tag:theconversation.com,2011:/africa/topics/french-wine-73590/articlesFrench wine – The Conversation2024-03-26T16:34:29Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2265562024-03-26T16:34:29Z2024-03-26T16:34:29ZChinese acquisitions in the Bordeaux vineyards: have their new owners really been neglecting them?<p>Since 2012, more than 200 acquisitions have been made by Chinese investors in Bordeaux’s prestigious <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/french-wine-73590">vineyards</a>, mainly from the country’s economic, political and artistic elite. A leading example is Alibaba founder <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/jack-ma-10294">Jack Ma</a>, who bought several châteaux, including <a href="https://www.terredevins.com/actualites/le-chateau-de-sours-revoit-les-choses-en-grand">Château de Sours</a> in the Entre-Deux-Mers appellation. Actress <a href="https://www.vitisphere.com/actualite-94717-les-chateaux-de-zhao-wei-fonctionnent-normalement-malgre-sa-disgrace-en-chine.html">Zhao Wei</a> has set her sights on several châteaux in the Saint-Émilion appellation.</p>
<p>These transactions, involving members of China’s elite and prestigious assets in Europe, stand out in the world of mergers and acquisitions. Regarded indiscriminately as “ego deals”, <a href="https://www.investopedia.com/terms/c/conspicuous-consumption.asp">“conspicuous consumption”</a> or “self-interest transactions”, such atypical acquisitions are <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/tie.21967">widely decried in the academic financial literature</a> because they can produce few or no synergies, and are therefore doomed to failure. There have been instances of Bordeaux châteaux acquired by Chinese investors, which have been <a href="https://www.rts.ch/info/monde/13265418-dans-le-vignoble-bordelais-des-rachats-chinois-au-gout-de-bouchon.html">left to rot</a> by their new owners. Reportedly, <a href="https://www.francetvinfo.fr/france/nouvelle-aquitaine/gironde/bordeaux/vignoble-bordelais-sur-200-domaines-achetes-par-les-chinois-une-cinquantaine-est-a-vendre_5532906.html">around 50 of them</a> have been also put up for sale by their once-enthusiastic owners.</p>
<iframe width="100%" height="315" src="https://www.rts.ch/play/embed?urn=urn:rts:video:13265284&subdivisions=false" allowfullscreen="" allow="geolocation *; autoplay; encrypted-media"></iframe>
<p><em>RTS report, November 2023.</em></p>
<p>However, a closer look shows that Chinese acquisitions in the Bordeaux vineyards are far from uniformly ending up in failures and selloffs. This is reflected by our <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/362930206_In_vino_vanitas_Social_dynamics_and_performance_of_Chinese_chateau_acquisitions_in_the_Bordeaux_vineyards">recent research paper</a> which analyses the post-acquisition performance of 123 Bordeaux châteaux acquired by Chinese investors between 2008 and 2015.</p>
<h2>What motives for such acquisitions?</h2>
<p>Applying a sociological approach to these acquisitions has allowed us to show that some of them did create value, not only economically but also symbolically. With the opportunity to gain social distinction, these properties were acquired for the prestige they confer to their owners.</p>
<p>The new owners perceive their prestigious possessions as an extension of themselves and so take particular care of them. They strongly commit to renovating the property, maintaining the cellars and, above all, enhancing the wine quality. We have many accounts of Chinese-owned châteaux investing in new winemaking techniques, hiring top oenologists such as Michel Rolland and Stéphane Derenoncourt, and replanting part of the vineyards. These acquisitions have often prevented these châteaux from getting bankrupt while improving their wine ranking in the major wine guides. For instance, the <a href="https://www.hachette-vins.com/">Hachette Wine Guide</a>, which covers all French AOC vineyards, shows significant progress for the wines produced by some of these Chinese-owned châteaux.</p>
<p>A case in point is the Andrew and Melody Kuk couple, who in 2013 acquired <a href="https://www.sudouest.fr/vin/investisseurs-chinois-a-pomerol-les-epoux-kuk-reaffirment-leur-attachement-au-terroir-17148857.php">La Commanderie in Pomerol</a>. Having made their fortune in finance and communication in Hong Kong, they renovated the vineyard’s winemaking facilities and refurbished the property’s building. After just a few years, the wine from this château, once described as a “sleeping beauty”, is regularly featured in the rankings of the best Bordeaux wines.</p>
<p>These acquisitions, integrated in a clear strategy aiming to climb up the social ladder, are distinct from the few Bordeaux château acquisitions conducted by Chinese billionaires, which attract most of the media covering. Standing already at the top of the social hierarchy, these distinctive acquirers have little commitment to their wineries and frequently change their conspicuous hobbies as their social position does not depend on the success of their acquired assets. For this specific category of elite acquirers, the post-acquisition outcome is often a deterioration in performance.</p>
<p>Statistically, we reported a significant correlation between upward social mobility strategies and improved wine quality in the rankings.</p>
<h2>In the wine industry and beyond</h2>
<p>More generally, our sociological approach provides keys to understanding the motives behind these “conspicuous acquisitions” that were conducted on an international scale by the economic, sporting and artistic elites. This concept, dating back to the end of the 19th century, has been coined by the American economist and sociologist <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Thorstein-Veblen">Thorstein Veblen</a>, who analysed the lifestyle and purchasing behaviour of the elite class at that time. While some of the purchasing behaviour of this elite class does not seem rational from the point of view of economic science, Veblen provided an alternative rationale, mostly based on strategies of social affirmation.</p>
<p>Concentrated in industries such as sport, luxury hotels, resorts and real estate, these prestigious acquisitions are made by “high net-worth individuals”, whose number is estimated to 22 million worldwide, with combined wealth hovering around <a href="https://www.capgemini.com/insights/research-library/world-wealth-report/">83 trillion dollars</a>. Their continuously growing number results from the macroeconomic implementation of neoliberal policies since the late 1970s, the collapse of the USSR and the rise of emerging economies.</p>
<p>Part of this fortune is spent on <a href="https://www.enograf.com/media/pdf/Profit%20ili%20zadovoljstvo%20-%20kompletan%20izvestaj.pdf">socially motivated acquisitions</a>. Two of the major European football clubs, Paris Saint-Germain and Manchester City, are owned by sovereign wealth funds linked to the ruling Qatari and Emirati families, and until recently Chelsea FC was owned by the Russian oligarch Roman Abramovitch. In the hotel industry, French palace hotels such as the Bristol, the George V and the Meurice are owned by wealthy foreigners (respectively, the German family group Oetker, Saudi Prince Al-Walid Ben Talal Al Saoud and the Sultan of Brunei).</p>
<p>These are all personalities whose wealth does not originate from the target industry and who made the acquisitions to gain access to, or reaffirm their affiliation with, the international elite.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/226556/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Pierre-Xavier Meschi is Chairman of Atlas-AFMI (Association Francophone de Management International).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alexandre Bohas ne travaille pas, ne conseille pas, ne possède pas de parts, ne reçoit pas de fonds d'une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n'a déclaré aucune autre affiliation que son organisme de recherche.</span></em></p>Contrary to popular belief, only a minority of Bordeaux vineyards bought by Chinese investors have had a negative outcome.Alexandre Bohas, Professeur d'Affaires internationales, ESSCA School of ManagementPierre-Xavier Meschi, Professeur des Universités en sciences de gestion, Affillié à Skema Business School, IAE Aix-Marseille Graduate School of Management – Aix-Marseille UniversitéLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2129402023-12-11T10:16:12Z2023-12-11T10:16:12ZHow 1930s American scientists came to think about the impact of climate on wine<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553527/original/file-20231012-21-jbnzzm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C29%2C4912%2C3228&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Depending on the region, rising temperatures can have negative or positive effects on wine quality. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">David Kohler/Unsplash</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In Europe and beyond, the notion of <a href="https://www.brgm.fr/en/news/article/good-land-wine-how-geology-can-influence-quality-wine"><em>terroir</em></a> dominates ideas about the origins of the taste and quality of wine. While there’s intense debate over the term, generally it refers to the specific place where grapes are grown. The concept is largely focused on soil, but also includes the layout of the land and the elements to which it is regularly exposed – sun, rain, wind, seasons, and more. And although climate is seen as being part of the equation, the land upon which grapes are grown is its foundation. As such thinking took root over centuries, it was eventually codified into Europe’s <a href="https://www.inao.gouv.fr/Les-signes-officiels-de-la-qualite-et-de-l-origine-SIQO/Appellation-d-origine-protegee-controlee-AOP-AOC"><em>appellation d’origine contrôlée</em></a> (AOC) system, meaning “registered designation of origin”.</p>
<p>While European immigrants have long grown grapes and made wine around the world, the traditional regions were an ocean away, literally. So what could be done to improve wine quality in these new vineyards and wineries? The situation was particularly dire in the United States after the Prohibition forced many of its winemakers out of business.</p>
<h2>A world away</h2>
<p>After the Prohibition repealed in 1933, two scientists, Albert “Wink” Winkler and Maynard Amerine, launched an effort to revitalise California’s wine industry. Winkler was more of the viticulturalist and Amerine the oenologist, but both shared a passion for grapes, wine, and believed that the state could produce wines that rivalled the best of Europe. Their journey led them to collect vine samples from Fresno in the south to Ukiah in the north and westward to the coast. They planted many of these vines in test vineyards to see how they fared in different climatic regions, in order to advise growers on the best grapes for their plot of land. But vines were not the only bounty they sought.</p>
<p>Winkler and Amerine also collected grapes from willing viticulturalists turning them into a library of more than 500 site-specific wines over a decade. By 1943, they had observed enough seasonal variation in the hundreds of small batches of wines that Winkler and Amerine made and tasted every year to recommend specific grape varieties for specific regions. By expanding the vineyards where they collected grapes, they could both measure and taste the difference between vineyards in regions across California.</p>
<p>Winkler came to an epiphany from their sojourns in California’s vineyards and by analysing the wines these fields produce. The research let him to conclude that climate and regional differences were the most important factors in selecting varietals to produce high-quality wines. He came to this conclusion counter-intuitively.</p>
<p>By thinking about Europe and the idea of a “vintage” versus a “non-vintage” year, he realised the only thing that changed in the vineyard (not the vines, not soil type, not soil quality, not soil drainage) was the weather and, in particular, a vintage year was warmer in places like Bordeaux and Burgundy. He applied this same logic to California as he tasted the same grape in different regions and found some varieties like Zinfandel produced better wines in cooler climates in northern and coastal California while others like Alicante bouchés, which produced sweet wines, fared better in warmer, arguably hot, climates inland and in southern California. This observation had global impact.</p>
<h2>Knowing what to grow</h2>
<p>With Winkler’s development of a heat-based index, he and Amerine advised would-be California wine makers – from Gallo to Mondavi – not just on the varieties they should plant (or pull out) but also which ones would produce the best wines in their particular locations. The <a href="https://winedataresearcher.com/why-the-winkler-index-matters-to-the-wine-world/">Winker Index</a> rapidly transformed not just California vineyards but vineyards across the world as viticulturalists and oenologists paid more attention to the climate. In New World regions, it allowed them to choose varieties that produced wines best suited to the climate, thus improving the overall quality of wine.</p>
<p>But their research had an even deeper impact on varietal selection. Although the Winkler Index measured the temperature across the growing season, it was the taste and aroma of the wines in their wine library that was at the heart of their conclusions. In measuring the <a href="https://oeno-one.eu/article/view/7399">acid/sugar ratio</a> among other compounds in their wines, Amerine and Winkler judged how climate was reflected in the wines they swirled and sipped and how their wines changed over time, especially in years when the weather deviated from the norm.</p>
<p>These early observations on heat and its influence on wine quality allow historians, wine makers, and climate researchers to conclude that not only is the climate warming, but how a warming climate is changing the taste of wine based not just on acid/sugar ratios – though they are – but how hotter, sunnier growing season are increasing sugar in grapes, the alcohol in wine and reducing acidity, throwing wines out of balance. A vineyard that may have consistently produced high-quality wines from the 1930s through the 1990s now produced inconsistent wine.</p>
<p>The opposite can also be true: A region like Bordeaux, which was historically plagued by erratic weather, sometimes losing entire vintages to hail, frost or cold summers, <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/climate-change-french-wine-taste-better">now had more consistent yields</a>, smoothing the difference between a vintage and a non-vintage year. Even inexpensive wines in Bordeaux benefited from warmer growing seasons because more grapes fully ripened.</p>
<p>Of course, as the climate warms, that impact has other negative consequences. Hotter weather reduces the acidity of wines making them flat, flabby, or turgid. An example of mitigating low acidity is Bordeaux’s experiment allowing new varieties to be blended into their iconic – and legislated – varieties of reds and whites to increase acidity and rebalance overripe wines.</p>
<h2>Where there’s fire there’s smoke</h2>
<p>An even more difficult and frightening consequence of a warming climate are wildfires. While fires do not always destroy vineyards (grapes are just spheres of water, after all), the smoke can contaminate wine made near wildfires, resulting in <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2113327118">smoke-tainted wine</a> – it tastes something like burnt rubber, cigarette ash or other unpleasant flavours. Once smoke has wafted into the vineyard and engulfed ripening grapes, it is impossible to remove. Worse, winemakers cannot tell if the wine will be smoke tainted by tasting the grapes themselves, as fermentation also affects how foul a wine will taste.</p>
<p>Though scientists around the world are trying to find a solution, they still do not understand exactly what makes a wine taste smoke tainted or how to mitigate it. It’s become a growing concern given the rising number of fires in wine-growing regions, including <a href="https://edition.cnn.com/2020/10/11/us/california-wildfires-wineries/index.html">California</a> in 2020, <a href="https://www.rfi.fr/en/france/20210824-provence-wine-producers-weigh-up-losses-after-deadly-wildfires-in-france-ros%C3%A9-french-riviera">France</a> in 2021, and <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/wildfire-leaves-sense-total-destruction-spanish-winemaker-says-2022-07-21/">Spain</a> in 2022. The same year two wildfires burned more than <a href="https://www.icare.univ-lille.fr/wildfires-in-southwest-france-july-2022/">20,000 hectares of forest</a> in France’s Bordeaux region. Tests indicated that that year’s harvest <a href="https://www.rfi.fr/en/france/20220831-bordeaux-wine-harvest-will-not-have-a-smoky-taste-after-summer-wildfires-winemakers-say">shouldn’t be affected</a>, but the coming years promise to be difficult for winemakers.</p>
<h2>Adapting to a changing world</h2>
<p>It is only because Winkler severed the link between wine and terroir that wine growers had the vision to plant and produce world-renowned wine made in places like <a href="https://visitcanberra.com.au/things-to-do/canberras-wine-region">Canberra</a>, Australia; <a href="https://www.winetourism.com/wine-region/mendoza/">Mendoza</a>, Argentina; <a href="https://www.wine-searcher.com/regions-sussex">Sussex</a>, England; and <a href="https://www.wineningxia.com/">Ningxia</a>, China.</p>
<p>Given that climate change is already changing the weather in Europe’s wine-growing regions – the ones whose methods and very identity are most closely linked to traditional notions of <em>terroir</em> – research is also seeking to help wine makers adapt to a changing world. It’s a process that’s already taking place, not only in the <a href="https://www.terraview.co/gdd-and-winkler-index-update/">Winkler Index itself</a>, but even in the <a href="https://www.yahoo.com/lifestyle/france-changes-aoc-rules-allow-153919195.html">venerable AOC system</a>. <em>Plus ça change</em>…</p>
<hr>
<p><em>This article is the result of The Conversation’s collaboration with <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/research-and-innovation/en/horizon-magazine">Horizon</a>, the EU research and innovation magazine. In February, the authors published an <a href="https://projects.research-and-innovation.ec.europa.eu/en/horizon-magazine/wine-connoisseurs-face-testing-times-climate-change-alters-flavours">interview with the magazine</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/212940/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gabriella Maria Petrick a reçu des financements de EU Horizon 2020 MSCA project number 896298. </span></em></p>While the notion of terroir has long been the foundation of European wine, research in the 1930s in the US began to reveal the link between climate and wine.Gabriella Maria Petrick, Research Fellow Ruhr University Bochum, University of StavangerLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2155032023-10-18T16:17:30Z2023-10-18T16:17:30ZClimate change may make Bordeaux red wines stronger and tastier<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554264/original/file-20231017-25-4q6ux6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=16%2C0%2C5590%2C3228&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/glass-red-wine-vine-landscape-france-1688525488">Labellepatine / shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s harvest time again for most of Europe’s wine growing regions and grapes are being picked from the UK in the north to Sicily in the south. The grapes are then sorted and pressed to make the best juices possible. These juices will then be fermented in a choice of barrel, be that oak, concrete, clay or stainless steel, to make wine ready for blending and bottling in the spring.</p>
<p>The harvest determines the vintage, with variation in weather leading to changes in the appeal of the wines. Colleagues and I have published <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(23)02031-X">new research</a> which examines this variation, looking at how quality is affected by temperature and rainfall. </p>
<p>Quality is assessed in spring, when the wine is finished in the barrel ready to be bottled. The French refer to this stage as <em>en primeur</em> (the first), and at this time a futures market forms where speculators and commercial buyers can purchase wine in advance. <em>En primeur</em> was <a href="https://www.wineinvestment.com/learn/magazine/2019/04/a-brief-history-of-en-primeur/">started by Bordeaux wine merchants in the 1950s</a> as a post-war method of providing money to financially struggling chateaus while the wine was still being bottled. This phenomenon has since spread across Europe.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554274/original/file-20231017-21-8fkkmv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Wine bottles" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554274/original/file-20231017-21-8fkkmv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554274/original/file-20231017-21-8fkkmv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554274/original/file-20231017-21-8fkkmv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554274/original/file-20231017-21-8fkkmv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554274/original/file-20231017-21-8fkkmv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554274/original/file-20231017-21-8fkkmv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554274/original/file-20231017-21-8fkkmv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Warm summers and wet winters are ideal conditions for wine.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/farehamwine/9416218798/in/photolist-fm5zMY-9vNEwP-2oAXirV-24Y8zEa-cG8Fi-5Ua9z-3bc2W-oFzbMK-5AhAuq-4LwFw-6Hmjxx-6Lyc67-8c9fFG-5ZKPkf-LBLVk-pcho3Y-6JMiue-goUdEB-6JMiB8-62ftcX-5Uvkp7-ojtzku-rnSnaG-oXD44f-gfDw2i-6MmNqV-JiVRgK-6LycfA-9rKhTu-6K53oF-fChZTx-6Hz8b5-ib2uaW-6NbTrv-oUQ3G6-eXkHit-LPVoF6-7RdPNs-aSfMw-agntH5-gfCGPo-6HqnjJ-gfDt9z-6xwMfn-eqUGhU-cLHGCu-gfDa5S-gfCH9G-gfDvWP-gfCKD1">Dominic Lockyer / flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>During this period, wine merchants and critics make their assessments of the vintage. These assessments speak to both the character and the quality of the wine. The character aspect of reviews come in the form of tasting notes like fruits, velvety mouth-feel, and hints of spices to finish. The quality aspect is rated numerically in the form of a score, comparing the quality of this year’s wines to both previous and other local wines. </p>
<p>These scores vary annually with both climate and weather changes, as well as from vineyard to vineyard. Wines produced from the same type of grape can still vary by soil type, microclimate or vinification (winemaking) choices. Some wine merchants and critics choose to score the wines by region, others by individual bottles of wine.</p>
<h2>What makes Bordeaux better</h2>
<p>We wanted to use these scores to explore how wine quality is changing with variation in annual weather, and thus gain a glimpse into the potential future for wine. We chose to do this in Bordeaux, the wine producing region surrounding the French city of the same name, where climate impacts have already been felt through earlier ripening and harvesting, increased water-related stress, and variation in wine quality. </p>
<p>Bordeaux is also perfect because of <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/newsletters/2023-05-20/what-it-s-like-being-a-wine-critic-during-bordeaux-s-big-en-primeur-week">the scale of <em>en primeur</em></a>, with thousands of chateaus all taking part and being rated by a small number of high-profile critics.</p>
<p>Our results show that higher quality wine is made in years with warmer temperatures, more winter rainfall (and less summer rainfall), and earlier, shorter growing seasons. Climate change is expected to make these conditions occur more frequently, suggesting that – with caveats – Bordeaux wines will potentially become stronger, more rounded, and generally better in the years to come.</p>
<p><strong>The Bordeaux wine region</strong></p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554267/original/file-20231017-25-bkyoxm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Annotated map of Bordeaux wine region" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554267/original/file-20231017-25-bkyoxm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554267/original/file-20231017-25-bkyoxm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=523&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554267/original/file-20231017-25-bkyoxm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=523&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554267/original/file-20231017-25-bkyoxm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=523&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554267/original/file-20231017-25-bkyoxm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=658&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554267/original/file-20231017-25-bkyoxm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=658&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554267/original/file-20231017-25-bkyoxm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=658&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">St Émillion is one of many different wines made in and around Bordeaux.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Weinbaugebiete-frankreich-bordeaux.png">Domenico-de-ga / wiki</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We can see this general trend in the annual variation in critics’ scores for the wines of St-Émillion, for example. One of Bordeaux’s 37 specially-defined wine regions known as “appellations”, St-Émillion, is famed for its high-quality wines and celebrated vineyards, with high values often associated with them. </p>
<p>If we examine one of the top chateaus from this area, Château-Figeac, we find that its highest rated years in the past decade – 2016, 2019, and 2022 – all had high temperatures and low rainfall in July and August, but also higher rainfall in the November-January before. Alexa Boulton, commercial director at Château-Figeac, told me that: “with climate change this type of year comes more often and therefore great vintages come more often”.</p>
<h2>Climate change also means more extremes</h2>
<p>This all sounds very positive, but the caveats are quite important. Most notably, with increased climate change comes an increase in <a href="https://www.barrons.com/articles/wine-climate-change-extreme-weather-51659127519?reflink=desktopwebshare_permalink">extreme events</a>. Late frosts, extreme droughts and strong rain and hail during flowering and fruiting are all <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-wine-economics/article/impact-of-climate-change-on-viticulture-and-wine-quality/2914947821F9A182508E76760E7C0D9B">increasing in frequency</a> in Bordeaux and can wipe out an entire year’s grapes. This means no wine at all from some locations, a potentially wine-changing event. </p>
<p>We may have already seen this in 2020, when a dramatic April storm swept across Bordeaux, showering vines in hail and wiping out “<a href="https://www.decanter.com/wine-news/hail-bordeaux-vineyards-2020-436686/">up to 100%</a>” of grapes on some vines while leaving others almost untouched. This hail is one potential reason for the slightly lower quality in many chateaus’ 2020 vintages when compared to the 2019 vintages, despite high winter rainfall and summer temperatures.</p>
<p>Our findings apply far beyond Bordeaux. The UK, for instance, is <a href="https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/bordeaux-beware-here-comes-the-kent-claret-g2kdg2nr0">on the cusp</a> of producing great red wines yet is still impacted by changes in the weather. My friend Natasha Rompante is an English wine maker, she told me that “2020 was a hot year which made for a great vintage where we unusually achieved ripeness for both white and red wines”. </p>
<p>However 2021 was a different story, with suspected climate change-related increases in temperature and humidity leading to widespread disease and loss of fruit. Rompante points out that “some vineyards lost up to 90% of their crop”. The combination of temperature and rainfall is vital, with the right heat and water, at the right times.</p>
<p>As the global climate changes, so too will our wines. Our research has shown which weather conditions make better wine and this, with some potentially devastating caveats, could suggest a positive future for wines in Bordeaux. Whatever happens, developing our understanding of the links between climate, vine and wine is vital to ensuring long-term success for wines everywhere.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong><em>Don’t have time to read about climate change as much as you’d like?</em></strong>
<br><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/newsletters/imagine-57?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=Imagine&utm_content=DontHaveTimeTop">Get a weekly roundup in your inbox instead.</a> Every Wednesday, The Conversation’s environment editor writes Imagine, a short email that goes a little deeper into just one climate issue. <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/newsletters/imagine-57?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=Imagine&utm_content=DontHaveTimeBottom">Join the 20,000+ readers who’ve subscribed so far.</a></em></p>
<hr><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/215503/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrew Wood receives funding from Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC), and is a DPhil (PhD) student at University of Oxford. </span></em></p>Warm summers and wet winters lead to better wines, finds research.Andrew Wood, PhD Candidate, Interdisciplinary Bioscience Doctoral Training Centre, University of OxfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2085692023-08-22T20:05:57Z2023-08-22T20:05:57ZChampagne is deeply French – but the English invented the bubbles<p>In 1889, the Syndicat du Commerce des Vins de Champagne produced a <a href="https://books.google.com.au/books?id=hH1kE0-f1kkC&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PT7&dq=kolleen+guy+champagne&hl=en&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=1889&f=false">pamphlet</a> promoting champagne at the Exposition Universelle in Paris, claiming that Dom Pérignon, <a href="https://www.tourisme-hautvillers.com/en/the-territory/the-heritage/">procurator</a> of the Benedictine Abbey of Hautvillers from 1668, was the “inventor”, “creator” or discoverer" of sparkling champagne.</p>
<p>“Come, Brothers! I drink stars!” is the famous quote <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dom_P%C3%A9rignon_(monk)#:%7E:text=The%20quote%20attributed%20to%20Perignon,in%20the%20late%2019th%20century.">often attributed</a> to him.</p>
<p>The story of a blind monk having an epiphany, accidentally happening upon the secret to effervescence, was seductive. It combined divine revelation and French winemaking expertise to produce a national symbol deeply rooted in the French landscape. </p>
<p>However, the truth is slightly different. <a href="https://www.guildsomm.com/public_content/features/articles/b/tom_stevenson/posts/dom-perignon">Dom Pérignon</a> did contribute to improving the still wines of the Champagne region, but he did not discover effervescence – he was trying to get rid of the bubbles.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543850/original/file-20230822-30549-ial4hx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543850/original/file-20230822-30549-ial4hx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543850/original/file-20230822-30549-ial4hx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=869&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543850/original/file-20230822-30549-ial4hx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=869&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543850/original/file-20230822-30549-ial4hx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=869&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543850/original/file-20230822-30549-ial4hx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1092&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543850/original/file-20230822-30549-ial4hx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1092&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543850/original/file-20230822-30549-ial4hx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1092&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Jean François de Troy’s 1735 painting Le Déjeuner d'Huîtres (The Oyster Luncheon) is the first known depiction of champagne in painting.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The champagne myth</h2>
<p>The expo where the champagne myth was propagated marked the 100-year anniversary of Bastille Day and is best known for the debut of another icon of French culture, the Eiffel Tower. The Pérignon story gained traction at the same moment these other symbols of nation-building reinforced the uniqueness of French culture and history.</p>
<p>The basis for the myth can be traced to a letter from <a href="https://books.google.com.au/books?id=hH1kE0-f1kkC&pg=PA28&dq=dom+grossard+champagne+history&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjC_LXytfb_AhVReXAKHZtuDIsQ6AF6BAgFEAI#v=onepage&q=dom%20grossard%20champagne%20history&f=false">Dom Grossard</a> of Hautvillers Abbey to the mayor of Aÿ, in the heart of the Champagne region. Grossard claimed that Pérignon had perfected the method for making perfectly white wine from pinot noir grapes (blanc de noirs), pioneered the technique for effervescence, and championed the use of bottles and corks.</p>
<p>Only the first of these claims is true. At the abbey, wooden stoppers and canvas soaked in grease were used to seal bottles, and French glass was too <a href="https://www.cairn.info/la-bouteille-de-vin--9791021001138-page-67.htm">weak</a> to contain the pressure from effervescence. A bigger problem was that French winemakers – and consumers – considered bubbles a fault, a trick to distract the drinker from bad wine. </p>
