiving ECT and a third from 22 patients in Toronto participating in a clinical trial of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.58.3.303">magnetic seizure therapy, or MST</a>, a newer alternative to ECT that starts a seizure with magnets instead of electricity.</p>
<p>We found that aperiodic activity increases by <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-023-02634-9">more than 40% on average</a> following ECT. In patients who received MST treatment, aperiodic activity increases more modestly, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-023-02631-y">by about 16%</a>. After accounting for changes in aperiodic activity, we found that slow oscillations do not change much at all. In fact, slow oscillations were not even detected in some patients, and aperiodic activity dominated their EEG recordings instead.</p>
<h2>How ECT treats depression</h2>
<p>But what does aperiodic activity have to do with depression?</p>
<p>A long-standing <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/mp.2010.120">theory of depression</a> states that severely depressed patients have too few of a type of brain cell called inhibitory cells. These cells can turn other brain cells on and off, and maintaining the balance of these on and off states is critical for healthy brain function. This balance is particularly relevant for depression because the brain’s ability to turn cells off plays an important role in <a href="https://doi.org/10.2174%2F1570159X1304150831150507">how it responds to stress</a>, a function that, when not working properly, makes people particularly vulnerable to depression.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563047/original/file-20231201-21-7jfwil.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Microscopy image of a long green neuron touching a red neuron" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563047/original/file-20231201-21-7jfwil.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563047/original/file-20231201-21-7jfwil.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=596&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563047/original/file-20231201-21-7jfwil.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=596&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563047/original/file-20231201-21-7jfwil.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=596&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563047/original/file-20231201-21-7jfwil.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=749&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563047/original/file-20231201-21-7jfwil.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=749&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563047/original/file-20231201-21-7jfwil.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=749&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This microscopy image shows a mouse inhibitory neuron (red) contacting a pyramidal neuron (green).</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/J8HizN">McBain Laboratory, NICHD/NIH via Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Using a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.06.078">mathematical model</a> of cell type-based electrical activity, I linked increases in aperiodic activity, like those seen in the ECT patients, to a huge <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-023-02634-9">change in the activity</a> of these inhibitory cells. This change in aperiodic activity may be restoring the crucial on and off balance in the brain to a healthy level. </p>
<p>Even though scientists have been recording EEGs from ECT patients for decades, this is the first time that brain waves have been connected to this particular brain malfunction.</p>
<p>Altogether, though our sample size is relatively small, our findings indicate that ECT and MST likely treat depression by resetting aperiodic activity and restoring the function of inhibitory brain cells. Further study can help destigmatize ECT and highlight new directions for the research and development of depression treatments. Listening to the nonmusical background noise of the brain could help solve other mysteries, like how the brain changes in aging and in illnesses like schizophrenia and epilepsy.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/217889/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sydney E. Smith does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Electroconvulsive therapy often evokes inaccurate images of seizing bodies and smoking ears. Better understanding of how it reduces depression symptoms can illuminate new ways to treat mental illness.Sydney E. Smith, Ph.D. Candidate in Computational Neuroscience, University of California, San DiegoLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2149242023-11-14T16:33:17Z2023-11-14T16:33:17ZHow music heals us, even when it’s sad – by a neuroscientist leading a new study of musical therapy<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557134/original/file-20231101-27-vcga1e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C152%2C5998%2C3677&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/music-activates-brain-listening-playing-stimulates-1353984893">Sangoiri/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><blockquote>
<p>When I hear Shania Twain’s <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KNZH-emehxA">You’re Still The One</a>, it takes me back to when I was 15, playing on my Dad’s PC. I was tidying up the mess after he had tried to [take his own life]. He’d been listening to her album, and I played it as I tidied up. Whenever I hear the song, I’m taken back – the sadness and anger comes flooding back.</p>
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<p>There is a renewed fascination with the healing powers of music. This resurgence can primarily be attributed to recent breakthroughs in neuroscientific research, which have substantiated music’s therapeutic properties such as emotional regulation and brain re-engagement. This has led to a <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10560-022-00893-x">growing integration</a> of music therapy with conventional mental health treatments.</p>
<p>Such musical interventions have already been shown to help people with <a href="https://www.proquest.com/openview/f42a82f350c32a106111ca17ac5db5fe/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=37213">cancer</a>, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29149141/">chronic pain</a> and <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15401383.2012.685020">depression</a>. The debilitating consequences of stress, such as elevated blood pressure and muscle tension, can also be <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17437199.2020.1846580">alleviated through the power of music</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Across the world, we’re seeing unprecedented levels of mental illness at all ages, from children to the very old – with huge costs to families, communities and economies. <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/tackling-the-mental-health-crisis-147216?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=ArticleTop&utm_campaign=MentalHealthSeries">In this series</a>, we investigate what’s causing this crisis, and report on the latest research to improve people’s mental health at all stages of life.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>As both a longtime music fan and neuroscientist, I believe music has a special status among all the arts in terms of the breadth and depth of its impact on people. One critical aspect is its powers of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0166432821005222">autobiographical memory retrieval</a> – encouraging often highly personal recollections of past experiences. We can all recount an instance where a tune transports us back in time, rekindling recollections and often imbuing them with a range of powerful emotions.</p>
<p>But enhanced recollection can also occur in dementia patients, for whom the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2023/sep/20/a-moment-that-changed-me-i-played-my-way-to-people-with-dementia-the-effect-was-magic">transformative impact of music therapy</a> sometimes opens a floodgate of memories – from cherished childhood experiences and the aromas and tastes of a mother’s kitchen, to lazy summer afternoons spent with family or the atmosphere and energy of a music festival.</p>
<p>One remarkable example is a widely shared <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IT_tW3EVDK8">video</a> made by the <a href="https://musicaparadespertar.com/">Asociación Música para Despertar</a>, which is thought to feature the Spanish-Cuban ballerina Martha González Saldaña (though there has been <a href="https://www.npr.org/2020/11/10/933387878/struck-with-memory-loss-a-dancer-remembers-swan-lake-but-who-is-she">some controversy</a> about her identity). The music of Swan Lake by Tchaikovsky appears to reactivate cherished memories and even motor responses in this former prima ballerina, who is moved to rehearse some of her former dance motions on camera.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/IT_tW3EVDK8?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Tchaikovsky’s Swan Lake appears to reactivate long-unused motor responses in this former ballerina.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In our laboratory at Northumbria University, we aim to harness these recent neuroscience advances to deepen our understanding of the intricate connection between music, the brain and mental wellbeing. We want to answer specific questions such as why <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpain.2023.1210572/full">sad or bittersweet music</a> plays a unique therapeutic role for some people, and which parts of the brain it “touches” compared with happier compositions.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1053811919301284?via%3Dihub">Advanced research tools</a> such as high-density electroencephalogram (EEG) monitors enable us to record how the brain regions “talk” to each other in real-time as someone listens to a song or symphony. These regions are stimulated by different aspects of the music, from its emotional content to its melodic structure, its lyrics to its rhythmic patterns.</p>
<p>Of course, everyone’s response to music is deeply personal, so our research also necessitates getting our study participants to describe how a particular piece of music makes them feel – including its ability to encourage profound introspection and evoke meaningful memories.</p>
<p>Ludwig van Beethoven once proclaimed: “Music is the one incorporeal entrance into the higher world of knowledge which comprehends mankind, but which mankind cannot comprehend.” With the help of neuroscience, we hope to help change that.</p>
<h2>A brief history of music therapy</h2>
<p>Music’s ancient origins predate aspects of language and rational thinking. Its roots can be traced back to the Paleolithic Era more than 10,000 years ago, when early humans used it for communication and emotional expression. <a href="https://news.cnrs.fr/articles/the-sound-of-palaeolithic-music">Archaeological finds</a> include ancient bone flutes and percussion instruments made from bones and stones, as well as markings noting the <a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/07/080704130439.htm">most accoustically resonant place within a cave</a> and even <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-the-music-of-an-ancient-rock-painting-was-brought-to-life-185475">paintings depicting musical gatherings</a>.</p>
<p>Music in the subsequent Neolithic Era went through <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-archaeology-tells-us-about-the-music-and-sounds-made-by-africas-ancestors-143809">significant development</a> within permanent settlements across the world. Excavations have revealed various musical instruments including harps and complex percussion instruments, highlighting music’s growing importance in religious ceremonies and social gatherings during this period – alongside the emergence of rudimentary forms of music notation, evident in <a href="https://www.asor.org/anetoday/2022/04/music-ancient-mesopotamia">clay tablets from ancient Mesopotamia</a> in western Asia.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557113/original/file-20231101-21-el7lrd.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Four prehistoric musical instruments" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557113/original/file-20231101-21-el7lrd.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557113/original/file-20231101-21-el7lrd.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557113/original/file-20231101-21-el7lrd.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557113/original/file-20231101-21-el7lrd.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557113/original/file-20231101-21-el7lrd.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=463&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557113/original/file-20231101-21-el7lrd.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=463&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557113/original/file-20231101-21-el7lrd.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=463&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Prehistoric musical instruments.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Musical_instruments_of_prehistory.jpg">Musée d'Archéologie Nationale/Wikimedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Ancient Greek philosophers Plato and Aristotle both recognised music’s central role in the human experience. Plato outlined the power of music as a pleasurable and healing stimulus, stating: “Music is a moral law. It gives soul to the universe, wings to the mind, flight to the imagination.” More practically, Aristotle suggested that: “Music has the power of forming the character, and should therefore be introduced into the education of the young.”</p>
<p>Throughout history, many cultures have embraced the healing powers of music. Ancient Egyptians incorporated music into their religious ceremonies, considering it a therapeutic force. Native American tribes, such as the Navajo, used music and dance in their healing rituals, relying on drumming and chanting to promote physical and spiritual wellbeing. In traditional Chinese medicine, specific musical tones and rhythms were believed to balance the body’s energy (qi) and enhance health. </p>
<p>During the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, the Christian church was pivotal in popularising “music for the masses”. Congregational hymn singing allowed worshippers to engage in communal music during church services. This shared musical expression was a powerful medium for religious devotion and teaching, bridging the gap for a largely non-literate population to connect with their faith through melody and lyrics. Communal singing is not only a cultural and religious tradition, but it has also been <a href="https://journals.co.za/doi/abs/10.4102/ve.v40i1.1910">recognised as a therapeutic experience</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557117/original/file-20231101-25-aqs9xd.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Grey-haired man in jacket sitting at a desk reading," src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557117/original/file-20231101-25-aqs9xd.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557117/original/file-20231101-25-aqs9xd.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=604&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557117/original/file-20231101-25-aqs9xd.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=604&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557117/original/file-20231101-25-aqs9xd.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=604&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557117/original/file-20231101-25-aqs9xd.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=759&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557117/original/file-20231101-25-aqs9xd.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=759&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557117/original/file-20231101-25-aqs9xd.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=759&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Benjamin Rush.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Benjamin_Rush_by_Sully.jpg">NYPL Digital Gallery/Wikimedia</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In the 18th and 19th centuries, early investigations into the human nervous system paralleled the <a href="https://www.musictherapy.org/about/history/">emergence of music therapy</a> as a field of study. Pioneers such as American physician <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Benjamin-Rush">Benjamin Rush</a>, a signatory of the US Declaration of Independence in 1776, recognised the therapeutic potential of music to improve mental health.</p>
<p>Soon afterwards, figures such as Samuel Mathews (one of Rush’s students) began conducting experiments exploring <a href="https://collections.nlm.nih.gov/catalog/nlm:nlmuid-2562064R-bk">music’s effects on the nervous system</a>, laying the foundation for modern music therapy. This early work provided the springboard for <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.2307/3345004#:%7E:text=Abstract-,E.,relating%20music%20education%20to%20medicine.">E. Thayer Gaston</a>, known as the “father of music therapy”, to promote it as a legitimate discipline in the US. These developments inspired similar endeavours in the UK, where <a href="https://academic.oup.com/mtp/article-abstract/36/1/1/4916024">Mary Priestley</a> made significant contributions to the development of music therapy as a respected field.</p>
<p>The insights gained from these early explorations have continued to influence psychologists and neuroscientists ever since – including the late, great neurologist and <a href="https://www.oliversacks.com/oliver-sacks-books/musicophilia-oliver-sacks/">best-selling author</a> Oliver Sacks, who observed that:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Music can lift us out of depression or move us to tears. It is a remedy, a tonic, orange juice for the ear.</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>The ‘Mozart effect’</h2>
<blockquote>
<p>Music was my profession, but it was also a special and deeply personal pursuit … Most importantly, it gave me a way to cope with life’s challenges, learning to channel my feelings and express them safely. Music taught me how to take my thoughts, both the pleasant and the painful ones, and turn them into something beautiful.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Studying and understanding all the brain mechanisms involved in listening to music, and its effects, requires more than just neuroscientists. Our diverse team includes music experts such as Dimana Kardzhieva (quoted above), who started playing the piano aged five and went on to study at the National School of Music in Sofia, Bulgaria. Now a cognitive psychologist, her combined understanding of music and cognitive processes helps us delve into the complex mechanisms through which music affects (and soothes) our minds. A neuroscientist alone might fall short in this endeavour.</p>
<p>The starting point of our research was the so-called “Mozart effect” – the suggestion that exposure to intricate musical compositions, especially classical pieces, stimulates brain activity and ultimately <a href="https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED390733.pdf">enhances cognitive abilities</a>. While there have been subsequent mixed findings as to <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2018-20917-004">whether the Mozart effect is real</a>, due to the different methods employed by researchers over the years, this work has nonetheless triggered significant advances in our understanding of music’s effect on the brain.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/VIItKRaP2vc?wmode=transparent&start=23" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Listening to Mozart’s Sonata for Two Pianos in D was found in one study to enhance cognitive abilities.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In the original 1993 study by <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/365611a0">Frances Rauscher and colleagues</a>, participants experienced enhancement in spatial reasoning ability after just ten minutes of listening to Mozart’s Sonata for Two Pianos in D.</p>
<p>In <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2007-18075-020">our 1997 study</a>, which used Beethoven’s <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bEiYmeeV6sI">second symphony</a> and rock guitarist Steve Vai’s instrumental track <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9IrWyZ0KZuk">For the Love of God</a>, we found similar direct effects in our listeners – as measured both by <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/electroencephalogram/">EEG</a> activity associated with attention levels and the release of the hormone <a href="https://www.health.harvard.edu/mind-and-mood/dopamine-the-pathway-to-pleasure">dopamine</a> (the brain’s messenger for feelings of joy, satisfaction and the reinforcement of specific actions). Our research found that classical music in particular enhances attention to how we process the world around us, regardless of one’s musical expertise or preferences.</p>
<p>The beauty of EEG methodology lies in its capacity to track brain processes with millisecond accuracy – allowing us to distinguish unconscious neural responses from conscious ones. When we repeatedly showed simple shapes to a person, we found that classical music sped up their early (pre-300 millisecond) processing of these stimuli. Other music did not have the same effect – and nor did our subjects’ prior knowledge of, or liking for, classical music. For example, both professional rock and classical musicians who took part in our study improved their automatic, unconscious cognitive processes while listening to classical music.</p>
<p>But we also found indirect effects related to arousal. When people immerse themselves in the music they personally enjoy, they experience a dramatic shift in their alertness and mood. This phenomenon <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1111/1467-9280.00345">shares similarities</a> with the increased cognitive performance often linked to other enjoyable experiences. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/aryDMAP6oug?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Vivaldi’s Four Seasons in full.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In a further study, we explored the particular influence of “<a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/program-music">program music</a>” – the term for instrumental music that “carries some extramusical meaning”, and which is said to possess a remarkable ability to engage memory, imagination and self-reflection. When our participants listened to Antonio Vivaldi’s Four Seasons, they reported experiencing a <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1027%2F1618-3169%2Fa000166">vivid representation of the changing seasons</a> through the music – including those who were unfamiliar with these concertos. Our study concluded, for example, that:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Spring – particularly the well-recognised, vibrant, emotive and uplifting first movement – had the ability to enhance mental alertness and brain measures of attention and memory.</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>What’s going on inside our brain?</h2>
<p>Music’s emotional and therapeutic qualities are highly related to the release of neurochemicals. A number of these are associated with happiness, including oxytocin, serotonin and endorphins. However, dopamine is central to the enhancing properties of music.</p>
<p>It triggers the release of dopamine in regions of the brain devoted to <a href="https://rewardfoundation.org/brain-basics/reward-system/#:%7E:text=The%20Striatum&text=It%20is%20the%20region%20of,%2C%20reinforcement%2C%20and%20reward%20perception.">reward and pleasure</a>, generating sensations of joy and euphoria akin to the impact of other pleasurable activities such as eating or having sex. But unlike these activities, which have clear value related to survival and reproduction, the evolutionary advantage of music is less obvious.</p>
<p>Its strong social function is acknowledged as the main factor behind music’s development and preservation in human communities. So, this protective quality may explain why it taps into the same neural mechanisms as other pleasurable activities.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/288776/original/file-20190820-170910-8bv1s7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/288776/original/file-20190820-170910-8bv1s7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288776/original/file-20190820-170910-8bv1s7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288776/original/file-20190820-170910-8bv1s7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288776/original/file-20190820-170910-8bv1s7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288776/original/file-20190820-170910-8bv1s7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288776/original/file-20190820-170910-8bv1s7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong><em>This article is part of Conversation Insights</em></strong>
<br><em>The Insights team generates <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/insights-series-71218">long-form journalism</a> derived from interdisciplinary research. The team is working with academics from different backgrounds who have been engaged in projects aimed at tackling societal and scientific challenges.</em></p>
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<p>The brain’s reward system consists of interconnected regions, with the <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00276-014-1360-0">nucleus accumbens</a> serving as its powerhouse. It is situated deep within the subcortical region, and its location hints at its significant involvement in emotion processing, given its proximity to other key regions related to this.</p>
<p>When we engage with music, whether playing or listening, the nucleus accumbens responds to its pleasurable aspects by triggering the release of dopamine. This process, known as the dopamine reward pathway, is critical for experiencing and reinforcing positive emotions such as the feelings of happiness, joy or excitement that music can bring.</p>
<p>We are still learning about the full impact of music on different parts of the brain, as Jonathan Smallwood, professor of psychology at Queen’s University, Ontario, explains:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Music can be complicated to understand from a neuroscience perspective. A piece of music encompasses many domains that are typically studied in isolation – such as auditory function, emotion, language and meaning.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>That said, we can see how music’s effect on the brain extends beyond mere pleasure. The <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/amygdala">amygdala</a>, a region of the brain renowned for its involvement in emotion, generates and regulates emotional responses to music, from the heartwarming nostalgia of a familiar melody to the exhilarating excitement of a crescendoing symphony or the spine-tingling fear of an eerie, haunting tune.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1053811920308363?pes=vor">Research</a> has also demonstrated that, when stimulated by music, these regions can encourage us to have autobiographical memories that elicit positive self-reflection that makes us feel better – as we saw in the video of former ballerina Martha González Saldaña.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-solve-our-mental-health-crisis-214776">How to solve our mental health crisis</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Our own research points to the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/hippocampus">hippocampus</a>, crucial for memory formation, as the part of the brain that stores music-related memories and associations. Simultaneously, the <a href="https://neuroscientificallychallenged.com/posts/know-your-brain-prefrontal-cortex">prefrontal cortex</a>, responsible for higher cognitive functions, closely collaborates with the hippocampus to retrieve these musical memories and assess their autobiographical significance. During music listening, this interplay between the brain’s memory and emotion centres creates a powerful and unique experience, elevating music to a distinctive and pleasurable stimulus.</p>
<p>Visual art, like paintings and sculptures, lacks music’s temporal and multisensory engagement, diminishing its ability to form strong, lasting emotional-memory connections. Art may evoke emotions and memories but often remains rooted in the moment. Music – perhaps uniquely – forms enduring, emotionally charged memories that can be summoned with the replaying of a particular song years later.</p>
<h2>Personal perspectives</h2>
<p>Music therapy can change people’s lives in profound ways. We have had the privilege of hearing many personal stories and reflections from our study participants, and even our researchers. In some cases, such as the memories of a father’s attempted suicide elicited by Shania Twain’s You’re Still The One, these are profound and deeply personal accounts. They show us the power of music to help regulate emotions, even when the memories it triggers are negative and painful.</p>
<p>In the face of severe physical and emotional challenges, another participant in our study explained how they had felt an unexpected boost to their wellbeing from listening to a favourite track from their past – despite the apparently negative content of the song’s title and lyrics:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Exercise has been crucial for me post-stroke. In the midst of my rehab workout, feeling low and in pain, an old favourite, What Have I Done To Deserve This? by the Pet Shop Boys, gave me an instant boost. It not only lifted my spirits but sent my heart racing with excitement – I could feel the tingles of motivation coursing through my veins.</p>
</blockquote>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/Wn9E5i7l-Eg?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The Pet Shop Boys gave added motivation to a post-stroke rehab workout.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Music can serve as a cathartic outlet, a source of empowerment, allowing individuals to process and cope with their emotions while supplying solace and release. One participant described how a little-known tune from 1983 serves as a deliberate mood inducer – a tool to boost their wellbeing:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Whenever I’m down or in need of a pick me up, I play <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EXmABxvHTG4">Dolce Vita by Ryan Paris</a>. It is like a magic button for generating positive emotions within myself - it always lifts me up in a matter of moments.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>As each person has their own tastes and emotional connections with certain types of music, a personalised approach is essential when designing music therapy interventions, to ensure they resonate with individuals deeply. Even personal accounts from our researchers, such as this from Sam Fenwick, have proved fruitful in generating hypotheses for experimental work:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>If I had to pick a single song that really strikes a chord, it would be <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UNjO3sZ-85w">Alpenglow by Nightwish</a>. This song gives me shivers. I can’t help but sing along and every time I do, it brings tears to my eyes. When life is good, it triggers feelings of inner strength and reminds me of nature’s beauty. When I feel low, it instils a sense of longing and loneliness, like I am trying to conquer my problems all alone when I could really use some support.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Stimulated by such observations, our latest investigation compares the effects of sad and happy music on people and their brains, in order to better understand the nature of these different emotional experiences. We have found that sombre melodies can have particular therapeutic effects, offering listeners a special platform for emotional release and meaningful introspection.</p>
<h2>Exploring the effects of happy and sad music</h2>
<p>Drawing inspiration from <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0031938418308576">studies</a> on emotionally intense cinematic experiences, we recently <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2673-4087/4/2/14">published a study</a> highlighting the effects of complex musical compositions, particularly Vivaldi’s Four Seasons, on dopamine responses and emotional states. This was designed to help us understand how happy and sad music affects people in different ways.</p>
<p>One major challenge was how to measure our participants’ dopamine levels non-invasively. Traditional functional brain imaging has been a common tool to track dopamine in response to music – for example, positron emission tomography (PET) imaging. However, this involves the injection of a radiotracer into the bloodstream, which attaches to dopamine receptors in the brain. Such a process also has limitations in terms of cost and availability.</p>
<p>In the field of psychology and dopamine research, one alternative, non-invasive approach involves studying how often people blink, and how the rate of blinking varies when different music is played.</p>
<p>Blinking is controlled by the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/basal-ganglion">basal ganglia</a>, a brain region that regulates dopamine. Dopamine dysregulation in conditions such as Parkinson’s disease can affect the regular blink rate. Studies have found that individuals with Parkinson’s often exhibit <a href="https://n.neurology.org/content/34/5/677#">reduced blink rates or increased variability in blink rates</a>, compared with healthy individuals. These findings suggest that blink rate can serve as an indirect proxy indicator of dopamine release or impairment.</p>
<p>While blink rate may not provide the same level of precision as direct neurochemical measurements, it offers a practical and accessible proxy measure that can complement traditional imaging techniques. This alternative approach has shown promise in enhancing our understanding of dopamine’s role in various cognitive and behavioural processes.</p>
<p>Our study revealed that the sombre <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZPdk5GaIDjo">Winter movement</a> elicited a particularly strong dopamine response, challenging our preconceived notions and shedding light on the interplay between music and emotions. Arguably you could have predicted a heightened response to the familiar and uplifting <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3LiztfE1X7E">Spring concerto</a>, but this was not the case.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/ZPdk5GaIDjo?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Vivaldi’s Winter movement was found to elicit a particularly strong dopamine response.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Our approach extended beyond dopamine measurement to gain a comprehensive understanding of the effects of sad and happy music. We also used <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10044923/">EEG network analysis</a> to study how different regions of the brain communicate and synchronise their activity while listening to different music. For instance, regions associated with the appreciation of music, the triggering of positive emotions and the retrieval of rich personal memories may “talk” to each other. It is like watching a symphony of brain activity unfold, as individuals subjectively experienced a diverse range of musical stimuli.</p>
