tag:theconversation.com,2011:/africa/topics/good-grades-17060/articlesGood grades – The Conversation2023-03-16T12:31:11Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2012762023-03-16T12:31:11Z2023-03-16T12:31:11ZEvery teacher grades differently, which isn’t fair<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/515223/original/file-20230314-26-p8e1ao.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C8179%2C5457&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">For many teachers, grading is an individualized effort – not one consistent with other teachers.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/school-teacher-grading-some-tests-in-a-classroom-royalty-free-image/1451107412">andresr/E+ via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Students and parents have begun suing school districts over grading policies and practices they say are unfair. </p>
<p>As a <a href="https://und.edu/directory/laura.link">scholar of education</a> who studies grading practices, I’ve seen how important grades are to schools, students and their families.</p>
<p>Grades are the primary basis for making important decisions about students. They determine whether students are promoted from one grade level to the next. They also determine honor roll status and enrollment in advanced or remedial classes, and they factor into special education services and college or university admissions. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/education/2023/03/02/sat-act-test-optional-policies-covid-become-permanent/11385454002/">More than 1,800 colleges and universities</a> now allow applicants to choose whether they want to take the ACT or SAT. That means grades are more important in admissions decisions and <a href="https://www.usnews.com/education/best-colleges/paying-for-college/articles/what-you-need-to-know-about-college-tuition-costs">scholarship awards</a> – and students and their parents know it.</p>
<p>In early 2022, a local political figure and his wife <a href="https://www.baltimoresun.com/education/bs-md-patterson-lawsuit-schools-20220127-20220127-bhu5jikoqjfvjoez4i7v4pyaii-story.html">sued Baltimore Public Schools</a>, claiming the city’s entire education system was not serving the public. They said <a href="https://www.baltimoresun.com/education/bs-md-augusta-fells-problems-20210408-npgkgnofl5g7vfpmwvx3tqk3wy-story.html">unfair grading practices</a> limited students’ academic access.</p>
<p>Later that year, a parent in Kentucky sued the local school district, alleging <a href="https://www.kentucky.com/news/local/education/article264905424.html">unfair grading practices</a> had tainted remote learning classes that had been established during the COVID-19 pandemic. </p>
<p>Those cases are still pending, but even <a href="https://my.aasa.org/AASA/Resources/SAMag/2021/May21/Link-Kauffman.aspx">as far back as 2007</a>, <a href="https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=8278150">parents sued a West Virginia school district</a> because their daughter got a lower grade than expected on a biology project she turned in late. The lawsuit argued that the bad grade was unfair and hurt the student’s grade-point average, valedictorian status, scholarship potential and chances of getting into a good college. </p>
<p>These lawsuits show how important grades are to students and their parents.</p>
<h2>Teachers spend lots of time grading</h2>
<p>Teachers know how important grades are, too. In fact, teachers spend <a href="https://www.ascd.org/books/what-we-know-about-grading?variant=118062">over one-third of their professional work time</a> assessing and evaluating student learning. </p>
<p>But most university teacher-education programs focus on curriculum and instruction, with less attention given to assessment. My research has found that these programs do not talk about <a href="https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1168160">how to actually grade</a> student work.</p>
<p>In keeping with a <a href="https://uknowledge.uky.edu/edp_facpub/53/">long-held tradition in education</a>, teachers also have, and like, the autonomy to set their own practices. That results in <a href="https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1168160">inconsistency, inequity and even unreliability</a> in teachers’ grading practices.</p>
<p>For example, teachers decide if grades will be based on tests, quizzes, homework, participation, behavior, effort, extra credit or other evidence. When surveying over 15,000 teachers, administrators, support educators, parents and students, I found <a href="https://gradingrx.com">teachers use a wide range of evidence</a> in grades. While they primarily use tests, quizzes, projects, and homework to assign grades, teachers at all grade levels also include nonacademic evidence, like behavior and effort, in their grading equations. </p>
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<p>Teachers also decide whether students will get a second chance to take tests if they fail on the first attempt, or be allowed to turn in work late, sometimes reducing their maximum possible grade. </p>
<p>Once teachers decide what to include in their grades, they decide how much weight to assign to each grade category. One teacher may weigh homework as 20% of the final course grade, while another teacher in the same grade level may choose a different weight or not grade homework at all.</p>
<p>In my work, I have talked to teachers who curve grades, especially at the end of a course when they discover lots of students did poorly. To curve, these teachers adjust grades by adding points to all students’ scores to bring the highest score up to 100%. Other teachers in the same school told me they do not grade on a curve. Instead, they add extra credit points to students’ final course grades if they attend a school event, such as a play. Some teachers told me they also add grade points if a student was never tardy to class or never missed an assignment deadline. </p>
<h2>Traditional grading is confusing and inaccurate</h2>