<p>Prominent French wine merchant <a href="https://www.cairn.info/load_pdf.php?download=1&ID_ARTICLE=RHMC_603_0110">Bertin de Rocheret</a> advised a client who inquired about sparkling wine: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>effervescence obscures the best characteristics of good wines, in the same way that it improves wines of lesser quality.</p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/no-putting-a-spoon-in-an-open-bottle-of-champagne-doesnt-keep-it-bubbly-but-there-is-a-better-way-171823">No, putting a spoon in an open bottle of champagne doesn't keep it bubbly – but there is a better way</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Bubbles, bottles and corks</h2>
<p>The method for effervescence, strong glass bottles and the use of corks all came from England in the 17th century. English consumers imported wine in barrels from France because bottles were taxed at a higher rate than wine imported in bulk. </p>
<p>The wines often deteriorated during the journey across the channel and once opened, they oxidised quickly, developing an unpleasant flavour. To improve the taste, consumers added honey, syrup made from raisins or sugar. The additional sugar content caused a secondary fermentation – and effervescence.</p>
<p>In 1662, <a href="https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Labor_Before_the_Industrial_Revolution/oT33DwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=glassmaking+england+%E2%80%98a+proclamation+touching+glasses%E2%80%99+(may+23,+1615).&pg=PA196&printsec=frontcover">Christopher Merrett</a>, a founder of the Royal Society, published a paper titled “Some Observations Concerning the Ordering of Wines”, in which he described the method for effervescence: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>Our winecoopers of latter times use vast quantities of sugar and molasses to all sorts of wines, to make them drink brisk and sparkling, and to give them spirits, as also to mend their bad tastes. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>To produce sparkling wine and retain the effervescence, three things are necessary: bubbles, strong glass bottles and corks. </p>
<p>Merrett’s method provided the fizz, and corks were already used in England for bottling <a href="https://cideruk.com/what-is-cider-and-perry/">cider and perry</a>. Strong glass in England was a by-product of a prohibition on using wood in industrial furnaces, <a href="https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Labor_Before_the_Industrial_Revolution/oT33DwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=glassmaking+england+%E2%80%98a+proclamation+touching+glasses%E2%80%99+(may+23,+1615).&pg=PA196&printsec=frontcover">decreed</a> by King James I in 1615.</p>
<p>Timber was too valuable to be burned for glassmaking, reserved for building ships for the merchant fleet. Using sea coal, English glass furnaces reached higher temperatures and produced stronger glass. These bottles could withstand pressure (as much as a car tyre) without bursting.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543855/original/file-20230822-55362-v420lw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543855/original/file-20230822-55362-v420lw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543855/original/file-20230822-55362-v420lw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543855/original/file-20230822-55362-v420lw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543855/original/file-20230822-55362-v420lw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543855/original/file-20230822-55362-v420lw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543855/original/file-20230822-55362-v420lw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543855/original/file-20230822-55362-v420lw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Statue of Dom Pérignon at Moët et Chandon.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikipedia</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The paradox?</h2>
<p>The only ingredient the English lacked was wine, prompting French wine <a href="https://books.google.com.au/books?newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&id=LLHkAAAAIAAJ&dq=bonal+dom+perignon&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=annexe">historians</a> to refer to their contribution as “<a href="https://vinepair.com/wine-blog/british-paradox-invention-modern-wine/">The English Paradox</a>”. How could a country with no winemaking tradition pioneer the technique for effervescence? The “paradox” label, however, only makes sense if the traditions and standards of French winemaking are presumed to be superior. </p>
<p>Bound by tradition, French winemakers were unwilling to contemplate a fault as a desirable innovation. Driven by necessity, and without any winemaking rules, English consumers were free to experiment. </p>
<p>But necessity was only part of the equation – English culture did play a part in the success of effervesce. Reserving timber for the English fleet made for stronger glass, and cider and perry production provided corks to seal the bottles.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.champagne.fr/en/about-champagne/champagne-and-its-history">The French champagne industry</a> now claims effervescence was not invented, but is a natural product of the soil and climate in a strictly defined region. </p>
<p>Natural fermentation does produce some fizz, but rarely enough to pop a cork without the intervention of a winemaker. The emphasis on nature reinforces the exclusivity and unique geographic attributes to distinguish champagne from all other sparkling wines.</p>
<p>A <a href="https://www.aup.nl/en/book/9789463720175/commerce-food-and-identity-in-seventeenth-century-england-and-france">more complex history</a> of the origin of effervescence challenges preconceptions about national identity, even in matters of taste. This does not diminish champagne’s luxury status, but it does reveal the influence of cultural traditions on innovation, and the many influences that pave the way to novelty.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/208569/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Garritt C Van Dyk works for the University of Newcastle.</span></em></p>How did a country that did not make wine somehow invent effervescence?Garritt C. Van Dyk, Lecturer, University of NewcastleLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2054402023-07-18T21:11:35Z2023-07-18T21:11:35ZOur perception of wine has more to do with its commercial history than we think<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525691/original/file-20230511-19-w9pz4k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=5%2C2%2C1905%2C1276&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Some of our cultural conceptions of wine, including its authenticity, stem from the commercial nature of the product. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Consumers tend to think of wine as a product of culture and authenticity. Because of this, they see it as distinct from other manufactured commercial goods. </p>
<p>As an agricultural product, we think about wine as linked to a place and sometimes to an individual producer. After that it is considered a historical product rooted in the traditions of a region. And finally, wine is treated as an aesthetic product, in a similar way to the arts, with its key consumers, terminology, prominent producers and specific media attention. </p>
<p>But is wine really distinctive?</p>
<p>In 2021, the <a href="https://www.globenewswire.com/news-release/2020/09/08/2089700/0/en/Global-Wine-Industry.html">value of the global wine market</a> was over $53 billion, with global production around 260 million hectolitres, the equivalent of 34 billion bottles. Of this, about half is exported and therefore consumed outside its place of origin. The <a href="https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/wine-producing-countries">main producing countries</a> by volume are Italy, France, Spain, the United States and Australia.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523623/original/file-20230501-14-4s1z98.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523623/original/file-20230501-14-4s1z98.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523623/original/file-20230501-14-4s1z98.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523623/original/file-20230501-14-4s1z98.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523623/original/file-20230501-14-4s1z98.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523623/original/file-20230501-14-4s1z98.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523623/original/file-20230501-14-4s1z98.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Vineyards in Cafayate, Argentina. The South American country has joined the top five wine-producing countries.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Yet wine has been a commercial product for 3,000 years. And paradoxically, many of the cultural ideas which shape how we perceive wine today actually stem from its history as a commercial product. </p>
<p>As an anthropologist and professor in the department of social and public communication at Université du Québec à Montréal (UQAM), I see wine as a cultural object. That is to say, wine carries meanings that are socially constructed and through which both producers and consumers think about it in unconscious ways. </p>
<p>I carried out my first anthropological research fieldwork on wine in Calabria, in southern Italy, in 2000-2001, and have returned there three times. I conducted a second anthropological investigation in British Columbia, in the Okanagan Valley, in 2017-2018. I will present some of the results of this research later in <em>The Conversation</em>. </p>
<p>I am also a wine lover and have been running the website <a href="https://www.sommeliervirtuel.com">sommeliervirtuel.com</a> with my brother Mathieu for over 10 years. Through this activity we have become recognized as wine influencers in Quebec, and I have been able to deepen my knowledge of the wine market and its consumer culture. </p>
<p>In this first article, I demonstrate how some of our cultural conceptions of wine actually arose from the commercial nature of the product. </p>
<h2>The importance of place</h2>
<p>A central element of wine is that it is attached to place. We can talk about a Bordeaux, a Burgundy or a Chianti without having to add that we are talking about wine. Yet as far back as ancient Greece, and later in the Middle Ages, it was different elites that created a market for <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9780203013267/wine-vine-tim-unwin">wines from recognized, distant regions</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523621/original/file-20230501-344-oupm3u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523621/original/file-20230501-344-oupm3u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523621/original/file-20230501-344-oupm3u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523621/original/file-20230501-344-oupm3u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523621/original/file-20230501-344-oupm3u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523621/original/file-20230501-344-oupm3u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523621/original/file-20230501-344-oupm3u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Tasting a Chianti, in the Chianti region of Tuscany. The name of the region is associated with its flagship product.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>At the same time, the wine that was produced and consumed locally had no specific identity and <a href="https://www.persee.fr/doc/ahess_0395-2649_1996_num_51_6_410925_t1_1383_0000_000">was considered a common agricultural product among others</a>. </p>
<p>It was through trade, especially over long distances, that the place of origin of wines became important and significant.</p>
<h2>The utopia of terroir versus the realities of trade</h2>
<p>Trade also helps explain why wine production became concentrated in certain regions and not others. </p>
<p>Official speeches (guidebooks, wine books, laws) claim that this is because of the quality of a specific region’s terroir, according to the idea that wine production is concentrated in the places most suitable for quality production. In fact, <a href="http://delbussoediteur.ca/publications/le-vin-comme-performance-culturelle/">trade is what explains how vineyards came to be concentrated in certain regions, but not others</a>. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.cnrseditions.fr/catalogue/histoire/histoire-de-la-vigne-et-du-vin-en-france/">French geographer and historian Roger Dion</a> has shown how wine production became concentrated in France because of the country’s vanguard position vis-à-vis the markets of northern Europe. He points to how the wine-producing regions were concentrated around rivers, which were essential for the transport of heavy cargoes before the arrival of the train.</p>
<p>So it was actually France’s <a href="https://www.persee.fr/doc/reae_0755-9208_1990_num_17_1_1247">geographical position</a> that explained the <a href="https://www.persee.fr/doc/anami_0003-4398_1989_num_101_187_7467_t1_0335_0000_2">development and historical renown of its wine regions</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523619/original/file-20230501-20-g47ltu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523619/original/file-20230501-20-g47ltu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523619/original/file-20230501-20-g47ltu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523619/original/file-20230501-20-g47ltu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523619/original/file-20230501-20-g47ltu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523619/original/file-20230501-20-g47ltu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523619/original/file-20230501-20-g47ltu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Vineyards in Saint-Émilion, France. Wine production would be concentrated in France because of the country’s vanguard position vis-à-vis the markets of northern Europe.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Historically, regions that specialized in wine production were able to do so because they had the possibility of selling their production in other markets. That’s because a <a href="http://delbussoediteur.ca/publications/le-vin-comme-performance-culturelle/">peasant family could not subsist on wine</a>. The utopic concept of terroir, however, has been used to conceal these origins, attributing <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3631680">the renown of wines to regions and nature, while, historically, their reputations were actually built through trade</a>.</p>
<h2>From agricultural to luxury product</h2>
<p>With the development of wine consumer markets in what were then non-producing countries, such as England, Northern Europe and America, a specific conception of wine emerged. </p>
<p>In these markets, wine was not considered an agricultural product. Wine was a luxury product, reserved for certain social groups. Even when wine spread throughout society, it remained a rare and occasional product. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523630/original/file-20230501-22-fr3cui.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523630/original/file-20230501-22-fr3cui.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523630/original/file-20230501-22-fr3cui.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523630/original/file-20230501-22-fr3cui.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523630/original/file-20230501-22-fr3cui.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523630/original/file-20230501-22-fr3cui.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523630/original/file-20230501-22-fr3cui.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A wine tasting in Worns, Germany. In the northern European and US markets, wine is still an exceptional product, to be drunk on special occasions.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This view of wine remains the dominant one today, even in the wine-producing countries themselves, <a href="https://www.editions-larousse.fr/livre/histoire-sociale-et-culturelle-du-vin-9782035841766">where the habit of daily wine consumption has yielded to one of occasional consumption</a>. </p>
<h2>Bordeaux and the English market</h2>
<p>The case of the Bordeaux region is instructive and has played a key role in the development of several contemporary notions of wine.</p>
<p>The Bordeaux vineyard developed in response to demand from the English and Dutch markets, which, in turn, controlled the region and its trade starting in the 17<sup>th</sup> century. In this context, it was the English market that drove consumers and merchants to pay specific attention to vintages, as well as growths, and the <em>crus</em> of Bordeaux, that is to say the “Châteaux,” such as Ho Bryan (Haut-Brion) or Margose Wine (Margaux) whose first mentions are in English.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523631/original/file-20230501-14-ld7s5e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523631/original/file-20230501-14-ld7s5e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=385&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523631/original/file-20230501-14-ld7s5e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=385&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523631/original/file-20230501-14-ld7s5e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=385&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523631/original/file-20230501-14-ld7s5e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=484&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523631/original/file-20230501-14-ld7s5e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=484&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523631/original/file-20230501-14-ld7s5e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=484&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Château and vineyard in Margaux, in the Bordeaux region. The Bordeaux vineyard developed in response to demand from the English and Dutch, who in turn controlled the region and its trade starting in the 17th century.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The <a href="https://www.thewinecellarinsider.com/bordeaux-wine-producer-profiles/bordeaux/1855-bordeaux-classification/">famous classification of Bordeaux wines of 1855, still in force today</a>, was created at the universal exhibition in Paris on the basis of wine prices that were established by the English market.</p>
<p>The emergence of new consumer markets, particularly in Asia, is now putting upward pressure on the wine market and driving up the prices of specific wines from the most sought-after areas or regions. At the same time, <a href="https://journals.openedition.org/geohist/2287?lang=en">China</a> has started to produce and export its own wine, increasing the already strong competition between <a href="https://journals.openedition.org/geocarrefour/13442">different wine-producing regions of the world</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523628/original/file-20230501-18-8re5rg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523628/original/file-20230501-18-8re5rg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523628/original/file-20230501-18-8re5rg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523628/original/file-20230501-18-8re5rg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523628/original/file-20230501-18-8re5rg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523628/original/file-20230501-18-8re5rg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523628/original/file-20230501-18-8re5rg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A shelf full of wine bottles in a supermarket in Shanghai, China. The country has started producing and exporting wine.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In Asian markets, wine remains a prestige product, especially as a gift, for example in <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/146735840000200405?journalCode=thrb">Japan</a>. If the conceptions of wine so far are mainly Western, perhaps the Asian markets will influence the way we think about wine in the medium or long term.</p>
<p>These are just a few examples of how the commercial nature of wine, through its long history, has influenced our perception of the product. Is wine perhaps hiding its true nature behind the rhetoric of its authenticity? Because objectively, wine is only fermented grape juice.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/205440/count.gif" alt="La Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Vincent Fournier ne travaille pas, ne conseille pas, ne possède pas de parts, ne reçoit pas de fonds d'une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n'a déclaré aucune autre affiliation que son organisme de recherche.</span></em></p>Wine has been a commercial product for 3,000 years. Paradoxically, many of the cultural ideas we have about wine today actually come from its commercial history.Vincent Fournier, Professeur au Département de communication sociale et publique, Université du Québec à Montréal (UQAM)Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2082442023-07-12T13:59:32Z2023-07-12T13:59:32ZFrom Black GIs to Puff Daddy: how African Americans fell in love with cognac<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536613/original/file-20230710-23-jcz0fg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C17%2C2000%2C1230&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Busta Rhymes and P. Daddy's song "Pass the Courvoisier" was a major hit in 2001, and reportedly led to a significant rise in the brand's US sales.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o4ZUaxyPoZ8"> Busta Rhymes/YouTube</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In the quiet town of Cognac, France, on a quaint cobblestone street just off the banks of the Charente River, lies the <a href="https://les-distillateurs-culturels.fr/musee-des-savoir-faire-du-cognac/">Musée des Arts du Cognac</a>. The museum recounts the history, savoir-faire, and world renown of France’s most famous hard liquor. The production of cognac began in the early 1600s, and the museum covers everything in this long history from the crus that form the terroir to the painstaking process of building the barrels in which the spirit ages. One exhibit identifies cognac as “a particular favourite with middle class people of Afro-american or Latin origin.” It doesn’t really explain what that means – the fact that cognac’s biggest market by far is the United States, and within the country, African Americans reportedly comprise the largest share of consumers.</p>
<p>Why is that? According to popular media and industry folklore alike, African American cognac consumption dates to either or both world wars. In this telling, Black GIs sent to Southwest France fell in love with the bottled spirit as much as the spirit of a country they perceived as decidedly less racist than home. Journalists offered this origin story in <a href="https://slate.com/human-interest/2013/12/cognac-in-african-american-culture-the-long-history-of-black-consumption-of-the-french-spirit.html"><em>Slate</em> in 2013</a>, and on <a href="https://zora.medium.com/hennything-is-possible-how-the-french-cognac-found-a-home-in-the-black-community-f5aeb83d1a8a">Medium in 2020</a>. </p>
<p>Social media accounts with large platforms on Instagram and Twitter made the same argument – that cognac appealed to Black soldiers because it was symbolic of the freedom and recognition of their humanity that was lacking in America. Assertions of fact across the internet may not be backed by evidence–but the cognac narrative has travelled far beyond social media clickbait; it has received traction in global newspapers of record as well. This year <em>Le Monde</em> published a story about <a href="https://www.lemonde.fr/le-monde-passe-a-table/article/2023/03/01/les-flows-de-cognac-dans-le-rap-americain_6163774_6082232.html">cognac’s popularity among America’s rap artists</a>, recapitulating the same wartime genesis.</p>
<h2>A century-old affair</h2>
<p>It’s a lovely story – but it just isn’t true. There is no evidence to suggest that it’s anything more than romantic myth, and the story certainly invites questions. Why would Black soldiers become enamoured of cognac specifically, but not wine, which is consumed much more by the French? Why would Black soldiers alone fall for cognac’s charms, but not their White counterparts? And why would it take military deployment across the ocean to encounter the spirit? Cognac was first exported to the United States in the 1700s, but the wartime narrative recounts that African Americans never set eyes on it until 200 years later.</p>
<p>The truth is, African Americans encountered, served, studied, drank, and sold cognac for at least 100 years before the Second World War. Or even the First World War. Formerly enslaved Manhattan tavern owner Cato Alexander is just one example who brings to life African American knowledge of cognac. At some time before 1811, in an establishment near today’s 54th Street and Second Avenue, Alexander shot to the top of his <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-oxford-companion-to-spirits-and-cocktails-9780199311132?cc=us&lang=en&#">profession</a> – bartending. Afforded respect that few African Americans enjoyed, for almost 40 years he was celebrated for his cuisine, and even more so for his <a href="https://revelry.tours/cocktails/cato-alexander/">mixology</a>. But quite apart from Alexander, the narratives we have from enslaved persons make it quite clear that even before the 19th century, cognac and other brandies were part of African American life. </p>
<p>So what’s behind the contemporary African American-cognac connection? The narrative that Black GIs discovered cognac in the midst of France’s freeing ethos of <em>liberté</em>, <em>fraternité</em>, and <em>egalité</em> is an appealing one – but the much more likely and parsimonious explanation is the ruthlessly effective thrust of advertising. Retailers in the food and drink industries have long sought out African Americans with advertising developed to capture the Black consumers, usually at a time when market share was relatively low. Fast food, for example, made initial forays into targeted marketing in the early 1970s; by the 2000s, companies like McDonald’s had entire websites dedicated to consumer segments <a href="https://www.upress.umn.edu/book-division/books/white-burgers-black-cash">based on race and ethnicity</a>. </p>
<h2>Hip hop and cognac</h2>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Martell cognac ad in the December 1983 issue of Ebony magazine." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537131/original/file-20230712-26-ldl9dz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537131/original/file-20230712-26-ldl9dz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=716&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537131/original/file-20230712-26-ldl9dz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=716&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537131/original/file-20230712-26-ldl9dz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=716&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537131/original/file-20230712-26-ldl9dz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=899&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537131/original/file-20230712-26-ldl9dz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=899&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537131/original/file-20230712-26-ldl9dz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=899&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The December 1983 issue of <em>Ebony</em> magazine featured an ad for Martell cognac, founded in 1715.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://books.google.fr/books?id=0tgDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA82&dq=martell&hl=en&sa=X&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=martell&f=false">Ebony Magazine/Google Books</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But traditional cognac advertising to African American drinkers began relatively late, in the early 1980s. Print media and outdoor billboards were primary tools in Black-focused campaigns. Among magazines, <em>Ebony</em> was a centerpiece. Founded in 1945 by John H. Johnson as the first nationally-circulated magazine designed to showcase Black success, its pages helped position cognac as the perfect emblem of comfortable Black affluence. Those advertising spreads probably went unnoticed by any Black elementary school children who paged through the magazines sitting on their parents’ coffee tables – but some of those kids would grow up to become the cognac industry’s biggest promoters. </p>
<p>Jay-Z’s 2012 venture as a <a href="https://robbreport.com/food-drink/spirits/dusse-cognac-jay-z-bacardi-purchase-1234804473/">cognac brand owner with d'Ussé</a> represents the long outgrowth of cognac’s bursting onto the hip hop scene in the 1990s and early 2000s. Artists made references to the spirit ranging from passing mention in lyrics to constructing entire songs around it. Nas claims to be the first to include cognac in his rhymes – for example, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ImSoA_fAVL4">“Memory Lane (Sittin’ in da Park)”</a> on 1994’s <em>Illmatic</em>. A slew of others followed, and Busta Rhymes’s and P. Daddy’s <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o4ZUaxyPoZ8">“Pass the Courvoisier”</a> (2001) was a game-changer. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/o4ZUaxyPoZ8?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Busta Rhymes, “Pass the Courvoisier Part II” (YouTube)</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The song reportedly produced a <a href="https://www.editions-ellipses.fr/accueil/10598-cognac-la-culture-de-la-qualite-9782340040267.html">30% increase in US sales</a> and Busta Rhymes denied that he was paid to create the record. Nas became a Hennessy spokesperson and <a href="https://www.rizzoliusa.com/book/9780847847525/">described the relationship</a> in this way:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“I found them and they found me… I never would have expected to go to France, and go to Cognac and be drinking 100-year-old cognac right out of the barrel… Hey, in the beginning I didn’t even know that cognac came from grapes!”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>To be fair, most of cognac’s biggest global market – the United States – doesn’t know cognac is made from grapes, either. I didn’t, until I began researching it. Cognac occupies a vexed, chameleonic position in American culture: it figures strongly in pop culture; carries a great deal of gastronomic cachet; and yet is little-known and misunderstood. And though it hails from southwest France, it can seem more American than international. </p>
<p>Perhaps it’s that almost-blank canvas that has invited the mythic narrative about cognac’s Black past. It may not be accurate, but it has understandable allure. It’s a story that casts cognac as part of the family, a marker of freedom, and a vehicle to repudiate American racism. And for that, the spirit of one of France’s most vaunted spirits endures.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/208244/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Naa Oyo A. Kwate a reçu des financements de National Institutes of Health; Fondation Maison des sciences de l’homme.</span></em></p>Legend has it that African Americans soldiers brought back a love of cognac after service in Europe in World War II. It’s a lovely story, but the history goes back much further.Naa Oyo A. Kwate, Associate Professor, Rutgers University, DEA Fellow, Fondation Maison des Sciences de l'Homme (FMSH), Rutgers UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1748792022-01-24T03:26:26Z2022-01-24T03:26:26ZNatural wines: how are they made and what’s the deal with sulfites? An expert explains<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/440597/original/file-20220113-44941-781wf2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C25%2C5599%2C3699&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>I was first introduced to natural wines in Paris about 20 years ago. My initial tasting experience did little to convince me this approach to winemaking would survive. Many showed faults reflecting oxidation or yeast- or bacterial-derived odours that smelled “off”.</p>
<p>The natural winemaking strategy has matured dramatically since then and the wines are now making significant <a href="https://www.winemag.com/2020/02/12/best-australian-natural-wine">inroads</a> in Australia. In <a href="https://punchdrink.com/articles/the-best-natural-wine-bars-in-paris">Paris</a> and in <a href="https://www.cntraveller.com/gallery/best-natural-wine-france">France</a> generally, natural wines have gone from strength to strength.</p>
<p>The natural wine movement in Australia is being driven by consumers from varied backgrounds who, <a href="https://www.theshout.com.au/news/natural-wine-winning-consumers-with-authenticity-and-truth/">according</a> to one winemaker, demand “transparency and truth around the winemaking process”. Authenticity of the final product is key.</p>
<p>But how are natural wines made, and what makes them “natural”? </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-drives-our-wine-choice-taste-or-the-price-tag-35252">What drives our wine choice – taste, or the price tag?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Natural winemaking</h2>
<p>The overall goal in natural wine production is to have <a href="http://bellina-alimentari.com/what-is-natural-wine/">as little human intervention as possible</a> in the journey from the vineyard to the wine.</p>