<p>In parallel, <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/comments?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0110490">self-reports of subjective experiences</a> gave us insights into the personal impact of each piece of music, including the timeframe of thoughts (past, present, or future), their focus (self or others), their form (images or words), and their emotional content. Categorising these thoughts and emotions, and analysing their correlation with brain data, can provide valuable information for future therapeutic interventions.</p>
<p>Our <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2673-4087/4/2/14">preliminary data</a> reveals that happy music sparks present and future-oriented thoughts, positive emotions, and an outward focus on others. These thoughts were associated with heightened frontal brain activity and reduced posterior brain activity. In contrast, sad tunes caused self-focused reflection on past events, aligning with increased neural activity in brain areas tied to introspection and memory retrieval. </p>
<p>So why does sad music have the power to impact psychological wellbeing? The immersive experience of sombre melodies provides a platform for emotional release and processing. By evoking deep emotions, sad music allows listeners to find solace, introspect, and effectively navigate their emotional states.</p>
<p>This understanding forms the basis for developing future targeted music therapy interventions that cater to people facing difficulties with emotional regulation, rumination and even depression. In other words, even sad music can be a tool for personal growth and reflection.</p>
<h2>What music therapy can offer in the future</h2>
<p>While not a panacea, music listening offers substantial therapeutic effects, potentially leading to increased adoption of music therapy sessions alongside traditional talk therapy. Integrating technology into music therapy, notably through emerging app-based services, is poised to transform how people access personalised, on-demand therapeutic music interventions, providing a convenient and effective avenue for self-improvement and wellbeing.</p>
<p>And looking even further ahead, artificial intelligence (AI) integration holds the potential to revolutionise music therapy. AI can dynamically adapt therapy interventions based on a person’s evolving emotional responses. Imagine a therapy session that uses AI to select and adjust music in real-time, precisely tailored to the patient’s emotional needs, creating a highly personalised and effective therapeutic experience. These innovations are poised to <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/frai.2020.497864/full">reshape the field of music therapy</a>, unlocking its full therapeutic potential.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Woman listening to music with wireless headphones." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557136/original/file-20231101-17-6t5sr7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557136/original/file-20231101-17-6t5sr7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557136/original/file-20231101-17-6t5sr7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557136/original/file-20231101-17-6t5sr7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557136/original/file-20231101-17-6t5sr7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557136/original/file-20231101-17-6t5sr7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557136/original/file-20231101-17-6t5sr7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Neurofeedback technology could create individual ‘music-brain maps’ that aid self-therapy.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Woman_listening_to_music_with_wireless_headphones_neon_light_(50810419882).jpg">Vu Hoang/Wikimedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In addition, an emerging technology called <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/neurofeedback">neurofeedback</a> has shown promise. Neurofeedback involves observing a person’s EEG in real-time and teaching them how to regulate and improve their neural patterns. Combining this technology with music therapy could enable people to “map” the musical characteristics that are most beneficial for them, and thus understand how best to help themselves.</p>
<p>In each music therapy session, learning occurs while participants get feedback regarding the status of their brain activity. Optimal brain activity associated with wellbeing and also specific musical qualities – such as a piece’s rhythm, tempo or melody – is learned over time. This innovative approach is being developed in <a href="https://www.urncst.com/index.php/urncst/article/view/345">our lab and elsewhere</a>.</p>
<p>As with any form of therapy, recognising the limitations and individual differences is paramount. However, there are compelling reasons to believe music therapy can lead to new breakthroughs. <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3425/8/6/107">Recent strides in research methodologies</a>, driven partly by our lab’s contributions, have significantly deepened our understanding of how music can facilitate healing. </p>
<p>We are beginning to identify two core elements: emotional regulation, and the powerful link to personal autobiographical memories. Our ongoing research is concentrated on unravelling the intricate interactions between these essential elements and the specific brain regions responsible for the observed effects.</p>
<p>Of course, the impact of music therapy extends beyond these new developments in the neurosciences. The sheer pleasure of listening to music, the emotional connection it fosters, and the comfort it provides are qualities that go beyond what can be solely measured by scientific methods. Music deeply influences our basic emotions and experiences, transcending scientific measurement. It speaks to the core of our human experience, offering impacts that cannot easily be defined or documented.</p>
<p>Or, as one of our study participants so perfectly put it:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Music is like that reliable friend who never lets me down. When I’m low, it lifts me up with its sweet melody. In chaos, it calms with a soothing rhythm. It’s not just in my head; it’s a soul-stirring [magic]. Music has no boundaries – one day it will effortlessly pick me up from the bottom, and the next it can enhance every single moment of the activity I’m engaged in.</p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/313478/original/file-20200204-41481-1n8vco4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/313478/original/file-20200204-41481-1n8vco4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=112&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313478/original/file-20200204-41481-1n8vco4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=112&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313478/original/file-20200204-41481-1n8vco4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=112&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313478/original/file-20200204-41481-1n8vco4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313478/original/file-20200204-41481-1n8vco4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313478/original/file-20200204-41481-1n8vco4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption"></span>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Leigh Riby does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Music therapy has been shown to help people suffering with cancer, chronic pain and depression. Our research is testing which parts of the brain are affected by different kinds of musicLeigh Riby, Professor of Cognitive-Neuroscience , Department of Psychology, Northumbria University, NewcastleLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1893282022-08-30T19:49:27Z2022-08-30T19:49:27ZCould neurotechnology make lawyers smarter workers?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/480844/original/file-20220824-2022-yji031.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=15%2C31%2C4571%2C3479&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Barristers may be set to swap their wigs for electroencephalograms.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/doctor-who-monitors-patients-evolution-during-1574933461">DC Studio/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Cognitively enhanced lawyers may one day work in our courts. A <a href="https://www.scottishlegal.com/uploads/Neurotechnology-law-and-the-legal-profession-full-report-Aug-2022.pdf">recent report</a> from The Law Society of England and Wales suggests the rapidly advancing field of neural technology could create “digitally enhanced” super-lawyers capable of focusing more keenly or accessing case law via an implant.</p>
<p>The report is broad and far-reaching, describing some of the most recent advances in neural technology. It also sets out many of the ways that neural technology could affect the practice and enforcement of law in the future.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/its-not-my-fault-my-brain-implant-made-me-do-it-91040">It's not my fault, my brain implant made me do it</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Some of these possibilities are unlikely to occur any time soon. For example, the report suggests “neurotechnologically augmented” lawyers may one day blend artificial intelligence with human characteristics. This hints at possibilities such as a lawyer being able to directly access legal information through a <a href="https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/lawyers-with-brain-chip-implants-will-be-better-faster-and-cheaper-3258f8clh?shareToken=dd394576a013b3d3009ea2ef2bc44b9e">chip in the brain</a>.</p>
<p>That’s an idea that, while not impossible, is so far from what we can achieve today that it may be considered closer to science fiction than scientific reality. However, some of the possibilities set out in the report are much closer to reality than many may realise.</p>
<h2>Brain signals</h2>
<p>One such possibility is monitoring the attention lawyers pay to their work. Neural technology can already passively monitor attention and, as the report notes, this could allow lawyers to bill for their attention rather than their hours.</p>
<p>Neural technology for attention monitoring can work in a few different ways. By far the most widely used hardware for attention monitoring is the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK563295/">electroencephalogram</a> (EEG), which is worn on the head. First developed in 1912, EEGs have more recently been coupled with advanced computer processing to record the electrical activity generated by large groups of neurons in the brain’s cortex. </p>
<p>There is general agreement among neuroscientists that activity in the frontal cortex correlates with task difficulty and mental workload. Activity in both the frontal and central cortices correlates with fatigue, while posterior areas of the cortex are generally agreed to correlate with visual-spatial attention. Connectivity between activities in different brain regions also correlates with task engagement and attention.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/tZcKT4l_JZk?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">EEGs monitor the activity of groups of neurons.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>By scanning these brain regions and processing readings through an algorithm, EEGs have been used to passively monitor attention, with some <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9101004/">considerable success</a>. For example, in a <a href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/8616098">recent study</a> a system was developed to passively monitor engagement and mental fatigue. The system was tested in both a flight simulator and during a real flight of a light aircraft and was able to identify changes in engagement levels and fatigue with an accuracy of 87%.</p>
<h2>Monitoring attention</h2>
<p>Seeing as EEGs are safe for everyday use and are relatively cheap, they could be deployed relatively easily in law firms and other settings. Recent applications include <a href="https://www.unicorn-bi.com/naked-bci/?gclid=Cj0KCQjwxveXBhDDARIsAI0Q0x0m4Fp-he2L-AASrbYYERRNuWKoblOsZmwJcDMuOaoJ02v4gHV1mz8aAogLEALw_wcB">the Unicorn system</a>, which is marketed as a tool for monitoring when children with ADHD pay attention, while <a href="https://brainco.tech/">BrainCo</a> advertises its neural technology as a system for brain training, helping users increase their focus levels.</p>
<p>There are considerable benefits to be gained from neural attention monitoring. Arguably, the most important of these are the potential health and safety benefits. For example, attention monitoring has been proposed to <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41398-018-0213-8">help people</a> with ADHD. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/imaging-study-confirms-differences-in-adhd-brains-73117">Imaging study confirms differences in ADHD brains</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Attention monitors could also help prevent accidents in transportation. For example, they could monitor driver attention levels, encouraging them to take breaks when needed or even forcing a vehicle to stop if attention levels drop below a critical threshold.</p>
<p>There are further benefits in areas where high levels of attention are needed for optimal performance. For example, in gaming, sports, or the military, people perform best when highly attentive. Indeed, some commercial neural technology is already marketed at the <a href="https://hackernoon.com/neural-tech-and-brain-computer-interfaces-bci-in-video-games-an-overview-w1q3uge">gaming market</a> and there is considerable research interest in developing attention monitors for <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S144024401830255X">military applications</a>. The same could now be said of the legal sector. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A soldier on a computer" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/480852/original/file-20220824-24-pk1dka.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/480852/original/file-20220824-24-pk1dka.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=316&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480852/original/file-20220824-24-pk1dka.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=316&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480852/original/file-20220824-24-pk1dka.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=316&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480852/original/file-20220824-24-pk1dka.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480852/original/file-20220824-24-pk1dka.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480852/original/file-20220824-24-pk1dka.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Armed forces are also interested in harnessing attention-monitoring technologies.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/medium-close-soldiers-controlling-rocket-launch-1509841229">Frame Stock Footage/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Cognitive surveillance</h2>
<p>However, there are potential downsides to the use of neural technology for attention monitoring. As The Law Society report highlights, the so-called <a href="https://econreview.berkeley.edu/paying-attention-the-attention-economy/">attention economy</a> has grown rapidly in recent years, and neural technology could dramatically alter the labour side of this economy. </p>
<p>Given recent efforts by many industries to deploy <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbesagencycouncil/2021/12/08/monitoring-remote-workers-the-good-the-bad-and-the-ugly/?sh=7f4287a81da8">remote work monitoring tools</a> during the pandemic, it’s easy to imagine managers wanting to take that oversight one step further. Employers in the future could require their workers to wear attention-monitoring headbands, either rewarding high levels of attention or punishing drops in attention. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/bosses-using-tech-to-spy-on-staff-is-becoming-the-norm-so-heres-a-realistic-way-of-handling-it-129734">Bosses using tech to spy on staff is becoming the norm, so here's a realistic way of handling it</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>By extension, you can also imagine employees turning to performance-enhancing drugs to boost attention levels to gain bonuses or avoid being laid off. Indeed, there are already <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/pdfs/journals/lanchi/PIIS2352-4642(18)30214-1.pdf">reports</a> of some people, <a href="https://www.law.com/njlawjournal/2021/07/13/attorneys-and-adderall-disciplinary-case-shines-spotlight-on-drugs-benign-image-and-popularity-among-lawyers/">including lawyers</a>, taking drugs such as Adderall to study or get ahead at work, even without cognitive surveillance.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Pills by a judge's gavel" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/480843/original/file-20220824-2022-hv8dc3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/480843/original/file-20220824-2022-hv8dc3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480843/original/file-20220824-2022-hv8dc3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480843/original/file-20220824-2022-hv8dc3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480843/original/file-20220824-2022-hv8dc3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480843/original/file-20220824-2022-hv8dc3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480843/original/file-20220824-2022-hv8dc3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Adderall has been called a ‘very seductive medication’ for those in the legal profession.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/judge-gavel-pills-litigation-related-pharmaceuticals-1994950544">Serhii Yevdokymov/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Public perceptions</h2>
<p>The use of neural technology to monitor a part of our mental processes raises profound questions about how far we are willing to surrender our mental privacy. </p>
<p>As with many new technologies, what we are willing to tolerate may depend on the context. It’s perhaps reasonable to assume many people would be happy to voluntarily use an attention-monitoring system to improve their health, aid their education, or even improve traffic safety. But far fewer may be willing to tolerate attention surveillance simply in the name of increased workplace productivity.</p>
<p>Indeed, neural technologies have not always been well received, even when introduced in relatively limited settings. For example, BrainCo was forced to halt trials of its attention-monitoring system <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/nov/01/chinese-primary-school-halts-trial-of-device-that-monitors-pupils-brainwaves">in a school in China</a> after parents expressed privacy concerns.</p>
<p>Consequently, there must be both ethical and legal oversight of neural technology, and The Law Society report makes a very strong case for this to be developed. It’s also important to make sure the capabilities of modern neural technology are generally well understood by the public.</p>
<p>Finally, it’s worth considering the words of the American basketball coach John Wooden, who said: “Never mistake activity with achievement”. Neural technology alone can only ever measure how much attention is being paid, not whether that attention is valuable or needed at any given moment.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/189328/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ian Daly receives funding from Innovate UK through a knowledge transfer partnership to develop neural technology for attention monitoring. </span></em></p>Neurotechnology could mean law firms soon track ‘billable units of attention’ rather than billable hours.Ian Daly, Lecturer in Brain-Computer Interfaces, University of EssexLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1722632021-11-24T14:18:03Z2021-11-24T14:18:03ZHow moving dots are helping us learn more about dyslexia in children – new research<p>Around one in ten children in the UK have <a href="https://www.bdadyslexia.org.uk/dyslexia/about-dyslexia">dyslexia</a>, a developmental condition which means that they struggle to learn to read.
It often causes difficulties in spelling too. </p>
<p>Reading and spelling involve <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1529100618772271">mapping what we see</a> on a page to correspond to spoken language and meaning. So, reading difficulties could at least in part be caused by differences in how the brain processes visual information (how the brain makes sense of what we see).</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/teachers-dont-understand-the-depth-of-dyslexia-107384">Teachers don't understand the depth of dyslexia</a>
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<p>One visual skill that has been found to differ between people with and without dyslexia time and time again is the ability to <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/dys.412">perceive motion</a>, which essentially means how we work out the direction of moving objects.</p>
<p>In a display of dots moving in different directions, people with dyslexia tend to need more dots to be moving in the same direction in order to accurately judge the overall direction. But until now, we have not really understood why this ability is affected. We wanted to try to find out, to get a better understanding of how the brain develops differently in children with dyslexia.</p>
<h2>How children with dyslexia perceive motion</h2>
<p>One possibility is that a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0028393218301155?casa_token=55BSveBWbYIAAAAA:ap2zwFRrcwaXreu0kVP41_-aadjh1v5evLXMO02lGpy344eWSqJDXxS6i9qbAMJO-T66RRFH_7k">pathway in the brain</a> that is required for perceiving motion develops differently. This pathway is specialised for processing information that changes rapidly over time, such as moving objects which change in location over time, or speech sounds, which change in frequency over time. That is how we distinguish one sound from another.</p>
<p>There are many processing stages involved in making a judgement about the direction of a moving object. Not only do we have to first encode the visual information, by seeing the object. We then have to gather enough evidence about which way it is moving so that we can make a decision about it, before we can then respond. That might be moving towards a ball to catch it, for example.</p>
<p>So far, it hasn’t been clear where the differences lie in people with dyslexia. In our recent <a href="https://www.jneurosci.org/content/early/2021/11/08/JNEUROSCI.1232-21.2021">study</a>, we wanted to find out whether it is the early sensory encoding or the decision-making stages, or both, which are affected. </p>
<p>Children were presented with patterns of moving dots in child-friendly games and asked to work out their overall direction across two tasks. They had to press a button to say whether they were going “left” or “right”. We also measured children’s brain activity using an EEG cap on their heads. </p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/tZcKT4l_JZk?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">An EEG is used to measure brain activity during a particular event or task.</span></figcaption>
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<p>Then we analysed how accurate children were, and how long they took to make their responses, using a mathematical model. The results of this model showed that children with dyslexia were slower to gather evidence, and decide on the direction of the dots, compared to the children without dyslexia.</p>
<p>While an <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33021019/">earlier study</a> reached a similar conclusion, we were also able to link this behavioural difference in dyslexia to differences in their brain activity measured using EEG.</p>
<p>When making decisions on the direction of dot movement, children showed a gradual ramping up of brain activity measured by sensors positioned at the centre of their heads. Importantly, this ramping up was more gradual in children with dyslexia, which corresponded to the slower rate at which they gathered evidence in our mathematical model. </p>
<p>We also analysed the early EEG <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0010945221002562">responses to visual motion</a>, from when the children first saw the moving dots. This suggested that early sensory processing – the initial seeing of the moving dots – is similar in all the children who took part in the study.</p>
<p>Taken together, our findings show that children with and without dyslexia do not seem to differ in how they initially process visual information, but instead in how they make decisions about it. They seemed to see the moving dots just as easily, but took longer to decide in which direction they were moving.</p>
<h2>Possible effect on reading ability</h2>
<p>Although words are motionless, differences in these motion tasks could influence children’s ability to read. That’s because the sounds that make up language change quickly over time – just like a moving dot – so rely on the brain processes that can detect these changes well. The ability to process the rapidly changing sounds that make up a language are involved in <a href="https://www.asha.org/Practice-Portal/Clinical-Topics/Written-Language-Disorders/Phonological-Processing">phonological processing</a>, which has been extensively <a href="https://acamh.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1046/j.0021-9630.2003.00305.x">linked to dyslexia</a> and basically means using the sounds that make up a language to process spoken and written language.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-brief-history-of-dyslexia-and-the-role-women-played-in-getting-it-recognised-89055">A brief history of dyslexia and the role women played in getting it recognised</a>
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<p>If children with dyslexia are slower to make decisions about the direction of movement, they may also find it more difficult to differentiate between sounds in the spoken word. In turn, this could make reading more difficult as it is so dependent on spoken language and meaning.</p>
<p>We now want to find out whether children with dyslexia are slower to make decisions for other types of information which we collect through our senses, or whether the differences just relate to visual motion. </p>
<p>Another area of interest, is whether other skills – such as general processing speed and cognitive ability – are related to both the decision-making and reading difficulties.</p>
<p>These studies are helping us to build a better picture of how the brain develops differently in children with dyslexia. Our findings demonstrate that dyslexia could affect more than just a child’s reading and spelling abilities. It is important that we all bear this in mind when supporting children with dyslexia.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/172263/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Catherine Manning receives funding from the Wellcome Trust.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gaia Scerif receives funding from the Nuffield Foundation and the British Academy. Gaia is a Trustee of the Fragile X Society.</span></em></p>Children with dyslexia seem to find it more difficult to judge the direction of moving dots - this could explain why reading is also more challenging.Catherine Manning, Lecturer in Psychology, University of ReadingGaia Scerif, Professor of Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, University of OxfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1459182021-05-12T12:47:02Z2021-05-12T12:47:02ZPregnant women’s brains show troubling signs of stress – but feeling strong social support can break those patterns<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/399485/original/file-20210507-19-lqcsp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=970%2C1389%2C5772%2C3928&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Just feeling that there's someone out there she can count on can help a mom-to-be.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/beautiful-young-pregnant-woman-relaxing-on-balcony-royalty-free-image/999890406">d3sign/Moment via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Even before the pandemic, there was plenty for expectant mothers to worry about. Pregnant women must withstand a barrage of arguably well-intentioned, but often hyperbolic, <a href="https://www.healthline.com/health/pregnancy/things-not-to-do-while-pregnant#dont-eat-these-foods">warnings about their health and what’s to come</a>, including concerns about everything from what to eat, to what to wear, to how to feel. Health professionals know that <a href="https://adaa.org/find-help-for/women/perinatalmoodisorders">mothers-to-be experience predictable increases in anxiety levels</a> before infants are born. <a href="https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/stress/2021/one-year-pandemic-stress-parents">Maternal mental health has been steadily deteriorating</a> in the U.S., particularly among poor and minority women.</p>
<p>The calls to “be afraid, be very afraid” are, of course, countered by the equally strong cautions for pregnant women to not worry too much, lest it lead to long-term negative outcomes for them and their infants.</p>
<p>Such warnings are not entirely off base. Maternal stress hormones cross the placenta and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2017-02140">affect the vulnerable fetus</a>. Fetal exposure to the stress hormone cortisol has been linked to an array of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00207450701820944">negative outcomes</a>, including miscarriage and preterm birth, and irritable temperament for the child and increased risk of emotional problems during childhood. One thing researchers know is that <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0890856709625478">anxious mothers tend to have anxious children</a>. This common, albeit not prescriptive, phenomenon is likely due to numerous factors, both pre- and postpartum.</p>
<p><a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=l2DzSjIAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">In our laboratory</a>, we focus on what happens when women start their pregnancies already worried or anxious and what clues we can uncover about how to help them and their children. Our research suggests that worry during pregnancy can have long-term impacts on how mothers’ brains communicate – but also that there might be some simple steps that can help rein in the effects.</p>
<h2>Maternal brains change during pregnancy</h2>
<p>The fetal brain isn’t the only one that is vulnerable during pregnancy. There’s evidence that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nn.4458">the maternal brain reorganizes</a> in ways that likely prepare a pregnant woman to care for another human being. The experience of stress during pregnancy can thus hijack a period of change meant to allow for positive adaptations and instead open the door for anxiety problems.</p>
<p>We are interested in whether there might be easy, approachable ways to offset some of these negative effects. So we invite pregnant women into our lab, where we can record their naturally occurring brain activity using electroencephalography. This EEG technique gives us a great sense of how quickly and how strongly brains react to particular stimuli.</p>
<p>In a recent study from our lab, we <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.13647">measured pregnant women’s neural reactivity</a> while they viewed emotional and nonemotional pictures. For most people, including pregnant women, their brains show more activity when they’re presented with a negative image or sound – like a crying baby – than with a neutral image or sound – such as a blanket.</p>
<p>We found that for some women in their third trimester of pregnancy, this effect was disrupted; instead of reacting more strongly to a negative image, expectant mothers’ brains showed the same response to negative and neutral pictures. Basically these mothers-to-be did not, at the neural level, distinguish neutral from negative images.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/399494/original/file-20210507-13-1s9x3ev.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="visualization of brain electrical activity over time" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/399494/original/file-20210507-13-1s9x3ev.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/399494/original/file-20210507-13-1s9x3ev.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/399494/original/file-20210507-13-1s9x3ev.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/399494/original/file-20210507-13-1s9x3ev.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/399494/original/file-20210507-13-1s9x3ev.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=517&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/399494/original/file-20210507-13-1s9x3ev.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=517&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/399494/original/file-20210507-13-1s9x3ev.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=517&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Using EEG, researchers recorded the electrical activity of women’s brains when they saw neutral (in black) and negative (in red) images and compared the responses over time.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Tristin Nyman and Rebecca Brooker</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We can’t be sure whether what we observed was these women’s brains reacting to neutral pictures as though they were negative, or to negative pictures as though they were neutral. But we did see that the difference between the two emotional categories was smaller compared to what we would expect.</p>
<p>In the context of our interest in worry and anxiety, this finding is concerning. It looks like these women are at risk of responding to even nonthreatening information as though it is problematic. That is, the line between what is worrisome and what should not be becomes blurred, even at the level of neural activity. Other research suggests that this may <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infbeh.2018.09.003">hurt the mother-infant relationship over time</a>. Researchers found that when women’s brains were more reactive to neutral information, similar to what we think may be happening in our study, mothers reported more difficulty interpreting emotions in their infant.</p>
<p>Critically, though, we saw this mixed-up reaction only in pregnant women who reported having low levels of social support. We asked our volunteers to create lists of people they felt they could talk to if they were in a difficult situation or needed help. We also asked them to tell us if they thought, as they reflected on these lists, that the social support available to them was adequate. When women reported more satisfaction with their social support networks, the neural response was just as we expected, with a clear distinction between negative and neutral information.</p>
<p>Our findings are consistent with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.01.038">studies of nonpregnant individuals</a>, suggesting that adequate social support calms the body’s responses to stress. Our work identifies social support as a specific and easily targeted step for protecting pregnant women in ways that can influence neural function during a sensitive period of reorganization.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/399787/original/file-20210510-5687-1no81ba.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="family portrait of multiple generations with pregnant woman in the center" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/399787/original/file-20210510-5687-1no81ba.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/399787/original/file-20210510-5687-1no81ba.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/399787/original/file-20210510-5687-1no81ba.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/399787/original/file-20210510-5687-1no81ba.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/399787/original/file-20210510-5687-1no81ba.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/399787/original/file-20210510-5687-1no81ba.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/399787/original/file-20210510-5687-1no81ba.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">What mattered was whether a woman felt that she was supported during pregnancy, not an objective reality of how many people were on standby to help her.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/portrait-of-family-relaxing-at-home-royalty-free-image/961476054">Cavan Images/Cavan via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Adequate support is in the eye of the beholder</h2>