<p>Schools do often have a common grade system all teachers must use, such as a scale from zero to 100. But my research has found that it’s <a href="https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1168160">very rare</a> that all teachers in a district, or even a school or a grade level, use the same grading policies and procedures.</p>
<p>The variation among teachers’ grading policies and practices causes confusion for students and their parents. High school students, for instance, typically have seven different teachers each semester. That means they have to keep up with seven different grading policies and procedures – and cope with the obvious differences. </p>
<p>My research indicates that the effort to keep up with multiple teachers’ different grading expectations <a href="https://www.nassp.org/publication/principal-leadership/volume-21-2020-2021/principal-leadership-october-2020/viewpoint-october-2020/">causes students chronic stress and anxiety</a>, especially for those students with poor organizational, time-management and self-regulation skills. This is also the case for students competing for high grade-point averages and class rank. Still, students rarely question teachers’ grading or the grading differences between teachers. </p>
<p>It might seem unfair, for example, that one algebra teacher allows for extra credit to boost final course grades and another does not. But students have accepted these differences because this is <a href="https://uknowledge.uky.edu/edp_facpub/53/">how it’s always been</a>. And parents often pass these grading differences off as what they experienced in school themselves. </p>
<h2>Three ways to improve grading</h2>
<p>Grading consistency and effectiveness could be improved if universities’ teacher-training programs included <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00405841.2022.2107338">specific training on grading practices</a> in their educator preparation programs, but not any training will do. Evidence-based research on grading conducted over the past century identifies <a href="https://www.ascd.org/books/what-we-know-about-grading?variant=118062">ways grades can be effective, fair and accurate</a>.</p>
<p>First, grades are accurate and meaningful when they are based on reliable and valid evidence from classroom assessments. This information allows teachers to provide students and parents with feedback on learning progress, and to guide teachers’ own efforts to improve their teaching. For instance, an assessment strategy called <a href="https://www.aasa.org/resources/resource/feedback-for-teachers-what-evidence-do-teachers-find-most-useful">Mastery Learning</a> has been shown to improve student achievement and deliver reliable evidence upon which teachers can base grades.</p>
<p>Second, grading works best when students, parents, teachers, administrators and others in the school are <a href="https://gradingrx.com/">clear on the purpose of grades</a>. These groups have different beliefs and expectations, but clarity in grades can be achieved when they agree on grading intentions to then anchor policies and practices.</p>
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<p>Third, grade reports that include three to five categories of performance more meaningfully <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00405841.2022.2107338">communicate students’ actual academic proficiency</a>. Reducing a grade to a single letter or number that incorporates many aspects of learning, including behavior and effort, does not inform anyone as clearly about what a student has achieved, needs or is ready for.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/201276/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Laura Link consults with school districts through GradingRx. </span></em></p>A scholar of grading explains how teachers can do a better job of reporting what grades represent, and what they are for.Laura Link, Assistant Professor of Teaching and Leadership, University of North DakotaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1235672019-10-09T13:07:49Z2019-10-09T13:07:49Z6 ways to establish a productive homework routine<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/295657/original/file-20191004-118260-1ls3nt7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Breaking homework assignments down into smaller parts makes it easier to complete.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/mixedrace-teenage-girl-looking-laptop-display-1444282037?src=JNmlOQyRLKyUBCFMaKL4XQ-2-55">Pressmaster/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Homework. Whether you’re a fifth-grader or a freshman in college, the mere thought of homework can be overwhelming. And actually doing homework can be quite difficult. But homework doesn’t have to be something a student dreads.</p>
<p>As a former high school English teacher and researcher who specializes in what it takes to make it through college – and a co-author of a forthcoming revised edition of a <a href="https://he.kendallhunt.com/product/its-all-about-choices-recipes-academic-success">book about academic success</a> – I’ve studied homework since 2010. Here are six ways I believe homework can be made more manageable and valuable, whether you’re in elementary school, high school or graduate school. </p>
<h2>1. Set priorities</h2>
<p>Establish a list of priorities based on the class syllabus or assignment list. This can be helpful for tackling difficult tasks, creating motivation and activating your sense of control and independence when it comes to learning. The priority list helps maintain goals and gives you a sense satisfaction to cross things off the list as they are completed.</p>
<h2>2. Tackle difficult tasks first</h2>
<p>Start with your most difficult assignments first in order to make the most of your energy level and to focus at the beginning of a work session. You can attend to the easier or less time-consuming assignments at the end of a work session.</p>
<h2>3. Break tasks down to smaller steps</h2>