<p>Grapes must be harvested manually from a vineyard managed by either organic practice or under biodynamic principles (such as those outlined <a href="https://cdn.theconversation.com/static_files/files/1936/Organic_and_Biodynamic_Wines.pdf?1642743103">here</a>).</p>
<p>Once the grapes are crushed, fermentation is carried out by indigenous – sometimes called “wild” – yeasts on the skin of the grapes. In some styles, grape stalks may be included in the ferment.</p>
<p>These practices alone, however, are not unique to the natural winemaking process; they’re sometimes used in production of conventional wines, too. </p>
<p>But in conventional winemaking, a wide range of <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-makes-a-vegan-friendly-wine-vegan-and-hows-it-different-to-conventional-wine-174468">processing aids and additives</a> may be used.</p>
<p>And this is the point of difference: in natural winemaking, no additions are made.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/440802/original/file-20220113-27-ar1gi2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A person holds a bunch of red grapes." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/440802/original/file-20220113-27-ar1gi2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/440802/original/file-20220113-27-ar1gi2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440802/original/file-20220113-27-ar1gi2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440802/original/file-20220113-27-ar1gi2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440802/original/file-20220113-27-ar1gi2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440802/original/file-20220113-27-ar1gi2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440802/original/file-20220113-27-ar1gi2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Once the grapes are crushed, fermentation is carried out by indigenous - sometimes called ‘wild’ – yeasts on the skin of the grapes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Processing aids and additives</h2>
<p>The <a href="http://bellina-alimentari.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/AttachmentLineup11.13.jpg">image here</a> demonstrates this clearly. The list of processes and additives decreases markedly as one moves from conventional through organic, biodynamic to natural winemaking.</p>
<p>For natural wines, once the fermentation is finished, the wine is left enclosed for the waste grape material and dead yeast cells to settle before being decanted into clean vessels for bottling. </p>
<p>Some winemakers will use a simple cloth-type filtration to remove larger particles. High-tech filtration techniques, such as membrane or <a href="https://grapeworks.com.au/news/winemaking/filtration-methods-in-winemaking">cross-flow filtration</a>, are not allowed.</p>
<p>The resulting unfiltered wine in bottle will be cloudy. </p>
<p>For a conventionally made wine, this would be a definite marketing negative. But for natural wines, it is the norm.</p>
<h2>On the tricky question of sulfites</h2>
<p>A lot of wines contain a compound called sulfites, which can cause an <a href="https://www.allergy.org.au/patients/other-allergy/sulfite-sensitivity-faq">allergic reaction</a> in some people. In winemaking, they serve to reduce oxidation and limit bacterial growth.</p>
<p>The use of sulfites, also commonly called sulfur dioxide, in natural wines is a point of contention. There are many who refuse to use it, because they see it as an additive. Others argue a small addition to what is already present as a by-product of the fermentation can be beneficial.</p>
<p>Wine expert Isabelle Legeron – the first woman in France to have conferred upon her the prestigious title of Master of Wine – is a great <a href="https://www.rawwine.com/pages/isabelle-legeron">advocate for natural wines</a>. </p>
<p>In 2012, she established the <a href="https://www.rawwine.com/pages/our-story">RAW WINE</a> community to support low intervention winemakers. In her monthly wine <a href="https://www.rawwine.com/shop?menu_open=1&country=AUS">recommendations</a>, Legeron lists those with no added sulfites and those with sulfites <a href="https://www.rawwine.com/pages/charter-of-quality">up to 70 mg/litre</a>, somewhat higher than the more common upper limit of 30 mg/litre.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/440599/original/file-20220113-13-1dei2p3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="People pour wine into a glass." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/440599/original/file-20220113-13-1dei2p3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/440599/original/file-20220113-13-1dei2p3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=210&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440599/original/file-20220113-13-1dei2p3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=210&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440599/original/file-20220113-13-1dei2p3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=210&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440599/original/file-20220113-13-1dei2p3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=264&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440599/original/file-20220113-13-1dei2p3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=264&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440599/original/file-20220113-13-1dei2p3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=264&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In conventional winemaking, a wide range of processing aids and additives may be used. In natural winemaking, no additions are made.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In France, natural wines are now mainstream. Natural wine has, after many years of debate, been given formal recognition there under the designation “<a href="https://www.jancisrobinson.com/articles/natural-wine-defined">Vin Méthode Nature</a>”, a strictly defined term now accepted by key government <a href="https://www.decanter.com/wine-news/natural-wine-receives-formal-recognition-vin-methode-nature-435358/">agencies</a> and regulatory bodies.</p>
<p>There is a <a href="https://vinmethodenature.org/le-label/">12-point commitment charter</a> to which winemakers must adhere to obtain the Vin Méthode Nature endorsement. </p>
<p>There is even a sticker that can be affixed to the bottle, one version of which indicates sulfur dioxide has been added to the wine. </p>
<h2>The taste profile</h2>
<p>Natural wines are different in appearance and taste. Although my early experience to these wines was not always favourable, production methods have matured. While many remain cloudy, as they are unfiltered, the palate structure can show the length and depth that I chase when selecting wine.</p>
<p>In 2017, wine media outlet Decanter <a href="https://www.decanter.com/wine-reviews-tastings/top-rated-natural-wine-368454">reviewed</a> 122 natural wines. The reviewers’ comments were overall positive, endorsing and reinforcing the place of natural wines in an expanding market.</p>
<p>Natural sparkling wines – commonly referred to Pétillant-Naturel or simply Pet Nat – are one of my favourites. Made by the <a href="https://www.winemag.com/2018/08/07/pet-nat-wine-guide/">ancestral method</a>, fermentation begins in an open tank and, at some point, it is transferred to bottle to finish.</p>
<p>The wine is amazingly refreshing, albeit cloudy and lightly sparkling (about half the pressure of champagne). There is no secondary fermentation and no additives – the yeast is indigenous to the grape. </p>
<p>This is pretty much grapes into wine with minimal human intervention.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/appearance-aroma-and-mouthfeel-all-you-need-to-know-to-give-wine-tasting-a-go-172500">Appearance, aroma and mouthfeel: all you need to know to give wine tasting a go</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/174879/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Geoff Scollary does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The overall goal in natural wine production is to have as little human intervention as possible in the journey from the vineyard to the wine.Geoff Scollary, Adjunct Professor, Charles Sturt UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1718232021-12-30T19:16:05Z2021-12-30T19:16:05ZNo, putting a spoon in an open bottle of champagne doesn’t keep it bubbly – but there is a better way<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/433846/original/file-20211125-25-1f9sj9i.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=862%2C0%2C2706%2C1994&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wes Mountain/The Conversation</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>At a recent tasting, I was presenting some sparkling wines from the Limoux region of France, a region that produced sparkling wines at least 100 years before wines from the Champagne region were well known. </p>
<p>Towards the end, I commented that if the bottle is not empty, seal it with a sparkling wine stopper and store it in the refrigerator. The response was: “Why bother to seal it? Just put a spoon in the neck.”</p>
<p>I was somewhat surprised. Although I had heard it suggested previously, I did not think anyone took the idea seriously. </p>
<p>The fact is, it’s a myth to say a spoon in an open bottle of sparkling wine keeps it bubbly. You’re better off buying a proper stopper.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/432293/original/file-20211116-19-4yk0mp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A champagne stopper in a bottle." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/432293/original/file-20211116-19-4yk0mp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/432293/original/file-20211116-19-4yk0mp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432293/original/file-20211116-19-4yk0mp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432293/original/file-20211116-19-4yk0mp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432293/original/file-20211116-19-4yk0mp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432293/original/file-20211116-19-4yk0mp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432293/original/file-20211116-19-4yk0mp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">If you need to store a partly-used bottle, go and buy a proper sparkling wine stopper.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/vineyard-tourism-is-a-big-source-of-carbon-emissions-want-to-help-then-buy-more-wine-164600">Vineyard tourism is a big source of carbon emissions. Want to help? Then buy more wine</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Minimising contact between wine and oxygen</h2>
<p>From my years researching wine chemistry and wine oxidation, I know minimising contact between wine and oxygen is vital for stopping the onset of oxidative spoilage. Sealing the bottle is essential.</p>
<p>The carbon dioxide in sparkling wine is more soluble in wine at a lower temperature, so storing the wine in the refrigerator is also beneficial. In other words, you’ll retain more bubbles if you stick it in the fridge.</p>
<p>Some even claim the teaspoon must be <a href="https://www.thekitchn.com/can-a-silver-spoon-keep-champagne-bubbly-i-decided-to-find-out-200505">silver</a>, not stainless steel, although the basis for this seems highly speculative. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/432294/original/file-20211116-21-ohsx2h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="People clink champagne glasses together at a party." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/432294/original/file-20211116-21-ohsx2h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/432294/original/file-20211116-21-ohsx2h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432294/original/file-20211116-21-ohsx2h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432294/original/file-20211116-21-ohsx2h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432294/original/file-20211116-21-ohsx2h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432294/original/file-20211116-21-ohsx2h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432294/original/file-20211116-21-ohsx2h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">If you plan to keep your leftover sparkling wine, store it properly.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Bubble behaviour</h2>
<p>It is important to note some of the critical features of sparkling wine bubbles. </p>
<p>In his book <a href="https://www.booktopia.com.au/uncorked-gerard-liger-belair/book/9780691158723.html">Uncorked: The Science of Champagne</a>, champagne researcher <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/gerard-liger-belair-141973">Gérard Liger-Belair</a> demonstrated the amount of carbon dioxide lost depends on the way the wine is poured into the glass.</p>
<p>Pouring into a tilted glass retains more carbon dioxide than pouring into a vertical glass. Using bubble imaging techniques, Liger-Belair was able to track the flow of the bubbles in a glass. </p>
<p>He separately showed the bubbles are in fact aerosols (a suspension of fine solid particles or liquid droplets in air) containing aroma compounds that affect the taster’s impression. The release of bubbles even depends on the inside surface of the glass.</p>
<p>Bubble behaviour is therefore complex. Any study on them needs to be replicated to ensure one is measuring a real effect and a one-off.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434052/original/file-20211126-1794-1qv57en.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A person pours champagne into a tilted glass." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434052/original/file-20211126-1794-1qv57en.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434052/original/file-20211126-1794-1qv57en.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434052/original/file-20211126-1794-1qv57en.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434052/original/file-20211126-1794-1qv57en.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434052/original/file-20211126-1794-1qv57en.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434052/original/file-20211126-1794-1qv57en.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434052/original/file-20211126-1794-1qv57en.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The release of bubbles even depends on the inside surface of the glass.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A key study on ‘the myth of the teaspoon’</h2>
<p>One such <a href="https://cdn.theconversation.com/static_files/files/1877/Valade_et_al.pdf?1638229505">study</a> on champagne by Michel Valade and colleagues was published in the periodical Le Vigneron Champenois in 1994. </p>
<p>The work, titled <em>Le mythe de la petite cuillère</em> – the myth of the teaspoon – was designed to address the claim that a teaspoon, preferably a silver one, could (according to my translation):</p>
<blockquote>
<p>defy all the laws of physics and possess some legendary efficiency to protect the bubbles escaping from an open bottle.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>These researchers used three strategies to assess the impact of bubble conservation on the wine: the change in pressure, the loss of weight and sensory analysis. </p>
<p>After opening, the wine was decanted, leaving 500 millilitres in one set and 250 millilitres in a second set.</p>
<p>The wines were then stored at 12°C with four methods to conserve the bubbles: open bottle, silver teaspoon, stainless steel teaspoon, cork stopper (which uses a hermetic seal) and crown seal (a metal lid with crimped edges, like you often see on a beer bottle). Each approach was performed in triplicate.</p>
<p>The researchers then analysed how pressure inside the bottle changed (measured in a unit called atmospheres; 1 atmosphere is about 101 kilopascals). The initial bottle pressure was 6 atmospheres, dropping after decanting to 4 atmospheres when there was 500 millilitres remaining. When only 250 millilitres remained, the pressure was just 2 atmospheres.</p>
<p>After 48 hours storage, the pressure in open bottles and those with a teaspoon inserted in the neck had dropped by a further 50%, indicating a significant loss of bubbles. </p>
<p>Clearly there was no teaspoon effect. Those sealed with a cork stopper or crown seal had a pressure drop of only 10%, demonstrating the significant advantage of using a proper closure.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/432292/original/file-20211116-13-zomvf2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An open champagne bottle emits fizz and gas." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/432292/original/file-20211116-13-zomvf2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/432292/original/file-20211116-13-zomvf2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=316&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432292/original/file-20211116-13-zomvf2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=316&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432292/original/file-20211116-13-zomvf2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=316&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432292/original/file-20211116-13-zomvf2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432292/original/file-20211116-13-zomvf2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432292/original/file-20211116-13-zomvf2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The source of bubbles in sparkling wine is the carbon dioxide released during the secondary fermentation.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These researchers also measured the change in the weight of bottles stored three different ways: fully open, tightly sealed or with an inserted teaspoon.</p>
<p>No decrease in weight was observed for the tightly sealed bottles. But for the fully open bottles and those with a teaspoon in the neck, the loss in weight was significant.</p>
<p>To finalise the evidence to dispel the myth of the teaspoon, the wines were subjected to sensory analysis by expert champagne tasters.</p>
<p>All wines showed some characteristics of oxidation, due to oxygen getting in during opening. However, those sealed with a hermetic seal were clearly more effervescent and livelier than those unsealed or with an inserted teaspoon.</p>
<p>Clearly, the teaspoon effect is a myth.</p>
<p>So, if you need to store a partly-used bottle, go and buy a proper sparkling wine stopper.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/pass-the-shiraz-please-how-australias-wine-industry-can-adapt-to-climate-change-140024">Pass the shiraz, please: how Australia's wine industry can adapt to climate change</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/171823/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Geoff Scollary has received funding from Wine Australia.
I have discussed bubble behaviour with Gerard Liger-Belair at conferences and have written about his work for Chemistry in Australia</span></em></p>From my years researching wine chemistry and wine oxidation, I know making every attempt to minimise contact between wine and oxygen is vital. Sealing the bottle is essential.Geoff Scollary, Adjunct Professor, Charles Sturt UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1691812021-10-26T18:29:26Z2021-10-26T18:29:26ZWhy Chinese companies are investing in French wine and German robots<p>In recent years, Chinese companies have been substantially increasing their investments in the European Union. From the <a href="https://www.vitisphere.com/actualite-62860-Medoc-Luc-Thienpont-cede-le-clos-des-Quatre-Vents-et-le-chateau-Bonneau.htm">vineyards</a> of Bordeaux to <a href="https://www.dw.com/en/berlin-approves-kuka-sale-to-midea/a-19479483">robot</a> manufacturers in Germany and <a href="https://www.khl.com/news/china-s-zoomlion-acquires-cifa/1025898.article">construction</a> machinery makers in Italy, these companies have been on a buying spree of unprecedented proportions.</p>
<p>In the EU, the rapid growth has fuelled <a href="https://www.europarl.europa.eu/thinktank/en/document.html?reference=EPRS_BRI%282017%29603941">fears</a> about the impact of these investments on jobs, technology and Europe’s long-term industrial capacity, sparking calls for more <a href="https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/TA-8-2018-0343_EN.pdf">oversight</a>. In this context, some see the investment screening mechanism the EU put in place in 2019 as <a href="https://www.institutmontaigne.org/en/blog/china-trends-5-living-eus-investment-screening">targeted</a> at Chinese companies.</p>
<p>During the pandemic, growing concerns that vital European technology and knowhow could be vulnerable to foreign takeover because of the economic downturn led the European Commission to issue <a href="https://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/press/index.cfm?id=2124">guidelines</a> for its member states. To bring greater clarity to the situation, the EU has negotiated a deal with China – the Comprehensive Agreement on Investment – to replace the current 26 individual country agreements that exist between all individual member states except Ireland.</p>
<p>The agreement is currently blocked for political reasons, following tit for tat sanctions related to the EU’s concerns about <a href="https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20210517IPR04123/meps-refuse-any-agreement-with-china-whilst-sanctions-are-in-place">human rights violations in Xinjiang province</a>. But the debate on how best to adapt to this new context is unlikely to go away.</p>
<p>Much of what we know about Chinese investment in the EU is anecdotal. In a recent <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chieco.2021.101672">paper</a>, my colleagues and I undertook a thorough analysis of these investments using detailed Chinese data. Our work highlights the great variety of Chinese investments in the EU, in terms of the types of industry and companies involved and different firms’ motivations for investing.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/428490/original/file-20211026-15-1c996rq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Map of Chinese outward foreign direct investment in EU countries (2006-2015)" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/428490/original/file-20211026-15-1c996rq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/428490/original/file-20211026-15-1c996rq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=379&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/428490/original/file-20211026-15-1c996rq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=379&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/428490/original/file-20211026-15-1c996rq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=379&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/428490/original/file-20211026-15-1c996rq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=477&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/428490/original/file-20211026-15-1c996rq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=477&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/428490/original/file-20211026-15-1c996rq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=477&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Map of Chinese outward foreign direct investment in EU countries (2006-2015).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Fourni par l'auteur</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Why China invests in Europe</h2>
<p>Our paper is based on a database covering nearly 800 Chinese investments in industrial sectors in Europe between 2006 and 2015.</p>
<p>Chinese companies must declare their overseas investments to the government and these declarations provide valuable information about where they are investing and why. The declarations include the country and industry they invested in and whether the investment involve supporting their sales to Europe, manufacturing goods locally or conducting research and development.</p>
<p>Germany was the top choice for Chinese companies investing Europe, followed by UK, Netherlands and Italy.</p>
<p>Over time, we found that investments for sales have fallen from 70% to less than half of total investments, while research and development and manufacturing have become more important. This shows that the notion that Chinese firms see Europe purely as a market, rather than a base for manufacturing and research, is clearly outdated. Many Chinese firms invest in Europe to produce there.</p>
<p>These types of investments are particularly important for Chinese sectors that already have high levels of investment at home. Firms that invest a lot in production in China tend to do the same in Europe, potentially guaranteeing thousands of European jobs.</p>
<h2>The role of the state</h2>
<p>Given concerns about the role of the Chinese government in the economy and business, we also looked at whether we could see differences in investment behaviour in industries where the state has a stronger role.</p>
<p>We found that sectors where state-owned enterprises are more predominant tend to invest in manufacturing and research, while those in sectors identified as “encouraged industries” by the government (a varied group that includes textiles and civil satellites), are more likely to invest in sales.</p>
<p>So domestic government policy does seem to have an impact on the types of investment Chinese firms make in Europe.</p>
<p>We also looked in detail at how various characteristics of Chinese and European industries affected the types of investments made.</p>
<p>In more traditional established European industries and those with high growth rates, such as motor vehicles in the UK and Germany and chemicals in Hungary and the Netherlands, Chinese investors are more motivated by research and development than the market. Investments from high-tech Chinese sectors were more focused on both research and development and manufacturing.</p>
<h2>Wine and robots</h2>
<p>It is difficult to make generalisations about Chinese investors and why they invest in Europe. The wealthy <a href="https://objectifaquitaine.latribune.fr/business/2016-09-16/vignobles-peter-kwok-le-k-a-part-des-investissements-asiatiques.html">individual</a> buying a vineyard in France will have very different motivations to the company buying the key German producer of industrial robots.</p>
<p>Even within sectors, there are big differences. <a href="https://wine-economics.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/AAWE_WP168.pdf">My previous work</a> on Chinese investment in the French wine sector found that in some cases the investment was instrumental in moving the vineyards to new levels of growth and internationalisation, whereas in others there were significant cultural clashes and management difficulties.</p>
<p>In this varied context, it is difficult to make comprehensive judgements about the extent to which existing and future Chinese investments could be problematic going forward. What’s clear is that the more we know about these and other foreign investments in Europe, the better armed we are to decide whether and how to regulate them.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/169181/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Louise Curran ne travaille pas, ne conseille pas, ne possède pas de parts, ne reçoit pas de fonds d'une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n'a déclaré aucune autre affiliation que son organisme de recherche.</span></em></p>Many in the EU are wary of the motivations of Chinese companies investing in Europe. New research shows the many reasons behind these investments.Louise Curran, Professor of International Business, TBS EducationLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1687592021-09-27T14:54:50Z2021-09-27T14:54:50ZProsecco or prošek? The EU battle between Italy and Croatia over wine branding<p>Prosecco is probably the most famous Italian wine, a byword for sparkling good times and popping corks. But behind the fizz, Italy is in a major dispute over whether Croatia can sell a premium dessert wine by the name of prošek in stores across the EU. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.tasteatlas.com/prosek">Prošek</a> is made from white grapes grown mainly in the southern region of Dalmatia, using a traditional process that involves sun-drying them on straw mats before they are pressed. <a href="https://croatia.hr/en-GB/experiences/gastronomy-and-enology/prosek">The wine</a> sells at a premium because it uses many more grapes per bottle than many other dessert wines, but the name has been banned across the EU since 2013 because of objections from the Italians. Instead, the wine trades under the name <a href="https://www.croatiaweek.com/eu-prosek-ban-angers-croatian-winemakers-vino-dalmato-replacement-term/">Vino Dalmato</a>.</p>
<p>Croatia has been battling to have this overturned ever since. To the fury of Italy, the European Commission has followed up on a <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A52021XC0922%2801%29">recent application</a> by Croatia for prošek to be granted special status under the EU’s <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/info/food-farming-fisheries/food-safety-and-quality/certification/quality-labels/quality-schemes-explained_en">Protected Designation of Origin</a> (PDO) rules. Prosecco has enjoyed this status <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/info/food-farming-fisheries/food-safety-and-quality/certification/quality-labels/geographical-indications-register/details/EUGI00000002936">since 2009</a>, as well as being protected under <a href="https://www.federdoc.com/en/to-learn-about-the-evolution-of-the-pyramid-of-italian-wines-from-1861-to-today/">Italian law</a> dating back to 1969, and Italians say <a href="http://www.italianinsider.it/?q=node/10397">it is “shameful”</a> that Brussels is considering giving equivalent protection to prošek. So who will win?</p>
<h2>Battle commences</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jul/02/croatia-and-italy-renew-feud-over-prosek-and-prosecco-wines">Croatia tried</a> to start the registration procedure to obtain PDO status for prošek in 2013, the year it joined the EU. This was declined by the European Commission, <a href="https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/E-7-2013-006284-ASW_EN.html">which noted</a> at that time that the registration could conflict with prosecco – even though the two products are completely different. </p>
<p>The Balkan state <a href="https://hr.n1info.com/english/agriculture-minister-italian-prosecco-and-croatian-prosek-are-not-the-same-wine/">is stressing</a> that prošek is part of the country’s heritage, dating back to before Roman times. The Croatian wine has been <a href="https://brill.com/view/book/edcoll/9789004438316/BP000025.xml">traditionally produced</a> domestically – made according to family recipes. It is common that when children are born in Croatia, the parents keep that year’s prošek to be consumed on their offspring’s wedding day. </p>
<p>What prošek doesn’t have is the international commercial brand of prosecco, whose <a href="https://www.repubblica.it/sapori/2021/01/13/news/vino_2020_prosecco_500_milioni_bottiglie_vendute-282316740/">sales have</a> been <a href="https://news.italianfood.net/2020/06/04/prosecco-pdo-is-doing-well-in-italy-and-abroad/">rising strongly</a> in spite of the pandemic. There was a <a href="https://www.dissapore.com/notizie/prosecco-nel-2021-esportazioni-da-record/">17% increase</a> in exports of prosecco in the first four months of 2021, with <a href="https://www.ilsole24ore.com/art/e-l-anno-prosecco-crescita-record-super-e-vendite-online-AESrtTK?refresh_ce=1">total production</a> of more than 600 million bottles a year. </p>
<p>Prosecco, too, is part of a very long tradition. This dry sparkling wine comes from north-eastern Italy, in the Veneto and Friuli Venezia Giulia regions, including the area around the village of Prosecco (which gave the wine its name). In the old days it was also known as <em>pucinum</em>, taking the name of a nearby castle, and the Roman natural philosopher <a href="https://studyhowandwhy.altervista.org/the-wines-mentioned-in-pliny-the-elder-natural-history/">Gaius Plinius Secundus</a> wrote that the Roman empress Augusta <a href="https://www.belecasel.com/en/2015/05/22/prosecco-history-livia-pucinum/">attributed her longevity</a> to drinking no other wine but this one. </p>
<h2>What the law says</h2>
<p>Anyone granted a PDO enjoys strong protection within the EU, as they are allowed to prevent others from using and registering names which could confuse consumers as to the true origin of the product. They can also prevent other producers from exploiting the “evocative power” of the brand, including by translating them into other languages. </p>
<p>If Italy can persuade the European Commission that the average EU consumer may believe that prosěk is sold by the Italian producers of prosecco (and thus be confused), or that prosěk is effectively the translated Croatian term for prosecco, it should be successful in blocking Croatia’s application. Italy has now 60 days from the date Croatia’s application was submitted on September 22 to file a formal opposition.</p>
<p>It is hard to imagine that allowing prosěk to be registered in the EU would do any damage to prosecco sales. Yet <a href="https://www.italy24news.com/local/187935.html">Italians fear</a> that if the commission grants equivalent status to prošek, it could set a dangerous precedent that could leave room for a proliferation of foreign “Italian-sounding” products, <a href="https://www.italy24news.com/local/187935.html">as noted</a> by Italy’s agriculture minister, Stefano Patuanelli. Also, Paolo de Castro, an Italian member of the European parliament, <a href="https://www.thelocal.it/20210708/prosecco-wars-italy-protests-croatias-bid-for-special-status-for-its-prosek-wine/">has protested</a> that “prosěk is nothing but the translation … of the name ‘prosecco’”.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-italy-croatia-wine/an-echo-of-prosecco-italy-vows-to-block-eu-label-for-croatias-prosek-wine-idUKKBN2GB1WZ">The commission has</a> justified the Croatian application on the grounds that two similar-sounding names can both be protected in principle, so long as confusion can be avoided. This is arguably what Croatia will also point out during the proceedings, in addition to highlighting the centuries-old history of their wine.</p>