<p>What especially caught our eye in these findings is that we used a measure of social support that was based on a woman’s perception about how much backup was available to her should she need it. Whether or not her belief is accurate is unknown.</p>
<p>However, more and more neuroscientific evidence underscores the degree to which people live in their own subjective realities. It is intuitive, and supported by <a href="https://www.age-of-the-sage.org/psychology/social/hastorf_cantril_saw_game.html">decades of work</a> in sociology <a href="https://www.macmillanlearning.com/college/us/product/Social-Psychology/p/1319191789">and social psychology</a>, that people base their thoughts, feelings and actions on what they believe to be true about the world regardless of whether it’s accurate.</p>
<p>In this case, a woman’s feelings about her available social support are based on how good she feels about that network rather than whether anyone else thinks she has enough people to talk to if a problem arises.</p>
<p>It follows, then, that changing a mom-to-be’s perception that she has sufficient social support can change the way that her brain processes emotional information to make it more closely resemble typical, healthy function.</p>
<p>Our research suggests there’s an easy and inexpensive way to support pregnant mothers that can alter neural reactivity to negative information and may serve to protect both maternal and child outcomes – simply help mom feel more supported. That doesn’t need to mean encouraging women to join clubs or groups or find new friends or therapists. Rather, pregnant women may benefit from simply recognizing the power and benefit of the networks they already have in place.</p>
<p>[<em>Insight, in your inbox each day.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=insight">You can get it with The Conversation’s email newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/145918/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rebecca Brooker receives funding from the National Institutes of Health. Research discussed in the article was supported by the National Institute of Mental Health and the National Institute of General Medical Sciences. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tristin Nyman receives funding from the the National Institute of Mental Health of the National Institutes of Health. The content she shares here is solely her responsibility and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health.</span></em></p>Fetal brains are changing rapidly over the course of pregnancy, but so are the brains of mothers-to-be. Neuroscience research shows one way worry can start taking hold – and a simple way to help.Rebecca Brooker, Associate Professor of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Texas A&M UniversityTristin Nyman, Ph.D. Student in Psychological & Brain Sciences, Texas A&M UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1555282021-03-17T12:14:27Z2021-03-17T12:14:27ZSelfish or selfless? Human nature means you’re both<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/389862/original/file-20210316-22-nwmjbm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=91%2C118%2C3362%2C2166&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Even young children are very aware of whether they're getting their fair share.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/24028496-royalty-free-image/87803233">Jupiterimages/PHOTOS.com via Getty Images Plus</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Looking out for number one has been important for survival for as long as there have been human beings.</p>
<p>But self-interest isn’t the only trait that helped people win at evolution. Groups of individuals who were predisposed to cooperate, care for each other and uphold social norms of fairness tended to survive and expand relative to other groups, thereby allowing these <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conb.2020.12.009">prosocial motivations to proliferate</a>.</p>
<p>So today, concern for oneself and concern for others both contribute to our sense of fairness. Together they facilitate cooperation among unrelated individuals, something ubiquitous among people but uncommon in nature.</p>
<p>A critical question is how people balance these two motivations when making decisions. </p>
<p>We investigate this question in our work at the <a href="https://voices.uchicago.edu/scnl/">Social Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory</a> at the University of Chicago, combining behavioral economics tasks with neuroimaging methods that let us watch what’s happening in the brains of adults and children. We’ve found evidence that people care about both themselves and others – but it’s the self that takes precedence.</p>
<h2>Learning to be equitable</h2>
<p>Children are sensitive to fairness from a very early age.</p>
<p>For instance, if you give two siblings different numbers of cookies, the one who receives fewer will likely throw a fit. Very young children, between 3 and 6 years of age, are highly sensitive to concerns about equality. Splitting resources is “fair” if everyone gets the same amount. By 6 years old, <a href="https://doi.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fa0025907">children will even throw resources away</a> rather than allocate them unequally.</p>
<p>As they grow, children develop abilities to <a href="https://theconversation.com/children-understand-far-more-about-other-minds-than-long-believed-72711">think about the minds of others</a> and care about social norms. Soon, they begin to understand the principle of “equity” – a “fair” distribution can be unequal if it takes into account people’s need, effort or merit. For instance, a sibling who does more chores may be entitled to more cookies. This shift toward equity appears to be universal in humans and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12729">follows similar patterns across cultures</a>.</p>
<p>Interestingly, it <a href="https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/do-kids-have-a-fundamental-sense-of-fairness/">takes several years of development</a> before children’s own behavior catches up with their understanding of fairness – for instance, by opting to share resources more equally rather than prioritizing their own payoffs.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/389861/original/file-20210316-19-jyqb6d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Child wearing a EEG cap" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/389861/original/file-20210316-19-jyqb6d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/389861/original/file-20210316-19-jyqb6d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/389861/original/file-20210316-19-jyqb6d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/389861/original/file-20210316-19-jyqb6d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/389861/original/file-20210316-19-jyqb6d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/389861/original/file-20210316-19-jyqb6d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/389861/original/file-20210316-19-jyqb6d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Researchers fitted children with EEG caps to monitor their brains’ electrical activity as they watched an adult distribute treats.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jean Decety/University of Chicago</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>To investigate how children’s developing brains guide their understanding of fairness, we invited kids ranging from age 4 to 8 into our lab. We gave them four candies to divide between two other people. After they decided how many (if any) to share, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000813">we measured their brain activity</a> using <a href="https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/brain-imaging-techniques/">noninvasive electroencephalography</a> while they watched an adult split 10 rewards – like candies, coins or stickers – between two other people. The distributions could be fair (5:5), slightly unfair (7:3) or very unfair (10:0).</p>
<p>At first, kids’ brain activity looked the same whether they were observing a slightly unfair or very unfair distribution of the treats. After 400 milliseconds, the brain electrical activity for kids who saw the slightly unfair 7:3 split changed to look like the brain response of kids who saw the completely fair 5:5 division.</p>
<p>Our interpretation is that the young brains used that short lag time to consider why an adult might have handed out the treats in a slightly unfair way and then resolved that it may actually have been fair.</p>
<p>Further, children whose brain activity patterns were the most different when viewing fair versus unfair distributions were the most likely to have used merit and need when they originally divided up their candies, before they watched the adults.</p>
<p>So the EEG recordings indicate that even 4-year-old children expect distributions to be perfectly equal, which makes sense given their natural preference for equality. When children, especially after age 5, watch an adult make a completely unfair distribution, they work to try to understand why this might be the case.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/389864/original/file-20210316-21-1yybp28.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="woman with fruit spilling out of ripped grocery bags" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/389864/original/file-20210316-21-1yybp28.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/389864/original/file-20210316-21-1yybp28.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=465&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/389864/original/file-20210316-21-1yybp28.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=465&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/389864/original/file-20210316-21-1yybp28.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=465&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/389864/original/file-20210316-21-1yybp28.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=585&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/389864/original/file-20210316-21-1yybp28.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=585&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/389864/original/file-20210316-21-1yybp28.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=585&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">How do you prioritize assisting someone else if it would come at a cost to yourself, like missing your bus to help pick up spilled items?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/woman-dropping-groceries-on-sidewalk-royalty-free-image/90201027">Chris Ryan/OJO Images via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Me first, then you</h2>
<p>In your everyday adult life, you face decisions that affect not just yourself, but other people around you. Do you help a stranger pick up their spilled bag and miss your bus? Do you take the big piece of cake and leave the small one for the coworker who is coming later?</p>
<p>Put more generally, how do people balance self-interest against fairness for others when those motivations conflict?</p>
<p>To answer this question, we invited participants to play an economic game. In each round, an anonymous proposer would split US$12 among themselves, the participant and another player. The participant could decide to accept the distribution, allowing all three players to keep the money, or reject the distribution, meaning no one got anything. While participants made their decision, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2020.107576">we measured their neural activity</a> using EEG and fMRI. <a href="https://www.open.edu/openlearn/body-mind/health/health-sciences/how-fmri-works">Functional magnetic resonance imaging</a> reveals active areas of the brain by mapping blood flow.</p>
<p>The proposer was actually a computer that let us manipulate the fairness of the offers. We found that both fairness for self and fairness for the other were important for participants’ decisions, but people were more willing to tolerate offers which were unfair to others if they themselves received an unfair offer. </p>
<p>Our design also allowed us to ask whether the same regions of the brain are sensitive to self-interest and concern for other. A popular concept in cognitive science is that we are able to understand other people because we use the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2003.10.004">same parts of our brain to understand our self</a>. The idea is that the brain activates and manages these shared representations depending on the task at hand.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/389628/original/file-20210315-17-5xu54c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="brain with different areas highlighted for 'self' and 'others'" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/389628/original/file-20210315-17-5xu54c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/389628/original/file-20210315-17-5xu54c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/389628/original/file-20210315-17-5xu54c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/389628/original/file-20210315-17-5xu54c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/389628/original/file-20210315-17-5xu54c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/389628/original/file-20210315-17-5xu54c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/389628/original/file-20210315-17-5xu54c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Regions of the brain that were sensitive to fairness for self (red) or other (blue) didn’t overlap in the study.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jean Decety/University of Chicago</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But in our studies, we found that rather than shared brain areas, distinct brain networks were involved in thinking about fairness for self and other.</p>
<p>We also used machine learning to test whether by looking at the brain signals we could predict what kind of offer a participant had received. We could reliably decode a signal in multiple brain networks that corresponded to fairness for self – that is, “did I get at least a third of the $12?” And this focus on self-interest dominated the early stages of decision-making.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/389630/original/file-20210315-19-epmnpd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="EEG depicts brain waves when thinking about self and other" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/389630/original/file-20210315-19-epmnpd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/389630/original/file-20210315-19-epmnpd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=387&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/389630/original/file-20210315-19-epmnpd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=387&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/389630/original/file-20210315-19-epmnpd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=387&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/389630/original/file-20210315-19-epmnpd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=486&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/389630/original/file-20210315-19-epmnpd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=486&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/389630/original/file-20210315-19-epmnpd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=486&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Accuracy of the machine-learning algorithm trained to use EEG data to classify distributions as fair or unfair for the self or other. Darker lines are times when the algorithm was better than chance (50%). It was better at identifying a reliable pattern of brain activity for self fairness.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jean Decety/University of Chicago</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Overall, these results suggest that people prioritize their own payoffs first and only later integrate how their options affect other people. So while people do care about others, self-interested behavior is alive and well, even in behavioral economics games. Once people get their fair share, then they are willing to be fair to others. You’re more likely to help the stranger with her bag if you know there will be another bus in 10 minutes, rather than an hour.</p>
<p>[<em>Get our best science, health and technology stories.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/science-editors-picks-71/?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=science-best">Sign up for The Conversation’s science newsletter</a>.]</p>
<h2>Investigating more complicated scenarios</h2>
<p>In daily life, people are rarely just responders, like in the game in our lab. We are interested in what happens when a person must make decisions that involve other people, such as delegating responsibilities among team members, or when an individual has limited power to personally affect the way resources are divided, as in government spending.</p>
<p>One implication from our work is that when people want to reach a compromise, it may be important to ensure that no one feels taken advantage of. Human nature seems to be to make sure you’ve taken care of yourself before you consider the needs of others.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/155528/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Cognitive neuroscientists use brain imaging and behavioral economic games to investigate people’s sense of fairness. They find it’s common to take care of yourself before looking out for others.Keith Yoder, Postdoctoral Scholar in Social Cognitive Neuroscience, University of ChicagoJean Decety, Professor of Psychology, and Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of ChicagoLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1511462021-01-04T12:56:34Z2021-01-04T12:56:34ZHow does your brain wake up from sleep?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/375533/original/file-20201216-23-1jbpf8s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=46%2C15%2C5071%2C3383&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Rise and shine!</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/african-american-girl-waking-up-in-bed-royalty-free-image/136801937">JGI/Jamie Grill via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/curious-kids-us-74795">Curious Kids</a> is a series for children of all ages. If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, send it to <a href="mailto:curiouskidsus@theconversation.com">curiouskidsus@theconversation.com</a>.</em></p>
<hr>
<blockquote>
<p><strong>What happens in your brain when you wake up from your sleep? – Ainsley V., age 11, South Carolina</strong></p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<p>When you’re asleep, you can seem completely dead to the world. But when you wake up, in an instant you can be up and at ‘em. How does the brain turn on awareness or consciousness? This question has puzzled scientists <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/consciousness/">for centuries</a> – and continues to do so. </p>
<p>While scientists don’t have the full answer yet, they are finding clues by studying people’s brains as they shift between sleeping and waking.</p>
<h2>Looking inside a living brain</h2>
<p>One way scientists study activity in the brain is by using a tool called electroencephalography, or EEG. EEG measures electrical signals coming from thousands of brain cells called neurons. The person being studied wears a funny-looking cap that is connected to a computer. It doesn’t hurt at all. The electrical activity in their brain shows up as wavy lines.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/375197/original/file-20201215-15-1b3n4pv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Young woman wearing a cap with electrodes connected to a computer." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/375197/original/file-20201215-15-1b3n4pv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/375197/original/file-20201215-15-1b3n4pv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375197/original/file-20201215-15-1b3n4pv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375197/original/file-20201215-15-1b3n4pv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375197/original/file-20201215-15-1b3n4pv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375197/original/file-20201215-15-1b3n4pv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375197/original/file-20201215-15-1b3n4pv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Brain waves have a story to tell.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/doctor-and-patient-with-electrodes-on-head-royalty-free-image/529740188">William Taufic/The Image Bank via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>You might think your brain is turned off – or resting – while you sleep, but it’s actually on a roller-coaster ride of activity, even if you’re not aware of it. You cycle through four different sleep stages, each of which shows up as a different pattern on the EEG. </p>
<p>One stage of sleep, called rapid eye movement or REM sleep, is when dreams typically occur. Dreams are interesting because you actually feel like you are conscious, but you’re not conscious in the same way you are when you’re awake.</p>
<p>It turns out each sleep stage is also associated with different patterns of chemicals in your brain. These are called neurochemicals and are the way brain cells communicate with each other. </p>
<h2>What scientists know so far</h2>
<p>One of the major systems in the brain that wakes you up is called the reticular activating system, or RAS. The RAS is a part of your brain located just above your spinal column. It’s about two inches long and the width of a pencil. The RAS acts like a <a href="https://study.com/academy/lesson/reticular-activating-system-definition-function.html">gatekeeper or filter for your brain</a>, making sure it doesn’t have to deal with more information than it can handle. </p>
<p>The RAS can sense important information and create neurochemicals that wake up other parts of the brain. It also keeps you awake throughout the day. </p>
<p>If you have to go to the bathroom in the middle of the night, the RAS senses that signal from your body and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2010.11.032">flips a switch to wake your brain up</a> – just like a light switch. Signals coming from outside of your body, like the sound of an alarm clock or a parent waking you up, can also flip on your RAS.</p>
<p>Once the RAS switch turns on, it can take some time for your whole brain and body to wake up. This is because it takes a few minutes to clear all the “sleepy” neurochemicals from your brain, which is why you may feel groggy when an alarm clock wakes you up.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/375198/original/file-20201215-21-pqymwr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Sleepy young girl at the breakfast table, face in hand." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/375198/original/file-20201215-21-pqymwr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/375198/original/file-20201215-21-pqymwr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375198/original/file-20201215-21-pqymwr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375198/original/file-20201215-21-pqymwr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375198/original/file-20201215-21-pqymwr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375198/original/file-20201215-21-pqymwr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375198/original/file-20201215-21-pqymwr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sometimes your brain is slow to wake up.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/its-hard-to-wake-up-royalty-free-image/1253030629">Mypurgatoryyears/E+ via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But why do you feel more groggy on some days and not on others? When your brain is asleep, it shifts between deep and light stages. If your alarm clock goes off during a deeper stage of sleep, it takes longer for all the parts of your brain to wake up. You can use <a href="https://www.sleepcycle.com/">technology to track what stage of sleep you’re in</a> and then wake you during a light stage, so you wake up feeling more refreshed.</p>
<h2>Mysteries left to solve</h2>
<p>There is still a lot to learn about waking up. Although you spend about one-third of your time sleeping, scientists don’t totally understand the purpose of sleep. </p>
<p>They do know that sleep is vital for health, especially for kids whose brains and bodies are still growing. Sleep restores your <a href="https://www.sleepfoundation.org/physical-health/how-sleep-affects-immunity">immune system</a>, improves your <a href="http://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2009.10.006">memory</a> and supports your <a href="https://www.sleepfoundation.org/mental-health">mental health</a>. And you might be surprised by <a href="https://www.sleepfoundation.org/press-release/national-sleep-foundation-recommends-new-sleep-times">how many hours of sleep doctors recommend</a> for babies, kids and adults.</p>
<p>Even though scientists have found some of the pieces, the puzzle of how and why the brain generates consciousness is still unsolved. This is why the future needs curious scientists – perhaps even you.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Hello, curious kids! Do you have a question you’d like an expert to answer? Ask an adult to send your question to <a href="mailto:curiouskidsus@theconversation.com">CuriousKidsUS@theconversation.com</a>. Please tell us your name, age and the city where you live.</em></p>
<p><em>And since curiosity has no age limit – adults, let us know what you’re wondering, too. We won’t be able to answer every question, but we will do our best.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/151146/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dr. Marusak is funded, in part, by grants from the National Institute of Mental Health.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Aneesh Hehr does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The mystery of how the brain creates consciousness still puzzles scientists, but the mechanics of waking up are starting to be understood.Hilary A. Marusak, Assistant Professor of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, Wayne State UniversityAneesh Hehr, Medical Student, Wayne State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1394322020-06-01T12:17:29Z2020-06-01T12:17:29ZClear masks for caregivers mean young children can keep learning from adults’ faces<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338577/original/file-20200529-78875-18d0wif.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=40%2C0%2C5370%2C3601&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Babies love to look at faces for good reason. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/mother-taking-care-of-baby-royalty-free-image/1216318518">monzenmachi/E+ via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>As daycare centers and pre-kindergartens begin to reopen around the U.S., the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/community/schools-childcare/guidance-for-childcare.html">recommends masks be worn</a> by teachers, care workers and children over two years of age. </p>
<p>Important as they are for <a href="https://theconversation.com/masks-help-stop-the-spread-of-coronavirus-the-science-is-simple-and-im-one-of-100-experts-urging-governors-to-require-public-mask-wearing-138507">helping minimize the spread</a> of the coronavirus, masks come with a potential downside when worn around little kids. <a href="https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199559053.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199559053">Decades of research</a> has shown faces are an important tool for learning. With caregivers’ faces covered, infants and young children will miss out on some of the visual cues they’d normally get from faces.</p>
<p><a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=0CvEbZ0AAAAJ">I study visual learning</a> and recommend that policymakers and educators consider transparent face masks for use around infants and young children.</p>
<h2>Faces are key for little learners</h2>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338590/original/file-20200529-78849-1vfegu4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338590/original/file-20200529-78849-1vfegu4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338590/original/file-20200529-78849-1vfegu4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338590/original/file-20200529-78849-1vfegu4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338590/original/file-20200529-78849-1vfegu4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338590/original/file-20200529-78849-1vfegu4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338590/original/file-20200529-78849-1vfegu4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338590/original/file-20200529-78849-1vfegu4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">All wired up and ready to go.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Lisa Scott</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>When infants and children come to my <a href="https://bcdlab.psych.ufl.edu/">research lab</a> (with their families, of course), we show them pictures of faces on a computer screen, sometimes paired with sounds or words. Using tools like eye tracking technology and <a href="https://www.healthline.com/health/eeg">EEG</a>, which measures electrical activity in the brain, we are able to observe what they’re paying attention to and learn more about how their brains are developing. These methods allow us to measure learning even before infants can talk. </p>
<p>Our work shows that infants pay close attention to eyes and mouths on faces. Infants also learn that two eyes are usually above a nose which is above a mouth, and they learn to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/17470218.2016.1146780">combine these features into one whole</a>. Babies <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721418769884">use faces as a tool</a> for learning from familiar people, like mom, dad or a care worker.</p>
<p>Infant brain responses change when <a href="https://doi.org/10.1068/p5493">faces are altered</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.02.008">turned upside down</a> or presented with conflicting information, like a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2012.01138.x">happy face paired with a crying sound</a>. These changes in brain responses suggest that infants can tell when there is something different about a face. </p>
<p>Although they cannot yet speak, infants as young as six months of age <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.visres.2018.03.002">learn and understand names for new faces</a>. When similar-looking faces are presented in a book and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02348.x">paired with names</a>, babies are able to differentiate them. Learning to match a name with a face may be more difficult when faces are masked.</p>
<h2>Faces foster language development</h2>
<p>Research shows infants and children pay close attention to mouths <a href="https://llamblab.haskins.yale.edu/publications/">during important periods of language learning</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338587/original/file-20200529-78880-ds0wac.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338587/original/file-20200529-78880-ds0wac.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338587/original/file-20200529-78880-ds0wac.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338587/original/file-20200529-78880-ds0wac.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338587/original/file-20200529-78880-ds0wac.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338587/original/file-20200529-78880-ds0wac.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=574&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338587/original/file-20200529-78880-ds0wac.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=574&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338587/original/file-20200529-78880-ds0wac.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=574&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Babies and young children zero in on mouths to learn language.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/mother-holding-baby-and-talking-on-cell-phone-royalty-free-image/135385028">Sam Edwards/OJO Images via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Young babies shift their visual focus from looking primarily at the eyes of talking faces to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1114783109">looking at the mouths</a> between 4 and 8 months of age. Infants begin to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1113380109">understand the meaning of familiar words</a> between 6 and 9 months of age. Looking toward the mouth increases as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2018.01.002">infant speaking skills increase</a>. Although this focus on the mouth decreases around 9 to 12 months of age, it <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2018.03.009">increases again around 14 months</a> of age during word learning. Even <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000750">5-year-olds show increased interest</a> in the mouths of talking faces compared to adults. </p>
<p>While it is unknown how covering the mouth will directly affect development at every age, these studies suggest that infants and children <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci4040613">use the mouths of faces as a tool</a> for learning to produce speech sounds and for learning new words. </p>
<h2>What should care workers and educators do?</h2>
<p>Wearing masks around infants and children during the first five years of life may reduce their ability to learn from auditory and visual cues – and this may negatively influence speech and language learning. Covering faces could also limit children’s ability to recognize familiar people and <a href="https://www.brookings.edu/blog/education-plus-development/2020/04/21/are-you-happy-or-sad-how-wearing-face-masks-can-impact-childrens-ability-to-read-emotions/">determine when someone is happy, sad or angry</a>.</p>
<p>Of course, it’s crucially important to protect children and workers from the spread of the coronavirus. But there are ways to keep everyone safe while also allowing little ones to see adults’ faces.</p>
<p>If possible, care workers and educators spending long hours with infants and young children should consider clear masks or transparent face shields to reduce potential negative impacts on early learning. And, certainly, parents should continue to <a href="https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/baby-talk-learning-your-babys-language-communication/id1505875687?i=1000475161449">play</a>, <a href="https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/why_parents_sing_to_babies">sing</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/for-babys-brain-to-benefit-read-the-right-books-at-the-right-time-83076">read</a> and <a href="https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20191001-the-word-gap-that-affects-how-your-babys-brain-grows">talk</a> face to face with their infants and children.</p>