<p>You may not know how to start a major task, which could trigger procrastination or feelings of defeat. To guard against this, break major tasks into three or four smaller steps. Within one homework session, you can feel a greater sense of accomplishment by completing each small step toward the larger whole. In some cases, you might be able to spread these tasks over the course of a week.</p>
<h2>4. Create evidence of learning</h2>
<p>You will get more out of the time you spend reading, reviewing notes or otherwise “studying” if you create something in the process. For example, creating flash cards, a graphic organizer, chart, or notes with bullet points can help you <a href="https://styluspub.presswarehouse.com/browse/book/9781620367568/Teach-Yourself-How-to-Learn">become an active learner</a> rather than a passive one. Organize the tools you create with the homework assignment by date and topic so that you can review those items to prepare for quizzes, tests or projects.</p>
<h2>5. Build a network of support</h2>
<p>If certain homework problems could not be solved and you’re stuck in a rut, figure out what’s confusing you and write or record your thoughts. Jot questions down and be as specific as possible in order to seek out additional support from teachers or tutors. The more you can identify sources of confusion, the more you can proactively reach out to your support network – teachers, tutors and others – in order to get additional help.</p>
<h2>6. Revisit goals and set new ones</h2>
<p>At the start of each homework session, establish goals for completion of your tasks or assignments. Revisit the goals at the end of the session and acknowledge a sense of completion. This goal-setting process builds confidence over time and helps you realize their potential even when faced with difficulties. A productive homework routine will help you realize that learning is an ongoing journey. The journey may be difficult but getting organized will make it as stress-free as possible.</p>
<p>[ <em>Like what you’ve read? Want more?</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=likethis">Sign up for The Conversation’s daily newsletter</a>. ]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/123567/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Janine L. Nieroda-Madden does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>When it comes to completing homework, getting organized and celebrating small victories along the way is key, an expert on learning strategies says.Janine L. Nieroda-Madden, Assistant Professor of College Learning Strategies and Instruction, Syracuse UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/720352017-02-02T02:58:11Z2017-02-02T02:58:11ZStereotypes can hold boys back in school, too<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/155271/original/image-20170201-22566-1z11q1v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=396%2C336%2C4363%2C3190&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Students of both genders carry around stereotypes about school achievement.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/kids-go-school-little-boy-girl-478964521">Children image via www.shutterstock.com.</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>By age six, girls are less likely than boys to view their own gender as brilliant and express interest in activities described as for “really, really smart” children, according to <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.aah6524">2017 research</a> published in Science. </p>
<p>Many <a href="http://www.bbc.com/news/health-38717926">major</a> <a href="http://www.newsweek.com/girls-young-six-think-brilliance-boys-study-549034">media</a> <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/grade-point/wp/2017/01/26/research-shows-young-girls-are-less-likely-to-think-of-women-as-really-really-smart/">outlets</a> reported these findings. Most of the coverage, however, overlooked another key finding from the same study: Boys were less likely to say their own gender gets top grades in school. </p>
<p>The beliefs of children matter because they could shape students’ interests and achievement over time, other research suggests. For instance, one 2013 experiment found that telling elementary school children “<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12079">girls do better than boys</a>” in school made boys – but not girls – perform worse on a series of academic tests. These expectations can work both ways: When researchers told children that boys and girls would perform the same, boys’ academic performance improved.</p>
<p>There are real and persistent <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2013.10.011">gender achievement gaps</a> in the U.S. For instance, boys tend to get <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0036620">worse grades</a> than girls, but girls are few among top scorers on <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2010.04.006">standardized math tests</a>. While much research <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2014.10.002">has studied</a> how stereotypes about achievement can make girls underperform, the gaps where boys do worse have often been <a href="http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2000/05/the-war-against-boys/304659/">historically overlooked</a>. But stereotypes can harm boys too – just in different ways.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/155248/original/image-20170201-29893-10ailxb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/155248/original/image-20170201-29893-10ailxb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/155248/original/image-20170201-29893-10ailxb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/155248/original/image-20170201-29893-10ailxb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/155248/original/image-20170201-29893-10ailxb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/155248/original/image-20170201-29893-10ailxb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/155248/original/image-20170201-29893-10ailxb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/155248/original/image-20170201-29893-10ailxb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Even young students hold beliefs about which gender is better at what.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/usagrc/8402390855">U.S. Army Garrison Red Cloud</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