<p>Nonetheless, existing case law could strengthen Italy’s chances of winning. In 2008, the European court of justice (ECJ) <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/feb/26/italy.germany">ruled that</a> the use of the term parmesan by German cheesemakers for their version of the famous hard cheese was an illegal evocative translation of Italy’s parmigiano. And just a few weeks ago, the same court <a href="https://www.dw.com/en/eu-court-backs-champagne-producers-against-spanish-champanillo/a-59133098">found that</a> a tapas chain using the term champanillo – a Spanish expression for “little champagne” – would make consumers believe that the sparkling wine on sale had a link to French champagne.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/423321/original/file-20210927-19-1j0rw6r.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Bowl of parmesan cheese next to a couple of wedges" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/423321/original/file-20210927-19-1j0rw6r.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/423321/original/file-20210927-19-1j0rw6r.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423321/original/file-20210927-19-1j0rw6r.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423321/original/file-20210927-19-1j0rw6r.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423321/original/file-20210927-19-1j0rw6r.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423321/original/file-20210927-19-1j0rw6r.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423321/original/file-20210927-19-1j0rw6r.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Strictly Italian.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/gourmet-organic-parmesan-cheese-on-background-152999969">Brent Hofacker</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Another EU case which Italy could rely on is the <a href="https://florastable.com/2013/05/08/european-wine-wars-after-tocai-it-is-the-time-of-prosek-and-teran/">2005 tokaji dispute</a>. Tokaji is a Hungarian dessert wine, and the court ruled that Italian winemakers from the Friuli Venezia Giulia region had to stop using the name tocai for the dry white wine because of the <a href="https://www.foodnavigator.com/Article/2004/12/27/Are-Tokay-and-Tocai-really-a-threat-to-Hungary-s-Tokaji-wine">potential for confusion</a>. </p>
<p>Given that Friuli Venezia Giulia is one of the two main regions that make prosecco, it would be ironic if one ruling against one set of Italian winemakers now ended up benefiting some others.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/168759/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Croatia is seeking EU protection for its ancient dessert wine prošek. Prosecco makers are having none of it, however.Enrico Bonadio, Reader in Intellectual Property Law, City, University of LondonMagali Contardi, PhD Candidate, Intellectual Property Law, Universidad de AlicanteLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1641242021-07-13T09:55:57Z2021-07-13T09:55:57ZBrut force: how Putin’s champagne label law could spark a trademark dispute with France<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/410784/original/file-20210712-17-f95od5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=18%2C6%2C4148%2C2679&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/glasses-champagne-522450400">Shebeko/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Earlier this month, Russian President Vladimir Putin signed an <a href="http://publication.pravo.gov.ru/Document/View/0001202107020089?index=3&rangeSize=1">amendment</a> to a federal law reserving the use of the Russian term for champagne – Шампанское (shampanskoye) – to sparkling wines produced in Russia. </p>
<p>Putin’s move has caused a stir with French producers, as it will require them to use the generic term “sparkling wine” on the back of their bottles sold in Russia.</p>
<p>“Sovietskoïé shampanskoye” is the <a href="https://www.liberation.fr/international/europe/champagne-sovietique-et-guerre-des-appellations-20210705_5QVD5H3UTRGJJKSFBU56RSE33I/">Russian word</a> established under Stalin rule in the 1920s that describes a cheap and low quality sparkling wine available in Russia. Its <a href="https://www.scmp.com/news/world/europe/article/3140085/france-sees-red-over-russias-sparkling-wine-label-rule-imported">production method</a> is different from the one used in France.</p>
<p>One could argue that obliging French champagne producers to add the generic term “sparkling wine” to their bottles and preventing them from using “shampanskoye” would violate international intellectual property law. It may also be considered discriminatory, as only Russian producers would be able to use the Cyrillic term for champagne.</p>
<p>The Champagne Committee, the trade association that represents the interests of French producers in the Champagne region, <a href="https://www.champagne.fr/assets/files/communique_presse/2021/communiqu%C3%A9-champagne-new-russian-legislation_5.7.2021.pdf">said</a> that banning the use of this internationally protected brand is <a href="https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2021/07/05/french-champagne-houses-cry-foul-over-russian-label-rule-a74431">“scandalous”</a>. The statement noted that the “Champagne” brand is protected in over 120 countries.</p>
<p>The new legislation appears to have been introduced without <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-9756559/Russias-faces-shortage-French-fizz-Putin-says-RUSSIAN-booze-sold-champagne.html?ito=social-twitter_mailonline">expert consultation</a>, and has been widely mocked by champagne drinkers on social media: “Now it’s necessary to ban Scots and Americans from using the word "whisky”, joked <a href="https://www.facebook.com/sergey.mironov.restorator/posts/2699042333727371">restaurateur Sergei Mironov</a>.</p>
<p>Putin’s move has, unsurprisingly, attracted harsh criticism from French champagne producers, who are protected by intellectual property rules established by the World Trade Organization (WTO). These rules – to which Russia is bound – are supposed to give them a strong monopoly over the use of their brand. </p>
<p>Major French producers like <a href="https://www.lvmh.com/houses/wines-spirits/">Moët Hennessy</a> have <a href="https://www.facebook.com/photo/?fbid=10226848664789409&set=a.2275710418980">expressed</a> disappointment about the new provision, followed by a general call from the industry to <a href="https://www.france24.com/en/europe/20210706-amid-champagne-dispute-russian-winemaker-doubts-new-law-will-boost-local-sales">suspend</a> shipments to Russia.</p>
<p>The label change will cost the champagne industry <a href="https://www.rbc.ru/business/04/07/2021/60e1baf99a7947dd3a736c67?">hundreds of thousands of euros</a> to obtain the new certification as well as further laboratory tests, new barcodes and labels for bottles.</p>
<h2>Russian products for Russia</h2>
<p>The Russian market for champagne ranks 15th globally, but it is still <a href="https://www.straitstimes.com/world/europe/battle-of-the-bubbly-french-champagne-makers-incensed-by-russia-law">important</a> because Russians tend to buy expensive bottles. </p>
<p>Russia <a href="https://www.thespiritsbusiness.com/tag/centre-for-the-study-of-federal-and-regional-alcohol-markets/">imports around 50 million litres</a> of sparkling wines and champagnes each year, 13% of which is champagne from France. In 2020, French champagne <a href="https://www.decanter.com/wine-news/french-minister-backs-champagne-over-new-russia-law-461519/">exports</a> to Russia rose by nearly 10% to almost 1.9 million bottles, and were up by around 2% in value, to €35 million (£29.9 million).</p>
<p>Commentators have pointed out that the new rule has a hidden <a href="https://www.rfi.fr/en/france/20210706-france-vows-to-defend-champagne-after-russia-steals-its-name-putin-aoc">protectionist</a> rationale, favouring sparkling wine producers in the south of Russia (Krasnodar) and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/aug/24/crimeas-champagne-makers-hope-to-recreate-the-soviet-glory-days">Crimea</a> (which was annexed by Russia in 2014). The Association of Russian makers of sparkling wines <a href="http://sparkling-union.ru/eng/">stated</a> that around 250 million of their bottles are sold annually in the domestic market.</p>
<p>This is not the first time Russia has introduced measures favouring national manufacturers. In 2014, imports of foreign foods like Parmesan and Gouda cheeses and Iberian ham were <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/food/horizontal-topics/international-affairs/eu-russia-sps-issues/russian-import-ban-eu-products_en">restricted</a> to promote local producers. And in 2017, a <a href="https://www.rbth.com/news/2017/01/01/new-regulations-on-russias-alcohol-market-go-into-effect-on-new-years-day-2017_673418">law</a> was introduced raising excise duty on foreign sparkling wines.</p>
<h2>A WTO dispute in sight?</h2>
<p>France’s foreign trade minister Franck Riester <a href="https://twitter.com/franckriester/status/1412435356990033929">raised</a> the possibility of starting a legal action against Russia at the WTO to defend the interests of French champagne producers. </p>
<p>The EU sided with France: “We will do everything necessary to protect our rights and take the necessary steps”, European Commission spokeswoman Miriam Garcia Ferrer <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/french-champagne-industry-group-fumes-over-new-russian-champagne-law-2021-07-05/">said</a>. </p>
<p>The WTO treaty which protects brands explicitly prohibits states from introducing special requirements – such as the obligation to translate a brand to the local language – that would “unjustifiably encumber” the use of such trademarks.</p>
<p>This rule was <a href="https://theconversation.com/australias-decisive-win-on-plain-packaging-paves-way-for-other-countries-to-follow-suit-140553">unsuccessfully invoked</a> by opponents of an Australian measure introduced in 2012, which requires tobacco manufacturers to remove colourful, eye-catching logos from their packaging. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/champagne-four-founding-myths-of-a-global-icon-89781">Champagne: four founding myths of a global icon</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The countries which opposed the new law, backed by major tobacco brands, claimed that imposing this requirement is akin to a government unfairly stripping private business of their trademarks, and could also mislead consumers and retailers. The WTO courts did not agree, saying instead that the law was a justifiable measure aimed at discouraging consumption of a harmful and deadly product. </p>
<p>In another WTO case, the US objected to an Indonesian programme requiring companies seeking national subsidies for car production to register and use a trademark with Indonesian character. The WTO court <a href="https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/cases_e/1pagesum_e/ds55sum_e.pdf">rejected</a> the US claim that the measure was an unjustifiable encumbrance on the use of brands, saying that no requirement had been imposed on US car manufacturers, as the entry into the programme was voluntary and optional.</p>
<p>But the new Russian law on labelling of sparkling wine is different. It doesn’t seem to have been passed with a clear public health interest in mind, nor can French champagne makers avoid the labelling requirements by opting out. What it appears to do instead is satisfy the interest of Russian producers to be protected and insulated from the fierce competition of French champagne makers.</p>
<p>If France and the EU do file a complaint at the WTO, they are very likely to prevail. Whether or not a final decision or settlement is reached, the challenge alone would send a global message that jeopardising the cultural and gastronomic heritage embodied in traditional wine and food brands will not be tolerated by producers and their countries.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/164124/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A new Russian law forces French champagne producers to label their products as ‘sparkling wine’.Enrico Bonadio, Reader in Intellectual Property Law, City, University of LondonMagali Contardi, PhD candidate, Intellectual Property Law, Universidad de AlicanteLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1627932021-06-17T16:45:23Z2021-06-17T16:45:23ZHow Bordeaux winemakers are setting their prices after the pandemic<p>After a nightmare year for French vineyards, in which the pandemic saw revenues plunge and winemakers forced to send their unsold wine to distilleries, <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/27/world/europe/france-alsace-wine-coronavirus.html">sometimes to be turned into hand sanitiser</a>, the sector is trying to bounce back.</p>
<p>In Bordeaux, the epicentre of the global fine wine market, the wine harvested during that difficult time has just been through its <em>en primeur</em> campaign, often known as “wine futures” in English.</p>
<p>The <em>en-primeur</em> system dates back to the 18th century, and was modernised in the 1970s to resemble what we know today. Similarly to futures on financial markets, it allows producers to sell their wine while it is still in the barrel. The wine is then finished, bottled and delivered to customers around two years later.</p>
<p>This campaign is run as a finely organised system. Every year, over a week in spring, wine experts will come to Bordeaux to taste the wines and publish their notes and scores. This is followed by a two-month period during which each chateau sells its wine to consumers via an intricate system of brokers, traders and merchants.</p>
<p>This well-oiled machine is nevertheless subject to much uncertainty, which goes beyond the current pandemic. That’s because <em>en-primeur</em> sale involves an unfinished vintage of uncertain quality released into an unknown future economy.</p>
<p>How do wine sellers put a value on this unfinished wine? And what is a fair price for a vintage like 2020? We built an economic model to simulate reasonable release prices for the current campaign.</p>
<h2>Previous campaigns</h2>
<p>In Bordeaux, demand and, therefore, prices depend mainly on quality and less on quantity. Following a price decline between 2011 and 2016, the Bordeaux market rebounded in 2016 due to a great 2015 vintage. This was followed by an even better 2016, for which prices increased substantially but not excessively.</p>
<p>In 2017, vineyards were hit by a <a href="https://www.decanter.com/wine-news/opinion/news-blogs-anson/bordeaux-wine-frost-2017-vintage-383633/">severe frost</a> which caused a 40% drop in the wine harvest. Lower quantities encouraged châteaux to maintain prices close to 2016 despite the quality. Poor sales thus unsurprisingly characterised the 2017 <em>en-primeur</em> campaign.</p>
<p>The 2018 vintage, sold as exceptional, saw significant increases, even though price levels were already very high. While the quality should have generated solid demand, this was not the case – the fault of the châteaux for being too greedy.</p>
<p>Last year, the pandemic and associated lockdowns almost led to the cancellation of the <em>en-primeur</em> campaign for the 2019 vintage. In the end, a postponed, shortened version took place. Perhaps surprisingly, and thanks to exceptional quality and reasonable prices, it was a success.</p>
<p>The pandemic forced the châteaux to make an effort on prices. Here lies the difficulty of this market: sellers had to lower prices to ensure a successful campaign while also being careful not to send too strong a signal to the market at the risk of making the many wines of 2017 and 2018 that were still available unsellable.</p>
<h2>Back to normal?</h2>
<p>The 2020 vintage benefits from more favourable external conditions than 2019, but it is hard to speak of normality yet. This year, tastings took place remotely with samples sent to experts around the world. Tasters and producers met on video calls.</p>
<p>Meanwhile, restaurants in France were completely closed between October 2020 and June 2021, and are only just getting back into business. Uncertainty about the economic recovery remains high.</p>
<p>Still, the situation has improved since last year, fine wine prices have remained solid, and the quality of the 2020 vintage looks excellent. There will be a few great wines that will be the market’s main focus when they are released. But we do not know how the market will react to this unique succession of three excellent vintages in a row. This is unprecedented and raises the question of the market’s capacity to absorb such a considerable volume of high-quality wine so quickly.</p>
<h2>How to determine a fair price</h2>
<p>In a forthcoming study, we proposed a model to estimate the fair price of 69 prestigious Bordeaux wines at the time of their release. The approach considered is based on the principle that prices on the primary markets (<em>en-primeur</em>) and secondary markets (bottles from past vintages) cannot be substantially different.</p>
<p>The model includes variables measuring the economic situation, the quality of the vintage and of the wine concerned, and its volatility (some wines have stable prices whereas others fluctuate strongly).</p>
<p>Below we use this model to estimate the fair prices of these wines for the 2020 vintage and compare them to those already released in the <em>en-primeur</em> market before June 7. The model allows us to explain around 80% of the price variations of these wines.</p>
<p>The model suggests that a price stabilisation relative to the 2019 vintage would be reasonable. And considering the exceptional circumstances surrounding the release of the 2019 vintage, a slight increase (in the order of 5% to 10%) in prices over 2020 compared to 2019 would seem logical.</p>
<p>This table shows the fair release prices – according to our model – and contrasts them with the actual prices for wines, both in euros. All but one of the wines were released at prices above what the model predicts. But the differences are often reasonable.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/406520/original/file-20210615-19-1p5y7wh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Table showing Bordeaux wine prices predicted by economic models, and those set by châteaux" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/406520/original/file-20210615-19-1p5y7wh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/406520/original/file-20210615-19-1p5y7wh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=318&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/406520/original/file-20210615-19-1p5y7wh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=318&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/406520/original/file-20210615-19-1p5y7wh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=318&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/406520/original/file-20210615-19-1p5y7wh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/406520/original/file-20210615-19-1p5y7wh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/406520/original/file-20210615-19-1p5y7wh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jean-Philippe Weisskopf, Philippe Masset</span>, <span class="license">Fourni par l'auteur</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Yet some wines seem very expensive compared to our model’s prediction, including Château La Mondotte from the famous Saint-Emilion region and Léoville-Barton and Lagrange from Saint-Julien. Some wines that had drastically lowered their prices last year have not increased much this year. This is the case of Malartic-Lagravière in Pessac-Léognan, which, after a drop of more than 20% last year, is content with a 9% increase this year.</p>
<p>At this stage, most of the price increases for the 2020 vintage remain moderate, which is consistent with the model. It suggests that the most significant price increases relative to the 2019 vintage should not exceed 10%, except for a few wines such as rare Pomerols and some of the first growths.</p>
<p>Of the wines that have already finished the <em>en-primeur</em> campaigns, some have increased their prices beyond the suggested threshold. Early market signs suggest that the increases are excessive and have reduced demand for these wines.</p>
<p>With the influx of great vintages in Bordeaux and elsewhere in Europe, it would be wise for those chateaux yet to release their prices not to be overly greedy and maintain attractive prices to ensure a successful campaign. This would be the best way to bring Bordeaux bouncing back after the pandemic.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/162793/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Les auteurs ne travaillent pas, ne conseillent pas, ne possèdent pas de parts, ne reçoivent pas de fonds d'une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n'ont déclaré aucune autre affiliation que leur organisme de recherche.</span></em></p>We built an economic model to predict the prices of the 2020 vintage in France’s most prestigious wine region – here’s what we found.Jean-Philippe Weisskopf, Associate Professor of Finance, École hôtelière de Lausanne, Haute école spécialisée de Suisse occidentale (HES-SO)Philippe Masset, Professeur associé, Haute école spécialisée de Suisse occidentale (HES-SO)Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1553932021-04-06T16:57:00Z2021-04-06T16:57:00ZWomen empowerment and peer support in the wine industry: community and resilience<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/391138/original/file-20210323-2323-1me0vxt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C96%2C4608%2C3111&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Lismore Estate, Greyton, South Africa.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author provided</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Whether they are winemakers, winery owners, cellar managers or sommeliers, women entrepreneurs are increasingly entering the wine industry, evolving in this traditionally masculine world. This trend is noticeable in both the old world and new world wine-producing countries. </p>
<p>Over the last three years, we conducted <a href="https://www.forbes.fr/femmes-at-forbes/les-femmes-entrepreneures-dans-le-monde-du-vin-entre-adaptation-et-creativite/">several studies</a> and <a href="https://www.em-strasbourg.com/fr/actualites/les-femmes-entrepreneurs-dans-le-monde-du-vin">conferences</a> in South Africa and France that provided a range of observations and analysis.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/390592/original/file-20210319-15-jg5blh.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/390592/original/file-20210319-15-jg5blh.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390592/original/file-20210319-15-jg5blh.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390592/original/file-20210319-15-jg5blh.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390592/original/file-20210319-15-jg5blh.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390592/original/file-20210319-15-jg5blh.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390592/original/file-20210319-15-jg5blh.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Irène de Fleuriot Waller of La Bri Estate.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author provided</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In South Africa’s Cape region, we discovered the importance given by women in the wine industry to promoting the social and economic development and integration of less-educated women. One example is Irène de Fleuriot Waller, from <a href="https://www.labri.co.za/">La Bri Estate</a> in Franshhoek, who employs a team of women in her boutique. </p>
<p>Samantha O'Keefe, owner of <a href="https://www.lismore.co.za/">Lismore Estate</a> in Greyton, always hires women for specific times and tasks during the harvests. In so doing, they contribute to the economic integration and empowerment of women in South Africa. Another example is Hanneli Smit, founder of <a href="https://vinlab.com/">VinLab</a>, who employs and manages a woman-only team. For her, this choice is simpler.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/390594/original/file-20210319-17-xr0qqy.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/390594/original/file-20210319-17-xr0qqy.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390594/original/file-20210319-17-xr0qqy.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390594/original/file-20210319-17-xr0qqy.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390594/original/file-20210319-17-xr0qqy.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390594/original/file-20210319-17-xr0qqy.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390594/original/file-20210319-17-xr0qqy.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Samantha O'Keefe - Lismore Estate.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author provided</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In a 2016 study on <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319342707_An_understanding_of_peer_support_in_an_effectual_entrepreneurial_process_case_of_French_wine-entrepreneurs">entrepreneurs in the French wine industry</a>, we found that collaboration and peer support plays an important role. Those interviewed collaborate and partner with multiple stakeholders, enhancing the development of their business. In particular, they built links with those who share a common identity as well as similar practices and/or geographical proximity. Peer support is based on sharing experiences, practices, common and complementary knowledge.</p>
<p>Working with other wine entrepreneurs allows them to generate ideas that they would not have had otherwise. More specifically, women in the wine industry rely on shared communities such as <a href="http://www.divinesdalsace.com/">DiVINes d’Alsace</a>. Céline Metz of <a href="http://hubertmetz.com/the-estate/">Hubert Metz Estate</a> says: “Collaborations and exchanges allow us to gain agility and reactivity”. These communities favour mutual assistance, creating synergies. These “entrepreneurial collaborations” often transform themselves into long-term bonds that benefits all, as highlighted Christina Augarde from Château Peyrelongue: “Entrepreneurship is a collective job”.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/390652/original/file-20210319-13-1iwdcol.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/390652/original/file-20210319-13-1iwdcol.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390652/original/file-20210319-13-1iwdcol.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390652/original/file-20210319-13-1iwdcol.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390652/original/file-20210319-13-1iwdcol.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=495&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390652/original/file-20210319-13-1iwdcol.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=495&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390652/original/file-20210319-13-1iwdcol.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=495&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Ronell Wiid, Bartinney.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author provided</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Uncertainty as a driver of adaptation</h2>
<p>With diverse backgrounds, women wine entrepreneurs create their projects based on their personal identity and personality. They build on their assets and rely on skills acquired during their studies and/or previous professional achievements, thus opening themselves to the field of possibilities. </p>
<p>Uncertainty is inherent to wine business but it is considered by women wine entrepreneurs, both in France and in South Africa, as a springboard for their entrepreneurial project development. Nature is sometimes unpredictable but Nadia Barnard, winemaker at the <a href="https://www.waterkloofwines.co.za/wines/">Waterkloof Estate</a> in Somerset West focuses on simple aspects: being present, and tasting the wine. </p>
<p>As Carla Pauw, founder of <a href="https://saltarewines.co.za/">Saltare Wines</a>, says: “You have only one chance in a year to make the wine and it takes time. Control what you can”. </p>
<p>Uncertainty can be uncomfortable, but as points out Christina Augarde of <a href="https://en.chateaupeyrelongue.fr/">Château Peyrelongue</a> in Saint Emilion: “It should not be seen as an obstacle in itself, but a driving force for adaptation”. This allows women wine entrepreneurs to unlearn habits and be able to evolve toward new ways of working and thinking.</p>
<h2>Work-life balance: international similarities</h2>
<p>Work-life balance can be difficult in the wine industry since personal and professional space can be intermingled – wine entrepreneurs often live on their estates, after all. The overall objective for those interviewed, in both France and South Africa, is to find some kind of balance – even if this balance does not mean the same for all women. </p>
<p>Those interviewed said that they often struggle to find time for themselves, between their professional responsibilities and personal time. This is what is shared by Ntsiki Biyela, founder of <a href="https://www.aslinawines.com/">Aslina Wines</a>: “It is a necessity to take time for ourselves, even if it’s not simple”. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/390595/original/file-20210319-13-ut4f13.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/390595/original/file-20210319-13-ut4f13.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390595/original/file-20210319-13-ut4f13.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390595/original/file-20210319-13-ut4f13.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390595/original/file-20210319-13-ut4f13.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390595/original/file-20210319-13-ut4f13.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390595/original/file-20210319-13-ut4f13.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Ntsiki Biyela of Aslina Wines.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author provided</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For some women we met, wine is a family story: Jocelyn Hogan Wilson started <a href="https://hoganwines.co.za/">Hogan Wines</a> with her father and took a sabbatical year when she had her second child. Says Nina-Mari Bruwer: “The more you do, the more you get done”, meaning that, as a working mother of two and co-owner of a winery, you always have something to take care of. Her father owned a cellar and her husband is the sixth generation of Mont Blois winery in Robertson. </p>
<h2>Resilience, creativity and innovation</h2>
<p>Women wine entrepreneurs are also able to assess what they are willing to lose when facing difficult choices. Says Ntsiki Biyela: “It is necessary not to focus on the ‘what ifs’ that don’t make you go forward”. By making sense and transforming one’s environment, it makes it possible to be an actor of one’s future. “Opportunities are like a wheel, you have to be ready to take them”, said VinLab’s Hanneli Smit. By learning how to recognise and seize opportunities, the entrepreneurs interviewed reduced uncertainty, enhanced their creativity and built their resilience, allowing them to pursue their entrepreneurial projects more efficiently.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/390650/original/file-20210319-15-olad33.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/390650/original/file-20210319-15-olad33.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390650/original/file-20210319-15-olad33.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390650/original/file-20210319-15-olad33.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390650/original/file-20210319-15-olad33.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390650/original/file-20210319-15-olad33.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390650/original/file-20210319-15-olad33.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Carla Pauw of Saltare Wines.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author provided</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Ronell Wiid, from <a href="https://www.bartinney.co.za/">Bartinney Wines</a>, goes even further: “Creativity is a way to deal with uncertainty”. </p>
<p>The Covid-19 pandemic has encouraged wineries to rethink their business models. Céline Metz has integrated digital marketing innovations in the Hubert Metz Estate’s wine tourism by creating a virtual wine-tasting experience. When customers buy six bottles, they can attend an online tasting session with Céline explaining the different wines. In so doing, she says she was able to “change lemon into lemonade”, leveraging events outside of her control. For women wine entrepreneurs, action and creativity are ways of dealing with uncertainty.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/155393/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Juliane Santoni holds a Ph.D in Management Sciences, Entrepreneurship. She is a researcher, psychotherapist and the founder of the programme Entrepreneurial Mindset Evolution Mentorship® designed to provide strategic and psychological support for entrepreneurs. She founded an incubator in 2013 and led research studies in France, Australia and South Africa. She gives lectures and conferences on entrepreneurship, change, entrepreneurs' psychology and created several actions to develop women's entrepreneurship.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Coralie Haller is an Associate-Professor at EM Strasbourg Business School, University of Strasbourg. She teaches in different Wine and Tourism program in France and Australia. Her research projects have been published in academic and professional Journals.