<p>Luckily, infants and young children often spend just as much time at home, where healthy caregivers don’t need to wear masks. <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/children5070098">Developing children are also very resilient</a>, so if transparent masks are not available, it is still important for caretakers to wear masks until public health authorities recommend otherwise.</p>
<p>[<em>Get our best science, health and technology stories.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/science-editors-picks-71/?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=science-best">Sign up for The Conversation’s science newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/139432/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lisa S. Scott receives funding from the National Science Foundation and is a current Learning Sciences Exchange (LSX) fellow funded by the Jacobs Foundation, New America, and the International Congress of Infant Studies</span></em></p>With caregivers’ faces covered, infants and young children will miss out on all the visual cues they’d normally get during stages of rapid developmental growth.Lisa S. Scott, Professor in Psychology, University of FloridaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1217072019-08-16T11:02:18Z2019-08-16T11:02:18ZSilicon Valley wants to read your mind – here’s why you should be worried<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/288326/original/file-20190816-192215-12j4tio.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/side-view-blond-businesswoman-looking-her-658081432?src=8A9MxPxUsW-PLIMDXggSkA-1-2">Image Flow/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Not content with monitoring almost <a href="https://theconversation.com/amazon-facebook-and-google-dont-need-to-spy-on-your-conversations-to-know-what-youre-talking-about-108792">everything you do online</a>, Facebook now wants to read your mind as well. The social media giant recently announced <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-49165713">a breakthrough</a> in its plan to create a device that reads people’s brainwaves to allow them to type just by thinking. And Elon Musk wants to go even further. One of the Tesla boss’s other companies, Neuralink, is <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2019/jul/17/elon-musk-neuralink-brain-implants-mind-reading-artificial-intelligence">developing a brain implant</a> to connect people’s minds directly to a computer.</p>
<p>Musk admits that he <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2017/06/06/elon-musk-says-this-science-fiction-classic-changed-his-life.html">takes inspiration</a> from science fiction, and that he wants to make sure humans can <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/2019/07/18/elon-musks-quest-stop-ai-apocalypse-merging-man-machines/">“keep up” with artificial intelligence</a>. He seems to have missed the part of sci-fi that acts as a warning for the implications of technology.</p>
<p>These mind-reading systems could affect our privacy, security, identity, equality and personal safety. Do we really want all that left to companies with philosophies such as that of Facebook’s former mantra, “<a href="https://mashable.com/2014/04/30/facebooks-new-mantra-move-fast-with-stability/?europe=true">move fast and break things</a>”?</p>
<p>Though they sound futuristic, the technologies needed to make brainwave-reading devices are not that dissimilar to the standard MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) and EEG (electroencephalography) neuroscience tools used in hospitals all over the world. You can already buy a kit to control a drone <a href="https://newatlas.com/udrone-mind-controlled-drone-umind-review/58791/">with your mind</a>, so using one to type out words is, in some ways, not that much of a leap. The advance will likely be due to the use of machine learning to sift through huge quantities of data collected from our brains and find the patterns in neuron activity that link thoughts to specific words.</p>
<p>A brain implant is likely to take a lot longer to develop, and it’s important to separate out the actual <a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/703801v2.full">achievements of Neuralink</a> from media hype and promotion. But Neuralink has made simultaneous improvements in materials for electrodes and robot-assisted surgery to implant them, packaging the technology neatly so it can be read via USB. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/kPGa_FuGPIc?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>Facebook and Neuralink’s plans may build on established medical practice. But when companies are collecting thoughts directly from our brains, the ethical issues are very different. </p>
<p>Any system that could collect data directly from our brains has clear privacy risks. Privacy is about consent. But it is very difficult to give proper consent if someone is tapping directly into our thoughts. Silicon Valley companies (and governments) already <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2017/11/20/what-does-google-know-about-me.html">surreptitiously gather</a> as much data on us as they can and use it in ways we’d <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2019/jul/26/apple-contractors-regularly-hear-confidential-details-on-siri-recordings">rather they didn’t</a>. How sure can we be that our random and personal thoughts won’t be captured and studied alongside the instructions we want to give the technology?</p>
<h2>Discrimination and manipulation</h2>
<p>One of the existing ethical issues with data gathering <a href="https://theconversation.com/its-not-big-data-that-discriminates-its-the-people-that-use-it-55591">is discrimination</a> based on attributes such as gender or race that can be discerned from the data. Providing a window into people’s minds could make it easier to determine other things that might form the basis of prejudice, such as sexuality or political ideology, or even different ways of thinking that might include things like autism.</p>
<p>With a system that taps directly into your brain, not only could your thoughts be stolen, but it’s also possible they could be manipulated as well. Brain stimulation is already being developed to help <a href="https://thejns.org/focus/view/journals/neurosurg-focus/45/2/article-pE17.xml">treat PTSD</a> and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2018/jul/02/electrical-brain-stimulation-may-help-reduce-violent-in-future-study">reduce violence</a>. There are even sensational claims that it can be used to <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/matrix-instant-learning-knowledge-upload-flying-science-a6905996.html">upload knowledge directly</a> just like in the film The Matrix. </p>
<p>A predictable step would be to combine the “in” and “out” technologies for a two-way brain-computer interface. The potential for governments to make us more compliant, for employers to force us to work harder, or for companies to make us want more of their products underlines just how seriously we should take this technology.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/288327/original/file-20190816-192210-24xalg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/288327/original/file-20190816-192210-24xalg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288327/original/file-20190816-192210-24xalg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288327/original/file-20190816-192210-24xalg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288327/original/file-20190816-192210-24xalg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288327/original/file-20190816-192210-24xalg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288327/original/file-20190816-192210-24xalg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Facebook’s prototype brainwave-reading device.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Facebook</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>If mind-reading devices become the normal way to interact with computers, we may end up with little choice but to use them in order to keep up with more productive colleagues. (Imagine someone today applying for an office job but refusing to use email.) And if Neuralink-style implants become the norm, this could also lead to greater inequality determined by what level of kit you could afford to have installed.</p>
<p>Elon Musk <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/mach/tech/elon-musk-wants-hook-your-brain-directly-computers-starting-next-ncna1030631">has stated</a> that the enormous loan required to afford Neuralink surgery would be offset by potential earnings for the “enhanced”. The idea of people feeling pressured to take on huge debts to have surgery just to keep their job comes straight from a sci-fi dystopia.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1151495398671994880"}"></div></p>
<p>On top of all this is the more direct physical threat of having systems physically intruding on our brains. While some people may want to modify their brain with a computer interface (there are already plenty of <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-dangers-of-biohacking-experiments-and-how-it-could-harm-your-health-100542">experimental biohackers</a>), to roll this out on a large scale would require massive and thorough testing. </p>
<p>Given Silicon Valley’s reputation (and penchant) for breaking things rather than stopping to think them through, these systems will need close regulation and ethical review even <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-07-17/elon-musk-s-neuralink-says-it-s-ready-to-begin-brain-surgery">before testing begins</a>. Otherwise it risks creating mutilated human guinea pigs.</p>
<p>For all this, there could be huge advantages to continuing research in this area, particularly for those suffering from paralysis or sensory impairment. But Silicon Valley should not be able to dictate the way these technologies are developed and deployed. If they do, it may radically reshape the way we identify as human.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/121707/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Garfield Benjamin does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Facebook and Neuralink are developing interfaces to link our brains to computers, with serious ethical issues.Garfield Benjamin, Postdoctoral Researcher, School of Media Arts and Technology, Solent UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1135362019-03-18T17:01:05Z2019-03-18T17:01:05ZNew evidence for a human magnetic sense that lets your brain detect the Earth’s magnetic field<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/264258/original/file-20190317-28505-1b1zf7w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=17%2C247%2C2849%2C1818&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Do you have a magnetic compass in your head?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/moral-compass-career-path-concept-human-115938361">Lightspring/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Do human beings have a magnetic sense? <a href="https://www.springer.com/us/book/9783642797514">Biologists know</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0959-4388(00)00235-X">other animals do</a>. They think it helps creatures including bees, turtles and birds <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0959-4388(02)00389-6">navigate through the world</a>.</p>
<p>Scientists have tried to investigate whether humans belong on the list of magnetically sensitive organisms. For decades, there’s been a back-and-forth between <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/human-navigation-and-the-sixth-sense/oclc/11022691&referer=brief_results">positive reports</a> and <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1685499">failures to demonstrate</a> the trait in people, with <a href="https://www.springer.com/us/book/9781461379928">seemingly endless controversy</a>.</p>
<p>The mixed results in people may be due to the fact that virtually all past studies relied on behavioral decisions from the participants. If human beings do possess a magnetic sense, daily experience suggests that it would be very weak or deeply subconscious. Such faint impressions could easily be misinterpreted – or just plain missed – when trying to make decisions.</p>
<p>So our research group – including a <a href="https://maglab.caltech.edu/">geophysical biologist</a>, a <a href="https://neuro.caltech.edu">cognitive neuroscientist</a> and a <a href="http://www.isp.ac/index_e.html">neuroengineer</a> – took another approach. <a href="https://maglab.caltech.edu/human-magnetic-reception-laboratory/">What we found</a> arguably provides the first concrete neuroscientific <a href="https://doi.org/10.1523/ENEURO.0483-18.2019">evidence that humans do have a geomagnetic sense</a>. </p>
<h2>How does a biological geomagnetic sense work?</h2>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/264257/original/file-20190317-28479-jh5hpf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/264257/original/file-20190317-28479-jh5hpf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/264257/original/file-20190317-28479-jh5hpf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=515&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/264257/original/file-20190317-28479-jh5hpf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=515&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/264257/original/file-20190317-28479-jh5hpf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=515&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/264257/original/file-20190317-28479-jh5hpf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=648&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/264257/original/file-20190317-28479-jh5hpf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=648&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/264257/original/file-20190317-28479-jh5hpf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=648&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Life on Earth is exposed to the planet’s ever-present geomagnetic field that varies in intensity and direction across the planetary surface.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/illustration-physics-magnetic-field-that-extends-1165968205">Nasky/Shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The Earth is surrounded by a magnetic field, generated by the movement of the planet’s liquid core. It’s why a magnetic compass points north. At Earth’s surface, this magnetic field is fairly weak, <a href="https://nationalmaglab.org/about/maglab-dictionary/tesla">about 100 times weaker</a> than that of a refrigerator magnet.</p>
<p>Over the past 50 years or so, scientists have shown that hundreds of organisms in nearly all branches of the bacterial, <a href="https://www.livescience.com/54242-protists.html">protist</a> and animal kingdoms have the ability to detect and respond to this geomagnetic field. In some animals – <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00611096">such as honey bees</a> – the geomagnetic behavioral responses are <a href="https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/750f/ce1b8f4723b09dd2fb1324fc916c9578c77b.pdf">as strong as the responses</a> to light, odor or touch. Biologists have identified strong responses in vertebrates ranging from <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/37057">fish</a>, <a href="http://jeb.biologists.org/content/205/24/3903.full">amphibians</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1064557">reptiles</a>, numerous birds and a diverse variety of mammals including <a href="http://jeb.biologists.org/content/120/1/1.short">whales</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/srep09917">rodents</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0001676">bats</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0803650105">cows</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.6117">dogs</a> – the last of which can be trained to find a hidden bar magnet. In all of these cases, the animals are using the geomagnetic field as components of their homing and navigation abilities, along with other cues like sight, smell and hearing.</p>
<p>Skeptics dismissed early reports of these responses, largely because there didn’t seem to be a biophysical mechanism that could translate the Earth’s weak geomagnetic field into strong neural signals. This view was dramatically changed by the <a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/gsabulletin/article-abstract/73/4/435/5435">discovery that living cells</a> have the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.472725">ability to</a> build nanocrystals of the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.201.4360.1026">ferromagnetic</a> <a href="http://jeb.biologists.org/content/140/1/35.short">mineral magnetite</a> – basically, tiny iron magnets. Biogenic crystals of magnetite were first seen in the teeth of one group of mollusks, later in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.170679">bacteria</a>, and then in a variety of other organisms ranging from protists and animals such as insects, fish and mammals, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.89.16.7683">including within tissues of the human brain</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/264240/original/file-20190317-28475-1vhbs80.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/264240/original/file-20190317-28475-1vhbs80.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/264240/original/file-20190317-28475-1vhbs80.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=267&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/264240/original/file-20190317-28475-1vhbs80.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=267&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/264240/original/file-20190317-28475-1vhbs80.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=267&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/264240/original/file-20190317-28475-1vhbs80.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=336&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/264240/original/file-20190317-28475-1vhbs80.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=336&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/264240/original/file-20190317-28475-1vhbs80.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=336&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Chains of magnetosomes from a sockeye salmon.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Mann, Sparks, Walker & Kirschvink, 1988</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Nevertheless, scientists haven’t considered humans to be magnetically sensitive organisms.</p>
<h2>Manipulating the magnetic field</h2>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/264038/original/file-20190314-28479-1665yfc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/264038/original/file-20190314-28479-1665yfc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/264038/original/file-20190314-28479-1665yfc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=596&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/264038/original/file-20190314-28479-1665yfc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=596&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/264038/original/file-20190314-28479-1665yfc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=596&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/264038/original/file-20190314-28479-1665yfc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=749&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/264038/original/file-20190314-28479-1665yfc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=749&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/264038/original/file-20190314-28479-1665yfc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=749&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Schematic drawing of the human magnetoreception test chamber at Caltech.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Modified from 'Center of attraction' by C. Bickel (Hand, 2016).</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In our new study, we asked 34 participants simply to sit in our testing chamber while we directly recorded electrical activity in their brains with electroencephalography (EEG). Our modified <a href="https://science.howstuffworks.com/faraday-cage.htm">Faraday cage</a> included a set of 3-axis coils that let us create controlled magnetic fields of high uniformity via electric current we ran through its wires. Since we live in mid-latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere, the environmental magnetic field in our lab dips downwards to the north at about 60 degrees from horizontal. </p>
<p>In normal life, when someone rotates their head – say, nodding up and down or turning the head from left to right – the direction of the geomagnetic field (which remains constant in space) will shift relative to their skull. This is no surprise to the subject’s brain, as it directed the muscles to move the head in the appropriate fashion in the first place.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/264239/original/file-20190317-28492-1jg4d65.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/264239/original/file-20190317-28492-1jg4d65.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/264239/original/file-20190317-28492-1jg4d65.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=513&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/264239/original/file-20190317-28492-1jg4d65.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=513&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/264239/original/file-20190317-28492-1jg4d65.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=513&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/264239/original/file-20190317-28492-1jg4d65.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=645&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/264239/original/file-20190317-28492-1jg4d65.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=645&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/264239/original/file-20190317-28492-1jg4d65.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=645&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Study participants sat in the experimental chamber facing north, while the downwards-pointing field rotated clockwise (blue arrow) from northwest to northeast or counterclockwise (red arrow) from northeast to northwest.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Magnetic Field Laboratory, Caltech</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In our experimental chamber, we can move the magnetic field silently relative to the brain, but without the brain having initiated any signal to move the head. This is comparable to situations when your head or trunk is passively rotated by somebody else, or when you’re a passenger in a vehicle which rotates. In those cases, though, your body will still register vestibular signals about its position in space, along with the magnetic field changes – in contrast, our experimental stimulation was only a magnetic field shift. When we shifted the magnetic field in the chamber, our participants did not experience any obvious feelings.</p>
<p>The EEG data, on the other hand, revealed that certain magnetic field rotations could trigger strong and reproducible brain responses. One EEG pattern known from existing research, called alpha-ERD (event-related desynchronization), typically shows up when a person suddenly detects and processes a sensory stimulus. The brains were “concerned” with the unexpected change in the magnetic field direction, and this triggered the alpha-wave reduction. That we saw such alpha-ERD patterns in response to simple magnetic rotations is powerful evidence for human magnetoreception. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/6Y4S2eG9BJA?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Video shows the dramatic, widespread drop in alpha wave amplitude (deep blue color on leftmost head) following counterclockwise rotations. No drop is observed after clockwise rotation or in the fixed condition. <i>Connie Wang, Caltech</i></span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Our participants’ brains only responded when the vertical component of the field was pointing downwards at about 60 degrees (while horizontally rotating), as it does naturally here in Pasadena, California. They did not respond to unnatural directions of the magnetic field – such as when it pointed upwards. We suggest the response is tuned to natural stimuli, reflecting a biological mechanism that has been shaped by natural selection.</p>
<p>Other researchers have shown that animals’ brains filter magnetic signals, only responding to those that are environmentally relevant. It makes sense to reject any magnetic signal that is too far away from the natural values because it most likely is from a magnetic anomaly - a lighting strike, or lodestone deposit in the ground, for example. One early report on birds showed that robins stop using the geomagnetic field if the strength is more than about <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.176.4030.62">25 percent different from what they were used to</a>. It’s possible this tendency might be why previous researchers had trouble identifying this magnetic sense – if they <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S1388-2457(02)00186-4">cranked up the strength of the magnetic field</a> to “help” subjects detect it, they might have instead ensured that subjects’ brains ignored it.</p>
<p>Moreover, our series of experiments show that the receptor mechanism – the biological magnetometer in human beings – is not electrical induction, and can tell north from south. This latter feature rules out completely the so-called <a href="https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-biophys-032116-094545">“quantum compass” or “cryptochrome”</a> mechanism which is popular these days in the animal literature on magnetoreception. Our results are consistent only with functional magnetoreceptor cells based on the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/0303-2647(81)90060-5">biological magnetite hypothesis</a>. Note that a magnetite-based system <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2009.0491.focus">can also explain</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2009.0435.focus">all of the behavioral effects in birds</a> that promoted the rise of the quantum compass hypothesis.</p>
<h2>Brains register magnetic shifts, subconsciously</h2>
<p>Our participants were all unaware of the magnetic field shifts and their brain responses. They felt that nothing had happened during the whole experiment – they’d just sat alone in dark silence for an hour. Underneath, though, their brains revealed a wide range of differences. Some brains showed almost no reaction, while other brains had alpha waves that shrank to half their normal size after a magnetic field shift.</p>
<p>It remains to be seen what these hidden reactions might mean for human behavioral capabilities. Do the weak and strong brain responses reflect some kind of individual differences in navigational ability? Can those with weaker brain responses benefit from some kind of training? Can those with strong brain responses be trained to actually feel the magnetic field? </p>
<p>A human response to Earth-strength magnetic fields might seem surprising. But given the evidence for magnetic sensation in our animal ancestors, it might be more surprising if humans had completely lost every last piece of the system. Thus far, we’ve found evidence that people have working magnetic sensors sending signals to the brain – a previously unknown sensory ability in the subconscious human mind. The full extent of our magnetic inheritance remains to be discovered.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/113536/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Shinsuke Shimojo received funding from Human Frontier Science Program (HFSP), Japanese Science and Technology Agency (JST), and currently receives funding from DARPA. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Daw-An Wu receives funding from DARPA. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Joseph Kirschvink receives funding from the RadioBio program of DARPA, and previous support for this work was from the Human Frontiers Science Program (HFSP).</span></em></p>Your brain’s sensory talents go way beyond those traditional five senses. A team of geoscientists and neurobiologists explored how the human brain monitors and responds to magnetic fields.Shinsuke Shimojo, Gertrude Baltimore Professor of Experimental Psychology, California Institute of TechnologyDaw-An Wu, California Institute of TechnologyJoseph Kirschvink, Nico and Marilyn Van Wingen Professor of Geobiology, California Institute of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/986912018-10-25T10:44:56Z2018-10-25T10:44:56ZMy thoughts are my password, because my brain reactions are unique<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/241249/original/file-20181018-67185-dbf3km.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=8%2C0%2C466%2C432&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A test subject entering a brain password.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wenyao Xu, et al.</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Your brain is an inexhaustible source of secure passwords – but you might not have to remember anything. Passwords and PINs with letters and numbers are <a href="http://time.com/3643678/password-hack/">relatively easily hacked</a>, hard to remember and generally insecure. Biometrics are starting to take their place, with fingerprints, facial recognition and retina scanning becoming common even in routine logins for computers, smartphones and other common devices. </p>
<p>They’re more secure because they’re harder to fake, but biometrics have a crucial vulnerability: A person only has one face, two retinas and 10 fingerprints. They represent passwords that can’t be reset if they’re compromised.</p>
<p>Like usernames and passwords, biometric credentials are vulnerable to data breaches. In 2015, for instance, the database containing the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/24/world/asia/hackers-took-fingerprints-of-5-6-million-us-workers-government-says.html">fingerprints of 5.6 million U.S. federal employees</a> was breached. Those people shouldn’t use their fingerprints to secure any devices, whether for personal use or at work. The next breach might steal photographs or retina scan data, rendering those biometrics useless for security.</p>
<p><a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=dvvN6qsAAAAJ&hl=en">Our</a> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=4EPE1s4AAAAJ&hl=en">team</a> has been <a href="https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2015-06/bu-brt060215.php">working with collaborators</a> at <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neucom.2015.04.025">other institutions</a> for years, and has invented a new type of biometric that is both uniquely tied to a single human being and can be reset if needed.</p>
<h2>Inside the mind</h2>
<p>When a person looks at a photograph or hears a piece of music, <a href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/medicine/divisions-diagnostics-and-procedures/medicine/electroencephalography">her brain responds</a> in ways that researchers or medical professionals can measure with electrical sensors placed on her scalp. We have discovered that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1109/TIFS.2016.2543524">every person’s brain responds differently</a> to an external stimulus, so even if two people look at the same photograph, readings of their brain activity will be different.</p>
<p>This process is automatic and unconscious, so a person can’t control what brain response happens. And every time a person sees a photo of a particular celebrity, their brain reacts the same way – though differently from everyone else’s.</p>
<p>We realized that this presents an opportunity for a unique combination that can serve as what we call a “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1145/3210240.3210344">brain password</a>.” It’s not just a physical attribute of their body, like a fingerprint or the pattern of blood vessels in their retina. Instead, it’s a mix of the person’s unique biological brain structure and their involuntary memory that determines how it responds to a particular stimulus.</p>
<h2>Making a brain password</h2>
<p>A person’s brain password is a digital reading of their brain activity while looking at a series of images. Just as passwords are more secure if they include different kinds of characters – letters, numbers and punctuation – a brain password is more secure if it includes brain wave readings of a person looking at a collection of different kinds of pictures.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/241253/original/file-20181018-67173-hpu8qo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/241253/original/file-20181018-67173-hpu8qo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/241253/original/file-20181018-67173-hpu8qo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=353&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/241253/original/file-20181018-67173-hpu8qo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=353&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/241253/original/file-20181018-67173-hpu8qo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=353&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/241253/original/file-20181018-67173-hpu8qo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=444&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/241253/original/file-20181018-67173-hpu8qo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=444&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/241253/original/file-20181018-67173-hpu8qo.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=444&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A range of visual stimuli generates the best brain password.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wenyao Xu, et al.</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>To set the password, the person would be authenticated some other way – such as coming to work with a passport or other identifying paperwork, or having their fingerprints or face checked against existing records. Then the person would put on a soft comfortable hat or padded helmet with electrical sensors inside. A monitor would display, for example, a picture of a pig, Denzel Washington’s face and the text “Call me Ishmael,” the opening sentence of Herman Meville’s classic “Moby-Dick.”</p>
<p>The sensors would record the person’s brain waves. Just as when <a href="https://www.macworld.co.uk/how-to/iphone/how-use-touch-id-finger-scanning-passcode-3579832/">registering a fingerprint</a> for an iPhone’s Touch ID, multiple readings would be needed to collect a complete initial record. Our research has confirmed that a combination of pictures like this would evoke brain wave readings that are unique to a particular person, and consistent from one login attempt to another.</p>
<p>Later, to login or gain access to a building or secure room, the person would put on the hat and watch the sequence of images. A computer system would compare their brain waves at that moment to what had been stored initially – and either grant access or deny it, depending on the results. It would take about five seconds, not much longer than entering a password or typing a PIN into a number keypad.</p>
<h2>After a hack</h2>
<p>Brain passwords’ real advantage comes into play after the almost inevitable hack of a login database. If a hacker breaks into the system storing the biometric templates or uses electronics to counterfeit a person’s brain signals, that information is no longer useful for security. A person can’t change their face or their fingerprints – but they can change their brain password.</p>