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<h1>Who gets the grades, who’s super smart?</h1>
<p>In the Science study on children’s views about brilliance, developmental psychologists asked 144 children aged five to seven years a <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.aah6524">series of questions</a> about school achievement. For instance, children had to guess which of two unfamiliar boys and two unfamiliar girls “gets the best grades in school.” </p>
<p>Children tended to favor their own gender, but boys did so to a lesser extent. Among seven-year-olds, 79 percent of girls selected girls as the better student, but 55 percent of boys selected boys.</p>
<p>These results sharply contrasted with those about brilliance. When asked to guess who was “really, really smart,” girls instead expressed less confidence in their gender. Among seven-year-olds, 55 percent of girls selected girls as being super smart, but 66 percent of boys selected boys.</p>
<p>In other words, these young children overall held positive beliefs about their gender. But boys were less certain about their gender getting good grades and girls were less certain about their gender being super smart.</p>
<p>Other research has found that, by fifth grade, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12079">both boys and girls say</a> that girls work harder at school, want to learn more, listen better, follow instructions better, are more polite and – perhaps as a result – perform better in school.</p>
<h1>Reality of gender achievement gaps</h1>
<p>Children’s stereotypes reflect reality to an extent. For instance, girls have gotten <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0036620">better school grades in all subject areas</a> for nearly a century, according to a recent synthesis of 308 studies that included over one million students. This female advantage started in elementary school and continued until college.</p>
<p>Girls get better grades, even in <a href="https://nationsreportcard.gov/hsts_2009/gender_gpa.aspx?tab_id=tab3&subtab_id=Tab_1">math and science</a> – two subject areas often assumed to favor boys. Women also <a href="http://ncsesdata.nsf.gov/webcaspar/EmailedTable?table=0131170122245506081">now earn</a> more bachelor’s degrees, master’s degree and – since 2007 – doctoral degrees than men in the U.S.</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/155074/original/image-20170131-3259-q0hqse.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/155074/original/image-20170131-3259-q0hqse.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=252&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/155074/original/image-20170131-3259-q0hqse.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=252&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/155074/original/image-20170131-3259-q0hqse.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=252&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/155074/original/image-20170131-3259-q0hqse.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=317&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/155074/original/image-20170131-3259-q0hqse.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=317&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/155074/original/image-20170131-3259-q0hqse.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=317&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Girls get better grades even in math and science.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://nationsreportcard.gov/hsts_2009/gender_gpa.aspx?tab_id=tab3&subtab_id=Tab_1">U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics, High School Transcript Study (HSTS), various years, 1990-2009</a></span>
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<p>Despite their advantage in grades and degree attainment, girls are underrepresented among the highest scorers on <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.7604277">standardized mathematics and science tests</a>. For instance, boys <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2013.10.011">typically outnumber</a> girls by between two and four to one among the top 1 percent or higher of math scorers. However, girls tend to slightly outnumber boys among top scorers on <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2010.04.006">standardized reading and writing tests</a>.</p>
<p>Children’s views about who is “really, really smart” therefore partly match the reality of who gets top scores on mathematics (but not reading or writing) standardized tests.</p>
<h1>Self-fulfilling stereotypes</h1>
<p>But children’s stereotypes may do more than merely reflect reality: They may help create that reality through self-fulfilling prophecies. For instance, if girls doubt their gender can be brilliant, girls might then avoid “super smart” activities like advanced math summer camps and then not <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2332858416673617">develop precocious mathematics talent</a>. In other words, stereotypes and reality could mutually strengthen each other.</p>
<p>Consistent with these hypotheses, the new Science study also found that, by age six, girls expressed less interest than boys in games described as for “children who are really, really smart” (though <a href="https://twitter.com/davidimiller/status/825083343838511105">more research is needed</a> to see if stereotypes directly caused this gap in interests). </p>
<p>Stereotypes could negatively affect boys too. As experiments on elementary school children suggest, beliefs about boys’ <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12079">academic inferiority</a> or <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2016.02.008">poor reading ability</a> could make boys underperform on evaluative academic tests. </p>