She has founded and is heading the Corporate Chair in Wine and Tourism. She has co-founded InvinoTECH(r). She is member of the national Federation of Women in Tourisme and Alsace Association of Women in Wine. </span></em></p>Whether they are winemakers, winery owners, cellar managers or sommeliers, women entrepreneurs are evolving in the wine industry - a traditional men’s world.Juliane Santoni, Chercheuse associée, spécialisée en Entrepreneuriat et Innovation, Burgundy School of Business Coralie Haller, Enseignant-Chercheur, EM Strasbourg, Université de StrasbourgLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1257932019-11-25T21:47:11Z2019-11-25T21:47:11ZThank fungi for cheese, wine and beer this holiday season<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/303049/original/file-20191121-113012-1yidb57.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">These foods are all dependent on microorganisms for their distinctive flavor.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/assorted-winebread-cheese-328891478">margouillat photo/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s hard to imagine a holiday table without bread, meat, vegetables, wine, beer or a board of French cheeses for those with more adventurous palates. Savoring these delicacies with family and friends is part of what makes the holidays so much fun.</p>
<p>These foods and drinks are courtesy of the domestication of several different animals, plants and microbes. Plant and animal domestication has been well studied, since it is thought to have been <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nature01019">the most momentous change</a> in recent human history. </p>
<p>Scientists know much less about the domestication of microbes, however, and as a result, society fails to appreciate their pivotal contributions to the foods and drinks that we enjoy all year long.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.rokaslab.org">I am an evolutionary biologist studying fungi</a>, a group of microbes whose domestication has given us <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2012.05.033">many tasty products</a>. I’ve long been fascinated by two questions: What are the genetic changes that led to their domestication? And how on Earth did our ancestors figure out how to domesticate them? </p>
<p>Curious too? Recent studies shed light on these questions, so grab some Camembert cheese and a beer, and keep on reading.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/303546/original/file-20191125-74567-z91mmt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/303546/original/file-20191125-74567-z91mmt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/303546/original/file-20191125-74567-z91mmt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=252&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303546/original/file-20191125-74567-z91mmt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=252&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303546/original/file-20191125-74567-z91mmt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=252&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303546/original/file-20191125-74567-z91mmt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=317&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303546/original/file-20191125-74567-z91mmt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=317&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303546/original/file-20191125-74567-z91mmt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=317&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Thank the large variety of microbes, including fungi, for this assortment of international cheeses.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/large-assortment-international-cheese-specialities-on-1094617058">Umomos/Shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The hybrids in your lager</h2>
<p>As far as domestication is concerned, it is hard to top the honing of brewer’s yeast. The cornerstone of the baking, brewing and wine-making industries, brewer’s yeast has the remarkable ability to turn the sugars of plant fruits and grains into alcohol. How did brewer’s yeast evolve this flexibility?</p>
<p>By discovering new yeast species and sequencing their genomes, scientists know that some yeasts used in brewing are hybrids; that is, they’re descendants of ancient mating unions of individuals from two different yeast species. Hybrids tend to resemble both parental species – <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/14/science/14creatures.html">think of wholpins (whale-dolphin) or ligers (lion-tiger)</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/302549/original/file-20191119-111697-fwhfmi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/302549/original/file-20191119-111697-fwhfmi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/302549/original/file-20191119-111697-fwhfmi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/302549/original/file-20191119-111697-fwhfmi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/302549/original/file-20191119-111697-fwhfmi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/302549/original/file-20191119-111697-fwhfmi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/302549/original/file-20191119-111697-fwhfmi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cells of the mighty brewer’s yeast, the cornerstone of the baking, brewing and wine making industries.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">wikipedia</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For example, lager beer yeasts are hybrids of two closely related species: <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1105430108">the brewer’s yeast <em>Saccharomyces cerevisiae</em> and <em>Saccharomyces eubayanus</em></a>. <em>Saccharomyces cerevisiae</em> produces tasty beers, such as the British ales, but grows better at warmer temperatures. In contrast, <em>Saccharomyces eubayanus</em> grows better in the cold but produces compounds that taint the beer’s flavor. Lager yeast hybrids combine the best of both - good flavors from <em>Saccharomyces cerevisiae</em> and growth at colder temperatures, thanks to <em>Saccharomyces eubayanus</em>. This makes these hybrids great for brewing beer in the cold winters of Europe, where lagers were invented. </p>
<p>Researchers have also discovered <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/yea.3283">natural hybrids from the union of other <em>Saccharomyces</em> species</a>. What is still unknown is whether hybridization is the norm or the exception in the yeasts that humans have used for making fermented beverages for millennia. </p>
<p>To address this question, a team led by <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-019-0998-8">graduate student Quinn Langdon at the University of Wisconsin</a> and another team led by <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-019-0997-9">postdoctoral fellow Brigida Gallone at the Universities of Ghent and Leuven in Belgium</a> examined the genomes of hundreds of yeasts involved in brewing and wine making. Their bottom line? Hybrids rule.</p>
<p>For example, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-019-0997-9">a quarter of yeasts collected from industrial environments</a>, including beer and wine manufacturers, are hybrids. </p>
<p>Amazingly, some hybrids trace their origins to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-019-0998-8">three or four different parental species</a>. Why all this hybridization?, you may ask. Much like the lager hybrids, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-019-0997-9">these newly discovered hybrids differ in what they like to eat and how quickly they grow</a>. These preferences, which come courtesy of hybridization, influence not only how people use them in brewing but also the flavor profiles of the resulting brews.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/303531/original/file-20191125-74557-j2ezdo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/303531/original/file-20191125-74557-j2ezdo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303531/original/file-20191125-74557-j2ezdo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303531/original/file-20191125-74557-j2ezdo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303531/original/file-20191125-74557-j2ezdo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303531/original/file-20191125-74557-j2ezdo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303531/original/file-20191125-74557-j2ezdo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This assortment of beer styles and flavors comes courtesy of brewer’s yeasts and their fondness for hybridization.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/refreshing-cold-craft-beer-assortment-ipa-1264196215">Brent Hofacker/Shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The mutants in your cheese</h2>
<p>Comparing the genomes of domesticated fungi to their wild relatives helps scientists understand the genetic changes that gave rise to some favorite foods and drinks. But how did our ancestors actually domesticate these wild fungi? None of us was there to witness how it all started. To solve this mystery, scientists are experimenting with wild fungi to see if they can evolve into organisms resembling those that we use to make our food today. </p>
<p><a href="https://sites.tufts.edu/wolfelab/">Benjamin Wolfe, a microbiologist at Tufts University, and his team</a> addressed this question by taking wild <em>Penicillium</em> mold and growing the samples for one month in his lab on a substance that included cheese. That may sound like a short period for people, but it is one that spans many generations for fungi.</p>
<p>The wild fungi are very closely related to fungal strains used by the cheese industry in the making of Camembert cheese, but look very different from them. For example, wild strains are green and smell, well, moldy compared to the white and odorless industrial strains.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/302557/original/file-20191119-111686-cpbzko.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/302557/original/file-20191119-111686-cpbzko.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/302557/original/file-20191119-111686-cpbzko.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=455&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/302557/original/file-20191119-111686-cpbzko.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=455&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/302557/original/file-20191119-111686-cpbzko.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=455&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/302557/original/file-20191119-111686-cpbzko.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=572&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/302557/original/file-20191119-111686-cpbzko.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=572&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/302557/original/file-20191119-111686-cpbzko.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=572&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Colonies of <em>Penicillium</em> mold isolated from a blue cheese. The white colony is a domesticated version of the wild mold.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Benjamin Wolfe</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For Wolfe, the big question was whether he could experimentally recreate, and to what degree, the process of domestication. What did the wild strains look and smell like after a month of growth on cheese? Remarkably, what he and his team found was that, at the end of the experiment, the wild strains looked much more similar to known industrial strains than to their wild ancestor. For example, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1128/mBio.02445-19">they were white in color and smelled much less moldy</a>. </p>
<p>Fungi spend a lot of energy producing pigments and pungent compounds that enable them to compete and defend themselves. Living comfortably on a diet of cheese and safe from predators means that losing the ability to produce, say, pigments may actually be advantageous. That’s because the energy saved can instead be spent toward growth of the fungal colony.</p>
<p>But how did the wild strain turn into a domesticated version? Did it mutate? By sequencing the genomes of both the wild ancestors and the domesticated descendants, and measuring the activity of the genes while growing on cheese, Wolfe’s team figured out that these changes <a href="https://doi.org/10.1128/mBio.02445-19">did not happen through mutations in the organisms’ genomes</a>. Rather, they most likely occurred through <a href="https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/primer/howgeneswork/epigenome">chemical alterations that modify the activity of specific genes</a> but don’t actually change the genetic code. Such so-called <a href="https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/primer/howgeneswork/epigenome">epigenetic modifications</a> can occur much faster than mutations. The path toward domestication appears to be quicker than previously thought, which will perhaps encourage adventurous cheese makers to begin experimenting with domesticating wild fungi for new flavors.</p>
<p>While you savor your favorite foods and beverages this holiday season, spare a thought for these microscopic fungi, how they evolved their mighty powers and how much more bland our world would be without them.</p>
<p>[ <em>Like what you’ve read? Want more?</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=likethis">Sign up for The Conversation’s daily newsletter</a>. ]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/125793/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Antonis Rokas and his laboratory receives funding from the National Science Foundation, the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation, the Burroughs Wellcome Trust, the National Institutes of Health, the Beckman Scholars Program, the March of Dimes, the Howard Hughes Medical Institute, and Vanderbilt University.</span></em></p>Bread. Yeast. Wine. Cheese. All these delicious foods are courtesy of various forms of domesticated fungi. So how, exactly, did humans tame wild fungi into the cooperative species that make our food?Antonis Rokas, Cornelius Vanderbilt Chair in Biological Sciences and Professor of Biological Sciences and Biomedical Informatics, Vanderbilt UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1229752019-09-05T18:41:15Z2019-09-05T18:41:15ZUS tariffs on French wine: big talk, potentially unintended consequences<p>French wine has been the subject of an ongoing trade dispute between the United States and the European Union, and it’s one that doesn’t show signs of cooling off. In November 2018 President Donald Trump threatened to <a href="https://twitter.com/realdonaldtrump/status/1062331024426913792">increase US tariffs on French wine</a>, and in July he <a href="https://twitter.com/realdonaldtrump/status/1154791664625606657">repeated the threat</a>, this time in response to France’s proposed <a href="https://www.gouvernement.fr/en/gafa-tax-a-major-step-towards-a-fairer-and-more-efficient-tax-system">“GAFA tax”</a>.</p>
<p>In Trump’s November 2018 tweet, he stated, “On Trade, France makes excellent wine, but so does the US” This is reminiscent of what US president Thomas Jefferson wrote in a <a href="https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/99-01-02-8329">1808 letter</a>: “We could, in the United States, make as great a variety of wines as are made in Europe, not exactly of the same kinds, but doubtless as good.” Trump and Jefferson differ in their tone, but both suggest that the US and France both make excellent wines, and that there may be a role for the US government in boosting the domestic industry. Whether tariffs are the way to do it is a separate question, however, and deserves analysis.</p>
<h2>Taxes, but not the same ones</h2>
<p>Wine leads the way when it comes to agricultural trade between the United States and the European Union. In 2018, EU wine exports to the US totaled <a href="https://ustr.gov/countries-regions/europe-middle-east/europe/european-union">5.6 billion euros</a>, nearly 27% of total imports for the sector. </p>
<p>While the European Union and United States both apply significant tariffs on wine imports, they’re fundamentally different: EU rates are higher for bottled products and sparkling wines, while the US tariffs are higher for bulk wines. Trade in wine is also affected by “nontariff barriers”, a range of domestic support measures and regulations in both regions. The EU has had a long history of supporting wine grape production, which is heavily regulated. In the US, state-level regulations govern the sale and distribution of wine, ultimately increasing costs to EU exporters.</p>
<p><a href="https://dataweb.usitc.gov/tariff/database">Published tariff rates</a> remind us that European tariffs are higher on commercial premium (low-value bottled products), super premium (high-value bottled products), and sparkling wines, yet it is the opposite when it comes to bulk wine where average US tariffs are higher than the ones applied by the EU.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/290941/original/file-20190904-175696-13hg6yy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/290941/original/file-20190904-175696-13hg6yy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=223&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290941/original/file-20190904-175696-13hg6yy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=223&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290941/original/file-20190904-175696-13hg6yy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=223&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290941/original/file-20190904-175696-13hg6yy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=280&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290941/original/file-20190904-175696-13hg6yy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=280&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290941/original/file-20190904-175696-13hg6yy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=280&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://dataweb.usitc.gov/tariff/database">TARIC, USITC</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>While it is true that tariffs on bottled wine imported in the United States are lower than tariffs on bottled wine imported in France, it is important to remember that French tariffs are decided by the European Union, not France. Moreover, the tariffs are applied in the same way to all non-EU countries that belong to the WTO – the United States, certainly, but all other WTO members as well. These tariffs are the result of the EU complying with the WTO rules agreed to in 1995 to reduce agricultural tariffs by at least 15% and on average by 36% from tariffs pre-1995.</p>
<h2>Winners and losers</h2>
<p>Any change in tariffs between the United States and the EU has the capacity to affect trade and will lead to changes in welfare among stakeholders in this sector. Increasing US tariffs on French wines will also increase them on wines from Spain, Portugal, Italy, and Germany. Ultimately this will increase the cost to import wines into the United States and this added cost will fall on European exporters, US importers, and US consumers, while the US government will collect additional tariff revenue.</p>
<p>Our <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00036846.2017.1386278?journalCode=raec20">2018 research</a> examined how changes in US and European tariffs and domestic regulations would affect the key stakeholders in the wine industry. Results suggest that modest increases in US tariffs would increase profits for US wine producers and impose costs on US wine consumers, with a net decrease in US welfare. Overall, however, it would not have a substantial effect in the US market in the short run.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/290945/original/file-20190904-175663-1pbhlai.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/290945/original/file-20190904-175663-1pbhlai.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290945/original/file-20190904-175663-1pbhlai.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290945/original/file-20190904-175663-1pbhlai.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290945/original/file-20190904-175663-1pbhlai.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290945/original/file-20190904-175663-1pbhlai.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290945/original/file-20190904-175663-1pbhlai.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Higher US tariffs on French wines would penalize European exporters, US importers, and US consumers. Here, barrels of white Bordeaux wine age at the Chateau de Rochemorin, Martillac, France.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=5397972">Elfabriciodelamancha/Wikimedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The China connection</h2>
<p>The United States isn’t the only customer for EU wine producers, of course, and Trump’s threats of tariffs could have unintended consequences in global market – particularly in the context of the ongoing trade disputes with China. </p>
<p>In response to US tariffs on steel and other products, China has imposed three rounds of duties on American wine, and the effective rate is now <a href="https://www.wineinstitute.org/resources/pressroom/051320190">close to 100%</a>. The Chinese wine market is currently not a major one for US exporters, but it could be given the rising interest in wine among Chinese consumers. Currently, the lion’s share of the country’s imports are from Europe, and in particular France. So as US wine becomes more expensive in China thanks to Chinese tariffs, demand for French wines could grow.</p>
<p>Higher US tariffs applied to European wines may thus give EU producers additional incentive to develop their brands in the expanding Chinese market. Although the direct effects of higher US tariffs on EU wines might be negligible in the United States, the indirect effect of losing out in wine market in China could have much bigger consequences for US producers in the long run.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/122975/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Les auteurs ne travaillent pas, ne conseillent pas, ne possèdent pas de parts, ne reçoivent pas de fonds d'une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n'ont déclaré aucune autre affiliation que leur organisme de recherche.</span></em></p>French wine is the subject of an ongoing trade dispute between the US and EU, but tariffs could have impacts not intended by US president Donald Trump.Florine Livat, Associate Professor of Economics, Kedge Business SchoolBradley Rickard, Associate Professor of Applied Economics and Management, Cornell UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1196122019-07-17T17:26:46Z2019-07-17T17:26:46ZPink passion: rosé on the rise as millennials dictate new wine codes<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281803/original/file-20190628-94696-mx79vy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C34%2C3255%2C2087&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Rosé has become one of the millenials' favorite drinks in just a few years. Why?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/02rhSkQndPw">Vincenzo Landino/Unsplash</a></span></figcaption></figure><figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281747/original/file-20190628-94684-107j6ra.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281747/original/file-20190628-94684-107j6ra.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=582&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281747/original/file-20190628-94684-107j6ra.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=582&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281747/original/file-20190628-94684-107j6ra.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=582&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281747/original/file-20190628-94684-107j6ra.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=731&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281747/original/file-20190628-94684-107j6ra.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=731&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281747/original/file-20190628-94684-107j6ra.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=731&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Save water, drink rosé.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://i.etsystatic.com/11598941/r/il/e55cce/1637508089/il_570xN.1637508089_zl8q.jpg">Etsy</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Every July in New York City, thousands of partygoers gather on the lawns of Randall’s Island Park for a huge <a href="https://pinknic.com/about/">“Pinknic”</a>. A regular event since 2016, the two-day festival brings together foodies, musicians, chefs and more, all dedicated to celebrating the summer with a fresh glass of rosé wine in hand. “Save water, drink rosé”, banners read, and the participants do. This year it kicks off on Friday, July 19.</p>
<p>Not just a New York phenomenon, rosé has found admirers across the United States, and it’s official: The second Saturday in June is <a href="https://nationaldaycalendar.com/national-rose-day-second-saturday-in-june/">National Rosé Day</a>. Once an afternoon afterthought, rosé has become a red-white-and-blue favorite: In just a few years, Americans have become the <a href="https://www.franceagrimer.fr/content/download/50475/484847/file/SYN-VIN-2016-observatoire%20vins%20ros%C3%A9s.pdf">second-largest consumers of rosé</a> in the world – after the French.</p>
<p>In 2017 alone, rosé sales in the United States <a href="https://www.beveragedaily.com/Article/2017/06/21/Rose-outpaces-overall-wine-category-for-summer-Nielsen">jumped 53%</a> and the trend continues, partly driven by millennials.</p>
<p>One power couple that was way ahead of the curve was Brad Pitt and Angelina Jolie. While they’ve since divorced, in 2011 the two rosé lovers found common cause and bought the <a href="https://avis-vin.lefigaro.fr/magazine-vin/o109675-le-vin-de-brad-pitt-et-dangelina-jolie-sacre-meilleur-rose-du-monde">Domaine Miraval</a> in France’s Var region. They continue to jointly own the chateau and vineyard, which produces 2 million bottles of rosé a year, and it’s anything but plonk. At a June 2019 charity auction in Nice, a magnum of Muse de Miraval was snapped up for <a href="https://www.nicematin.com/vie-locale/cette-bouteille-de-rose-varoise-devient-la-plus-chere-du-monde-391179">2,600 euros</a> (2,960 dollars), a record.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281687/original/file-20190627-76709-11o28ez.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281687/original/file-20190627-76709-11o28ez.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281687/original/file-20190627-76709-11o28ez.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281687/original/file-20190627-76709-11o28ez.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281687/original/file-20190627-76709-11o28ez.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281687/original/file-20190627-76709-11o28ez.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281687/original/file-20190627-76709-11o28ez.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The rosé wine of Chateau de Miraval, owned by Angelina Jolie and Brad Pitt (photo 2015).</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ch%C3%A2teau_Miraval_01.JPG?uselang=fr">Wikimedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Once dismissed, now cherished</h2>
<p>How can this global success be explained, and what does the sudden passion for rosé reveal?</p>
<p>Once upon a time, rosé wine was regarded as second-rate, and not even worthy of the <a href="https://www.provencewinezine.com/is-rose-a-serious-wine-some-thoughts-on-the-subject/">interest of oenologists</a>. Even as late as the 1980s, it still wasn’t considered a “serious” wine. This is a consequence of its modest origins, and a series of cultural contributions and transitions.</p>
<p>In antiquity, the Phoenicians brought techniques for making a light-bodied wine to Marseilles. Under the Roman Empire, it was known as <em>vinum clarum</em> (clear wine) in Latin, and spread to Bordeaux, then as now a major wine-growing region. After the <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/05/18/day-1152eleanor-aquitaine-marries-henry-ii/">1152 marriage of Eleanor of Aquitaine to Henry Plantagenet</a>, the Duke of Normandy and future King Henry II, Bordeaux wine began to flow north to England. Initially called <em>clairet</em>, it became known as <a href="https://vinepair.com/wine-blog/british-paradox-invention-modern-wine/">claret</a> and scored its first international success, becoming the most consumed wine in Britain until the 19th century. But while rosé was certainly popular, the pedigree wasn’t there – it was a drinking wine above all.</p>
<p>Another reason that rosé may have had a hard time getting respect is that it never received the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imprimatur">monastic imprimatur</a>, authorization given by the Catholic Church, nor were they ever “consecrated” to serve as sacramental wine. They’re therefore absent from the liturgy and the Eucharist. Indeed, <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1990/04/11/garden/sacramental-wine-lowest-profile-of-all.html">sacramental wine is traditionally red</a>, by analogy with the blood of Christ. The Church saw <em>vinum clarum</em> as a profane wine, and its consumption was not imbued with Christian symbolism, nor attached to any table ceremony.</p>
<p>Rosé thus became a popular beverage, almost pagan, and acquired values in opposition to those of red and white wine, which were associated with the nobility and clergy. In the 17th century, when Louis Le Nain painted <a href="http://cartelfr.louvre.fr/cartelfr/visite?srv=car_not_frame&idNotice=14543"><em>Peasant Meal</em></a> (1642), the characters in the painting conspicuously drank a glass of “clear wine” or rosé.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281688/original/file-20190627-76730-mosgf2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281688/original/file-20190627-76730-mosgf2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=463&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281688/original/file-20190627-76730-mosgf2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=463&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281688/original/file-20190627-76730-mosgf2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=463&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281688/original/file-20190627-76730-mosgf2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=582&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281688/original/file-20190627-76730-mosgf2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=582&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281688/original/file-20190627-76730-mosgf2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=582&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"><em>Peasant Meal</em>, Louis Le Nain (1642). A glass of rosé wine is at the center of the image.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Nain_-_Repas_de_paysans_%281642%29.jpg">Wikimedia</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The “codes” of rosé wine</h2>
<p>How rosé wine is perceived and enjoyed today is, in a sense, a direct result of this long and ever so slightly disreputable history. Rosé celebrates youth, the present, the joy of the moment. Despite the high prices that some bottles can fetch, it’s anything but snobbish. Rosé is free from tradition and can be enjoyed cool or cold, with or without ice. By comparison, red wine is traditionally decanted and allowed to breath and warm up slowly to room temperature (unless you’re <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/diane-keaton-launches-red-wine-best-served-over-ice-saying-its-not-fancy-but-neither-am-i-a6687976.html">Diane Keaton</a>, of course).</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/284566/original/file-20190717-147284-kr01vu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/284566/original/file-20190717-147284-kr01vu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=185&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284566/original/file-20190717-147284-kr01vu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=185&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284566/original/file-20190717-147284-kr01vu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=185&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284566/original/file-20190717-147284-kr01vu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=232&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284566/original/file-20190717-147284-kr01vu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=232&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284566/original/file-20190717-147284-kr01vu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=232&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The codes of rosé and red wine.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Because rosé breaks free from the traditional codes of French wine, it delights millennials all over the world. Rosé can be enjoyed during meals or not, at home or outside, at a picnic or in a café. It can be mixed into cocktails, with or without alcohol. It has jumped out of the traditional glass bottle and can be packaged in all forms – even a soda can. Hello Kitty, the Japanese pop-culture icon, has teamed up with an Italian winery to create a sparkling rosé, Château Kitty.</p>
<p>If rosé were software, it would be open source. Each person or each culture can appropriate and transform it in his or her own way.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281689/original/file-20190627-76743-9w0ixc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281689/original/file-20190627-76743-9w0ixc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=269&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281689/original/file-20190627-76743-9w0ixc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=269&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281689/original/file-20190627-76743-9w0ixc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=269&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281689/original/file-20190627-76743-9w0ixc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281689/original/file-20190627-76743-9w0ixc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281689/original/file-20190627-76743-9w0ixc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Hello Kitty wine, produced by Chateau Berthenon in France.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.chateauberthenon.com/en/page.php?page=12#alcool">Chateau Berthenon</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>More than a color, pink is an emotion</h2>
<p>The success of rosé wine owes much to its <a href="https://avis-vin.lefigaro.fr/connaitre-deguster/o8572-la-couleur-du-rose-du-rose-leger-au-rouge-clair">light rosy tone</a>. In French, the term for pink is <em>rose</em>, which refers to both a color and the flower – the Latin <em>rosa</em>. The use of the word <em>rose</em> to designate a color is recent: the dictionary of the Académie Française ignored it completely until its <a href="http://www.seuil.com/ouvrage/rouge-histoire-d-une-couleur-michel-pastoureau/9782021180336">1835 edition</a>.</p>
<p>In French, the color now referred to as <em>rose</em> was once known as <em>incarnat</em>, from the Latin word for flesh. It’s the color of health, fresh cheeks blushing under the effect of emotion. It referred to a range of tones on the spectrum between pink and reddish-orange.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281690/original/file-20190627-76713-10d8ae.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281690/original/file-20190627-76713-10d8ae.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281690/original/file-20190627-76713-10d8ae.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=796&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281690/original/file-20190627-76713-10d8ae.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=796&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281690/original/file-20190627-76713-10d8ae.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=796&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281690/original/file-20190627-76713-10d8ae.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1000&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281690/original/file-20190627-76713-10d8ae.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1000&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281690/original/file-20190627-76713-10d8ae.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1000&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The portrait of Madame de Pompadour, by François Boucher (1759), is a majestic celebration of the color rose.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portrait_de_Madame_de_Pompadour#/media/Fichier:Fran%C3%A7ois_Boucher_017.jpg">François Boucher</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In paintings of the late Middle Ages, the color pink is associated with specific themes – the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Fountain_of_Youth_(Cranach)">fountain of life or of youth</a> and of paradise. In the 18th century, it came to refer to the sensitive, the inner, to the “feeling of self” and to the body. Intimate emotions, the happiness of being and a certain form of naturalness were painted in pink.</p>
<p>The 1759 portrait of Madame de Pompadour by François Boucher is one of the most beautiful examples, richly embodying all of these themes.</p>
<h2>Surfing the pink wave</h2>
<p>The pink we see today has taken up these historical meanings and aligned them with the values of the millennials: It embodies spontaneity, freshness, insouciance, individual freedom. It signals the importance of emotions, well-being and health. This is made explicit by one of the terms for rosé, <em>blush wine</em> – to become red/pink with emotion.</p>