<p>It’s easy enough to authenticate a person’s identity another way, and have them set a new password by looking at three new images – maybe this time with a photo of a dog, a drawing of George Washington and a Gandhi quote. Because they’re different images from the initial password, the brainwave patterns would be different too. Our research has found that the new brain password would be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.patrec.2017.05.031">very hard for attackers to figure out</a>, even if they tried to use the old brainwave readings as an aid.</p>
<p>Brain passwords are endlessly resettable, because there are so many possible photos and a vast array of combinations that can be made from those images. There’s no way to run out of these biometric-enhanced security measures.</p>
<h2>Secure – and safe</h2>
<p>As researchers, we are aware that it could be worrying or even creepy for an employer or internet service to use authentication that reads people’s brain activity. Part of our research involved figuring out how to take only the minimum amount of readings to ensure reliable results – and proper security – without needing so many measurements that a person might feel violated or concerned that a computer was trying to read their mind.</p>
<p>We initially tried using 32 sensors all over a person’s head, and found the results were reliable. Then we progressively reduced the number of sensors to see how many were really needed – and found that we could get clear and secure results with just three properly located sensors.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/241247/original/file-20181018-67167-12xh32s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/241247/original/file-20181018-67167-12xh32s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/241247/original/file-20181018-67167-12xh32s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=598&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/241247/original/file-20181018-67167-12xh32s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=598&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/241247/original/file-20181018-67167-12xh32s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=598&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/241247/original/file-20181018-67167-12xh32s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=751&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/241247/original/file-20181018-67167-12xh32s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=751&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/241247/original/file-20181018-67167-12xh32s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=751&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Three electrodes high on the back of a user’s head are enough to detect a brain password.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wenyao Xu et al.</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This means our sensor device is so small that it can fit invisibly inside a hat or a virtual-reality headset. That opens the door for many potential uses. A person wearing smart headwear, for example, could easily unlock doors or computers with brain passwords. Our method could also make cars harder to steal – before starting up, the driver would have to put on a hat and look at a few images displayed on a dashboard screen.</p>
<p>Other avenues are opening as new technologies emerge. The Chinese e-commerce giant Alibaba recently unveiled a system for <a href="https://news.vice.com/en_us/article/ev5gmw/alibaba-vr-shopping-buy-singles-day">using virtual reality to shop</a> for items – including making purchases online right in the VR environment. If the payment information is stored in the VR headset, anyone who
uses it, or steals it, will be able to buy anything that’s available. A headset that reads its user’s brainwaves would make purchases, logins or physical access to sensitive areas much more secure.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/98691/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Wenyao Xu receives funding from the National Science Foundation. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Zhanpeng Jin receives funding from the National Science Foundation. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Feng Lin does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Biometrics are more secure than passwords – but when they’re compromised fingerprints and retina scans are hard to reset. Brain responses to specific stimuli are as secure and, crucially, resettable.Wenyao Xu, Assistant Professor of Computer Science and Engineering, University at BuffaloFeng Lin, Assistant Professor of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Colorado DenverZhanpeng Jin, Associate Professor of Computer Science and Engineering, University at BuffaloLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1012312018-08-10T10:37:57Z2018-08-10T10:37:57ZFlip a switch and shut down seizures? New research suggests how to turn off out-of-control signaling in the brain<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/231381/original/file-20180809-30449-1vejssm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=257%2C12%2C3624%2C2561&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">In an epileptic brain, the neurons fire wildly.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/human-brain-impulse-mixed-media-452290207">Sergey Nivens/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The brain is a precision instrument. Its function depends on finely calibrated electrical activity triggering the release of chemical messages between neurons.</p>
<p>But sometimes the brain’s careful balance is knocked out of control, as in <a href="https://www.epilepsy.com/learn/about-epilepsy-basics/what-epilepsy">epilepsy</a>. Electroencephalography, or <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/eeg/about/pac-20393875">EEG</a>, visualizes a brain’s electrical activity and can reveal how an epileptic seizure diverges from the predictable wave pattern of typical brain activity.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/231337/original/file-20180809-30446-1x4fofp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/231337/original/file-20180809-30446-1x4fofp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/231337/original/file-20180809-30446-1x4fofp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=186&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/231337/original/file-20180809-30446-1x4fofp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=186&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/231337/original/file-20180809-30446-1x4fofp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=186&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/231337/original/file-20180809-30446-1x4fofp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=233&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/231337/original/file-20180809-30446-1x4fofp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=233&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/231337/original/file-20180809-30446-1x4fofp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=233&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">The pattern of typical brain activity is very regular. During an epileptic seizure, the electrical activity erratically spikes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Rochelle Hines</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
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<p>But medicine still lacks a solution to epilepsy. There’s limited possibility of predicting a seizure, and no way to intervene even when you can predict. Although pharmaceuticals are available to people dealing with epilepsy, they are fraught with <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1586/ern.10.71">side effects</a>, and they <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci8040049">do not work for everyone</a>.</p>
<p>Working on a problem in <a href="https://www.hinesgroup.net">my neuroscience lab</a>, when I stop to imagine how frightening it could be to live with a brain out of control in this way, it really motivates me. Could there be a way to seize back control of these neurons gone rogue? I’ve been focusing on how a specific compartment within each brain cell <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-05481-1">might be able to help us do just that</a>.</p>
<h2>An override switch for brain activity</h2>
<p>Ever since I was an undergraduate student, I’ve been fascinated with a part of the neuron called the axon initial segment. Each neuron contains this small compartment. It’s where a neuron “decides” to fire an electrical signal, sending a chemical message on to the next cell.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/231339/original/file-20180809-30467-16v50vs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/231339/original/file-20180809-30467-16v50vs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/231339/original/file-20180809-30467-16v50vs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=925&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/231339/original/file-20180809-30467-16v50vs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=925&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/231339/original/file-20180809-30467-16v50vs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=925&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/231339/original/file-20180809-30467-16v50vs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1162&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/231339/original/file-20180809-30467-16v50vs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1162&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/231339/original/file-20180809-30467-16v50vs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1162&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The axon initial segment receives signals from adjacent neurons and ‘decides’ whether its own neuron will fire an electrical signal in response.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Rochelle Hines</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There are specialized connections here that can exert powerful control; they can override the cell’s own “decision” about firing. This control mechanism exists to organize or pattern brain activity – a requirement for much of our behavior.</p>
<p>For example, in order to fall asleep your brain activity needs to wind down into a slow oscillation. In contrast, sharp concentration on a problem requires the pattern to pick up, producing a rapid oscillation. An <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2015.0483">inability to produce and regulate these patterns</a> of brain activity has been related to numerous disorders of the brain.</p>
<p>When the axon initial segments of numerous neurons all receive a silencing signal at the same time, it results in a trough in the wave pattern of the EEG. This means that it quiets the brain’s activity, something that under normal conditions would be useful when moving between relaxed awake and sleep states.</p>
<p>If researchers could harness the power of these inhibitory connections, we could potentially reset the brain’s activity pattern whenever we want to. It could be a way to wrest back control in an epileptic brain.</p>
<h2>Molecules that mediate the message</h2>
<p>To begin understanding how to regulate this power of the axon initial segment, my colleagues and I first needed to understand the molecular partnerships at these connections. For inhibition to be effective at the axon initial segment, there needs to be the right equipment available to receive the signal. In the case of inhibition in the brain, this equipment is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conb.2011.10.007">the GABA A receptor</a>.</p>
<p>With collaborators <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=LP1GjaQAAAAJ&view_op=list_works&sortby=pubdate">Hans Maric</a> and <a href="http://www.rudolf-virchow-zentrum.de/en/research/research-groups/schindelin-group/research.html">Hermann Schindelin</a>, we identified a close and exclusive partnership between two proteins – the GABA A receptor α2 subunit and collybistin. Figuring out the close relationship between these two molecules answers some open questions about how proteins at inhibitory contact sites might be interacting. We knew that the GABA A receptor α2 subunit is found at the axon initial segment, but researchers didn’t understand how it gets there or is kept there. Collybistin could be key.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/231375/original/file-20180809-30470-1gzgil4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/231375/original/file-20180809-30470-1gzgil4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/231375/original/file-20180809-30470-1gzgil4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=342&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/231375/original/file-20180809-30470-1gzgil4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=342&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/231375/original/file-20180809-30470-1gzgil4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=342&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/231375/original/file-20180809-30470-1gzgil4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/231375/original/file-20180809-30470-1gzgil4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/231375/original/file-20180809-30470-1gzgil4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Together, the GABA receptor protein and collybistin work together to receive the message from the neurotransmitter GABA within this important part of the neuron.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Rochelle Hines</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>So now we thought that these two proteins could be working together at the axon initial segment. To take it further, my postdoctoral mentor <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=8G-86gkAAAAJ&hl=en">Stephen Moss</a> and I wanted to understand what implications this might have for connections at the axon initial segment, and ultimately how the brain works. To try to figure that out, we created a genetic mutation that resulted in the two proteins being unable to connect.</p>
<p>Neurons of mice with this mutation did, in fact, lose inhibitory connections onto the axon initial segment. Inhibitory connections onto other parts of brain cells remained intact, again supporting the idea that this protein partnership is exclusive, and specifically important at the axon initial segment. </p>
<p>Mice with this mutation experience seizures during development. When they grow into adults, these mice no longer show behavioral signs of seizure. In some forms of pediatric epilepsy, kids can also “outgrow” their seizures. So this mutation is extremely valuable in providing a possible model for human pediatric epilepsy. We hope it can help us understand more clearly what happens in the brain during epilepsy, and also to design and test better therapies, like the selective compound developed by <a href="https://www.astrazeneca.com/our-science/IMED.html">AstraZeneca whose scientists</a> also contributed to this project.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/231343/original/file-20180809-30461-15y51yr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/231343/original/file-20180809-30461-15y51yr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/231343/original/file-20180809-30461-15y51yr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/231343/original/file-20180809-30461-15y51yr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/231343/original/file-20180809-30461-15y51yr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/231343/original/file-20180809-30461-15y51yr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=521&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/231343/original/file-20180809-30461-15y51yr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=521&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/231343/original/file-20180809-30461-15y51yr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=521&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Understanding more about these molecules could help researchers design what is essentially an ‘off switch’ for a brain that’s firing out of control.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/skeleton-xray-brain-off-male-his-115340698">Jeff Cameron Collingwood/Shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A quantitative but early step</h2>
<p>Neuroscientists have long speculated about the partnership between the GABA A receptor and collybistin. Now <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-05481-1">our results, recently published in Nature Communications</a>, define it quantitatively.</p>
<p>While we know GABA A receptors – which respond to the neurotransmitter GABA – control inhibitory signaling, we’re still figuring out how it all works. GABA signaling is diverse, with various connection types that exert distinct control over cell firing – something else we need to work to understand. And dysfunction in GABA signaling is <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fnmol.2018.00132">involved in a number of other disorders</a> of the brain, too, in addition to epilepsy. </p>
<p>The ultimate goal of this research is to design treatments that might be able to control inhibitory connections at the axon initial segment. We’d like to be in charge of that switch, able to turn off the out-of-control neural firing seen during an epileptic seizure.</p>
<p>I am imagining life with epilepsy, and I am also imagining life without it.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/101231/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rochelle Hines received funding from the Canadian Institute for Health Research as a postdoctoral fellow, and currently acts as a consultant for Rapid Dose Therapeutics, a relationship that is regulated by the University of Nevada Las Vegas. Her collaborator Stephen Moss serves as a consultant for AstraZeneca, a relationship that is regulated by Tufts University.</span></em></p>During epileptic seizures, neurons in the brain fire without rhyme or reason. New research identifies a possible way to wrest back control by stopping these signals before they can get started.Rochelle Hines, Assistant Professor of Psychology, University of Nevada, Las VegasLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/959302018-05-04T00:40:47Z2018-05-04T00:40:47ZTake it from me: neuroscience is advancing, but we’re a long way off head transplants<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/217499/original/file-20180503-153869-fatn9r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Pick a head, any head! </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/tambov-russian-federation-march-24-2015-263582948?src=OeDSzC_8kcB1aiLCcEVEsw-1-0">from www.shutterstock.com </a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em><strong>Take it from me</strong> is a new series in Science and Technology, where we find an expert to provide a personal but informed perspective on a topical issue.</em></p>
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<p>In the 1983 film <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0085894/">The Man with Two Brains</a>, Steve Martin’s character falls in love with the disembodied brain of a woman named Anne. </p>
<p>But what once sat in the realm of movies and science fiction novels now seems slightly more plausible. Recent advances in neuroscience have lead to human cells being grown into “<a href="https://arstechnica.com/science/2018/04/the-ethics-of-growing-complex-structures-with-human-brain-cells/">mini brains</a>” in the lab, and brains of decapitated pigs being “<a href="http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-43928318">kept alive</a>” for a day and a half. </p>
<p>So are we closer to a time when brains may be able to function in isolation from a body – leading to head transplants or even brains frozen and brought back to life in the future? </p>
<p>I think such possibilities are a long way off. </p>
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<h2>A brain without a body</h2>
<p>Professor Nenad Sestan of Yale University <a href="http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-43928318">reported</a> in March that he and his team restored blood circulation to the brains of decapitated pigs, and kept brain cells alive and functioning for up to 36 hours. </p>
<p>This technology, called “<a href="https://www.technologyreview.com/s/611007/researchers-are-keeping-pig-brains-alive-outside-the-body/amp/">BrainEx</a>”, restores circulation by connecting the brain to a series of pumps and heaters that pump artificial blood and carry oxygen to key regions, including areas deep inside the brain. This allows even <a href="http://www.perimed-instruments.com/introduction-to-microcirculation">microcirculation</a> – the flow of blood to the smallest blood vessels and cells – to be restored. </p>
<p>This work opens up a number of potential future research avenues, including the ability to test new treatments for Alzheimer’s disease and other neurological conditions. </p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-can-change-our-brain-and-its-ability-to-cope-with-disease-with-simple-lifestyle-choices-91699">We can change our brain and its ability to cope with disease with simple lifestyle choices</a>
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<p>A more developed area of neuroscience is the generation of <a href="https://arstechnica.com/science/2018/04/the-ethics-of-growing-complex-structures-with-human-brain-cells/">brain organoids</a>, “mini brains” grown from human <a href="http://stemcell.childrenshospital.org/about-stem-cells/pluripotent-stem-cells-101/">stem cells</a> and kept alive in the laboratory. </p>
<p>These organoids mimic features of the developing brain, allowing researchers to undertake research into conditions such as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006322317321972">autism spectrum disorders</a> and <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41398-017-0054-x">schizophrenia</a>. </p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/wOBl9W7_AbI?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">It doesn’t get much kookier than this 1983 trailer.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Are the brains really alive?</h2>
<p>Sestan believes his approach to keeping pig brains alive is likely to work in other species, including <a href="https://www.technologyreview.com/s/611007/researchers-are-keeping-pig-brains-alive-outside-the-body/amp/">primates</a>. </p>
<p>But what might keeping brains “alive” mean for the individual? Might it be possible for the disembodied brain to retain its consciousness and memory, devoid of any sensory input or ability to communicate? </p>
<p>Monitoring of the pig brains via a technique known as <a href="https://www.healthline.com/health/eeg">EEG</a> showed <a href="https://www.technologyreview.com/s/611007/researchers-are-keeping-pig-brains-alive-outside-the-body/">no sign</a> of complex electrical activity indicating thought or sensation. This could be due to lowered activity or damage of brain cells during the procedure. </p>
<p>But <a href="http://www.jhunewsletter.com/article/2013/10/hope-is-found-even-in-flat-lined-eeg-13855/">some research</a> has indicated that, even when the EEG is a flat line, there may still be some <a href="https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/09/19/brain-activity-coma_n_3953473.html">activity</a> in deep brain structures such as the hippocampus, a brain area critical for memory.</p>
<p>The question of measuring activity is also relevant to the brain organoids. With improvements in techniques, there is the potential that organoids may become more complex. Although it’s still very unlikely, it’s possible they may take on aspects of higher-order brain functioning, such as feeling pleasure and pain, storing memories, or even experiencing some degree of consciousness.</p>
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<p>
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<h2>What is consciousness?</h2>
<p>Consciousness is one of the most difficult brain phenomena to explain, and a question that modern neuroscience is just beginning to make progress on. It’s even difficult to actually define what consciousness <em>is</em>. </p>
<p>Australian philosopher David Chalmers has referred to these challenges as the <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-superhuman-mind/201303/what-is-consciousness">“hard problem” of consciousness</a> – understanding why consciousness occurs. </p>
<p>Multiple theories and models of consciousness have been proposed, and experts tussle back and forth about which is most accurate. Some critics even claim that most theories of consciousness are “<a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2016/03/phlegm-theories-of-consciousness/472812/">worse than wrong</a>” – they don’t actually explain anything. </p>
<p>Physiologically, the EEG is still the most sensitive measure to indicate consciousness. When an individual is awake and alert, the EEG is “<a href="https://www.medicine.mcgill.ca/physio/vlab/biomed_signals/eeg_n.htm">activated</a>”, characterised by low voltage, high frequency fast brain waves. </p>
<p>When there is a loss of consciousness, brain waves slow down and get higher in amplitude as brain cells alter their firing rates. </p>
<p>Parts of the brain thought to be involved in consciousness include the rear part of the cerebral cortex (at the surface), and also deeper structures such as the brainstem. EEG activity in specific areas of the brain may be one of the most effective ways to discriminate between conscious and unconscious individuals.</p>
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<p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-what-is-traumatic-brain-injury-75546">Explainer: what is traumatic brain injury?</a>
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</p>
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<h2>Can a brain without a body be conscious?</h2>
<p>Currently we are a long way from experimental models of the human brain – such as brain organoids or disembodied brains – being conscious. However, we could need to confront such a possibility as technology advances and models become more sophisticated.</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/217461/original/file-20180503-153869-1docab7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/217461/original/file-20180503-153869-1docab7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/217461/original/file-20180503-153869-1docab7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/217461/original/file-20180503-153869-1docab7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/217461/original/file-20180503-153869-1docab7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/217461/original/file-20180503-153869-1docab7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/217461/original/file-20180503-153869-1docab7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Pigs are very smart animals – they can be taught to play computer games.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/young-pigs-on-farm-134362790?src=EkNc7C_di4wLG8HcviEabg-1-44">from www.shutterstock.com</a></span>
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<p>Indeed, the hope of this has led to initiatives such as cryogenically preserving (freezing) brains, and even proposed head transplants. </p>
<p>But I wouldn’t rush out and put my name down for these procedures just yet. In the case of <a href="http://www.bbc.com/news/av/technology-42835119/cryonics-your-body-preserved-for-future-revival">cryogenically</a> preserving tissue, evidence has yet to demonstrate that all areas of the brain are reached with the antifreeze used to protect tissue from fracturing at the extremely low temperatures. </p>
<p>Even if the tissue can somehow be protected from freezing damage, warming that tissue back up again is likely to result in further <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/2016/11/18/scientific-backlash-after-high-court-rules-teenager-can-be-froze/">extensive problems</a>. This would make it difficult, if not impossible, to ever return the brain to a conscious state – and that’s all before you deal with the issues inherent in actually transplanting the brain into another body.</p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-why-do-our-brains-freak-us-out-with-scary-dreams-81329">Curious Kids: Why do our brains freak us out with scary dreams?</a>
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<p>Many unknowns also exist with head transplants. While Italian neurosurgeon Professor Sergio Canavero has claimed that he will carry out the first <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/2017/04/27/cryogenically-frozen-brains-will-woken-transplanted-donor-bodies/">human head transplant</a> in 2018, many neuroscientists are sceptical. </p>
<p>There are a host of <a href="http://www.popsci.com.au/tech/military/no-human-head-transplants-will-not-be-possible-by-2017,401150">issues</a> with such a procedure. There’s the possibility of rejection of the head by the donor body, and the difficulty of connecting the spinal cord to the brain in a way that the brain can control the donor body. Additionally, even if it did work in a physical sense, there are problems around how such a procedure might affect the individual’s sense of self-awareness or consciousness.</p>
<h2>Where should the field go from here?</h2>
<p>There are many ethical concerns linked to the idea of brains in culture or removed from bodies – including what protections are necessary, how to address issues around consent, ownership and post-research tissue handling, and even how to define death. </p>
<p>In late April, 17 experts in neuroscience, stem-cell biology, ethics and philosophy published an editorial in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-018-04813-x#ref-CR15">Nature</a> outlining many of the issues that need to be considered and calling for “clear guidelines for research”. </p>
<p>Such conversations also need to be held outside of academic circles and should engage ethics committees, research funding bodies, and, most importantly, the wider <a href="https://www.nature.com/news/historic-decision-allows-uk-researchers-to-trial-three-person-babies-1.21182">public</a>. </p>
<p>While there has never been a more exciting time to work in neuroscience, it is critical that proper safeguards be put in place now as models continue to advance.</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/real-bodies-controversy-how-australian-museums-regulate-the-display-of-human-remains-95644">Real Bodies controversy: how Australian museums regulate the display of human remains</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/95930/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lyndsey Collins-Praino receives funding from the NeuroSurgical Research Foundation and the Commercial Accelerator Scheme.</span></em></p>‘Mini brains’ can be grown in the lab, and brains of decapitated pigs were recently ‘kept alive’ for a day and a half. But what makes a conscious brain?Lyndsey Collins-Praino, Senior Lecturer in School of Medicine, University of AdelaideLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/948322018-04-24T14:26:51Z2018-04-24T14:26:51ZNew research shows how brain-computer interaction is changing cinema<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/216092/original/file-20180424-94160-1118ibz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption"></span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/illustration-thought-processes-brain-340384811?irgwc=1&utm_medium=Affiliate&utm_campaign=Hans%20Braxmeier%20und%20Simon%20Steinberger%20GbR&utm_source=44814&utm_term=">Shutterstock/TatianaShepeleva</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Over the past few years, we have seen the extraordinary development of neural prosthetic technologies that can replace or enhance functions of our central nervous system. For example, devices like Brain-Computer Interfaces (BCIs) allow the direct communication of the brain with a computer. The most common technique applied in these devices, is <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/electroencephalogram/">Electroencephalography (EEG)</a> – a recording of the electrical activity along the scalp.</p>
<p>These technologies are mainly used in <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2017/mar/28/neuroprosthetic-tetraplegic-man-control-hand-with-thought-bill-kochevar">health</a>, but <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnins.2018.00191/">our new research</a> shows how they are changing the future of cinema too.</p>
<p>This is no coincidence. Artists have been among the pioneers in the use of these technologies, developing creative applications since their first emergence in the 1960s. Early examples include <a href="http://ubu.com/film/aether_lucier.html">Music For Solo Performer (1965)</a> by Alvin Lucier, which is considered the first performance using EEG technology. Interactive artworks, like the <a href="http://www.dailymotion.com/video/x7qrl0">Brainwave Drawings (1972)</a> by Nina Sobell and installations like Alpha Garden (1973) by Jaqueline Humbert also illustrate how the art world paved the way. </p>
<h2>Interactive filmmaking</h2>
<p>During the same period, the first interactive film was presented. The comedy <a href="http://www.kinoautomat.cz/index.htm?lang=gbr">Kinoautomat (1967)</a>, which was created in Czechoslovakia, allowed the audience to vote on what should happen next by pressing buttons. Since then, acclaimed filmmakers, such as Peter Greenaway, have been advocating the <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u6yC41ZxqYs">new possibilities</a> of interactive technologies in cinema.</p>
<p>More recently, the film industry is showing interest in emerging technologies, such as Virtual Reality (VR). A milestone in this direction was the special award presented by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences Board in 2017 to <a href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt6212516/">Carne y Arena</a> directed by Alejandro G. Iñárritu. Carne y Arena is a VR installation which was said to be opening <a href="http://www.oscars.org/news/academys-board-governors-awards-oscarr-alejandro-g-inarritus-carne-y-arena-virtual-reality">“new doors of cinematic perception”</a>. This follows on from the work of an increasing number of festivals (like <a href="https://www.berlinale.de/en/HomePage.html">Berlinale</a> and the <a href="http://www.labiennale.org/en/news/films-venice-virtual-reality-section">Venice Film Festival</a>), filmmakers and researchers who are investigating the potential of using new interactive technologies in cinema.</p>
<p>Among the most recent innovations are new wireless Brain-Computer Interfaces, which are now available in the market as low cost headsets. They are already used in computer games and the arts, but more recently they have been applied in interactive filmmaking as well. For example, Hollywood studios, like <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=2&v=al7lswMe9t4">Universal</a> and 20th Century Fox have released interactive versions of their films, where the spectator can control key moments of the plot with the use of a BCI headset.</p>
<h2>Multi-brain interaction</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnins.2018.00191/">Our research</a> sheds new light on how our brains can control a film or live cinema event, not just for home entertainment but also in a cinema theatre. And it shows how this can be used to bring to the audience a new, engaging and collective experience. </p>