<p>Today rosé wine is surfing on this wave of pink. Nothing escapes it: food, fashion, design, cosmetics, even politics. Rosé wine, “ruby chocolate”, pink salt from the Himalayas…</p>
<p>In October 2016, the site Fashionista featured an article titled: <a href="https://fashionista.com/2016/10/spring-2017-pink-trend">“61 reasons why you will probably, definitely wear pink next spring”</a>. They were right on the money, as Gucci, Balenciaga and Calvin Klein all dedicated their spring-summer 2017 collections to the color.</p>
<h2>Welcome to millennial pink</h2>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281745/original/file-20190628-94684-1lzec77.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281745/original/file-20190628-94684-1lzec77.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=657&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281745/original/file-20190628-94684-1lzec77.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=657&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281745/original/file-20190628-94684-1lzec77.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=657&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281745/original/file-20190628-94684-1lzec77.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=826&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281745/original/file-20190628-94684-1lzec77.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=826&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281745/original/file-20190628-94684-1lzec77.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=826&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Women proudly wear pussyhats on a flight to demonstrate in Washington, DC (2017).</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_Women%27s_March#/media/File:2017.01.20_Alaska_Air_Flight_6_in_Pink_LAX-DCA_00049_(31620242283).jpg">Ted Eytan/Wikimedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There’s even a new pink, <em>millennial pink</em> – neither male nor female, it’s gender fluid. It’s also an affirmative, self-assertive color, as embodied during the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/21/us/womens-march.html">2017 Women’s March protests</a> that took place across the United States in response to the election of Donald Trump.</p>
<p>American artist and singer <a href="https://www.jmonae.com/">Janelle Monáe</a>, muse of millennials, sees pink as a source of life, the origin of the world and its future. The video and lyrics of her song “Pynk”, from the album <em>Dirty Computer</em> (2018), express the sensitivity of our time on the themes of incarnate pink: paradise, emotion, interiority…</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Pink like the paradise found<br>
Pink when you’re blushing inside, baby<br>
Pink is the truth you can’t hide, maybe… <br>
… Pink like the skin that’s under, baby</p>
</blockquote>
<p>When the album was released, a cocktail called “Pynk” was created in Los Angeles. The recipe: rosé, Aperol, gin and grapefruit juice – a perfect way to celebrate summer.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/PaYvlVR_BEc?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Janelle Monáe, “Pynk” (2018).</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p><em>This article was translated from the original French by <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/leighton-kille-173484/">Leighton Walter Kille</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/119612/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Richard C. Delerins ne travaille pas, ne conseille pas, ne possède pas de parts, ne reçoit pas de fonds d'une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n'a déclaré aucune autre affiliation que son organisme de recherche.</span></em></p>The millennials have boosted rosé consumption: in the United States alone, 65% of them declare themselves “rosé drinkers”. How can this overall success be explained?Richard C. Delerins, Anthropologue, Co-directeur du Food 2.0 LAB Paris, chercheur associé au CNRS (ISCC), ESSEC Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1132102019-03-18T12:08:12Z2019-03-18T12:08:12ZBrexit: Europe has changed UK food culture for the better – leaving could turn back the clock<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/263924/original/file-20190314-28475-1ytzj73.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=9%2C0%2C6216%2C4507&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Jamie Oliver has a penchant for pasta.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Scandic Hotels</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When the UK joined the Common Market in 1974, the country’s restaurants had a total of <a href="https://blog.luxuryrestaurantguide.com/2018/10/11/michelin-history-for-all-restaurants-in-great-britain-ireland/">26 Michelin stars</a>, the industry standard restaurant rating, in Britain. In 2019 <a href="https://www.viamichelin.co.uk/web/Restaurants/Restaurants-United_Kingdom">there are 163</a>, including five restaurants with three stars – the highest honour awarded. Is this a coincidence or has membership of the European Union enabled the development of the UK’s vibrant contemporary food scene? </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"582138168046141440"}"></div></p>
<p>Despite what John Cleese might think, food culture in the UK is booming – chefs are becoming becoming superstars and prime-time TV slots are full of cookery programmes, which are exported all over the world. What the quality of restaurants and the global profiles of its top chefs suggests about the UK in 2019 is that it is not only a nation of foodies – but that the country has become immersed into the food and drink culture of Europe.</p>
<p>European food and ingredients have become staple food choices for the British. The use of ingredients such as garlic, peppers, avocados, Parmesan cheese and all those other European ingredients that are now taken for granted are relatively new and were still rare in the 1990s. When I was growing up in rural Devon in the 1970s, olive oil was only really readily available in chemists as a cure for earache – now it is found in most food cupboards. And wine drinking has permeated through all social classes.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/263903/original/file-20190314-28468-ojn8vi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/263903/original/file-20190314-28468-ojn8vi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263903/original/file-20190314-28468-ojn8vi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263903/original/file-20190314-28468-ojn8vi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263903/original/file-20190314-28468-ojn8vi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263903/original/file-20190314-28468-ojn8vi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263903/original/file-20190314-28468-ojn8vi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Spanish delicatessen in London’s Borough Market.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Paolo Paradiso via Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>So if Britain’s food is embedded in European culture, what will the impact of Brexit have on the restaurant industry in the UK? In order to answer this it’s necessary to identify how Britain’s ties to the EU have directly impacted upon UK restaurants. </p>
<h2>Free movement of chefs</h2>
<p>There has always been reciprocity in the hospitality industry, whereby chefs, sommeliers and maître ds, travel and work in other counties in order to develop their knowledge and skills. What is known in the industry as the “stage” is an important juncture in a chef’s evolution and training – and most UK-born Michelin-starred chefs have done one. <a href="https://www.jasonatherton.co.uk/">Jason Atherton</a>, who runs a suite of high-end restaurants around the country, undertook a stage at the three-star el Bulli in Spain, while Sat Bains, whose eponymous restaurant in Nottingham was <a href="https://www.thecaterer.com/articles/542467/restaurant-sat-bains-named-fourth-best-rated-restaurant-in-the-world">named fourth-best in the world in 2018</a>, undertook a stage at the three-star Le Jardin des Sens in France. </p>
<p>The immersion by chefs in European gastronomy means they have brought back techniques, ingredients and contacts that have contributed to the UK’s food scene becoming so rich and vibrant. The thriving food scene has also encouraged talented expatriates to invest in the UK restaurant industry and to choose the UK as a place to work. </p>
<p>The influx of European workers are not only attracted by the UK food scene, but also by the availability of varied employment opportunities in the hospitality sector. Employers have difficulty in filling vacancies, as there is a lack of qualified chefs in the UK. In 2017, <a href="http://people1st.co.uk/getattachment/Insight-opinion/Latest-insights/21st-century-chef/Report-download/Exec-summary-_-The-chef-shortage-A-solvable-crisis.pdf/?lang=en-GB">People 1st</a> (the sector skills council for hospitality and tourism) found that 25% of hospitality businesses had vacancies, 22% of which were for chefs. Many of these vacancies were reported as being hard to fill because there simply weren’t enough skilled applicants. In 2018, <a href="https://www.ifs.org.uk/publications/13779">according to the Institute for Fiscal Studies</a>, out of 330,000 chefs in the UK, 15% were EU immigrants. Of these, 28% were graduates and 22% of all new hires came from the EU.</p>
<p>What this demonstrates is that EU workers are key to the continued success of the UK restaurant industry. They are often portrayed as a source of cheap labour, but in fact are skilled, well-educated individuals who make a positive contribution to the sector. Even though many of the workers are highly skilled, wages remain low – so any move to place an income threshold of £30,000 to earn a visa will exclude the majority of EU hospitality workers. But without the labour provided by EU immigrants it is difficult to see how the sector can continue to thrive.</p>
<h2>Free movement of ingredients</h2>
<p>Great chefs rely on great ingredients, and seamless trade ensures that food arrives in Britain in the freshest possible state. Food items such as strawberries, peppers or chillies are delivered to supermarkets and restaurants throughout the year. Britain imports a huge amount of fresh produce from the EU – in fact, in terms of food security, through a lack of investment in farming over the past two or three decades, the UK <a href="https://www.foodsecurity.ac.uk/challenge/uk-threat/">is not and cannot be self-sufficient</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/263907/original/file-20190314-28483-1oxky1l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/263907/original/file-20190314-28483-1oxky1l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263907/original/file-20190314-28483-1oxky1l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263907/original/file-20190314-28483-1oxky1l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263907/original/file-20190314-28483-1oxky1l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263907/original/file-20190314-28483-1oxky1l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263907/original/file-20190314-28483-1oxky1l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Heston Blumenthal’s ‘culinary journey’ at his restaurant The Fat Duck.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">By First Class Photography via Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The EU ensures that the UK can both import and export foodstuffs in an efficient manner, as there are no delays caused by custom checks or embargoes on products. Unless the UK remains part of the customs union, it is difficult to see how the cuisine to which they have become accustomed to can continue to enter the supply chain without disruption.</p>
<p>Many of the 163 Michelin-starred restaurants in the UK pride themselves on sourcing high-quality, seasonal local food. Many sustainable farming practices and conversion to organic forms of production have been supported by the EU’s accreditation of farming standards and subsidies. They also provide strict rules as to how products are grown, the pesticides used and the limitation of genetically modified processes. All of these standards are higher than touted new trade partners <a href="https://fullfact.org/europe/usa-trade-food-standards/">such as the US</a>. The UK and EU over a period of 47 years have crafted a set of standards around production and food safety that is among the most stringent in the world. </p>
<p>This philosophy of quality has directly influenced the quality of the food, consumers and restaurants can access. As can be seen from a government briefing paper from January 2018, <a href="https://www.parliament.uk/documents/commons-library/Brexit-UK-agriculture-policy-CBP-8218.pdf">Brexit: Future UK Agricultural Policy </a>, there is little detail around how food and agricultural policy will look post-Brexit. </p>
<p>But even if the UK’s agricultural sector can increase production and the variety of products grown, it currently relies on seasonal workers from the EU to harvest produce.</p>
<h2>Back to cheap sausages?</h2>
<p>The vibrant food culture in the UK depends on the EU to provide innovation, influence, skilled labour and products. This is reflected all the way from the shelves of Aldi and Lidl to the five UK three-star Michelin restaurants. If I am right in believing food and cuisine to be an expression of culture, then Britons are European. As the <a href="https://heavy.com/news/2018/08/robin-leach-quotes/">writer and social commentator Robin Leach stated</a> before his <a href="https://www.vanityfair.com/style/2018/08/robin-leach-remembered">death in 2018</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Whoever would have guessed that in the land of cheap sausages and mashed potatoes there could be such a change which would actually bring the French from Paris every weekend to invade Britain en masse to eat great food and drink great wine.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Perhaps Brexit will have a positive impact on British food culture and protect the future and integrity of the great British chip rather than being replaced by the insidious <em>pommes frite</em>. It will be interesting to see in the coming decade whether the number of Michelin-starred restaurants increases further. I suspect it won’t.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/113210/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Richard Tresidder does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Once derided, UK food culture has improved out of sight thanks to Europe.Richard Tresidder, Reader in Hospitality Studies, Sheffield Hallam UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1124832019-02-25T22:03:46Z2019-02-25T22:03:46ZFinding the right wine expert to help you select your next bottle<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/260827/original/file-20190225-26174-1hyi7jg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">How to select your next wine bottle? Turn to an expert? Yes? But which expert?!</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Do you often wander the aisles of a wine shop, trying to figure out which wine to buy? To help choose a bottle, you may turn to a wine expert. No shame in that: many consumers who do not consider themselves wine connoisseurs seek out the opinion of wine experts. </p>
<p>But which expert? To what extent do wine experts agree in their evaluation of wines? Does it matter where the expert lives and how they were trained?</p>
<p>A recent study examined these questions by looking at wine assessments by <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09571264.2018.1532882">two groups of wine experts from different geographical regions in Canada: Québec and British Columbia.</a> These two groups were mainly trained in two different traditions of wine tasting: the British and the French. What we found out may surprise you. </p>
<p>Fourteen wine experts from the Okanagan Valley in British Columbia and eight wine experts from Montréal attended two wine-tasting sessions. In each session, they blind-tasted the same set of seven red wines. The wines represented a range of varietals and vintages.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/260834/original/file-20190225-26159-dfwvbx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/260834/original/file-20190225-26159-dfwvbx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/260834/original/file-20190225-26159-dfwvbx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/260834/original/file-20190225-26159-dfwvbx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/260834/original/file-20190225-26159-dfwvbx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/260834/original/file-20190225-26159-dfwvbx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/260834/original/file-20190225-26159-dfwvbx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Wine experts in B.C. and Québec tasted seven red wines.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>After tasting the wines, the experts evaluated the wines. Evaluations included seven aroma descriptions, such as spicy, berry or oak. The experts also rated the wines on nine flavours, including length of finish, balance, acidity and taint/off-flavour. The wine experts also evaluated the overall quality of the wines.</p>
<h2>Same, but different</h2>
<p>There are some commonalities but also substantial differences in the assessment of wines by experts from the two regions. </p>
<p>Significant differences emerged in the assessment of wine aroma and flavour. Compared to the Okanagan wine experts, the Montréal group reported considerably higher levels of vegetative, vegetal, green bell pepper, spicy and oak aroma. The assessment of the Montréal wine experts also reflected higher levels of bitterness, acidity, balance, and off-flavour in the sampled wines.</p>
<p>Despite the differences in the judgment of aroma and flavour, however, the two groups of wine experts agreed in their overall quality assessment of the wines. </p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/260839/original/file-20190225-26156-mg36hf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/260839/original/file-20190225-26156-mg36hf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/260839/original/file-20190225-26156-mg36hf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/260839/original/file-20190225-26156-mg36hf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/260839/original/file-20190225-26156-mg36hf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/260839/original/file-20190225-26156-mg36hf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/260839/original/file-20190225-26156-mg36hf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Apothic Red 2015, a blend from California was highly rated by B.C. wine tasters but not so much by Québec ones.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">LCBO</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There was one exception. Compared to the group from Montréal, the experts from the Okanagan Valley found the 2015 Apothic Red, a blend of zinfandel, syrah, cabernet sauvignon and merlot produced in California, to be of much higher quality. This may reflect a preference for blended wines in the new world wine-making tradition of this group.</p>
<p>Although overall quality judgments were largely consistent, the difference in the assessment of aroma and flavours among the two groups raises the question: Why do experts from different geographical regions have divergent opinions when it comes to wine assessment?</p>
<h2>British system versus French</h2>
<p>The diversity and nature of wine expertise represented in the two geographical regions helps explain these findings.</p>
<p>Many of the wine experts in the Okanagan group were formally trained in the <a href="https://www.wsetglobal.com/">Wine and Spirit Education Trust (WSET) system</a> established in the U.K. in 1969. The wine experts from the Okanagan Valley consisted of winemakers and winery employees. Some were assessors affiliated with <a href="http://www.canadianvintners.com/vqa-wines/">British Columbia’s Vintner Quality Alliance (VQA)</a> program, which ensures that wines meet a set of minimum quality requirements. </p>
<p>As a result of their professional roles, the Okanagan panel may have been more concerned with the overall quality and consistency of the wines than their sensory attributes. In addition, based on years of experience in the judgment of wine quality and consistency mostly involving wines from the Okanagan region, these wine experts may have been less inclined to identify differences in sensory attributes.</p>
<p>The Montréal group, on the other hand, consisted of wine journalists, educators and sommeliers. Wine journalists, in particular, are interested in the independent judgment of different wine styles and description of wines. The Montréal wine experts had undergone sommelier training rooted in French tradition that is concerned with wine characteristics and pairing wine with food. </p>
<p>The consumer-focused professional experience of the Montréal experts, who were accustomed to providing wine descriptions and recommendations to consumers and customers, may have predisposed them to pay closer attention to the sensory attributes of the wines.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/260840/original/file-20190225-26168-d68mv8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/260840/original/file-20190225-26168-d68mv8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/260840/original/file-20190225-26168-d68mv8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/260840/original/file-20190225-26168-d68mv8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/260840/original/file-20190225-26168-d68mv8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/260840/original/file-20190225-26168-d68mv8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/260840/original/file-20190225-26168-d68mv8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Montréal wine experts have training rooted in the French tradition concerned with pairing wine with food.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Although wine experts from different geographic locations varied in their assessment of wine characteristics, their overall assessment of the quality of wines was consistent over time and did not differ across tasting sessions. This means that wine experts apply their standards consistently in the assessment process.</p>
<h2>What’s it mean for consumers looking for advice?</h2>
<p>First, the study shows that when it comes to wine quality, the assessments of wine experts from both regions converge. Wine experts are a good source of information regarding wine quality, regardless of their geographical location, training or experience. </p>
<p>Second, when it comes to preferences for a specific sensory profile of wines, consumers may want to take into consideration the background, training and professional role of the wine expert whose opinion they’re relying upon. </p>
<p>Finally, this study may be an invitation to explore multiple sources of wine expertise, such as blogs, web sites or media reports. Consumers may enjoy finding out whether their own experience of wine sensory attributes aligns with one of the diverse perspectives arising from the training and professional roles of wine experts.</p>
<p><em>This article was originally published in <a href="https://theconversation.com/dis-moi-comment-tu-goutes-le-vin-et-je-te-dirai-dou-tu-viens-109563">French</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/112483/count.gif" alt="La Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bianca Grohmann received funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC). The research article "Wine quality and sensory assessment: Do distinct local groups of wine experts differ?" co-authored with Camilo Pena and Annamma Joy at the University of British Columbia at Kelowna was published in the Journal of Wine Research.</span></em></p>Do you turn to a wine expert to help you chose your bottle of wine? Wine experts may have different evaluations depending on the school of thought in which they were trained.Bianca Grohmann, Professor, Concordia University Research Chair in Consumer Psychology and Visual Marketing, Concordia UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/946042018-04-17T10:44:41Z2018-04-17T10:44:41ZHow China’s winemakers succeeded (without stealing)<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/214829/original/file-20180413-566-14t5na1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">More Chinese wines are finding their way into the liquor aisle. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">AP Photo/Elizabeth Dalziel</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Joint ventures between Western and Chinese companies are <a href="https://www.economist.com/news/finance-and-economics/21740410-heart-disagreement-chinas-industrial-policy-americas-gripes">in the news</a> over accusations – <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/22/business/china-trump-trade-intellectual-property.html">including those of President Donald Trump</a> – that China uses them to <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/22/business/china-trump-trade-intellectual-property.html">steal</a> intellectual property from foreign competitors in industries like cars and technology. </p>
<p>Less well known, however, are the joint ventures between French and Chinese winemakers, which offer a notable counterpoint to this narrative of international rivalry – or foreign exploitation, depending on your perspective. </p>
<p>Unlike for cars and electronics, there are no secret technologies in the making of wine. The <a href="https://wine.lovetoknow.com/wiki/Who_Invented_Wine">millennia-old fermented drink</a> is primarily a product of the land where the grapes are grown. What differentiates the best from the rest is not proprietary technology but experience in combining agriculture, science and art.</p>
<p>During research visits to China’s major <a href="https://www.decanterchina.com/en/regions/china/">wine regions</a> – from beach resorts in Shandong and Ningxia’s rocky and arid landscapes to the lush mountains of Yunnan – we encountered a blend of local and foreign winemakers, farmers, wine scientists and local government officials, all committed to establishing local wines on the world stage. </p>
<p>Winemaking succeeds on the back of such international collaboration. And in our experience, it’s helping Chinese wine producers overcome their biggest obstacles to success. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/214823/original/file-20180413-570-1qxtq5o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/214823/original/file-20180413-570-1qxtq5o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214823/original/file-20180413-570-1qxtq5o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214823/original/file-20180413-570-1qxtq5o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214823/original/file-20180413-570-1qxtq5o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=474&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214823/original/file-20180413-570-1qxtq5o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=474&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214823/original/file-20180413-570-1qxtq5o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=474&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Entrance of the 2014 International Wine Exposition in Yanqing, where hundreds of foreign and local wineries came to make their pitch.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Cynthia Howson and Pierre Ly</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>No secret technology to steal</h2>
<p>China is currently the <a href="http://www.oiv.int/public/medias/5479/oiv-en-bilan-2017.pdf">sixth-largest wine producer</a>, bottling 11.4 million hectoliters in 2016, just behind Australia’s 13 million. China is fifth in terms of consumption. </p>
<p><iframe id="0UFPC" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/0UFPC/3/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>A few years ago, as <a href="https://theconversation.com/chinese-vintners-are-winning-renown-as-wine-industry-soars-34474">we explained</a> in The Conversation, China’s wine industry was focused on overcoming the rising cost of labor, dealing with difficult climates and improving grape quality.</p>
<p>Now, the biggest obstacles Chinese vintners have to overcome are the country’s image problem and growing competition from foreign wine. And that’s where the foreign ventures have proven so valuable.</p>
<p>China has long had a reputation for <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/pamelaambler/2017/07/27/china-is-facing-an-epidemic-of-counterfeit-and-contraband-wine/#7f6af3f35843">counterfeiting and food safety scandals</a>. At the same time, the wine industry has become less protected from foreign competition after <a href="http://www.decanter.com/wine-news/exporting-wine-to-china-countries-384383/">bilateral trade deals</a> with countries such as Chile and Australia eliminated some tariffs. And although there are still such barriers in place with Europe (as well as the U.S.), Chinese wine lovers still <a href="http://www.decanter.com/wine-news/exporting-wine-to-china-countries-384383/">drink a ton of French wine</a>, despite the higher prices.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/214821/original/file-20180413-570-vgr0ki.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/214821/original/file-20180413-570-vgr0ki.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=371&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214821/original/file-20180413-570-vgr0ki.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=371&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214821/original/file-20180413-570-vgr0ki.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=371&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214821/original/file-20180413-570-vgr0ki.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=467&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214821/original/file-20180413-570-vgr0ki.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=467&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214821/original/file-20180413-570-vgr0ki.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=467&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The authors visit Guanlan Vineyard with owner Yanzhi Zhang, a Beijing wine importer and Bordeaux-trained winemaker who is building two wineries in Ningxia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Cynthia Howson and Pierre Ly</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>That has meant Chinese makers of premium wines have had to raise their game to compete with skilled foreign competitors. And perhaps ironically, some of those foreign rivals have been only too happy to share knowledge and skills. </p>
<p>Unlike for cars, making good wine doesn’t require proprietary technology. Any serious student can learn the techniques, whether they are traditional or cutting edge, by reading, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a3kQWGBy7PQ">going to school</a> or finding a mentor. Becoming a good winemaker requires experimenting with a range of tried and true methods, both in the vineyard and the cellar. There is no secret recipe, only hard work and problem solving.</p>
<p>Such collaborative partnerships have been essential to helping China wine producers overcome the image problem and better compete.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/214822/original/file-20180413-587-1f97o1i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/214822/original/file-20180413-587-1f97o1i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=350&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214822/original/file-20180413-587-1f97o1i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=350&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214822/original/file-20180413-587-1f97o1i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=350&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214822/original/file-20180413-587-1f97o1i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214822/original/file-20180413-587-1f97o1i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214822/original/file-20180413-587-1f97o1i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Chandon China’s winery sits in the shadow of Helan Mountain in Ningxia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Cynthia Howson and Pierre Ly</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Enter the French</h2>
<p>It might surprise readers that French Cognac producer Remy Martin was one of the first Western companies to form a joint venture in China, in this case with the city of Tianjin in 1980 <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1983/11/11/business/dynasty-without-tradition.html">to set up a winery</a>. </p>
<p>The French brought winemaking skills and, in exchange, got a foot in the door into a promising market for imported Cognac. The result, Dynasty Winery, is now <a href="http://www.agr.gc.ca/resources/prod/Internet-Internet/MISB-DGSIM/ATS-SEA/PDF/6799-eng.pdf">one of the largest</a> Chinese wine producers.</p>
<p>Remy and other Western companies brought not only skills but also their brand name. Chinese wine enthusiasts – vulnerable to the same stereotypes Westerners have – might question how good a wine from an unknown domestic company might be. But if is made by a famous French wine group, whose wines they enjoy, they might give it a chance.</p>
<p>While Dynasty is a mass market brand, other more recent French-Chinese partnerships have focused on developing premium wines. One involved LVMH and a state-owned enterprise in Ningxia, a poor province often hailed as China’s <a href="https://www.jancisrobinson.com/articles/chinas-most-promising-wine-province">most promising</a> wine region. In 2013, the French luxury conglomerate launched <a href="https://www.lvmh.com/houses/wines-spirits/chandon-china/">Chandon China</a>, the latest offspring in the global <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/4d28842e-8829-11e3-8afa-00144feab7de">Chandon family</a> of sparkling wine. </p>
<p>Unlike in other sectors, such as clothing or electronics, Western winemakers are not in China to take advantage of low costs. Chinese wine is <a href="http://www.scmp.com/magazines/post-magazine/article/1879773/legacy-peak-helps-lead-charge-chinese-wineries">expensive to make</a>, due to the rising cost of <a href="http://money.cnn.com/2016/03/17/news/economy/china-cheap-labor-productivity/index.html">labor</a>, and, in some regions, the need to bury the vines to protect them from cold winters and dig them out every spring. </p>
<p>Moreover, you can’t outsource the production of wine to another country. Champagne can only be made in the Champagne region of France. Napa Valley wine can only be made in the Napa Valley. If a wine is made in China, it becomes Chinese wine. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/214595/original/file-20180412-540-1sjq0ll.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/214595/original/file-20180412-540-1sjq0ll.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214595/original/file-20180412-540-1sjq0ll.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214595/original/file-20180412-540-1sjq0ll.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214595/original/file-20180412-540-1sjq0ll.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214595/original/file-20180412-540-1sjq0ll.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214595/original/file-20180412-540-1sjq0ll.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Wines from Treaty Port Vineyards, which occupies this Scottish-style castle in Moulangou village, Shandong, are available in the U.K. from The Real Wine Company.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Cynthia Howson and Pierre Ly</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Soaring wine quality</h2>
<p>The result, for Chinese winemakers, has been soaring quality. </p>
<p>Not long ago, really good Chinese wines were <a href="http://www.grapewallofchina.com/2014/07/30/triple-a-formula-for-china-wine-appetizing-affordable-available/">very hard to find</a>. Mass market wine brands, like Changyu, Great Wall or Dynasty, were ubiquitous in supermarkets and convenience stores around the country. But most award-winning boutique wineries you read about in the media were <a href="http://www.grapewallofchina.com/2014/07/30/triple-a-formula-for-china-wine-appetizing-affordable-available/">too small</a> or lacked marketing skills and deals with distributors that could put their wines in front of consumers.</p>
<p>Today the best boutique Chinese wines are far more available in major cities because the major distributors have begun to <a href="http://www.grapewallofchina.com/2015/07/14/summergate-kanaan-sign-distribution-deal/">include</a> more Chinese producers in their porfolios of primarily imported wines. This has made the best Chinese wines available in local shops frequented by wine enthusiasts, like <a href="https://www.pudaowines.com/eng/buy-wines-spirits/?special_4=1">Pudao Wines</a> in Beijing and Shanghai, and on a few restaurant wine lists. </p>
<p>At a hotel restaurant in Guangzhou’s main airport in 2016, for example, we were able to order an glass of Pretty Pony, an <a href="http://awards.decanter.com/dawa/2016/Wine/288659?name=Kanaan%20winery-Pretty%20Pony-2014">award winning</a> Ningxia red by Kanaan winery – something we couldn’t have done just a year earlier.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/214826/original/file-20180413-46652-lgu5zt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/214826/original/file-20180413-46652-lgu5zt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=977&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214826/original/file-20180413-46652-lgu5zt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=977&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214826/original/file-20180413-46652-lgu5zt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=977&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214826/original/file-20180413-46652-lgu5zt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1227&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214826/original/file-20180413-46652-lgu5zt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1227&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214826/original/file-20180413-46652-lgu5zt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1227&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">One of the authors orders a glass of Kanaan’s Pretty Pony red during a layover at Guangzhou airport.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Cynthia Howson and Pierre Ly</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Next stop: exports</h2>
<p>So how easy is it to pick up a bottle of Pretty Pony at your local supermarket if you don’t live in China? </p>
<p>Although exports of Chinese wine are still quite low, at just <a href="http://data.un.org/Data.aspx?q=wine&d=ComTrade&f=_l1Code%3A23%3BcmdCode%3A220410">US$1.2 million</a> in 2016 compared with $15 million for Argentina and $3.2 billion for France, a growing number of supermarkets and wine shops in Europe and the U.S. are stocking some of the best Chinese wines, from <a href="http://www.totalwine.com/wine/red-wine/cabernet-sauvignon/ao-yun-cabernet-china/p/162576750?s=1401&igrules=true">Seattle</a> and <a href="https://www.danmurphys.com.au/dm/search/dm_search_results_gallery.jsp?search=Kanaan&link=PDP-RangeLink">Melbourne</a> to <a href="https://www.tesco.com/groceries/en-GB/products/295163107">London</a> and <a href="https://soysuper.com/marca/changyu#products">Madrid</a>. </p>
<p>While it’s unlikely Chinese winemakers will be threatening their French peers anytime soon, they are now decidedly on the world’s wine map.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/94604/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>As the US celebrates Wine Day, China’s young winemakers are a reminder of the power and value of cameraderie and cooperation in this age-old industry.Cynthia Howson, Lecturer, University of WashingtonPierre Ly, Associate Professor, University of Puget SoundLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/905472018-01-24T13:47:37Z2018-01-24T13:47:37ZMust we deprive ourselves of all pleasure to stay healthy?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/203015/original/file-20180123-182976-1p9s5bn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">You know you shouldn't smoke, or have sex without a condom if you're not with a longtime partner. And when it comes to drinking, tea only, of course.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/JYFmYif4n70">Dominik Martin/Unsplash</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In 2018, I’ll quit smoking, really. And I’ll stop drinking alcohol, at least for a while… </p>
<p>The first month of the year is traditionally a time for healthy resolutions. Many in the United Kingdom start off with “Dry January”, the idea being to foreswear alcohol completely in the month following the festive season. (Whether there are health benefits or not is <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/society/2018/jan/19/does-dry-january-work-we-ask-the-experts">another question</a>).</p>
<p>While France may be famous for its <a href="http://www.socheese.fr/la-question/article/combien-la-france-compte-t-elle-de?lang=en">hundreds of varieties of cheese</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/champagne-four-founding-myths-of-a-global-icon-89781">great fondness for champagne</a>, its residents are inundated with health advice from public authorities. We are told what we must, and must not do, to get and stay in shape. Last year, the French national health agency and the National Cancer Institute told us that we should refrain from drinking <a href="http://www.santepubliquefrance.fr/Actualites/Avis-d-experts-relatif-a-l-evolution-du-discours-public-en-matiere-de-consommation-d-alcool-en-France-organise-par-Sante-publique-France-et-l-Inca">more than 10 glasses of alcohol per week</a>, while the French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety (Anses) encouraged us to consume <a href="https://www.anses.fr/fr/system/files/NUT2012SA0103Ra-1.pdf">less sugar, fewer deli meats and more vegetables</a>.</p>
<p>In the minds of many, preventative health has thus become synonymous with self-deprivation, restrictions and obligations, a situation I outline in my book <em>Questioning Public Heath</em> (<a href="https://www.presses.ehesp.fr/produit/sante-publique-questions/"><em>La santé publique en question(s)</em></a> in French), published by the EHESP School for Public Health.</p>
<p>It could be argued that, in the long term, too many warning messages may be counterproductive, or even overwhelming – and therefore bad for our health. Rather than banishing pleasure from our lives, might there be another way to maintain our health and well-being?</p>
<h2>Endless dos and don'ts</h2>
<p>To sum it all up, we must not: smoke (neither tobacco nor cannabis), drink alcohol (even in small quantities), take recreational drugs, have sex without a condom (unless it’s with a long-time partner), eat too much sugar or fat, go to places where there is too much noise, or drive under the influence of drugs or alcohol.</p>
<p>On the other hand, we must: exercise regularly, eat fruits and vegetables (at least five or more servings per day), limit our intake of red meat and deli meats, wear a mask when we exhibit flu or cold symptoms, buckle our seatbelts before driving, stick to the speed limit, wear a helmet when cycling and use earplugs at a loud concert or in a nightclub.</p>
<p>Over time, warnings about individual risks can pile up to form a set of contradictory, irreconcilable instructions. For example, a walk in the forest would help you to get some exercise and breathe some clean air – but if you’re in an area with a tick infestation, this walk would increase your risk of catching Lyme disease. So what should you do? </p>
<h2>Alarmist campaigns</h2>
<p>Public-health campaigns are often alarmist – shock images on cigarette packets (a corpse’s foot in a morgue, or worse) or road-safety films with enough blood to qualify as slasher flicks. Few use a positive approach, as did a 2014 campaign in France to combat car crashes. Titled “We all have good reasons to stay alive” (“On a tous une bonne raison de rester vivants”), it focused on relationships – between <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5c7ay3VBk6M">parents and children</a>, for example – that are worth protecting.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/5c7ay3VBk6M?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">French road-safety campaign, “We all have good reasons to stay alive”. The first screen says “The images that follow will change how you drive”.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But there are more bad examples than good. In addition to all the scolding messages from public authorities, magazines and websites dispense swathes of advice aimed at assisting us in our quest for health and eternal youth, that holy grail of modern societies. So we learn that it is also best to avoid milk, eat gluten-free, consume <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4808858/">more omega 3 than omega 6 oils</a>, steer clear of all <a href="https://theconversation.com/our-exposure-to-electromagnetic-waves-beware-of-commonly-held-beliefs-88372">radio waves and electrical signals</a> and avoid re-using plastic bottles for drinking. Each day comes with its own “health tip”, often backed up by a doctor with impressive – or sometimes dubious – academic qualifications.</p>
<p>The tools available with new technology have increased this pressure: we can now monitor the number of steps we take in a day. A high number is ideal, although no one knows exactly how many because estimates vary. A Swiss hospital specializing in obesity recommends <a href="http://www.bougersante.ch/site/ap/recommandations">one daily 30-minute walk</a>, whereas the World Heath Organisation (WHO) sets the bar somewhat lower, at 150 minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise per week for adults under 65, i.e. <a href="http://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/factsheet_adults/en/">20 minutes a day on average</a>.</p>
<p>Mobile phone apps now allow us to “scientifically” analyse the way we eat and, in theory, <a href="http://www.businessinsider.fr/us/the-best-apps-for-healthy-food-exercise-sleep-and-good-habits-2016-7/">improve our diet</a>. Our driving style will soon be analysed in real time by our cars. Each risk can therefore be countered with an app designed to help us adjust our behaviour.</p>
<h2>Are we really rational creatures?</h2>
<p>It could be assumed that as scientific knowledge progresses, the easier it will be for us to adopt healthier behaviours. But this assumes that we are rational creatures and that if we try to avoid or deny this information, we simply lack the appropriate psychological, social or cultural tools. Yet we humans are not – or at least not completely – rational beings.</p>
<p>It is possible to take an alternative view of health education, one that is different from a moralizing, normative vision, where experts decide what is good and bad for the population (based on epidemiological studies, but also on their own values) and try to influence behaviour with do’s and don’ts. The basic principle of this alternative approach is autonomy, the reinforcement of individual capacities, or what might be called “empowerment”.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/203236/original/file-20180124-107940-19flr85.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/203236/original/file-20180124-107940-19flr85.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/203236/original/file-20180124-107940-19flr85.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/203236/original/file-20180124-107940-19flr85.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/203236/original/file-20180124-107940-19flr85.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/203236/original/file-20180124-107940-19flr85.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/203236/original/file-20180124-107940-19flr85.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">So much cheese, so little time.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/4AyFwz1eUyo">Darren Coleshill/Unsplash</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The first step is to restore the concept of pleasure into public health messages. The French campaign <a href="https://mois-sans-tabac.tabac-info-service.fr/">“Moi(s) sans tabac”</a> (“Tobacco-free me/month”) is a good illustration of this approach. It focuses on group emulation and positive reinforcement of the former smoker’s commitment to quitting. Still, further research is required: Is taking pleasure in life a prerequisite to adopting healthy behaviours, or is it the other way around? And how can we reach young people, for whom breaking the rules is part of how they construct their adult identity?</p>
<h2>Ditching the clichés</h2>
<p>Now is also the time to ditch tired clichés and drop the caricatures that litter health messages – that those who adopt unhealthy behaviours are isolated and unhappy, while people with the “right” attitudes are good-looking, fulfilled and socially well-integrated.</p>
<p>Above all, rethinking preventative health means taking into account the different environments in which we live. All individuals have free will, but it’s easy to forget that our surroundings also influence our behaviour. Obesity does not manifest itself in the same way across different socio-economic categories, or in different regions. Smoking and drinking are partly associated with seeking peer approval. And these are just two examples.</p>
<p>Therefore, preventative health should be subject to debate; citizens must participate in its design. This means that experts need to communicate all their knowledge on a topic, but also their doubts. Should we walk for 20 or 30 minutes a day to see benefits for our health? Let’s have an open, well-informed debate. Experts should specify the behavioural changes they consider beneficial, but also be prepared to rethink them. A campaign to reduce alcohol consumption would not be seen in the same light in a French wine-growing region as in other areas of the country, nor in Scotland, famous for its whisky.</p>
<p>Public health actions should involve those concerned. Campaign designers should listen to people’s experiences relating to health and respect their culture, while still challenging their preconceptions. For example, we might wonder whether preventative campaigns against HIV and STIs should really be limited to promoting <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/22/upshot/sex-education-based-on-abstinence-theres-a-real-absence-of-evidence.html">abstinence in young people and fidelity in marriage</a> so as to avoid clashes with religious authorities, as has <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3178341/">been the case in some countries</a>.</p>
<h2>Thinking local</h2>
<p>Local initiatives should become the main priority, while regional and national strategies would be designed to give them extra weight or impetus. Public debate and engagement take place most effectively at a local scale.</p>
<p>Let’s leave room for local initiatives to blossom and provide them with scientific data on their chosen topics and techniques for measuring results. We should also create favourable conditions for initiatives at the regional, national and international level. Supported by the WHO, the French <a href="http://www.villes-sante.com/">Health and Cities Network</a> (<em>réseau français des Villes-Santé</em>)
provides one such framework, bringing together 80 cities of all sizes and from across the political spectrum, from Amiens to Fort-de-France, Rennes, Calais, Béthune, Paris, Lyon and Marseille.</p>
<p>The sometimes-contradictory rules laid out by health authorities on alcohol, diet and sexual practices end up paralysing individuals. They fill our heads with a minefield of urgent dangers, leaving us with no clear path forward. It is time to develop targeted preventative health strategies, and to take into account all the factors that collectively influence our behaviour. It’s time to bring pleasure back to healthy living and collective well-being.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Translated from the French by Alice Heathwood for <a href="http://www.fastforword.fr/en/">Fast for Word</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/90547/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Laurent Chambaud is the director of the Ecole des hautes études en santé publique (EHESP).</span></em></p>Quit smoking, quit drinking – so many good resolutions for the New Year. But can the overabundance of messages on healthy living become counter-productive?Laurent Chambaud, Médecin de santé publique, École des hautes études en santé publique (EHESP) Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/897812018-01-08T16:16:52Z2018-01-08T16:16:52ZChampagne: four founding myths of a global icon<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/201111/original/file-20180108-83559-1d5p1aa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C2041%2C1333&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Champagne! </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/peter4k/14238068566/in/photolist-nGaPJN-zqrbZn-5M5d7v-8XbZoS-9b6b65-fi94C4-75JZAA-uWuAh-eMuMo-qpywkf-5Awxn2-5zthPY-75F7uF-ajvALv-96F21T-JktRf-7aLzYC-663cu8-6oLhMd-7M4r79-8vhCEY-dFanh6-8w5w4t-5Qujmb-9j4Vk2-5CXP1u-4MW6gb-d12a5J-6hqXYD-94uvne-4MW6tU-4qJZng-H6aTkR-4MRUZP-4Z1uru-aMjN6Z-8w8xQj-FFJ1u-aubPM8-8XghVz-MAcQr-4pbmz-ai9cbP-6ANfuf-5vVG9e-4QVEWq-5xbp65-aid6ko-5vVXHe-ai987P """>Yi Wang/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>What made a simple wine grown in a fairly <a href="https://champagnemoments.eu/champagne-history/">mediocre wine-growing region</a> one of the most prominent and enchanting icons in the world today? How did champagne, against all expectations, acquire such a prestige, becoming the ultimate sign of celebrations world-wide? No wedding, business deal, sporting event or art exhibition would be complete without it. Champagne’s success cannot be explained by its intriguing bubbles alone, so how did it become the ultimate symbol of celebration worldwide?</p>
<p>Looking for answers, I decided to <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10253866.2016.1177990">examine the past 250 years of champagne marketing</a> to discover what it can teach us about the ever-changing image of champagne and its place in consumer culture.</p>
<p>Champagne’s undying fame is, in fact, the product of four founding myths. These have shaped its identity and the images now associated with its consumption. The marvellous history demonstrates the power of collective myth-making in knitting and reknitting brands into the cultural fabric of society.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/201113/original/file-20180108-83571-4jmvup.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/201113/original/file-20180108-83571-4jmvup.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/201113/original/file-20180108-83571-4jmvup.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/201113/original/file-20180108-83571-4jmvup.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/201113/original/file-20180108-83571-4jmvup.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/201113/original/file-20180108-83571-4jmvup.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/201113/original/file-20180108-83571-4jmvup.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A view from Hautvilliers, in the Champagne region.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/ltdan/3991795050/in/photolist-75JZAA-uWuAh-eMuMo-qpywkf-5Awxn2-5zthPY-75F7uF-ajvALv-96F21T-JktRf-7aLzYC-663cu8-6oLhMd-7M4r79-8vhCEY-dFanh6-8w5w4t-5Qujmb-9j4Vk2-5CXP1u-4MW6gb-d12a5J-6hqXYD-94uvne-4MW6tU-4qJZng-H6aTkR-4MRUZP-4Z1uru-aMjN6Z-8w8xQj-FFJ1u-aubPM8-8XghVz-MAcQr-4pbmz-ai9cbP-6ANfuf-5vVG9e-4QVEWq-5xbp65-aid6ko-5vVXHe-ai987P-5ip4mr-am3yo7-aihKcK-49nhyN-f4AzfL-7pAeaA%20%22%22">Dan Dickinson/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The origin myth</h2>
<p>Initially, the Champagne region of France was better <a href="https://books.google.fr/books?id=u6d-s9_7yOMC&pg=PA46&lpg=PA46&dq=champagne+known+for+wool&source=bl&ots=dBVSKCikH2&sig=uh8uAwPUmCalIe0pTLJWgo7xzvU&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjmsZzQhsjYAhXKJlAKHaysA0cQ6AEIUDAL#v=onepage&q=champagne%20known%20for%20wool&f=false">known for its wool</a> than its wine. The most northern wine-growing region in France, it was not considered appropriate for producing high-quality wines. In fact, local wines were often given as a promotional gift to customers of the wool trade.</p>
<p>It was the Benedictine monks who began to improve the quality of wines from the Champagne region, selling them to fund their monasteries. Contrary to popular belief, however, the monks did not “invent” champagne. It wasn’t until much later that <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/6c25d5fe-2045-11e7-b7d3-163f5a7f229c">Pierre “Dom” Pérignon</a> (1635–1713), head of a monastery in Reims, was integrated into the origin myth as part of a deliberate marketing strategy to highlight notions of heritage, authenticity and tradition associated with champagne, and secure its place in an increasingly competitive market.</p>
<p>So who invented champagne? No one, in fact, as the formation of bubbles is natural for all wines. It really began to flourish when wool producers, receiving more and more orders for champagne, saw an opportunity to leave the wool industry for what appeared to be a more promising and profitable business. But the myth of a magic elixir, invented by holy men, has endured.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/201115/original/file-20180108-83571-c7u1ir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/201115/original/file-20180108-83571-c7u1ir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/201115/original/file-20180108-83571-c7u1ir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/201115/original/file-20180108-83571-c7u1ir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/201115/original/file-20180108-83571-c7u1ir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/201115/original/file-20180108-83571-c7u1ir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/201115/original/file-20180108-83571-c7u1ir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Champagne glasses, symbols of luxury.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/ericlbc/3079095439/in/photolist-5G6aNp-am3iiC-am34fy-iMHzWe-am3iLu-5BDT6P-am343Q-akZfKe-am33MU-7hJsJo-jkDeSF-am34iu-6Ns3ca-aubT8a-am3471-giKRk-cZpKe-akZCkk-7saWqM-7hJPc3-21cqnN-9746Te-4qSJMC-9PhChg-fYDqk-am3ip5-5vgSSn-5BJ9Su-b5WXN-am33Tq-bunsyQ-5KVovm-am33QY-b5Xab-9CYVEb-4Nm224-ee6Za1-3G6v3-b5rmCe-b5YkC-aid6ao-HKUxH-aid1S1-7hJA1Y-8ZKdp9-7hJCoN-4gzSeX-75STxF-7LBW7f-wFV5Z%20%22%22">Eric BC Lim/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The myth of opulence</h2>
<p>The second myth that grew up around champagne is that of opulence. The fact that champagne is seen and marketed as a luxury product is the result of a happy coincidence, dating all the way back to the year 496.</p>
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clovis_I">Clovis</a>, king of the Franks, <a href="https://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/2002165">was baptized into the Christian faith in Reims</a>, the home of champagne. From that time on, tradition dictated that all French kings be crowned in Reims, and coronations were accompanied by sumptuous feasts, where the local wine, champagne, flowed freely. This tradition explains why champagne is known as a festive drink, sipped by those of privilege.</p>
<p>This image was cemented when, at the age of sixteen, Louis XIV, the most opulent monarch of all, first tasted champagne in the magnificent cathedral of Reims. The Sun King was the one would associate champagne with his other obsessions: fashion, prestige and luxury.</p>
<p>The industry caught another lucky break when Louis XV <a href="http://maisons-champagne.com/en/encyclopedias/champagne-guest-book/before-sparkling-champagne/xviiie-centuries/article/commerce">authorized the transport of champagne</a> (and only champagne) in glass bottles rather than wooden barrels. This made all the difference for producers, because the wood let out the gas that gave champagne its bubbles, making it go flat.</p>
<p>This new law also contributed to the development of champagne’s carefully designed packaging, one of the first instances of modern marketing. Labels featured well-known figures such as Marie-Antoinette and Jeanne d'Arc, as well as victorious military officers, nobles, artists, and other celebrities. Vendors quickly understood the value of graphic design to increase their brands’ renown and arouse desire in their expanding and increasingly wealthy client base.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/jfyL8qAxvPU?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Champagne is often associated with French kings and queens as depicted in <em>Marie-Antoinette</em>, the 2006 movie directed by Sofia Coppola.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The national myth</h2>
<p>In 1789, the French revolution and its guillotine severed the connection between champagne and monarchs and aristocrats. Yet the revolution brought on the third, and perhaps most powerful, myth-making cycle, directly associating champagne with the “soul” and character of the new French Republic.</p>
<p>Champagne had already gained enough renown to be seen as a national symbol, a worthy collective success. Champagne had become not only “the shining reflection of our nation”, according to the famous words of Voltaire, but also the “most glorious expression” of French civilization.</p>
<p>It was under the French Empire that champagne really came into its own. <a href="https://vinepair.com/articles/napoleon-moet-a-secret-history/">Napoleon used the wine</a> to help him create a new bourgeois society that was both industrious and loyal.</p>
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-R%C3%A9my_Mo%C3%ABt">Jean-Rémy Moët</a> established Moët in the United States, attracting a new set of clients, including President George Washington himself. And when the Russian army routed Napoleon and reached the city of Reims, the enterprising Clicquot “Widow” <a href="https://searchworks.stanford.edu/view/6206489">opened her champagne cellars to the invaders</a> in the hope of conquering the Russian market.</p>
<p>These strategies proved successful. Following the fall of the French Empire in 1814, the dawn of the industrial revolution was the start of a veritable golden age for champagne. As rail lines spread outward, champagne could be transported further, in greater quantities and to new markets. Innovative equipment enabled more efficient production and improved quality, both in terms of aesthetics and taste. It quickly became a symbol of France in the eyes of the world. </p>
<p>This period was also marked by an increase in the production of imitation champagne in other countries. The Champagne region’s signature sparkling wine was granted international recognition in the 1930s, protected by the <a href="https://www.champagne.fr/en/terroir-appellation/appellation/appellation-origine-controlee-aoc"><em>appellation d’origine contrôlée</em></a> (AOC) certification. </p>
<h2>The myth of modernity</h2>
<p>From the early 1900s, champagne advertising took on modern symbolism. During the Belle Époque, ads for champagne often featured modern marvels that dazzled the growing middle class – steamships, hot-air balloons, automobiles, planes and more.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/201117/original/file-20180108-83585-1g4yzoj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/201117/original/file-20180108-83585-1g4yzoj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=849&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/201117/original/file-20180108-83585-1g4yzoj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=849&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/201117/original/file-20180108-83585-1g4yzoj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=849&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/201117/original/file-20180108-83585-1g4yzoj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1067&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/201117/original/file-20180108-83585-1g4yzoj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1067&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/201117/original/file-20180108-83585-1g4yzoj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1067&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Amandines de Provence. Biscuits H. Lalo. Poster shows a woman eating almond cookies, accompanied by champagne. Exposition Universelle, Paris 1900.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Amandines_de_Provence,_poster_by_Leonetto_Cappiello,_1900.jpg">Library of Congress</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It is no coincidence that champagne was served at the 1889 Paris Universal Exhibition, when the Eiffel Tower was unveiled to the world. It became ubiquitous at ship launches and on transatlantic voyages – including on the Titanic – and at the closing of business deals. It was the subject of the world’s first film advertisement, and became a symbol of modernity at a time when France was trying to forget the horrors of WWI and turn towards a promising new age.</p>
<p>When competition came from Italian prosecco and Spanish cava sparkling wines, advertising for champagne adapted, emphasizing its history and heritage, endowing it with unique prestige to distinguish it from its lesser rivals. At this time, Moët created the Dom Pérignon “myth” to promote his premium brand.</p>
<p>In contemporary times, James Bond, Audrey Hepburn and, more recently, Beyoncé and <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2014/11/jay-z-makes-it-rain-with-champagne/382573/">her husband Jay Z</a> have been associated with the myths and history surrounding champagne. This is the ultimate proof of its continued relevance and iconic attraction in global markets. Through collective myth-making, champagne has not only managed to take advantage of favourable social and cultural trends, but also to navigate deep cultural contradictions and continue to sparkle in our collective imagination.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Translated from the French by Alice Heathwood for <a href="http://www.fastforword.fr/">Fast for Word</a></em>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/89781/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Joonas Rokka ne travaille pas, ne conseille pas, ne possède pas de parts, ne reçoit pas de fonds d'une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n'a déclaré aucune autre affiliation que son organisme de recherche.</span></em></p>While Champagne seems eternal and unchanging, its fame is in fact the product of four founding myths. These have shaped its identity and the images now associated with its consumption.Joonas Rokka, Professeur en marketing, EM Lyon Business SchoolLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/875692017-11-17T20:41:11Z2017-11-17T20:41:11ZFeeling guilty about drinking? Well, ask the saints<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/195239/original/file-20171117-19305-17d3usa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Pious drinking.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AWalter_Dendy_Sadler_(1854_-1923)_The_monks_repast.jpg">Walter Dendy Sadler via Wikimedia Commons</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Each year the holidays bring with them an increase in both the consumption of <a href="http://www.statesmanjournal.com/story/sponsor-story/kaiser-permanente/2015/12/03/alcohol-consumption-increases-during-holidays/76744200/">alcohol</a> and <a href="http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/food-and-drink/christmas-drinking-binge-increase-alcohol-dependence-alcoholism-risk-expert-a7488401.html">concern about drinking’s harmful effects.</a> </p>
<p>Alcohol abuse is no laughing matter, but is it sinful to drink and make merry, moderately and responsibly, during a holy season or at any other time? </p>
<p>As a <a href="https://www.baylor.edu/great_texts/index.php?id=100028">historical theologian</a>, I <a href="https://www.regnery.com/books/drinking-with-the-saints/">researched</a> the role that pious Christians played in developing and producing alcohol. What I discovered was an astonishing history. </p>
<h2>Religious orders and wine-making</h2>
<p>Wine was invented <a href="https://vinepair.com/booze-news/oldest-winemaking-site/?utm_source=The+Drop+by+VinePair&utm_campaign=508c000821-Oct_7_2017&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_b653fb8c99-508c000821-46572873&goal=0_b653fb8c99-508c000821-46572873&mc_cid=508c000821&mc_eid=044391995d">6,000 years</a> before the birth of Christ, but it was monks who largely preserved viniculture in Europe. Religious orders such as the Benedictines and Jesuits became expert winemakers. They stopped only because their lands were confiscated in the 18th and 19th centuries by anti-Catholic governments such as the French Revolution’s <a href="http://www.historytoday.com/gemma-betros/french-revolution-and-catholic-church">Constituent Assembly</a> and Germany’s <a href="https://www.catholicculture.org/culture/library/view.cfm?recnum=8670">Second Reich</a>.</p>
<p>In order to celebrate the Eucharist, which requires the use of bread and wine, Catholic missionaries brought their knowledge of vine-growing with them to the New World. Wine grapes were first introduced to Alta California in 1779 by Saint Junipero Serra and his Franciscan brethren, laying the foundation for the <a href="http://www.discovercaliforniawines.com/wp-content/files_mf/ecawinehistory.pdf">California wine industry</a>. A similar pattern emerged in <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tEqx2zwuq-gC&pg=PA11&lpg=PA11&dq=history+of+argentina+wine+industry+missionaries&source=bl&ots=-4W6L0fLCv&sig=Y6wV24LoRHwUDn7CxzS9OtXnLBU&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwivh-SAqsHXAhXhs1QKHT7dCMoQ6AEIPzAD#v=onepage&q=history%20of%20argentina%20wine%20industry%20missionaries&f=false">Argentina</a>, <a href="http://www.chilean-wine.com/chilean-wine-history/">Chile</a> and <a href="https://www.sevenhill.com.au/the-jesuits">Australia</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/195241/original/file-20171117-19320-1wdyxh8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/195241/original/file-20171117-19320-1wdyxh8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=444&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195241/original/file-20171117-19320-1wdyxh8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=444&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195241/original/file-20171117-19320-1wdyxh8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=444&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195241/original/file-20171117-19320-1wdyxh8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=558&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195241/original/file-20171117-19320-1wdyxh8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=558&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195241/original/file-20171117-19320-1wdyxh8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=558&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Monks in a cellar.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AJoseph_Haier_-_Monks_in_a_cellar_1873.jpg">Joseph Haier 1816-1891, via Wikimedia Commons</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Godly men not only preserved and promulgated oenology, or the study of wines; they also advanced it. One of the pioneers in the “méthode champenoise,” or the “<a href="http://winefolly.com/review/how-sparkling-wine-is-made/">traditional method</a>” of making sparkling wine, was a Benedictine monk whose name now adorns one of the world’s finest champagnes: Dom Pérignon. According to a later legend, when he sampled his first batch in 1715, Pérignon <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pIdGLlMTsucC&pg=PA59&lpg=PA59&dq=%E2%80%9CBrothers,+come+quickly.+I+am+drinking+stars!%E2%80%9D&source=bl&ots=j1jFQNJvEF&sig=M4aqm9jJ7PTLFwEavwndflQ6DwU&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjpyY2ruMHXAhVByVQKHV8RCt0Q6AEISjAM#v=onepage&q=%E2%80%9CBrothers%2C%20come%20quickly.%20I%20am%20drinking%20stars!%E2%80%9D&f=false">cried out to his fellow monks</a>: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“Brothers, come quickly. I am drinking stars!”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Monks and priests also found new uses for the grape. The Jesuits are credited with improving the process for making <a href="http://www.grappamontanaro.com/storia-della-grappa/?lang=en">grappa</a> in Italy and <a href="https://museodelpisco.org/all-about-pisco/">pisco</a> in South America, both of which are grape brandies.</p>
<h2>Beer in the cloister</h2>
<p>And although beer may have been invented by the ancient Babylonians, it was perfected by the <a href="https://www.alcoholproblemsandsolutions.org/alcohol-in-the-middle-ages/#_ednref3">medieval monasteries</a> that gave us brewing as we know it today. The oldest drawings of a modern brewery are from the Monastery of Saint Gall in Switzerland. The plans, which date back to A.D. 820, show three breweries – one for guests of the monastery, one for pilgrims and the poor, and one for the <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/0/20909447">monks</a> themselves.</p>
<p>One saint, Arnold of Soissons, who lived in the 11th century, has even been credited with inventing the <a href="http://allaboutbeer.com/article/beer-saints/">filtration</a> process. To this day and despite the proliferation of many outstanding microbreweries, the world’s finest beer is arguably still made within the cloister – specifically, within the cloister of a <a href="http://ithinkaboutbeer.com/2013/05/09/the-brewing-monks-a-brief-history-of-the-trappist-order-and-monastic-brewing/">Trappist monastery</a>.</p>
<h2>Liquors and liqueurs</h2>
<p>Equally impressive is the religious contribution to distilled spirits. Whiskey was invented by medieval <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=A4EvCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA8&dq=history+of+whiskey+irish+monks&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjL94DAucHXAhVjxlQKHWdXAsQQ6AEIQDAE#v=onepage&q=history%20of%20whiskey%20irish%20monks&f=false">Irish monks</a>, who probably shared their knowledge with the Scots during their missions.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/195243/original/file-20171117-19256-1unope6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/195243/original/file-20171117-19256-1unope6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=592&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195243/original/file-20171117-19256-1unope6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=592&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195243/original/file-20171117-19256-1unope6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=592&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195243/original/file-20171117-19256-1unope6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=744&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195243/original/file-20171117-19256-1unope6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=744&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195243/original/file-20171117-19256-1unope6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=744&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Monk sneaking a drink.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AMonk_sneaking_a_drink.jpg">Scanned from Den medeltida kokboken, Swedish translation of The Medieval Cookbook by Maggie Black, via Wikimedia Commons.</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://www.chartreuse.fr/en/produits/green-chartreuse/">Chartreuse</a> is widely considered the <a href="http://www.orangecoast.com/booze-blog/green-chartreuse-best-liqueur-ever/">world’s best liqueur</a> because of its extraordinary spectrum of distinct flavors and even medicinal benefits. Perfected by the Carthusian order almost 300 years ago, the recipe is known by only <a href="https://www.chartreuse.fr/en/produits/green-chartreuse/">two monks</a> at a time. The herbal liqueur Bénédictine D.O.M. is reputed to have been invented in 1510 by an Italian Benedictine named Dom Bernardo Vincelli to fortify and restore weary monks. And the cherry brandy known as Maraska liqueur was invented by Dominican apothecaries in the early 16th century.</p>