<p>More specifically, we developed a new system that allows multiple brains to interact. This system was used in a new live cinema event that we created for this purpose <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14626268.2016.1260593">and presented</a> at the CCA: Centre for Contemporary Arts in Glasgow.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/215800/original/file-20180421-75123-1dlamws.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/215800/original/file-20180421-75123-1dlamws.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/215800/original/file-20180421-75123-1dlamws.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/215800/original/file-20180421-75123-1dlamws.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/215800/original/file-20180421-75123-1dlamws.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=484&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/215800/original/file-20180421-75123-1dlamws.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=484&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/215800/original/file-20180421-75123-1dlamws.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=484&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Illustrative example: The passive multi-brain EEG-based BCI system.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Zioga et al. 2016 (Images of human heads originally designed by Freepik).</span></span>
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<p>For the first time, the technology enabled one performer and two members of the audience to interact simultaneously. Using their passive brain-activity – separately or jointly – they were able to control aspects of the live projected film. Their transition from relaxed to more alert cognitive states was visualised as a shift from colder to warmer tints. This created the constantly changing colour of the live projections and set the overall atmosphere of the narrative.</p>
<p>The event was also a <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnins.2018.00191">neuroscience experiment in a real-life environment</a> with the presence of public audience. This allowed us to obtain data from the participants, which have provided us with important results. They showed they were able to understand which parts of the event were controlled by their brain-activity and how. These particular scenes made a special impression on them. And at the same time, their attention and emotional engagement were also increased, while having the feeling of being “connected”.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/215801/original/file-20180421-75114-1qq67yb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/215801/original/file-20180421-75114-1qq67yb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/215801/original/file-20180421-75114-1qq67yb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/215801/original/file-20180421-75114-1qq67yb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/215801/original/file-20180421-75114-1qq67yb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/215801/original/file-20180421-75114-1qq67yb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/215801/original/file-20180421-75114-1qq67yb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">‘Enheduanna―A Manifesto of Falling’ Live Brain-Computer Cinema Performance at CCA: Centre for Contemporary Arts Glasgow.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Polina Zioga/Catherine M. Weir.</span></span>
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<h2>Cinema’s new horizon</h2>
<p>Our experiment provides new tools and methods for creating interactive films with the use of the brain-activity of the spectators. It proves how the use of brain-computer interaction in cinema can enhance the audience’s perception and engagement. And even more, it opens a new horizon of possibilities. Audiences in the future will be empowered to immerse themselves and collectively control a film through their combined brain-activity.</p>
<p>Together with studies looking at the effect of films on the spectators’ brain-activity (<a href="https://www.berghahnjournals.com/view/journals/projections/2/1/proj020102.xml">neurocinematics</a>), these new possibilities will push further the motion picture arts and sciences. They will also advance our understanding of how we collectively engage, collaborate and compete in emotive environments and situations.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/94832/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>This research was supported by the Glasgow School of Art under the Global Excellence Initiative Fund. The project was funded with the NEON Organization 2014–2015 Grant for Performance Production and was supported by MyndPlay.</span></em></p>Interactive cinema and the arts are at the forefront of research into brain-computer interaction.Polina Zioga, Director of Interactive Filmmaking Lab, Staffordshire UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/887142017-12-13T13:40:29Z2017-12-13T13:40:29ZThe mystery of how babies experience pain<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198756/original/file-20171212-9416-1epa1ic.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Crying may not tell the whole story.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Maesse Photography</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Before the 1980s, clinicians actually performed surgery on newborns <a href="https://gizmodo.com/why-are-so-many-newborns-still-being-denied-pain-relief-1755495866">without giving them anaesthetics or pain medications</a>. This wasn’t because they thought babies were completely incapable of feeling pain. But they didn’t know how much pain the newborns could experience and feared that the medications may be too dangerous to warrant use.</p>
<p>Luckily we are better informed today. As babies can’t tell us how much pain they are in, scientists have invented several ingenious methods to try and work out what they are feeling. But there’s still a remarkable amount we don’t understand. And our new study, <a href="http://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(17)31400-8">published in Current Biology</a>, shows that we may be underestimating how much pain babies feel when they are under stress. </p>
<p>The reason progress has been relatively slow is that there was for a long time no agreed method for reliably measuring babies’ pain perception. It’s only in the last few decades scientists have made increasing efforts to do this – and the results may be applicable to other people who are unable to communicate too.</p>
<p>The first clues came from animal models in the early 1980s. These showed that the structural and functional connections within the nervous system required to perceive a painful event <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15995722">are present from birth</a>. However, we still do not know whether these connections are sufficiently mature for infants to experience pain in quite the same way as adults. </p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198785/original/file-20171212-9392-1uimfz5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198785/original/file-20171212-9392-1uimfz5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=465&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198785/original/file-20171212-9392-1uimfz5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=465&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198785/original/file-20171212-9392-1uimfz5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=465&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198785/original/file-20171212-9392-1uimfz5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=584&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198785/original/file-20171212-9392-1uimfz5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=584&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198785/original/file-20171212-9392-1uimfz5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=584&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">For a long time, we had no way of measuring babies’ pain.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Everett Collection</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>At the same time, clinical investigators started exploring ways of measuring pain in human infants. Following a painful procedure, such as the heel stick used for blood tests (much like a finger prick used for adult blood tests), <a href="http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/9409099">infants show several significant responses</a>. These range from physiological (changes in heart rate or breathing) and hormonal (release of the “stress hormone” cortisol) to behavioural (crying or grimacing). </p>
<p>Extensive research in this area suggested that infant pain should be evaluated with a combination of these measures, leading to the development of neonatal clinical pain scoring systems, such as the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8722730">Premature Infant Pain Profile</a>. </p>
<h2>Pain in the brain</h2>
<p>Another big advance in the field came from the Fitzgerald lab here at University College London, which moved away from solely using observations of behaviour and physiological responses to measure pain. Instead, it turned to the brain. We know that the perception of pain is generated by the central nervous system, so these researchers aimed to directly measure the activity of neurons (brain cells) that are responsible for the sensation of pain. </p>
<p>To do this, they used non-invasive measures like <a href="http://www.uhs.nhs.uk/OurServices/Brainspineandneuromuscular/Clinicalneurophysiology/Electromyography.aspx">electromyography</a> (EMG) and <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/electroencephalogram/">electroencephalography</a> (EEG), which measure the electrical activity generated by muscles and brain cells, following a painful event. This method has the advantage of being both objective and quantitative, as it does not depend on observational scoring. </p>
<p>These studies confirmed that infants do process pain in the brain, but that they differ in their experiences with age. First, the lab recorded spinal reflexes – such as the withdrawal reflex, which is intended to protect the body from damaging stimuli – and found that premature infants are <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8159446">more sensitive to sensory stimulation</a> than older infants. They subjected babies to repeated non-painful touches, and found that younger infants moved their limbs following lighter touches than older infants. In fact, the older infants got used to the repeated touches and eventually stopped moving their limbs.</p>
<p>They also found that premature infants responded to both painful and non-painful touch with whole body movements. In older babies (at term age, around 40 weeks) this matured into more a purposeful withdrawal of the stimulated limb, <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0076470">becoming more specific to pain</a> rather than any touch.</p>
<p>An important next step was to record activity in the brain, which is where pain perception occurs. They did this with EEG, which uses electrodes placed on the scalp to track and record brain waves. They found that premature infants exhibited large bursts of brain activity which, as with early reflexes, are not specific to pain (a simple tap could produce a similar effect as a heel prick). Towards normal term age (a few weeks prior), infants were <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21906948">more likely to show a clear pain-specific brainwave</a> similar to that seen in adults. </p>
<p>However, while this was a direct read out of what was happening in the nervous system after a painful event, you shouldn’t assume it was a direct reflection of what the baby was feeling. This is because the feeling of pain requires an <a href="https://theconversation.com/pain-is-more-than-a-physical-process-now-a-study-in-mice-suggests-it-may-even-be-socially-transferable-67479">emotional component as well as a sensory part</a>, and although we can measure the sensory aspect, we can not measure or make assumptions about the emotional processing in a newborn.</p>
<h2>Stress and pain</h2>
<p>In our latest research, my colleagues and I at the Fitzgerald lab focused on stress and pain. Many infants experience physiological stress as a result of necessary clinical procedures. For example, hospitalised babies often require several painful procedures a day as part of their care, and those who do not will likely experience events such as being weighed or loud noises (alarms) as stressful.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198784/original/file-20171212-9383-oh551m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198784/original/file-20171212-9383-oh551m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198784/original/file-20171212-9383-oh551m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198784/original/file-20171212-9383-oh551m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198784/original/file-20171212-9383-oh551m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198784/original/file-20171212-9383-oh551m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198784/original/file-20171212-9383-oh551m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Premature baby in intensive care.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/preemie-baby-girl-discovering-what-she-555119740?src=2d0q60RVjirPwRbkr9igtg-1-0">Maesse Photography/shutterstock</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>For the first time, we measured both pain and stress at the same time as a single, clinically required blood test. In 56 hospitalised newborns, the pain-related brain activity and behavioural response was measured following the blood test, while the babies’ background level of stress was measured using the concentration of a stress hormone (cortisol) in the saliva and heart rate patterns.</p>
<p>The results show that for babies who are not stressed, a painful procedure <a href="http://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(17)31400-8">will often result</a> in a coordinated increase in brain activity and behaviour, in the form of facial expressions. Babies who are more stressed have an even larger response in the brain following a painful procedure, but, importantly, this is no longer matched by changes in behaviour. In other words, a stressed baby may have strong pain-related activity in their brain, but you could not tell that from simply observing their behaviour.</p>
<p>Since increased levels of stress can increase the amount of pain-related brain activity, it is clear that we should monitor and control the stress levels of hospitalised babies. Stressed babies may not seem to respond to pain although their brain is still processing it. The phenomenon has been seen in premature babies who sometimes “tune out” and become unresponsive when they are overwhelmed. But that doesn’t mean they are not experiencing something. Importantly, this means that doctors and nurses may underestimate their pain.</p>
<p>Given its huge importance, it may seem surprising that we know so little about what newborns actually feel. Thankfully, research is unravelling the mystery with impressive speed.</p>
<p><em>If you’re interested in learning more about pain, listen to our Anthill podcast episode on the topic <a href="https://theconversation.com/anthill-19-pain-87538">here</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/88714/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The research conducted by Laura Jones is funded by the Medical Research Council. </span></em></p>We no longer perform surgery on babies without drugs, but a new study shows that we may be underestimating how much pain babies feel when they are under stress.Laura Jones, Research Associate in Neuro, Physiology & Pharmacology, UCLLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/830762017-12-09T21:44:10Z2017-12-09T21:44:10ZFor baby’s brain to benefit, read the right books at the right time<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198399/original/file-20171209-27683-qnf9a7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=935%2C40%2C5774%2C4215&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">How can you maximize reading's rewards for baby?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/baby-book-read-aloud-579664624">aijiro/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Parents often <a href="https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2014-1384">receive books at pediatric checkups</a> via <a href="https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2009-1207">programs like Reach Out and Read</a> and hear from a variety of health professionals and educators that reading to their kids is critical for supporting development. </p>
<p>The pro-reading message is getting through to parents, who recognize that it’s an important habit. A summary report by Child Trends, for instance, suggests <a href="https://www.childtrends.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/05_Reading_to_Young_Children.pdf">55 percent of three- to five-year-old children</a> were read to every day in 2007. According to the U.S. Department of Education, <a href="https://www.childstats.gov/americaschildren/edu1.asp">83 percent of three- to five-year-old children</a> were read to three or more times per week by a family member in 2012.</p>
<p>What this ever-present advice to read with infants doesn’t necessarily make clear, though, is that what’s on the pages may be just as important as the book-reading experience itself. Are all books created equal when it comes to early shared-book reading? Does it matter what you pick to read? And are the best books for babies different than the best books for toddlers? </p>
<p>In order to guide parents on how to create a high-quality book-reading experience for their infants, <a href="http://www.psych.ufl.edu/bcdlab/">my psychology research lab</a> has conducted a series of baby learning studies. One of our goals is to better understand the extent to which shared book reading is important for brain and behavioral development.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198357/original/file-20171208-27674-v4iqff.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198357/original/file-20171208-27674-v4iqff.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198357/original/file-20171208-27674-v4iqff.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198357/original/file-20171208-27674-v4iqff.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198357/original/file-20171208-27674-v4iqff.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198357/original/file-20171208-27674-v4iqff.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198357/original/file-20171208-27674-v4iqff.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198357/original/file-20171208-27674-v4iqff.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Even the littlest listeners can enjoy having a book read to them.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Maggie Villiger</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What’s on baby’s bookshelf</h2>
<p>Researchers see clear <a href="http://www.reachoutandread.org/FileRepository/ReadingAloudtoChildren_ADC_July2008.pdf">benefits of shared book reading</a> for child development. Shared book reading with young children is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00911.x">good for language and cognitive development</a>, increasing vocabulary and pre-reading skills and honing conceptual development. </p>
<p>Shared book reading also likely enhances the <a href="http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/42878/1/924159134X.pdf">quality of the parent-infant relationship</a> by encouraging reciprocal interactions – the back-and-forth dance between parents and infants. Certainly not least of all, it gives infants and parents a consistent daily time to cuddle.</p>
<p>Recent research has found that <a href="http://www.aappublications.org/news/2017/05/04/PASLiteracy050417">both the quality and quantity</a> of shared book reading in infancy predicted later childhood vocabulary, reading skills and name writing ability. In other words, the more books parents read, and the more time they’d spent reading, the greater the developmental benefits in their 4-year-old children.</p>
<p>This important finding is one of the first to measure the benefit of shared book reading starting early in infancy. But there’s still more to figure out about whether some books might naturally lead to higher-quality interactions and increased learning.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198355/original/file-20171208-27674-1yr2mjn.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198355/original/file-20171208-27674-1yr2mjn.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198355/original/file-20171208-27674-1yr2mjn.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=484&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198355/original/file-20171208-27674-1yr2mjn.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=484&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198355/original/file-20171208-27674-1yr2mjn.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=484&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198355/original/file-20171208-27674-1yr2mjn.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=608&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198355/original/file-20171208-27674-1yr2mjn.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=608&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198355/original/file-20171208-27674-1yr2mjn.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=608&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">EEG caps let researchers record infant volunteers’ brain activity.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Matthew Lester</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Babies and books in the lab</h2>
<p>In our investigations, my colleagues and I followed infants across the second six months of life. We’ve found that when parents showed babies <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02348.x">books with faces</a> or <a href="https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn_a_00019">objects</a> that were individually named, they learn more, generalize what they learn to new situations and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.02.008">show more specialized brain responses</a>. This is in contrast to books with no labels or books with the same generic label under each image in the book. Early learning in infancy was also associated with benefits <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/desc.12259/full">four years later in childhood</a>.</p>
<p>Our most recent addition to this series of studies was <a href="https://nsf.gov/awardsearch/showAward?AWD_ID=1560810&HistoricalAwards=false">funded by the National Science Foundation</a> and just <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13004">published in the journal Child Development</a>. Here’s what we did.</p>
<p>First, we brought six-month-old infants into our lab, where we could see how much attention they paid to story characters they’d never seen before. We used electroencephalography (EEG) to measure their brain responses. Infants wear a cap-like net of 128 sensors that let us record the electricity naturally emitted from the scalp as the brain works. We measured these neural responses while infants looked at and paid attention to pictures on a computer screen. These brain measurements can tell us about what infants know and whether they can tell the difference between the characters we show them.</p>
<p>We also tracked the infants’ gaze using eye-tracking technology to see what parts of the characters they focused on and how long they paid attention.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198356/original/file-20171208-27689-1khpwyr.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198356/original/file-20171208-27689-1khpwyr.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198356/original/file-20171208-27689-1khpwyr.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=349&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198356/original/file-20171208-27689-1khpwyr.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=349&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198356/original/file-20171208-27689-1khpwyr.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=349&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198356/original/file-20171208-27689-1khpwyr.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198356/original/file-20171208-27689-1khpwyr.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198356/original/file-20171208-27689-1khpwyr.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Eye-tracking setups let researchers monitor what infants are paying attention to.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Matthew Lester</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The data we collected at this first visit to our lab served as a baseline. We wanted to compare their initial measurements with future measurements we’d take, after we sent them home with storybooks featuring these same characters.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198381/original/file-20171209-27674-1rb2s10.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198381/original/file-20171209-27674-1rb2s10.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198381/original/file-20171209-27674-1rb2s10.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=761&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198381/original/file-20171209-27674-1rb2s10.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=761&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198381/original/file-20171209-27674-1rb2s10.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=761&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198381/original/file-20171209-27674-1rb2s10.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=956&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198381/original/file-20171209-27674-1rb2s10.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=956&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198381/original/file-20171209-27674-1rb2s10.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=956&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Example of pages from a named character book researchers showed to baby volunteers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Lisa Scott</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We divided up our volunteers into three groups. One group of parents read their infants storybooks that contained six individually named characters that they’d never seen before. Another group were given the same storybooks but instead of individually naming the characters, a generic and made-up label was used to refer to all the characters (such as “Hitchel”). Finally, we had a third comparison group of infants whose parents didn’t read them anything special for the study.</p>
<p>After three months passed, the families returned to our lab so we could again measure the infants’ attention to our storybook characters. It turned out that only those who received books with individually labeled characters showed enhanced attention compared to their earlier visit. And the brain activity of babies who learned individual labels also showed that they could distinguish between different individual characters. We didn’t see these effects for infants in the comparison group or for infants who received books with generic labels. </p>
<p>These findings suggest that very young infants are able to use labels to learn about the world around them and that shared book reading is an effective tool for supporting development in the first year of life.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198359/original/file-20171208-27680-1re78pb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198359/original/file-20171208-27680-1re78pb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198359/original/file-20171208-27680-1re78pb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198359/original/file-20171208-27680-1re78pb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198359/original/file-20171208-27680-1re78pb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198359/original/file-20171208-27680-1re78pb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198359/original/file-20171208-27680-1re78pb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198359/original/file-20171208-27680-1re78pb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Best book choices vary as kids grow.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/pennstatelive/33070370920">Penn State</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Tailoring book picks for maximum effect</h2>
<p>So what do our results from the lab mean for parents who want to maximize the benefits of storytime?</p>
<p>Not all books are created equal. The books that parents should read to six- and nine-month-olds will likely be different than those they read to two-year-olds, which will likely be different than those appropriate for four-year-olds who are getting ready to read on their own. In other words, to reap the benefits of shared book reading during infancy, we need to be reading our little ones the right books at the right time.</p>
<p>For infants, finding books that name different characters may lead to higher-quality shared book reading experiences and result in the learning and brain development benefits we find in our studies. All infants are unique, so parents should try to find books that interest their baby.</p>
<p>My own daughter loved the “<a href="https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/241481/pat-the-bunny-first-books-for-baby-pat-the-bunny-by-dorothy-kunhardt-and-edith-kunhardt/">Pat the Bunny</a>” books, as well as stories about animals, like “<a href="https://www.panmacmillan.com/authors/rod-campbell/dear-zoo">Dear Zoo</a>.” If names weren’t in the book, we simply made them up.</p>
<p>It’s possible that books that include named characters simply increase the amount of parent talking. We know that <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/babies-learn-what-words-mean-before-they-can-use-them/">talking to babies</a> is important for their development. So parents of infants: Add shared book reading to your daily routines and name the characters in the books you read. Talk to your babies early and often to guide them through their amazing new world – and let storytime help.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/83076/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lisa Scott has received funding from the National Science Foundation and the US Army Research Institute. </span></em></p>Psychology researchers bring infants into the lab to learn more about how shared book reading influences brain and behavioral development.Lisa S. Scott, Associate Professor in Psychology, University of FloridaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/839302017-11-02T02:55:11Z2017-11-02T02:55:11ZBrain science should be making prisons better, not trying to prove innocence<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192826/original/file-20171101-19858-1aguezj.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Neuroscience can help incarcerated brains.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/silhouette-of-a-man-in-window-143580/">Donald Tong</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Every week, I wait for the cold steel bars to close behind me, for count to be called, and for men who have years – maybe the rest of their lives – to spend in this prison to come talk with me. I am a clinical psychologist who studies chronic antisocial behavior. My staff and I converted an office in a Connecticut state prison into research space that allows us to measure neural and behavioral responses.</p>
<p>Recently, Joe, a man serving a life sentence, came into our prison lab. Before I could even review our research consent form, he said, “You know it is all about the brain.” Joe asked if we could provide evidence that “something” in his brain was responsible for his crime. If not, could we just “zap” his brain to remove bad “stuff,” like on TV? </p>
<p>In that moment, I realized that he, like many other inmates and people in the general public, holds unfounded expectations about the wonders of neuroscience. They believe that researchers like me now can so clearly trace connections between brain and behavior that we can use our knowledge to determine guilt or innocence, decide criminal sentences or definitively assess risk and needs.</p>
<p>These expectations place a great burden on a science still in its infancy. There are many concerns about the appropriate use of neuroscience in a criminal justice setting. But there are plenty of well-supported neuroscientific findings that could make a real difference in our correctional system right now – both for those who are incarcerated and everyone else.</p>
<h2>What’s still neuroscience fiction</h2>
<p>Despite what Hollywood portrays in TV shows like “<a href="https://www.nbc.com/law-order?nbc=1">Law & Order</a>” or in movies like “<a href="http://sideeffectsmayvary.com">Side Effects</a>” and “<a href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0181689/">Minority Report</a>,” much of the science that makes for good entertainment doesn’t actually exist.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192836/original/file-20171101-19889-1of5lxd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192836/original/file-20171101-19889-1of5lxd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192836/original/file-20171101-19889-1of5lxd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=342&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192836/original/file-20171101-19889-1of5lxd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=342&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192836/original/file-20171101-19889-1of5lxd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=342&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192836/original/file-20171101-19889-1of5lxd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192836/original/file-20171101-19889-1of5lxd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192836/original/file-20171101-19889-1of5lxd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">‘Is it or is it not true that your brain made you do it?’</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://allthingslawandorder.blogspot.com/2011/12/law-order-svu-spiraling-down-recap.html">NBC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For instance, despite Joe’s request, we can’t just peek into a brain and see clear evidence of innocence or guilt. A brain scan can’t show beyond a reasonable doubt that certain structures or abnormalities affected the mental state of a particular individual at the time of a crime. Electrical activity in the brain as measured by an EEG can’t distinguish between criminal conduct and common forms of antisocial behavior such as lying or cheating – qualitatively different behaviors. </p>
<p>As of yet, there’s no neuroscience measure that can predict whether an individual will engage in criminal conduct in the future. And neuroscience is no better at providing mitigating evidence during sentencing than other more reliable and less expensive tools, like a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-008-9343-2">history</a> of <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0954579498001539">exposure</a> to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1541204013506920">violence</a>. </p>
<p>Unfortunately, when neuroscientific assessments are presented to the court, they <a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/27977480">can sway juries, regardless of their relevance</a>. Using these techniques to produce expert evidence doesn’t bring the court any closer to truth or justice. And with a single brain scan costing thousands of dollars, plus expert interpretation and testimony, it’s an expensive tool out of reach for many defendants. Rather than helping untangle legal responsibility, neuroscience here causes an even deeper divide between the rich and the poor, based on pseudoscience.</p>