<p>Nor was ingenuity in alcohol a male-only domain. Carmelite sisters once produced an extract called “<a href="http://www.herbrally.com/monographs/lemon-balm/">Carmelite water</a>” that was used as a herbal tonic. The nuns no longer make this elixir, but another concoction of the convent survived and went on to become one of Mexico’s most popular holiday liqueurs – Rompope. </p>
<p>Made from vanilla, milk and eggs, Rompope was invented by Clarist nuns from the Spanish colonial city of Puebla, located southeast of Mexico City. According to one account, the nuns used egg whites to give the <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JqZkUC_7WQIC&pg=PT423&lpg=PT423&dq=ROMPOPE+nuns+convent+egg+whites+yolks&source=bl&ots=h2JgzxgkHB&sig=_nHVhycm68vYrgWLwNmFZALDVMQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwipiIfNvsHXAhVIrFQKHf_BDckQ6AEIPzAD#v=onepage&q=ROMPOPE%20nuns%20convent%20egg%20whites%20yolks&f=false">sacred art</a> in their chapel a protective coating. Not wishing the leftover yolks to go to waste, they developed the recipe for this festive refreshment.</p>
<h2>Health and community</h2>
<p>So why such an impressive record of alcoholic creativity among the religious? I believe there are two underlying reasons.</p>
<p>First, the conditions were right for it. Monastic communities and similar religious orders possessed all of the <a href="https://www.alcoholproblemsandsolutions.org/alcohol-in-the-middle-ages/#_ednref3">qualities</a> necessary for producing fine alcoholic beverages. They had vast tracts of land for planting grapes or barley, a long institutional memory through which special knowledge could be handed down and perfected, a facility for teamwork and a commitment to excellence in even the smallest of chores as a means of glorifying God.</p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/195244/original/file-20171117-19278-3qcurn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/195244/original/file-20171117-19278-3qcurn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=717&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195244/original/file-20171117-19278-3qcurn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=717&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195244/original/file-20171117-19278-3qcurn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=717&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195244/original/file-20171117-19278-3qcurn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=901&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195244/original/file-20171117-19278-3qcurn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=901&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195244/original/file-20171117-19278-3qcurn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=901&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Historically, alcohol was seen to be promoting health.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AFritz_Wagner_Ein_guter_Schluck.jpg">Fritz Wagner (1896-1939) (Dorotheum) , via Wikimedia Commons</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Second, it is easy to forget in our current age that for much of human history, alcohol was instrumental in promoting <a href="http://www.upenn.edu/pennpress/book/14037.html">health</a>. Water sources often carried dangerous pathogens, and so small amounts of alcohol would be mixed with water to kill the germs therein.</p>
<p>Roman soldiers, for example, were given a daily <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LfRiXN5hhCUC&pg=PA40&lpg=PA40&dq=%22wine+per+day+to+soldiers%22&source=bl&ots=vArw70Tv2k&sig=ML-X9Cg_fJVq7ox571zHYABqLOw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj72ILdv8HXAhVLy1QKHePgCMkQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=%22wine%20per%20day%20to%20soldiers%22&f=false">allowance of wine</a>, not in order to get drunk but to purify whatever water they found on campaign. And two bishops, <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=R9i5BgAAQBAJ&pg=PT527&dq=%22Arnulf+of+Metz%22+plague+beer&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwikmY-PwMHXAhUHi1QKHdB2CMsQ6AEILjAB#v=onepage&q=%22Arnulf%20of%20Metz%22%20plague%20beer&f=false">Saint Arnulf of Metz</a> and Saint <a href="https://www.thevintagenews.com/2016/10/20/arnold-of-soissons-the-patron-saint-of-beer/">Arnold of Soissons</a>, are credited with saving hundreds from a plague because they admonished their flock to drink beer instead of water. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=A4EvCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA8&dq=history+of+whiskey+irish+monks&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjL94DAucHXAhVjxlQKHWdXAsQQ6AEIQDAE#v=onepage&q=history%20of%20whiskey%20irish%20monks&f=false">Whiskey</a>, herbal liqueurs and even bitters were likewise invented for medicinal reasons. </p>
<p>And if beer can save souls from pestilence, no wonder the Church has a special blessing for it that <a href="http://www.sanctamissa.org/en/resources/books-1962/rituale-romanum/54-blessings-of-things-designated-for-ordinary-use.html">begins</a>: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“O Lord, bless this creature beer, which by Your kindness and power has been produced from kernels of grain, and may it be a health-giving drink for mankind.”</p>
</blockquote><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/87569/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael Foley does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>For those wondering whether it is sinful to drink, even moderately, a scholar goes into the history of alcohol and its distillation to show how early monks and priests contributed to it.Michael Foley, Associate Professor of Patristics, Baylor UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/859542017-10-26T21:20:55Z2017-10-26T21:20:55ZIs drinking wine really good for your heart?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/191920/original/file-20171025-28045-heo7yc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Some research studies have found light to moderate drinking to be protective of heart health; others have found long term drinking to be damaging.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source"> (AP Photo/Richard Drew)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>As the weekend approaches, people are opening wine bottles in bars and restaurants and homes around the world, ready to kick back and relax.</p>
<p>This relationship with wine has a long history. The oldest known winery, dating back to 4100 B.C, was <a href="https://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2011/01/110111-oldest-wine-press-making-winery-armenia-science-ucla/">discovered in 2010 by archeologists in an Armenian cave</a>. Wine was used in ceremonies by the Egyptians, traded by the Phoenicians, honoured by the Greek God Dionysus and the Roman God Bacchus. By 2014, humanity was consuming <a href="https://www.wineinstitute.org/resources/statistics">more than 24 billion litres of wine</a> every year globally. Now there is some fear that extreme weather events in western Europe during 2017 <a href="http://www.theprovince.com/news/world/98extreme+weather+events+mean+could+paying+more+wine+very+soon/15346425/story.html">have reduced production substantially</a> and prices of this high-demand commodity are set to rise.</p>
<p>So why is wine so popular? Aside from its flavours, and capacity to help people relax, wine has gained something of a reputation as a “healthy” alcohol — with researchers in the past noting associations between red wine drinking in France, and lower incidence of heart disease.</p>
<p>However, wine drinking is also known to increase risks of serious health issues, including <a href="http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1465-3362.2009.00153.x">liver cirrhosis</a>, <a href="http://doi.org/10.1136/hrt.68.11.443">sudden cardiac death</a>, <a href="http://doi.org/10.1016/S0735-1097(00)00565-9">alcoholic cardiomyopathies</a> and <a href="http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2016.08.074">cardiac rhythm disorders</a>. Excessive consumption and chronic misuse of alcohol are risk factors contributing to an increase in global disease. </p>
<p>How does the average drinker know what to believe? And how much wine is safe? As medical researchers, we recently published an <a href="http://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.117.030387">in-depth analysis of the anatomy of wine</a>. This included analysis of the risks and benefits of consumption, comparisons with other alcoholic beverages and a discussion around wine’s much publicised health benefits. </p>
<h2>Wine and heart disease</h2>
<p>Modern scientific intrigue surrounding wine has grown immensely since the 1970s, when <a href="http://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(79)92765-X">large, international studies</a> first reported a link between light-to-moderate consumption of alcohol and lower rates of ischemic heart disease (IHD) occurrence and associated deaths. IHDs are a group of diseases characterised by a reduced blood flow to the heart, and account for significant deaths worldwide.</p>
<p>Similar results have been reported individually for wine, specifically red wine. This phenomenon was eventually <a href="http://doi.org/10.1016/0140-6736(92)91277-F">coined “the French paradox”</a> after Renaud and de Lorgeril, two scientists who became known for this work, observed a relatively low risk of IHD-associated mortality in red wine drinkers despite a consumption of a diet rich in saturated fat.</p>
<p></p>
<p>Does this mean red wine is good for the heart? This is a complex question and as yet there is no consensus on the answer. More than one factor needs to be considered in order to explain this situation. Drinking patterns, lifestyle characteristics and dietary intake are all important for individuals to obtain a healthy cardiovascular profile.</p>
<p>The Mediterranean diet has been put forward as one explanation. This diet emphasizes consumption of plant-based foods in addition to the moderate consumption of red wine and has <a href="http://doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.103.13.1823">been labelled as beneficial by scientific advisory committees</a>.</p>
<p>In the Mediterranean diet, the low-consumption of saturated fat, emphasis on a healthy lifestyle, and more independently, alpha-linoleic acid (an essential fatty acid) and red wine, may allow this diet to confer the much researched cardio-protective benefits.</p>
<h2>Cholesterol, inflamation, blood pressure</h2>
<p>Red wine contains over 500 different chemical substances. One class, called “polyphenols,” has been widely investigated for imparting the apparent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of red wine.</p>
<p>Alcohol and polyphenols are thought to have several positive health impacts. One is a contribution to an increase in <a href="http://doi.org/10.1079/BJN2001369">HDL-cholesterol</a> or “good cholestrol” and a decrease in <a href="http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/68/2/258.long">LDL-oxidation</a> or “bad cholesterol.” They also contribute to a decrease in <a href="http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1538-7836.2007.02527.x">inflammation</a>. They are thought to increase <a href="http://doi.org/10.2337/diacare.17.2.115">insulin sensitivity</a>. And they are understood to improve <a href="http://doi.org/10.1161/01.HYP.25.5.1106">blood pressure</a>.</p>
<p>
</p><p>There is no consistent pattern when wine is compared to beer and spirits. Some report wine’s superiority in a reduction from IHD and mortality. Others report it for beer and spirits. Others suggest there is no difference. This suggests that alcohol and polyphenols both contribute to explaining the French paradox, in addition to lifestyle factors.</p>
<p>Despite the beneficial effects of wine and alcohol consumption, drinking is still a potential risk-factor for atrial fibrillation, the most-common “rhythm alteration” of the heart.</p>
<h2>How much should you drink?</h2>
<p>In much of the research, adverse effects were increasingly observed with excessive or binge-consumption of wine, while low-to-moderate intakes lowered IHD and mortality risks. </p>
<p>In response, various governing bodies have come forth with guidelines for alcohol consumption. These follow similar patterns, but vary remarkably by country and source. And the definition of “<a href="http://doi.org/10.1111/add.13341">one standard drink</a>” used in each guideline is highly variable, and discrepant between country borders. This causes great confusion. Readers should be wary of this when interpreting alcohol consumption guidelines.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/191987/original/file-20171026-28071-ehn9yr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/191987/original/file-20171026-28071-ehn9yr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/191987/original/file-20171026-28071-ehn9yr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/191987/original/file-20171026-28071-ehn9yr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/191987/original/file-20171026-28071-ehn9yr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/191987/original/file-20171026-28071-ehn9yr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/191987/original/file-20171026-28071-ehn9yr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Most guidelines suggest a moderate consumption of no more than one or two alcoholic drinks per day. But is yours a 4 oz. or an 8 oz. glass?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The <a href="http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/67210/1/WHO_MSD_MSB_01.6b.pdf">World Health Organization</a> recommends low-risk alcohol consumption of no more than two standard drinks per day with at least two non-drinking days during the week. Here one standard drink is defined as 10 g of pure ethanol.</p>
<p>The <a href="http://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/HealthyLiving/HealthyEating/Nutrition/Alcohol-and-Heart-Health_UCM_305173_Article.jsp#.Wef3zmhSxPY">American Heart Association</a> recommends alcohol in moderation — less than or equal to one to two drinks per day for men and one drink per day for women. Here one drink is defined as 12 oz. of beer, 4 oz. of wine, 1.5 oz. of 80-proof spirits, or 1 oz. of 100-proof spirits.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://health.gov/dietaryguidelines/2015/resources/2015-2020_Dietary_Guidelines.pdf"><em>Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2015 – 2020</em></a> developed by the United States Department of Agriculture recommends a moderate consumption of alcohol. This equates to up to two standard drinks per day for men and one for women. Here, one standard drink is defined as 14 g of pure ethanol.</p>
<p>The <a href="http://www.camh.ca/en/hospital/health_information/a_z_mental_health_and_addiction_information/alcohol/Pages/low_risk_drinking_guidelines.aspx">Canadian Centre for Addiction and Mental Health</a> guidelines recommend low-risk alcohol consumption — up to three drinks per day for men and two for women. One drink is defined as 12 oz. of 5 per cent beer, 5 oz. of 12 per cent wine, and 1.5 oz. of 40 per cent spirits.</p>
<h2>Future research opportunities</h2>
<p>Observational data around alcohol consumption and heart health suggests that a light-to-moderate intake, in regular amounts, appears to be healthy. However, when mathematical models have been applied to determine causation (an approach known as Mendelian randomization) the results have been mixed.</p>
<p>Some studies have found <a href="http://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.g4164">light-to-moderate drinking beneficial</a>, while others have reported <a href="http://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/eht081">long-term alcohol consumption to be harmful</a> for the heart. </p>
<p>For doctors, it is quite clear what to recommend to patients when it comes to diet, exercise and smoking. Given the inconsistencies in the findings relating to alcohol, and wine specifically, recommendations for consumption are less obvious. </p>
<p>For wine drinkers too, definitive answers on wine and health remain elusive. There is, however, immense research potential in this area for the future. </p>
<p>And as all the guidelines say, one or two glasses of red wine tonight will be just fine.</p>
<p><em>This is a corrected version of a story originally published Oct. 26, 2017. The earlier story mistakenly said as of 2014, more than 24 million litres of wine are consumed annually. The correct figure is 24 billion litres.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/85954/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Is a glass or two of red wine good for your heart? What about your cholesterol and blood pressure? Our experts explain the controversies.Adrian Baranchuk, Professor of Medicine, Queen's University, OntarioBryce Alexander, Medical Student, Queen's University, OntarioSohaib Haseeb, Student, Queen's University, OntarioLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/781962017-07-10T14:04:26Z2017-07-10T14:04:26ZThe ‘French paradox’ turned out to be an illusion, but it led to some interesting research<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/171183/original/file-20170526-6402-12w26pr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Pourquoi si sain?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/">Hadrian/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Everybody loved the French paradox. It was a term <a href="https://academic.oup.com/ije/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/ije/dyr138">coined</a> in 1980 by French scientists in <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140673680917961">their paper</a> on heart disease and fat intake. It refers to the fact that, despite consuming a diet high in saturated fat, French people have relatively low levels of <a href="http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Coronary-heart-disease/Pages/Introduction.aspx">coronary heart disease</a>, especially when compared with people in Britain. </p>
<p>A slew of studies followed, all <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S014067367992765X">seeming to support this idea</a>. In looking to explain the paradox, some scientists pointed to the fact that French people consume <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7996999?access_num=7996999&link_type=MED&dopt=Abstract">more wine per capita</a> than many other nations. Perhaps, they posited, red wine is some kind of superfood that has protective qualities.</p>
<p>It seemed, for a glorious few years, that we could gorge on cheese and saucisson, and then unclog our arteries with a bottle of claret. But, as the saying goes, if something sounds too good to be true, then it probably is. </p>
<p>Studies like those above are epidemiological and rely on making correlations between factors, such as heart health and red-wine drinking. But correlation is not causation, and one factor that had been ignored was that the French diet was generally healthier than other nations at the time, falling under the definition of a <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-the-mediterranean-diet-and-why-is-it-good-for-you-12656">Mediterranean diet</a>. This diet consists largely of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, legumes and olive oil, with limited amounts of lean protein from fish and poultry. Trials have <a href="http://hal.univ-grenoble-alpes.fr/hal-00395451/">demonstrated</a> that adhering to the Mediterranean diet is good for cardiovascular health.</p>
<h2>Not a complete waste of time</h2>
<p>So controlled trials support the role of a healthier diet in cardiovascular health rather than red wine consumption alone. However, disregarding the French paradox completely would be misguided – because researchers also identified a group of plant chemicals present in fruits, vegetables and wine that have health-giving properties, including protecting the heart. These chemicals are called polyphenols. One of the most studied polyphenols is resveratrol, which is found most abundantly in grapes and, therefore, red wine.</p>
<p>In nature, resveratrol is a protective chemical, supporting the plant when it comes under attack from insects, bacteria or too much ultraviolet light. These same protective properties are also seen in animal and human research trials with resveratrol. The problem is that humans would have to consume an inordinate amount of wine to equal the doses given in these studies. The 500mg resveratrol doses used in many human trials would equate to about 40 litres of wine. You’d be dead from alcohol poisoning before you could get this experimental dose. So why, you might wonder, do people still study resveratrol when it clearly cannot explain the French paradox? </p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/174524/original/file-20170619-22089-11v1bf1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/174524/original/file-20170619-22089-11v1bf1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/174524/original/file-20170619-22089-11v1bf1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/174524/original/file-20170619-22089-11v1bf1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/174524/original/file-20170619-22089-11v1bf1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/174524/original/file-20170619-22089-11v1bf1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/174524/original/file-20170619-22089-11v1bf1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Resveratrol helps fruit flies live longer.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/download/confirm/157780298?src=m3_VjZHZ94V5i8koPNna8A-1-0&size=medium_jpg">Roblan/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Boosting brain performance</h2>
<p>Despite the relatively high doses used in trials, resveratrol has provided some fantastic research findings. This began about a decade ago when it was found to significantly <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982206010207">increase lifespan</a> in yeast, flies, worms and fish by essentially slowing their metabolism down. There is no evidence that resveratrol increases human lifespan, but findings suggests that resveratrol could slow the ageing process with its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. </p>
<p>Resveratrol also acts like the female hormone oestrogen, and dietary phytoestrogen (plant-based oestrogen) has been shown to have a positive effect on <a href="http://journals.lww.com/menopausejournal/Abstract/2005/12020/Cognitive_improvement_after_6_weeks_of_soy.14.aspx">mood and mental performance</a> in women during the menopause, when oestrogen levels begin to decline. It may also help with osteoarthritis which is often experienced during the drop in oestrogen during the menopause. This research is still ongoing in humans in labs in Australia.</p>
<p>At the <a href="https://www.northumbria.ac.uk/about-us/academic-departments/psychology/research/brain-performance-and-nutrition-research-centre/">Brain Performance and Nutrition Research Centre</a> at Northumbria University, we are investigating the ability of resveratrol to improve blood flow in the human brain and the hypothesis that this can boost mental performance. </p>
<p>How does resveratrol do this? Simply by piggybacking on the body’s natural ability to raise blood flow when your brain is active – when you’re working out a sum for example – which involves a neurochemical called nitric oxide widening the blood vessels to that area of the brain. This extra blood provides more fuel (the sugar and oxygen in the blood) for greedy brain cells so that they can work out that sum quicker and more accurately. Resveratrol boosts this nitric oxide response further and so it might be expected that more fuel means better mental performance.</p>
<p>However, when we put this theory to the test on young, healthy volunteers, they didn’t seem to get a brain boost from <a href="http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/91/6/1590.short">resveratrol</a>, and this is probably because they simply don’t need it. However, ongoing trials in our lab, which will be published later this year, will hopefully show that older people (50 to 70 years old) do benefit from this increased fuel provision; a finding we recently saw with other polyphenols – such as those <a href="http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/101/3/538.short">found in cocoa</a>. So red wine can’t explain the French paradox but the polyphenols, like resveratrol, found in wine have a range of promising health benefits, and one of these might be to boost our brain power as we age.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/78196/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Emma Wightman does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Red wine may not explain the French paradox but chemicals within it do have a positive effect on health.Emma Wightman, Senior lecturer in biological (specifically nutrition) psychology, Northumbria University, NewcastleLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/802982017-07-05T13:05:57Z2017-07-05T13:05:57ZBrexit and the long history of English property owners in France: will the passion endure?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/176247/original/file-20170629-16047-1orq31b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Eymet, a small village in the Perigord, is home to hundreds of British people. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/westher/20211700841/in/photolist-p3snc-p3sW9-p3tMz-p3t6n-p3que-p3qiK-p3q9D-p3sUT-p3tEV-p3sJR-p3q3q-p3spz-p3tAq-p3ssa-p3swN-p3qgG-p3tym-wN3fuH-p3tMZ-p3t4v-p3tc4-p3sG5-p3qg7-p3q1s-p3sRn-p3snZ-p3q1a-p3ttx-p3qkb-p3tu2-p3q1N-p3sTM-p3tPj-p3suN-p3sgf-p3sMN-p3s6m-p3tnS-p3tBJ-p3svc-p3tHd-p3sRK-p3skY-p3sNv-p3qjB-p3sZ3-p3sMe-p3tFm-p3qnm-p3sPH">Esther Westerveld / Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Since the first decades of the 19th century, many British citizens have bought properties or built houses in France. Approximately <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2017/jan/27/fewer-britons-in-rest-of-europe-than-previously-thought-ons-research">150,000 UK citizens currently live in France</a>, second only to Spain. With Brexit on the horizon, many are uneasy, for the draw of life in France remains strong, and its roots are deep. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175875/original/file-20170627-24776-19dozrr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175875/original/file-20170627-24776-19dozrr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175875/original/file-20170627-24776-19dozrr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=384&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175875/original/file-20170627-24776-19dozrr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=384&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175875/original/file-20170627-24776-19dozrr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=384&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175875/original/file-20170627-24776-19dozrr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=483&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175875/original/file-20170627-24776-19dozrr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=483&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175875/original/file-20170627-24776-19dozrr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=483&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The villa Bric-à-Brac of the English family Faber, in Dinard, now aquarium, then today luxury hotel.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Initially, those who acquired estates in France belonged to the privileged classes. They were seeking a milder climate as well as a lower cost of living. Starting in the 1800s, prominent British citizens began buying or building luxurious residences in the Channel ports of Boulogne and Calais. In Dieppe, on the Emerald Coast, the Villa <em>Bric à Brac</em>, was built in 1856 by the members of the Faber family. (It has recently been transformed into a <a href="http://www.lepoint.fr/art-de-vivre/a-dinard-l-ultime-meltamorphose-de-la-villa-bric-a-brac-17-10-2016-2076646_4.php">luxurious hotel</a>). Close by, another superb English villa is <em>Solidor</em>, owned by Williers Forbes, who in 1879 launched the <a href="http://www.club.fft.fr/tennisclub.dinard/05350064_a/cms/index_public.php">first tennis club in France</a>. In 2005 it was purchased by French billionaire <a href="http://www.ouest-france.fr/le-milliardaire-breton-reste-fidele-dinard-110821">François Pinault</a> and renovated. Many distinguished guests, including French president Jacques Chirac, have been hosted there.</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175873/original/file-20170627-24749-2sykwx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175873/original/file-20170627-24749-2sykwx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175873/original/file-20170627-24749-2sykwx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175873/original/file-20170627-24749-2sykwx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175873/original/file-20170627-24749-2sykwx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175873/original/file-20170627-24749-2sykwx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=534&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175873/original/file-20170627-24749-2sykwx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=534&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175873/original/file-20170627-24749-2sykwx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=534&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Lord Brougham and his Family at the Villa Eleanore-Louise Cannes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.clarkart.edu/Collection/9278">The Clark Art</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In the south of France, other British visitors started exploring what was to become the Côte d'Azur. In 1834, <a href="http://allthingsbrougham.co.uk/lord-brougham.php">Lord Brougham</a> discovered a small village named Cannes. </p>
<p>Enchanted by the place, the politician and staunch abolitionist built a beautiful villa, which he named <em>Eleonore-Louise</em>, <a href="http://fragments-cannes.com/villa_eleonoreang.html">after his daughter</a>. He stayed there every winter until his death in 1868, and his statue stands in the nearby <a href="http://www.cannes-destination.fr/Cannes/PCUPACA06V000148/Statue-de-Lord-Brougham-au-centre-des-all%C3%A9es">Allées de la Liberté</a>. </p>
<h2>Artists’ time</h2>
<p>During the inter-war period, British and Irish artists and intellectuals were attracted to France. Playwright George Bernard Shaw came every year to stay in the mythical Eden Roc Hotel in Cap d'Antibes; H.G. Wells, the father of modern science fiction, preferred the town of Grasse. In 1927, Wells had the <a href="http://bit.ly/2sN6zeX"><em>Lou Pidou</em> built</a>, a house in which he lived with his companion Odette Keun, a Dutch journalist.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175892/original/file-20170627-24749-1f1202i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175892/original/file-20170627-24749-1f1202i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175892/original/file-20170627-24749-1f1202i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175892/original/file-20170627-24749-1f1202i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175892/original/file-20170627-24749-1f1202i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175892/original/file-20170627-24749-1f1202i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175892/original/file-20170627-24749-1f1202i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175892/original/file-20170627-24749-1f1202i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Nancy Cunard.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/johannab/16790876815/in/photolist-4Tqgcs-5cu3Sd-dD7u5D-7bGjC7-rzKCG8">Johanna/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Nancy Cunard, the “scandalous” writer and rich heiress of the eponymous transatlantic shipping company, bought a farm house in Normandy, at the La Chapelle Réanville. She restored the house, known as <em>Le Puits carré</em> (“the square well”), with writer and poet <a href="http://www.artscouncilcollection.org.uk/artwork/nancy-cunard-and-louis-aragon-paris">Louis Aragon</a>. There she launched the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/fashion/2011/nov/16/nancy-cunard-gucci">Hours Press</a>, her publishing house, and there produced twenty or so books, including texts by Samuel Beckett. Badly damaged during World War II, the house is now <a href="http://abar.net/crowderpuits.htm">completely abandoned</a>. But the memory of the couple remains; Aragon’s name was given to a nearby secondary school.</p>
<p>With the war’s end, former residents such as Graham Green (Travels with my Aunt, 1969) and Somerset Maugham (The Razor’s Edge, 1944) began to return. They and other “old timers” were soon outnumbered by new arrivals. In the mid-1980s, the writer William Boyd (A Good man in Africa, 1981) bought an estate in Sadillac, near Bergerac in the Dordogne, where he produces his own wine. During the same time, in Provence, Peter Mayle lived and wrote his ode to the French lifestyle, <a href="http://bit.ly/2udYmy6">A Year in Provence</a> (1989). By the end of the 1990s, more and more Britons were crossing the Channel with the intention of settling somewhere deep in the French countryside, be it in Normandy, the interior of Brittany, or in <a href="https://www.cairn.info/revue-population-et-avenir-2008-5-page-15.htm">Limousin</a>, where rural houses are inexpensive by UK standards.</p>
<h2>The romance endures</h2>
<p>Unable to buy the cottage of their dreams in the UK, retirees and others from the less monied classes are now contributing to the revitalisation of rural France. Whether they are optimistic or pessimistic, whether or not their pensions are paid in sterling, most of those who live in France or who wish to do so have been considering Brexit with some apprehension. Has this prospect discouraged those who planned to purchase a property in France?</p>
<p>The majority of British (65%) who were intending to buy a house in France prior to Brexit do not seem to have changed their minds. According to the 9th edition of the <a href="http://www.bnpparibas-pf.com/fr/presse-et-actualites/9eme-observatoire-bnp-paribas-international-buyers-investing-living-abroad-2017/">Investing & Living Abroad</a> report from BNP Paribas, 23% of the potential buyers are considering accelerating their efforts – the fear is that their plans could be hindered when the divorce between the UK and the EU is formalised. </p>
<p>UK citizens remain the first buyers of real estate in France, while in Paris itself, Americans and Italians come first. Indeed, there the resources needed by would-be property owners are necessarily greater than those available to the average Briton who hopes to settle in some remote farmhouse.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175878/original/file-20170627-24749-1saf5ic.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175878/original/file-20170627-24749-1saf5ic.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175878/original/file-20170627-24749-1saf5ic.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175878/original/file-20170627-24749-1saf5ic.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175878/original/file-20170627-24749-1saf5ic.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175878/original/file-20170627-24749-1saf5ic.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175878/original/file-20170627-24749-1saf5ic.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175878/original/file-20170627-24749-1saf5ic.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Peter Mayle, author of <em>A Year in Provence</em>.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/voyages-provence/15239517475/in/album-72157647590007511/">Patrick Gaudin/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Thus in two centuries, the profile of the British in France has completely changed. In the beginning of the 19th century it was the lovers of French culture and the admirers of the Revolution of 1789, enlightened amateurs, hedonists, and cosmopolitans. They were gradually joined and progressively replaced by the first “tourists” travelling in groups, chaperoned by Thomas Cook and Co, and later by writers and artists who came to seek inspiration in the Latin Quarter or around Montparnasse. </p>
<p>While these earlier residents would sometimes buy an apartment, their enthusiasm for owning property in France was nothing compared to that of the British citizens, who at the end of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st are now helping revitalise rural France. And so even as it changes form, the longstanding passion of the British for real estate in France endures.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/80298/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Diana Cooper-Richet ne travaille pas, ne conseille pas, ne possède pas de parts, ne reçoit pas de fonds d'une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n'a déclaré aucune autre affiliation que son organisme de recherche.</span></em></p>While people from many nations have chosen to make their home in France, the British were among the first and remain the most numerous.Diana Cooper-Richet, Chercheur au Centre d’histoire culturelle des sociétés contemporaines, Université de Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines (UVSQ) – Université Paris-Saclay Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.