<p>While I remain skeptical about the use of neuroscience in the judicial process, there are a number of places where its findings could help corrections systems develop policies and practices based on evidence.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192886/original/file-20171101-19850-mc9vhu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192886/original/file-20171101-19850-mc9vhu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192886/original/file-20171101-19850-mc9vhu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=365&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192886/original/file-20171101-19850-mc9vhu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=365&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192886/original/file-20171101-19850-mc9vhu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=365&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192886/original/file-20171101-19850-mc9vhu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=459&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192886/original/file-20171101-19850-mc9vhu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=459&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192886/original/file-20171101-19850-mc9vhu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=459&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A prisoner poses inside his solitary confinement cell at the Washington Corrections Center, where he spends 23 hours a day alone.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Solitary-Confinement-Nature/fb8738ef11674a6ea9c7855046a62f0e/1/0">AP Photo/Ted S. Warren</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Solitary confinement harms more than helps</h2>
<p>Take, for instance, the use within prisons of solitary confinement as a punishment for disciplinary infractions. In 2015, the Bureau of Justice reported that nearly 20 percent of federal and state prisoners and 18 percent of local jail inmates <a href="https://www.bjs.gov/index.cfm?ty=pbdetail&iid=5433">spent time in solitary</a>. </p>
<p>Research consistently demonstrates that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.140.11.1450">time spent in solitary</a> increases the chances of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128702239239">persistent emotional trauma and distress</a>. <a href="https://www.justice.gov/archives/dag/file/815551/download">Solitary can lead to</a> hallucinations, fantasies and paranoia; it can increase anxiety, depression and apathy as well as difficulties in thinking, concentrating, remembering, paying attention and controlling impulses. People placed in solitary are more likely to engage in self-mutilation as well as exhibit chronic rage, anger and irritability. The term “isolation syndrome” has even been coined to capture the <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/barack-obama-why-we-must-rethink-solitary-confinement/2016/01/25/29a361f2-c384-11e5-8965-0607e0e265ce_story.html">severe and long-lasting effects</a> of solitary.</p>
<p>At first glance, replacing solitary confinement with other forms of disciplinary action may appear only to improve the lives of inmates, always a hard sell for the public and for some politicians. But keeping prisoners isolated for 23 hours a day also poses grave dangers for correctional personnel who need to manage and interact with someone who is now even more likely to act out, be less able to follow direction and who perceives the environment in a distorted way.</p>
<p>The use of solitary actually exacerbates the problems it tries to address. And when inmates are released to the community, they bring all the negative consequences of this treatment with them.</p>
<h2>Living within a prison environment</h2>
<p>A neuroscience-informed approach would also suggest a number of improvements to today’s overburdened American prisons.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://nationinside.org/campaign/prison-ecology/">Prison Ecology Project</a> maps the intersection of mass incarceration and environmental degradation. It reports that at least 25 percent of California state prisons have been cited for major water pollution problems. In Colorado, 13 prisons are located in contaminated areas that violate standards set by the Environmental Protection Agency. And in several other states there are known ecological violations in overpopulated prisons.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nature10190">Overcrowding contributes to deficits</a> in the neural mechanisms needed for managing stress. <a href="http://www.noiseandhealth.org/text.asp?2002/5/17/35/31836">Noise pollution increases stress hormones and cardiovascular risks</a>. Ecological toxins, such as inadequate sewage and waste disposal, poor water quality, and the presence of asbestos and lead produce deficits and dysfunctions in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031912-114413">brain</a> and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1280407/">behavior</a>. These factors negatively affect brain regions responsible for emotion, cognition and behavioral control and worsen already problematic behavioral tendencies.</p>
<p>Importantly, the effects are felt not only by the inmates. Prison personnel work long hours in the same environment. <a href="https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/208756NCJRS.pdf">Correctional officers</a> have higher rates of mortality, stress disorders, divorce, substance abuse <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13811119708258270">and suicide</a> than workers in many other occupations. They, along with inmates, are being poisoned by an environment that is toxic on a number of levels. Their families and communities feel the effects, too, when these workers return home suffering the physical and mental health consequences of such dangerous conditions.</p>
<h2>Neuroscience approaches to mental health</h2>
<p>On any given day, <a href="http://www.treatmentadvocacycenter.org/storage/documents/treatment-behind-bars/treatment-behind-bars.pdf">up to a fifth</a> of incarcerated American adults <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18086741">suffer from serious mental illness</a>. Personality, mood, trauma and psychotic disorders are prevalent; substance use disorders are widespread. <a href="https://www.appi.org/American_Psychiatric_Association_Publishing_Textbook_of_Forensic_Psychiatry_Third_Edition">These disorders</a> often are linked to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.180.6.490">impulsivity and violence</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192887/original/file-20171101-19894-6rvd72.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192887/original/file-20171101-19894-6rvd72.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192887/original/file-20171101-19894-6rvd72.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=454&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192887/original/file-20171101-19894-6rvd72.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=454&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192887/original/file-20171101-19894-6rvd72.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=454&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192887/original/file-20171101-19894-6rvd72.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=571&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192887/original/file-20171101-19894-6rvd72.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=571&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192887/original/file-20171101-19894-6rvd72.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=571&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Some prison counseling programs try to help mentally ill inmates learn more about their conditions.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Prisons-Mental-Health/2335976428be4dbc9b0bd649a2dd4265/7/0">AP Photo/Mike Groll</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Neuroscience can help replace the current “one size fits all” approach to treating the sorts of personality and substance use disorders that affect so many incarcerated individuals. These disorders have various subtypes, each with different underlying mechanisms that have different appropriate treatments. Whether through the use of psychotherapy or psychopharmacology, treating them all the same can actually worsen symptoms and contribute to recidivism.</p>
<p>My own research provides one successful example of how neuroscience can help practitioners target treatment to specific skills deficits particular to various offenders. We found that six weeks of computerized cognitive training aimed at helping inmates with specific cognitive-affective dysfunctions – such as paying attention to different pieces of information in their environment or acting without overreacting to emotion – resulted in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702614560744">significant neural and behavioral changes</a>. By matching the treatment to the underlying cognitive-affective dysfunctions, we were able to change the neural and behavioral problems of some of the most hard-to-treat offenders.</p>
<p>Similarly, there is evidence that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2012.04.033">strategies targeting empathy</a> in specific types of offenders lead to lasting behavior change, even in populations considered to be the most recalcitrant.</p>
<p>A more personalized treatment approach is very cost-effective, both in terms of resource utilization and its effect on recidivism. Unfortunately, it’s not currently the norm in most prison mental health programs or, for that matter, in treatment outside the prison system. </p>
<h2>Using the solid neuroscience we do have</h2>
<p>So, for now, Joe, I’m sorry we cannot help “prove” your lack of criminal intent and I don’t think that we are going to be “zapping” your brain any time soon. </p>
<p>But neuroscience can improve the current criminal justice landscape, which is plagued by racial, ethnic and economic disparities. Strategies based on robust, empirical neuroscientific evidence can provide win-win outcomes for correctional personnel, inmates and society at large. Improving conditions for all those who work and live on the inside will also improve public safety when inmates are released.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/83930/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Arielle Baskin-Sommers receives funding from National Institutes of Health and the Harry Frank Guggenheim Foundation. </span></em></p>Hollywood pushes a fantasy version of what neuroscience can do in the courtroom. But the field does have real benefits to offer, right now: solid evidence on what would improve prisons.Arielle Baskin-Sommers, Assistant Professor of Psychology, Yale UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/847832017-10-06T13:52:50Z2017-10-06T13:52:50ZSometimes one head is better than two when it comes to decisions – here’s the science<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/189027/original/file-20171005-9753-1m4ej2l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Are two heads better than one?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/trader-gesturing-stock-exchange-207769276?src=1Ur2M4Hz3e62GqquSwvreA-1-23">Dragon Images/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Decision making is an integral part of our everyday life. When it comes to important decisions, we generally want to work with others – assuming that groups are better than individuals. This has, after all, been shown to be the case in both <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/books/2004/aug/07/highereducation.news2">humans</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-animals-vote-to-make-group-decisions-84134">animals</a>. Committees, panels and juries usually achieve this “<a href="http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20140708-when-crowd-wisdom-goes-wrong">wisdom of crowds</a>” by sharing individual opinions and views – discussing them within the group until there is consensus.</p>
<p>But two heads are not always better than one. The presence of an overly dominant leader, time constraints and social dynamics could <a href="http://rsos.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/4/8/170193">dissipate the advantages of groups</a>. In a recent study, published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-08265-7">Scientific Reports</a>, we investigated the best conditions for making decisions when circumstances are uncertain. In other words, if we are not able to make a fully informed decision, are we better off alone or in groups?</p>
<p>In presence of uncertainty, the information coming from the senses is generally not sufficient to make accurate decisions. Also, in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2016.12.003">perceptual decisions</a>, such as looking for a particular object in an image, reasoning does not help. In such circumstances, the best decisions are generally those made using <a href="https://theconversation.com/too-much-information-how-a-data-deluge-leaves-us-struggling-to-make-up-our-minds-44674">gut feeling</a>. However, research suggests that discussing your decision with others <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/content/336/6079/360.full">should enhance your performance</a>.</p>
<p>In our experiments, we showed participants a sequence of images of Arctic environments with a crowd of penguins and, possibly, a polar bear. The images were manipulated as these two species <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/earth/story/20150902-the-truth-about-polar-bears">live at opposite poles</a>. After each image, participants had to decide, as quickly as possible, whether there was a polar bear in the picture. Each image was shown for a quarter of a second, hence making the task quite difficult for an individual – see the animation below.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/5oQHtf8UDNU?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Is there a polar bear? (Hint: yes).</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We recruited 34 participants and split them into three sets. In sets A and B (10 participants each), people performed the experiment in isolation with no interaction with each other. After each decision, participants of set B also indicated how confident they were in that decision. Since all participants were seeing the same images, we then studied the performance of possible pairs and groups that we could form by aggregating their responses.</p>
<p>In set C, we formed seven pairs randomly and put each participant in a separate room. We allowed each pair to exchange information during the experiment. One member of each pair made two decisions: one based on the sole perceptual information (dubbed first response) and one taking also into account the first response of the other member and his or her degree of confidence (second response).</p>
<p>When pairing isolated participants (sets A and B) by simply adding their responses together, the wisdom of crowds made a difference: pairs were more accurate than individuals. If the pair did not agree on a decision, we used the decision of the most confident member. However, surprisingly, communicating participants of set C made 50% more errors than the isolated participants of sets A and B. In other words, having people working together as opposed to alone doing the same task does not improve the performance: it makes it worse.</p>
<p>Group communication not only increased the number of erroneous decisions made by people., it also made participants unable to correctly assess their decision confidence. We know that people feeling very confident about a decision are more likely to be correct than people feeling less confident. While this was true for set B, in set C the decision confidence did not correlate withwhether or not the answer was correct.</p>
<p>What happened in the experiment was that overconfident (but inaccurate) people convinced less confident (but accurate) people to change their opinions towards the wrong decision. Hence, asking communicating participants to report their degree of confidence after each decision is risky.</p>
<h2>Reading the unconscious mind</h2>
<p>In the study, we also looked at the brain activity of the different decision makers using electroencephalography (EEG), which uses electrodes placed on the scalp to track and record brain waves. The aim was to find patterns to assess the quality of a decision without asking the participants how confident they were. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/189013/original/file-20171005-9757-fc1kc6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/189013/original/file-20171005-9757-fc1kc6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/189013/original/file-20171005-9757-fc1kc6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/189013/original/file-20171005-9757-fc1kc6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/189013/original/file-20171005-9757-fc1kc6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/189013/original/file-20171005-9757-fc1kc6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/189013/original/file-20171005-9757-fc1kc6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">One head is better than two when it comes to making decisions about images.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/safety-private-property-modern-technology-safeguard-574454911?src=DHnOnRJVlS7vm2o5Gugu9g-1-5">By Africa Studio/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We found that the intensity of the brain waves in specific regions of the brain reflected the decision confidence of the user. We then developed a brain-computer interface (BCI) (a computer directly connected to the EEG) to predict the decision confidence of each participant using their brain signals and the response time via machine-learning algorithms. Our interface was designed to tap into the unconscious mind and capture evidence of the decision confidence before other reasoning comes into play. </p>
<p>When using our BCI, participants did not receive any feedback related to their level of confidence. In this way, we could establish who should be trusted more on each decision on the basis of brain activity only – something that helped us improve the accuracy of pair and group decisions when adding up the answers afterwards.</p>
<p>Our results suggest that two minds are better than one during uncertainty only if people do not exchange information. Also, the optimal group decisions can be made using our BCI to establish which group members should be trusted more according to their brain signals. </p>
<p>This could help a variety of workplaces to improve decision making. To achieve the maximum performance, we would need several isolated users equipped with BCI. This is particularly valid for scenarios where erroneous decisions might have serious consequences. For example, in surveillance, where police officers monitor security cameras to identify threats on a scene. Or in finance, to allow brokers to make better decisions and save money. Similarly, in healthcare, radiologists could be assisted by our BCI to make better diagnosis over X-ray images. This, in turn, could actually help save lives.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/84783/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Davide Valeriani receives funding from the Defence Science and Technology Laboratory and by EPSRC as part of the MURI programme (grant EP/P009204/1).</span></em></p>Stockbrokers, police officers and radiologists are among those that may benefit from new research findings on how to make decisions under uncertainty.Davide Valeriani, Post-doctoral Researcher in Brain-Computer Interfaces and Co-Founder of EyeWink Ltd., University of EssexLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/727082017-09-12T07:49:25Z2017-09-12T07:49:25ZHow a baby’s brain prepares for the outside world<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/184940/original/file-20170906-9835-1ns2xxp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/new-born-infant-asleep-blanket-delivery-709551982">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The developing brain is not merely a downsized version of that of an adult, but is uniquely designed to prepare itself for the external world. It has structures and functions whose sole role is to set up the basic circuits required for life after birth, which then disappear once they have done their duty. We know from studying babies born prematurely that even at this very early stage the brain is extremely active, but in a way that is highly specific to this time of life. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165017310000238">Animal studies</a> have shown that immature brain cells fire away all by themselves, a little bit like pacemaker cells in the heart. The firing of these cells is extremely coordinated so that it can provide the initial instructions for the wiring and maintenance of the brain’s neuronal circuits. These are fundamental initial steps, which if interrupted or disturbed, <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S089662731100403X">can alter the whole process by which the brain matures</a>. Given their importance, we wanted to study these steps in premature newborns.</p>
<h2>Bursts of activity</h2>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/185118/original/file-20170907-9563-1dq0fmi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/185118/original/file-20170907-9563-1dq0fmi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/185118/original/file-20170907-9563-1dq0fmi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/185118/original/file-20170907-9563-1dq0fmi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/185118/original/file-20170907-9563-1dq0fmi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/185118/original/file-20170907-9563-1dq0fmi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/185118/original/file-20170907-9563-1dq0fmi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Adult undergoing EEG.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/tim_uk/8135755109/in/photolist-doVSxP-G3g1k-5VDyqv-FBYA1T-FiHZud-rcyuVn-8YcnSJ-cmQnAY-882E4T-885Rhh-885R7S-66Z1y4-4pbXk3-885RZd-a5PQfo-bppsV1-sitvg-882EgR-q628i2-9yxW41-R39NVM-anW3Rb-2hbRCx-anW3Vf-5sHYA-99k8e1-8q5acv-4p7T66-4pbXw9-6hAta2-6hWtFf-7dgkPS-eBjJCT-e7Fb1J-czwxDy-b6NTin-eLYRop-dLy5Wo-a8CrYt-a8CrKi-6B9akn-q1gqgm-a8FiCd-dLsxX4-6toVX-a8FifY-dqP5yk-dqP5uX-a8FjMd-d6Yeo9">Tim Sheerman-Chase/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As the neurons inside the brain communicate with one another using electric signals, we can measure this activity as “brainwaves” using EEG (electroencephalography) sensors positioned on the head. Some of us at University College London have successfully used this method over the last 20 years to look at <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1474442214703035">activity during seizures</a> and to study how a baby’s brain can process <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982211008852">touch and pain</a> even before the time of normal birth. </p>
<p>EEG can also be used to record the activity in a premature baby’s brain when resting, and <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2467981X16300191">has shown</a> it consists of enormous bursts which are not normally seen at any other time. But while we have long known about what the activity looks like with EEG and when it happens, we have never known where in the brain the activity is actually occurring.</p>
<p>The key to solving this question was to combine EEG recordings with functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI). When neurons in the brain fire, they require fuel (oxygen and glucose) which is brought to an “active” area via the bloodstream. </p>
<p>Using fMRI, it is possible to accurately measure changes in oxygen and blood flow levels across the whole brain, with a precision of a few millimetres. But this is only on a timescale that the MRI scanner and relatively sluggish blood flow changes allow. Therefore, the combination of EEG (which can measure fast electrical activity but struggles to locate it) and fMRI (which measures the coupled slow blood flow response but can precisely locate it) was ideal to discover where the bursts of activity are coming from inside a premature baby’s brain.</p>
<h2>‘Island’ discovery</h2>
<p>This kind of experiment had never been done before and we knew it would be extremely challenging, so we collaborated with a team at King’s College London who had extensive experience and knowledge of fMRI methods. We recorded the brain activity of ten premature infants while they were naturally asleep with the two techniques simultaneously. </p>
<p>And the first data in our study, <a href="https://elifesciences.org/articles/27814">published in eLife</a>, suggested where the premature brain waves were being generated. </p>
<p>Each baby had frequent activity bursts in their EEG and with fMRI we were able to see that most of them were coming from a tucked away pyramid-shaped brain region called <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insular_cortex">the insula</a>. This is an island of cortex (“insula” is Latin for island) which in adults covers very diverse roles as it puts together basic physical information with emotional, cognitive and motivational signals. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/185115/original/file-20170907-9542-bfpr4y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/185115/original/file-20170907-9542-bfpr4y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=389&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/185115/original/file-20170907-9542-bfpr4y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=389&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/185115/original/file-20170907-9542-bfpr4y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=389&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/185115/original/file-20170907-9542-bfpr4y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=489&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/185115/original/file-20170907-9542-bfpr4y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=489&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/185115/original/file-20170907-9542-bfpr4y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=489&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The insula region.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insular_cortex#/media/File:Sobo_1909_633.png">Wikipedia</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We showed in our study that this specific brain region – to which little attention has been paid up until now – also plays a major role in generating the critical activity that shapes the developing brain. Indeed, it grows quicker than other brain regions and forms connections with the rest of the brain over the last trimester of gestation in the womb. <a href="https://academic.oup.com/cercor/article/22/5/1016/278277/The-Effect-of-Preterm-Birth-on-Thalamic-and">How premature a baby is</a> and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4631947/">recreational drug use</a> in pregnancy have an adverse effect on this brain region.</p>
<p>The rate of premature births is rising in many European countries and especially in the UK, where the number of babies born at 22-25 weeks gestation and admitted to intensive care in recent years <a href="http://www.bmj.com/content/345/bmj.e7976">has increased by 44%</a>. </p>
<p>These infants are more likely to survive thanks to modern advances in hospital care, but they are exposed to a greater risk of neuro-developmental problems. This could be because they were born too early and their brain is just not ready as it is still going through those developmental steps that should have happened in the protected environment of the womb. As a result, the preterm brain is more susceptible to injuries that may lead to disabilities. </p>
<p>It is therefore of fundamental importance to understand how the developing brain works to inform the care of this vulnerable population. And our results may offer new and exciting opportunities for monitoring how the brain and its activity develops in premature babies and a new understanding of how early injury ultimately leads to disabilities.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/72708/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lorenzo Fabrizi receives funding from the Medical Research Council (MRC) UK. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tomoki Arichi receives funding from the Medical Research Council (MRC) UK.</span></em></p>Baby’s brains have special activity to help them develop – now researchers have found where some of this happens.Lorenzo Fabrizi, MRC Research Fellow, UCLTomoki Arichi, Clinical Senior Lecturer in the Centre for the Developing Brain, King's College LondonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/802632017-08-02T08:39:33Z2017-08-02T08:39:33ZIf a brain can be caught lying, should we admit that evidence to court? Here’s what legal experts think<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/180175/original/file-20170728-23788-guf82w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Functional magnetic resonance imaging could reveal whether someone knows something they're not telling.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fneur.2013.00016/full">John Graner et al/Frontiers in Neurology</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>A man is charged with stealing a very distinctive blue diamond. The man claims never to have seen the diamond before. An expert is called to testify whether the brain responses exhibited by this man indicate he has seen the diamond before. The question is – should this information be used in court?</p>
<p>Courts are reluctant to admit evidence where there is considerable debate over the interpretation of scientific findings. But a <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jlb/article/3796509/The-limited-effect-of-electroencephalography?searchresult=1">recent study from researchers in the US</a> has noted that the accuracy of such “mind reading” technology is improving. </p>
<p>There are various methods of detecting false statements or concealed knowledge, which vary greatly. For example, traditional “lie detection” relies on measuring physiological reactions such as heart rate, blood pressure, pupil dilation and skin sweat response to direct questions, such as “did you kill your wife?” Alternatively, a <a href="http://theconversation.com/brain-scanners-allow-scientists-to-read-minds-could-they-now-enable-a-big-brother-future-72435">functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)</a> approach uses brain scans to identify a brain signature for lying. </p>
<p>However, the technology considered by the US researchers, known as “brain fingerprinting”, “guilty knowledge tests” or “concealed information tests”, differs from standard lie detection because it claims to reveal the fingerprint of knowledge stored in the brain. For example, in the case of the hypothetical blue diamond, knowledge of what type of diamond was stolen, where it was stolen, and what type of tools were used to effect the theft.</p>
<p>This technique gathers electrical signals within the brain through the scalp by electroencephalography (EEG), signals which indicate brain responses. Known as the <a href="https://www.rroij.com/open-access/the-p300-wave-of-eventrelatedpotential.php?aid=34978">P300 signal</a>, those responses to questions or visual stimuli are assessed for signs that the individual recognises certain pieces of information. The process includes some questions that are neutral in content and used as controls, while others probe for knowledge of facts related to the offence. </p>
<p>The P300 response typically occurs some 300 to 800 milliseconds after the stimulus, and it is said that those tested will react to the stimulus before they are able to conceal their response. If the probes sufficiently narrow the focus to knowledge that only the perpetrator of the crime could possess, then the test is said to be “accurate” in revealing this concealed knowledge. Proponents of the use of this technology argue that this gives much stronger evidence than is possible to get through human assessment.</p>
<p>Assuming this technology might be capable of showing that someone has hidden knowledge of events relevant to a crime, should we be concerned about its use?</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/176612/original/file-20170703-4580-1c1nqcr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/176612/original/file-20170703-4580-1c1nqcr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/176612/original/file-20170703-4580-1c1nqcr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/176612/original/file-20170703-4580-1c1nqcr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/176612/original/file-20170703-4580-1c1nqcr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=627&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/176612/original/file-20170703-4580-1c1nqcr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=627&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/176612/original/file-20170703-4580-1c1nqcr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=627&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">How private are our memories?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/cute-girl-colorful-glowing-photo-memories-246693712?src=wiIuEZYLCMwWJVX1yAjxjQ-1-18">ESB Professional/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Potential for prejudice</h2>
<p>Evidence of this sort has not yet been accepted by the English courts, and possibly never will be. But similar evidence has been admitted in other jurisdictions, including India. </p>
<p>In the Indian case of <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/15/world/asia/15brainscan.html">Aditi Sharma</a> the court heard evidence that her brain responses implicated her in her former fiancé’s murder. After investigators read statements related and unrelated to the offence, they claimed her responses indicated experiential knowledge of planning to poison him with arsenic, and of buying arsenic with which to carry out the murder. The case generated much discussion, and while she was initially convicted, this was later overturned. </p>
<p>However, the Indian Supreme Court has <a href="http://www.thehindu.com/migration_catalog/article16297234.ece/BINARY/Supreme%20Court%20judgement%20on%20narco-analysis%20test%20(833%20Kb)">not ruled out the possibility of such evidence being used</a> if the person being tested freely consents. We should not forget that people may knowingly conceal knowledge of facts relevant to a crime for all sorts of reasons, such as protecting other people or hiding illicit relationships. These reasons for hiding knowledge may have nothing to do with the crime. You could have knowledge relevant to a crime but be totally innocent of that crime. The test is for knowledge, not for guilt.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/176644/original/file-20170703-17450-u7v7lb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/176644/original/file-20170703-17450-u7v7lb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/176644/original/file-20170703-17450-u7v7lb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=705&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/176644/original/file-20170703-17450-u7v7lb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=705&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/176644/original/file-20170703-17450-u7v7lb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=705&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/176644/original/file-20170703-17450-u7v7lb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=886&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/176644/original/file-20170703-17450-u7v7lb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=886&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/176644/original/file-20170703-17450-u7v7lb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=886&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">How much weight is placed on neuroscientific evidence in the courtroom?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/balance-weight-head-silhouette-graphic-design-330801134">Studio_G/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Context is key</h2>
<p>The US researchers looked at whether brain-based evidence might unduly influence juries and prejudice the fair outcome of trials. They found concerns that <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2778755/">neuroscientific evidence may adversely influence trials</a> could be overstated. In their experiment, mock jurors were influenced by the existence of brain based evidence, whether it indicated guilty knowledge or the absence of it. But the strength of other evidence such as motive or opportunity weighed more heavily in the hypothetical jurors’ minds.</p>
<p>This is not surprising, as our <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jlb/article/2/3/510/1917949/The-use-of-neuroscientific-evidence-in-the?searchresult=1">case-based research</a> demonstrates the importance of the context in which neuroscientific evidence is introduced in court. It could help support a case, but the success is dependent on the strength of all the evidence combined. In no case was the use of neuroscientific evidence alone determinative of the outcome, though in several it was highly significant.</p>
<p>Memory detection technologies are improving, but even if they are “accurate” (however we choose to define that term) it does not automatically mean they will or should be allowed in court. Society, legislators and the courts are going to have to decide whether our memories should be allowed to remain private or whether the needs of justice trump privacy considerations. Our innermost thoughts have always been viewed as private; are we ready to surrender them to law enforcement agencies?</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/80263/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Using mind reading technologies in court could become common practice.Lisa Claydon, Senior Lecturer in Law, The Open UniversityPaul Catley, Head of Law School, The Open UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/753212017-03-31T14:41:21Z2017-03-31T14:41:21ZElon Musk wants to merge man and machine – here’s what he’ll need to work out<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/163188/original/image-20170329-8553-1i49aph.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/3d-rendering-human-brain-on-technology-495797320?src=_2ehgqnu5HEUeu__jyQyrA-1-26"> whiteMocca/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Computers and brains already talk to each other daily in high-tech labs – and they do it better and better. For example, disabled people can now learn to govern robotic limbs by the sheer power of their mind. The hope is that we may one day be able to operate <a href="http://neurogadget.net/2013/02/07/collaborative-bci-two-minds-are-better-than-one-at-steering-a-thought-controlled-virtual-spacecraft/7014">spaceships with our thoughts</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/could-we-upload-a-brain-to-a-computer-and-should-we-even-try-61928">upload our brains to computers</a> and, ultimately, create cyborgs.</p>
<p>Now Elon Musk <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/mar/28/elon-musk-merge-brains-computers-neuralink">is joining the race</a>. The CEO of Tesla and SpaceX has acquired <a href="https://neuralink.com/">Neuralink</a>, a company aiming to establish a direct link between the mind and the computer. Musk has already shown how expensive space technology can be run as a private enterprise. But just how feasible is his latest endeavour?</p>
<p>Neurotechnology was born in the 1970s when <a href="http://web.cs.ucla.edu/%7Evidal/vidal.html">Jaques Vidal</a> proposed that electroencephalography (EEG), which tracks and records brain-wave patterns via sensors placed on the scalp (electrodes), could be used to create systems that <a href="http://web.cs.ucla.edu/%7Evidal/BCI.pdf">allow people to control external devices directly with their mind</a>. The idea was to use computer algorithms to transform the recorded EEG signals into commands. Since then, interest in the idea has been growing rapidly. </p>
<p>Indeed, these “brain-computer interfaces” have driven a revolution in the area of assistive technologies – <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=76lIQtE8oDY">letting people with quadriplegia feed themselves</a> and even <a href="http://uk.businessinsider.com/a-paraplegic-man-walked-for-the-first-time-thanks-to-this-technology-2015-9">walk again</a>. In the past few years, major investments in brain research from the US (<a href="https://www.braininitiative.nih.gov/">the BRAIN initiative</a>) and the EU (<a href="https://www.humanbrainproject.eu/">the Human Brain project</a>) have further advanced research on them. This has pushed applications of this technology into the area of “human augmentation” – using the technology to improve our cognition and other abilities. </p>
<p>The combination of humans and technology could be <a href="http://io9.gizmodo.com/humans-with-amplified-intelligence-could-be-more-powerf-509309984">more powerful than artificial intelligence</a>. For example, when we make decisions based on a combination of perception and reasoning, <a href="http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/articleDetails.jsp?arnumber=7539383">neurotechnologies could be used to augment our perception</a>. This could help us in situations such when seeing a very blurry image from a security camera and having to decide whether to intervene or not.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/163182/original/image-20170329-8560-1nu2pcf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/163182/original/image-20170329-8560-1nu2pcf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/163182/original/image-20170329-8560-1nu2pcf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/163182/original/image-20170329-8560-1nu2pcf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/163182/original/image-20170329-8560-1nu2pcf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/163182/original/image-20170329-8560-1nu2pcf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/163182/original/image-20170329-8560-1nu2pcf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">EEG recording cap.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Chris Hope/wikipedia</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Despite investments, the transition from using the technology in research labs to everyday life is still slow. The EEG hardware is totally safe for the user, but records very noisy signals. Also, research labs have been mainly focused on using it to understand the brain and to propose <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/11/could-you-soon-fly-an-airplane-with-your-mind">innovative applications</a> without any follow-up in commercial products. Other very promising initiatives, such as using commercial EEG systems to <a href="https://popularelectronics.technicacuriosa.com/2017/03/15/teslapathic-mind-control-for-your-car/">let people drive a car with their thoughts</a>, have remained isolated.</p>
<p>To try to overcome some of these limitations, several major companies have recently announced investments in research into brain-computer interfaces. Bryan Johnson from human intelligence company <a href="http://kernel.co/">Kernel</a> <a href="https://medium.com/@bryan_johnson/kernel-acquires-krs-to-build-next-generation-neural-interfaces-d5dd60662b6c">recently acquired the MIT spin-off firm KRS</a>, which is promising to make a data-driven revolution in understanding neurodegenerative diseases. Facebook is <a href="https://www.facebook.com/careers/jobs/a0I1200000JXqeWEAT/">hiring a brain-computer interface engineer</a> to work in its secretive hardware division, <a href="http://www.thedrum.com/news/2016/11/08/facebooks-building-8-secret-unit-may-be-creating-the-next-phone-0">Building 8</a>.</p>
<h2>Pie in the sky?</h2>
<p>Musk’s company is the latest. Its “neural lace” technology involves implanting electrodes in the brain to measure signals. This would allow getting neural signals of much better quality than EEG – but it requires surgery. The project is still quite mysterious, <a href="https://twitter.com/elonmusk/status/846580443797368832">although Musk has promised</a> more details about it soon. Last year <a href="http://uk.businessinsider.com/elon-musk-on-neural-lace-2016-6">he stated that brain-computer interfaces are needed</a> to confirm humans’ supremacy over artificial intelligence. </p>
<p>The project might seem ambitious, considering the limits of current technology. <a href="https://popularelectronics.technicacuriosa.com/2017/03/15/teslapathic-mind-control-for-your-car/">BCI spellers</a>, which allow people to spell out words by looking at letters on a screen, are still much slower than traditional communication means, which Musk <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZrGPuUQsDjo">has already defined</a> as “incredibly slow”. Similar speed limitations apply when using the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25116904">brain to control a video game</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/163189/original/image-20170329-8584-oh5dy4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/163189/original/image-20170329-8584-oh5dy4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/163189/original/image-20170329-8584-oh5dy4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/163189/original/image-20170329-8584-oh5dy4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/163189/original/image-20170329-8584-oh5dy4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=627&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/163189/original/image-20170329-8584-oh5dy4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=627&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/163189/original/image-20170329-8584-oh5dy4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=627&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">After cars and space, will Musk revolutionise neurotechnologies?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Maurizio Pesce from Milan, Italia</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>What we really need to make the technology reliable is more accurate, non-invasive techniques to measure brain activity. We also need to improve our understanding of the brain processes and how to decode them. Indeed, the <a href="https://theconversation.com/could-we-upload-a-brain-to-a-computer-and-should-we-even-try-61928">idea of uploading or downloading our thoughts</a> to or from a computer is simply impossible with our current knowledge of the human brain. Many processes related to memory are still not understood by neuroscientists. <a href="http://io9.gizmodo.com/how-much-longer-until-humanity-becomes-a-hive-mind-453848055">The most optimistic forecasts</a> say it will be at least 20 years before brain-computer interfaces will become technologies that we use in our daily lives.</p>
<p>But that doesn’t make Musk’s initiative useless. The neural lace could initially be used to study the brain mechanisms and <a href="http://uk.businessinsider.com/elon-musk-neuralink-connect-brains-computer-neural-lace-2017-3">treat disorders such as epilepsy or major depression</a>. Together with electrodes for “reading” the brain activity, we could also implant electrodes for stimulating the brain – making it possible to <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/implant-epilepsy-seizure/">detect and halt epileptic seizures</a>.</p>
<p>Brain-computer interfaces also face <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4115612/">major ethical issues</a>, especially those based on sensors surgically implanted in the brain. Most people are unlikely to want to have brain surgery – or be fit to have it – unless vital for their health. This could significantly limit the number of potential users of Musk’s neural lace. Kernel’s original idea when acquiring the company KRS was also to <a href="https://www.technologyreview.com/s/603771/the-entrepreneur-with-the-100-million-plan-to-link-brains-to-computers/">implant electrodes in people’s brain</a>, but the company changed its plans six months later due to difficulties related to invasive technologies.</p>
<p>It’s easy for billionaires like Musk to be optimistic about the development of brain-computer interfaces. But, rather than dismissing them, let’s remember that these visions are nevertheless crucial. They push the boundaries and help researchers set long-term goals.</p>
<p>There’s every reason to be optimistic. Neurotechnology started only started a few years after man first set foot on the moon – perhaps reflecting the need for a new big challenge after such a giant leap for mankind. And the brain-computer interfaces were indeed pure science fiction at the time. </p>
<p>In 1965, <a href="http://aa-nplus1.tumblr.com/post/18075687043/detail-from-the-december-26-1965-edition-of-the">the Sunday comic strip “Our New Age” stated</a>: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>By 2016, man’s intelligence and intellect will be able to be increased by drugs and by linking human brains directly to computers!</p>
</blockquote>
<p>We are not there yet, but together we can win the challenge.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/75321/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Davide Valeriani is affiliated with NeuroTechX, a non-profit organization whose mission is to build a strong global neurotechnology community.</span></em></p>It’s a slow process, but billionaires like Musk push boundaries and help researchers set long-term goals for developing brain-computer interfaces.Davide Valeriani, Post-doctoral Researcher in Brain-Computer Interfaces, University of EssexLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/721542017-01-31T19:01:09Z2017-01-31T19:01:09ZMind-reading technology lets locked-in sufferers communicate – and they report feeling happy<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/154982/original/image-20170131-13264-1m4ih87.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Opening the gate to communication.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The technology to control a computer using only your thoughts has <a href="http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev.bb.02.060173.001105">existed for decades</a>. Yet we’ve made limited progress in using it for its original purpose: helping people with severe disabilities to communicate. Until now, that is. A new study has shown that an alternative brain-computer interface technology can help people with “locked-in syndrome” speak to the outside world. It has even allowed sufferers to report that they are happy, despite the condition.</p>
<p>The final stages of the degenerative condition known as <a href="http://www.alsa.org/als-care/augmentative-communication/communication-guide.html">amyotrophic lateral sclerosis</a> (ALS) or motor neuron disease, leaves sufferers in a complete locked-in state. In the end they cannot move any part of their bodies, not even their eyes, although their brains remain unaffected. But scientists have struggled to use brain-computer interface technology that measures electrical activity in the brain to help them communicate.</p>
<p>One reason for this is that it is still unclear how much these conventional brain-computer interface systems rely on electrical signals that are generated by the movement of eye muscles. One ALS sufferer who had been using a brain-computer interface when she could still move her eyes <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.clinph.2010.08.019">lost her ability to communicate</a> through the technology after becoming completely locked-in. This suggested that most of the electrical activity recorded by the computer was related to involuntary eye movements that occurred when she thought about something rather than the thoughts themselves.</p>
<h2>Oxygen monitoring</h2>
<p>To overcome this problem, an international group of researchers used a different way of detecting neural activity that measures changes in the amount of oxygen in the brain rather than electrical signals. The research, published in <a href="http://publiclibraryofscience.pr-optout.com/Tracking.aspx?Data=HHL%3d%3e146%3b%26JDG%3c%3a2%3a4%3b3%3d%26SDG%3c90%3a.&RE=MC&RI=5005115&Preview=False&DistributionActionID=18212&Action=Follow+Link">PLOS Biology</a>, involved a technique known as <a href="http://www.spectroscopyeurope.com/articles/55-articles/3258-measuring-brain-activity-using-functional-near-infrared-spectroscopy-a-short-review">functional near-infrared spectroscopy</a>, which uses light to measure changes in blood oxygen levels. Because the areas of the brain that are most active at any given time consume more oxygen, this means you can detect patterns of brain activity from oxygen fluctuations.</p>
<p>This technique is not as sensitive to muscular movements as the electroencephalography (EEG) systems used to measure electrical activity. This means the new method could be used to help ALS sufferers communicate both before and after they lose their entire ability to move because it is more likely to only record brain activity related to thoughts.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/154969/original/image-20170131-13220-agqn6e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/154969/original/image-20170131-13220-agqn6e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/154969/original/image-20170131-13220-agqn6e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/154969/original/image-20170131-13220-agqn6e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/154969/original/image-20170131-13220-agqn6e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/154969/original/image-20170131-13220-agqn6e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/154969/original/image-20170131-13220-agqn6e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">I know what you’re thinking.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wyss Center</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The study involved four ALS sufferers, three of which had not been able to reliably communicate with their carers since 2014 (the last one since early 2015). By using the new brain-computer interface technology, they were able to reliably communicate with their carers and families over a period of several months. This is the first time this has been possible for locked-in patients.</p>
<p>The volunteers were asked personal and general knowledge questions with known “yes” or “no” answers. The brain-computer interface captured their responses correctly 70% of the time, which the researchers argued was enough to show they didn’t just record the right answer by chance. Similar experiments using EEG didn’t beat this chance-level threshold.</p>
<p>The patients were also able to communicate their feelings about their condition, and all four of them repeatedly answered “yes” when they were asked if they were happy over the course of several weeks. One patient was even asked whether he would agree for his daughter to marry her boyfriend. Unfortunately for the couple, he said no. The volunteers have continued using the system at home after the end of the study.</p>
<h2>Groundbreaking research</h2>
<p>As I know from my own research, working with completely locked-in patients requires a lot of hard work. In particular, you can’t know for sure if the user has understood how we want them to give an answer that we can try to detect. If a system that has previously been used to record the brain activity of able-bodied users doesn’t work with locked-in patients, it is common to assume that the person, and not the machine, is at fault, which may not be the case. What’s more, there is added pressure on researchers – from the patient’s family and from themselves – to fulfil the dream of finding a way to communicate with the volunteers.</p>
<p>These challenges highlight what a significant achievement the new study is. It is a groundbreaking piece of research that could provide a new path for developing better brain-computer interface technology. Even though the system so far only allows locked-in patients to give yes or no answers, it already represents a big improvement in quality of life.</p>
<p>The first ever brain-computer interface system was designed to enable disabled (although not locked-in) users to spell words and so communicate any message they wanted, admittedly through a <a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/112/44/E6058.short">slow and lengthy process</a>. So it is safe to assume that the new technology is just the first step towards more sophisticated systems that would allow free two-way communication not based on simple questions.</p>
<p>Perhaps more importantly, the technology has already restored the communication capabilities of four people who had been mute for years. Imagine how these patients and their families must have felt when they were finally able to “speak” again. Despite the challenges in brain-computer interface research, results like this are what make us keep going.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/72154/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ana Matran-Fernandez does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A new kind of brain-computer interface has helped ALS sufferers who cannot move to communicate.Ana Matran-Fernandez, Post-doctoral Researcher, University of EssexLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/659052016-09-28T09:34:38Z2016-09-28T09:34:38ZHow the human brain can register information without conscious attention<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/139032/original/image-20160923-29889-1yph6jo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Your brain picks up more than you're aware of.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Minerva Studio/Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Magicians, dictators, advertisers and scientists all know it. It is possible to <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/apl/84/2/271/">influence people without them even realising it</a>. The technique, known as “priming”, involves introducing a stimulus – a word, an image or a sound – that has an effect on a person’s later behaviour, even if they cannot remember the stimulus in the first place. </p>
<p>For example, studies have suggested that the type of music played in a store <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/apl/84/2/271/">can influence</a> the amount of German or French wine bought and that people are <a href="http://pss.sagepub.com/content/22/8/1011.abstract">more patriotic</a> if they were previously shown flags of their country. However, some of these results have not been well replicated.</p>
<p>Many academics and advertisers claim that this sort of priming <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-advertisers-seduce-our-subconscious-60578">is “unconscious” or “subliminal”</a>. Yet, this claim often lacks rigorous support. Consciousness can be poorly controlled for or confused with the concept of attention. People may have very briefly paid attention to the type of music or words used for priming, or directly looked at images before their attitudes or actions were measured (even though they claimed they could not remember it).</p>
<p>But now cognitive neuroscientists from institutions including the University of East London have finally shown that images of objects can even prime us when we are paying attention to something else – by measuring brain activity. </p>
<h2>The experiments</h2>
<p>In the <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0028393216302688">first study</a>, people were repeatedly shown pictures of two familiar objects (for example, a car or a dog) – one on the right side and one on the left side of the screen. Observers’ attention was randomly directed to one of these two locations: a square frame was flashed briefly to one side of the screen to make a participant look in that region. The objects were then shown, both in the region the participant was looking at and in the region they were ignoring, for a fraction of a second – too short to be able to consciously perceive the ignored object. </p>
<p>Yet using electro-encephalography (EEG) measurements, researchers observed that repetition of the ignored objects did influence brain activity. About 150-250 milliseconds after seeing it, the participants showed a spike of brain activity due to the processing of the image. We know that because the activity was happening in the temporo-parietal region, which is usually involved in processing where in the visual environment an object is, but also in preparing actions related to vision. It is the area of the brain just behind and above your ears.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/139547/original/image-20160928-572-pdg53f.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/139547/original/image-20160928-572-pdg53f.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=355&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139547/original/image-20160928-572-pdg53f.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=355&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139547/original/image-20160928-572-pdg53f.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=355&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139547/original/image-20160928-572-pdg53f.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139547/original/image-20160928-572-pdg53f.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139547/original/image-20160928-572-pdg53f.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Brain lobes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Sebastian023/wikimedia</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Not only people’s brain activity, but also their behaviour was influenced by ignored objects: people were faster in responding (by pressing a button) to an object that had previously been shown, but had been ignored, compared to a new object.</p>
<p>A similar study, <a href="http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fnhum.2016.00478/full">published in Frontiers</a>, confirmed these results. This study investigated priming for both ignored and attended objects. As before, the task was simply to name an object seen on the screen, not to remember it. The object was one of two briefly flashed, and only one was attended. We were interested in whether the repeated object would be perceived faster when compared to a new object. Again, priming resulted in faster responses for both attended and unattended images of an object that had been seen before, and this was accompanied by changes in brain activity.</p>
<p>The results from two different laboratories therefore show that ignored objects seem to be automatically perceived – that is, without attention, and without conscious awareness. Interestingly, this only is the case when the objects are shown in familiar or common views for the first time. </p>
<p>If the objects are shown in a slightly novel way, such as “split” (cut into two halves that swap sides), automatic priming does not happen. If a person does not pay attention to such an object and it is then shown again, it is as if the observer had never seen it before. </p>
<p>It is not because split objects are always harder to recognise: if people had attended to the location of the split object, they still showed priming effects for these novel images of objects (later repeated as an intact version). It is as if attention acts as a glue to bind an object’s parts together, and then activates the brain’s stored model for that object in memory. Only ignored objects need to be seen in a familiar format or view to influence perception and performance. </p>
<p>These results show that the human brain picks up more information from the environment <a href="http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.psych.58.102904.190114">than previously thought</a>. Theories of attention in visual processing often assume that unattended information is not processed at all. </p>
<p>The fact that ignored visual information can be readily detected and recognised by the brain, even when participants ignored it, means that we may be more easily influenced by daily visual information (such as advertising messages) than was thought before. It may mean that regulations – such as allowing product placements on TV – may need a rethink. </p>
<p>The results are also important for people with damage to brain areas involved in object recognition, in terms of diagnosis and treatment. For example, people may be able to recognise objects in normal views, but not in split views. If the neuropsychologist checks this they may be able to determine where in the brain the damage has occurred.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/65905/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Volker Thoma does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>It has long been claimed that subliminal messages work. Now two studies have set the record straight.Volker Thoma, Reader in Cognition and Neuroscience, University of East LondonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/617232016-06-29T20:05:39Z2016-06-29T20:05:39ZEach part of the brain has its own rhythmic ‘fingerprint’<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/128537/original/image-20160628-7842-1cev8s1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/cat.mhtml?lang=en&language=en&ref_site=photo&search_source=search_form&version=llv1&anyorall=all&safesearch=1&use_local_boost=1&autocomplete_id=&searchterm=EEG&show_color_wheel=1&orient=&commercial_ok=&media_type=images&search_cat=&searchtermx=&photographer_name=&people_gender=&people_age=&people_ethnicity=&people_number=&color=&page=1&inline=173834126">Image Point Fr/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Since Hans Berger first recorded neural activity from the human scalp with an electroencephalograph (EEG), in 1924, neuroscientists have been trying to make sense of the electrical pulses emitted by our grey matter. Recent studies have focused on brain oscillations (commonly called brain waves) which are thought to be the mechanism by which different brain regions <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/content/304/5679/1926">communicate with each other</a>. Our latest study has shed some light on these curious oscillations. <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=info:doi/10.1371/journal.pbio.1002498">We have discovered</a> that each region of the brain has a uniquely identifiable pattern of oscillations – their own rhythmic fingerprint.</p>
<p>Berger was the first to notice that neural activity seems to fluctuate at a rate of 10 cycles per second. He called this rhythm the alpha-wave. Since then, the methods to identify rhythmic activity have improved considerably, from counting how often a wave fluctuates within a second, to elaborate mathematical procedures, called spectral analyses. </p>
<p>Alpha is still the most obvious oscillation, but other types of oscillations (faster and slower ones) have been discovered. Neuroscientists have already found out a lot about specific functions of these rhythms, but it is difficult to get a clear picture of oscillations as they seem to be distributed more or less randomly across the brain. </p>
<p>In our study, we looked for patterns in the occurrence of oscillations that would help us to get a more organised view of rhythmic brain activity. We recruited 22 volunteers to participate in the experiment. Their instruction was to rest for a few minutes, with open eyes, while their neural activity was recorded. </p>
<p>We used a magnetoencephalograph (MEG, the magnetic equivalent of EEG) to measure magnetic fields produced by neural activity. From the recording of the magnetic fields it is possible to infer where in the brain the activity came from. This spontaneous brain activity can then be analysed in terms of the rhythms that occur there. By observing these oscillations over several minutes, we found that each brain area has its own characteristic mix of different rhythms over time. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/128666/original/image-20160629-15292-16bm8a3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/128666/original/image-20160629-15292-16bm8a3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/128666/original/image-20160629-15292-16bm8a3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/128666/original/image-20160629-15292-16bm8a3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/128666/original/image-20160629-15292-16bm8a3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/128666/original/image-20160629-15292-16bm8a3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/128666/original/image-20160629-15292-16bm8a3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Unravelling the mysteries of the brain.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/cat.mhtml?lang=en&language=en&ref_site=photo&search_source=search_form&version=llv1&anyorall=all&safesearch=1&use_local_boost=1&autocomplete_id=&search_tracking_id=g6N70IxCYQOJjyLd7KffZg&searchterm=brain%20anatomy&show_color_wheel=1&orient=&commercial_ok=&media_type=images&search_cat=&searchtermx=&photographer_name=&people_gender=&people_age=&people_ethnicity=&people_number=&color=&page=1&inline=266669666">Jesada Sabai/Shutterstock.com</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>In some regions, for example the visual cortex, there would only be two relatively slow rhythms (cycling at about ten times per second – the <a href="http://www.jneurosci.org/content/30/25/8692">alpha rhythm</a>. But in other regions, for example in the middle of the brain that is involved in things such as movement, learning and reward, there would be up to nine rhythms at many different time scales. These different oscillations could reflect how a particular region communicates with other regions in the brain. This means that regions with many different rhythms might have more complex tasks that involve communication with many other parts of the brain. </p>
<p>Although people can be quite different from each other in terms of their brain anatomy, we found that these rhythmic fingerprints were very similar across our healthy volunteers. In fact, they were so similar that we could take new data from other participants and label their brain areas based only on their oscillations, without knowing where the oscillations came from. </p>
<h2>Potential diagnostic tool</h2>
<p>Now that we know what pattern of oscillations to expect in each part of the brain in young, healthy adults, it should be possible to find differences in patients with illnesses that are expressed in these oscillations. As patients only have to rest and are not required to perform any tasks, using this as a tool would be possible even with severely impaired people. </p>
<p>Through the detailed analysis of oscillations in each brain part, it is possible to find small abnormalities that are only apparent in one particular rhythm in one brain region. One potential application of this could be to identify abnormal oscillations in a specific brain area in a patient and then use <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982212007373">electric or magnetic brain stimulation</a> to modulate only these specific oscillations. </p>
<p>These kinds of noninvasive brain stimulation methods have already been proved successful in a few studies. For example, in patients with post-traumatic stress disorder, stimulating the frontal part of the brain with magnetic pulses has been shown to <a href="http://www.psychiatrist.com/JCP/article/Pages/2010/v71n08/v71n0805.aspx">reduce their symptoms</a>, improve mood and reduce anxiety. Knowing exactly how and where to stimulate brain oscillations in patients would be a big step towards improving these conditions.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/61723/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Joachim Gross receives funding from Wellcome Trust, MRC and BBSRC. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anne Keitel does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>It may prove to be a useful diagnostic tool for brain disorders.Anne Keitel, University of GlasgowJoachim Gross, Professor in Psychology, University of GlasgowLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.