<p>Teachers’ stereotypes also matter. For instance, teachers’ beliefs that girls are better readers <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0037107">predict declines</a> from grade five to grade six in boys’ – but not girls’ – confidence in their reading skills. Researchers also find that teachers often view boys as “<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/bs.acdb.2015.11.001">lazy, disruptive, unfocused, and lacking motivation.</a>” This stereotype about troublesome boys could negatively bias teachers’ perceptions of boys’ learning, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11218-015-9303-0">one experiment</a> found.</p>
<p>These results suggest stereotypes contribute to gender achievement gaps, but they certainly aren’t the only factor at work. For instance, girls’ advantage in grades might also be tied to actual differences in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2011.09.001">classroom behavior</a> or <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.132.1.33">activity level</a>.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Boys’ rowdiness in school — and teachers’ intolerance of it — might also contribute to girls’ advantage in grades, argues philosopher Christina Hoff Sommers.</span></figcaption>
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<h1>Maximizing all children’s potential</h1>
<p>Stereotypes could therefore hold back both girls and boys, but in distinct domains. Beliefs about brilliance might deter girls from top intellectual pursuits, but beliefs about grades and classroom behavior might harm boys in school more broadly across the achievement spectrum. </p>
<p>Both sets of findings are important. However, people often appear much less concerned with stereotypes negatively affecting boys than those affecting girls. For instance, <a href="https://www.altmetric.com/details/15836717/twitter">several tweets</a> about this new study described its results about brilliance as “sad” and “depressing,” but its results about grades went largely unnoticed.</p>
<p>Data on boys’ underachievement also have often been <a href="http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2000/05/the-war-against-boys/304659/">historically overlooked</a> in media attention and <a href="http://educationnext.org/progress-report/">educational policies</a>. Some writers even <a href="https://www.thenation.com/article/real-world-so-called-boy-crisis-disappears/">argue that</a> boys’ educational struggles aren’t “worrisome” because “the workplace is still stacked against [women].”</p>
<p>But it’s not constructive to pit one gender against the other. Recognizing contexts that favor females <a href="https://theconversation.com/some-good-news-about-hiring-women-in-stem-doesnt-erase-sex-bias-issue-40212">doesn’t erase biases</a> against them elsewhere. More importantly, the goal of education should be to maximize all students’ potential and remove obstacles in their way. Regardless of the individual strengths students bring to school, stereotypes shouldn’t determine how far they go. Realizing that goal requires identifying and mitigating how stereotypes can also hold boys back in school.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/72035/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Miller receives funding from National Science Foundation. </span></em></p>Recent research raised concerns about girls’ stereotypes on their gender’s lack of ‘brilliance.’ But an overlooked finding suggests boys also hold hindering stereotypes about themselves in school.David Miller, Ph.D. Candidate in Psychology, Northwestern UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/595482016-05-31T09:54:02Z2016-05-31T09:54:02ZDebunked: links between term-time holidays and lower grades<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/123558/original/image-20160523-11017-h3do8n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source"> ISchmidt/www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>A <a href="http://www.independent.co.uk/travel/news-and-advice/father-jon-platt-wins-the-right-to-take-his-children-on-holiday-in-term-time-this-is-what-that-means-a7029446.html">recent victory</a> for parent Jon Platt means that <a href="http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2013/756/contents/made">the 2013 ban</a> on parents taking their children on holidays during term-time is now out of step with English law. </p>
<p>Platt’s case has become something of a <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/2016/05/14/term-time-holidays-thousands-could-have-fines-refunded-after-lan/">cause célèbre</a> after he argued that he should have the right to take his daughter away for six school days to Disney World in Florida without permission from her school because no evidence could be produced that she had failed to attend school “regularly”. The court did not define what “regularly” meant, but ruled that he had no case to answer for refusing to pay a £120 fine. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/401467/parental_responsibility_measures_for_school_attendance_and_behaviour.pdf.pdf">government’s guidance</a> on attendance states that parents are “responsible for making sure that their children of compulsory school age receive a suitable full-time education”, which can be by “regular attendance at school”, an alternative provision, or home schooling.</p>
<p>The significance of the case has been amplified by wider concerns about the <a href="http://parentswantasay.co.uk/school-truancy-is-unfairly-criminalising-families-across-england/">number of parents being fined</a> and the impacts on particular groups including <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/liberaldemocrats/11356153/Soldiers-should-be-able-to-take-children-on-holiday-during-term-time-says-peer.html">military personnel</a>. </p>
<p>Quite apart from the <a href="http://www.walesonline.co.uk/news/wales-news/staggering-price-difference-between-holidays-11347305">financial incentives</a> to take family holidays during school terms, Platt’s central claim chimes with concerns about the protection of <a href="http://www.local.gov.uk/children-and-young-people-board/-/journal_content/56/10180/7536656/NEWS">the right to a family life</a>. It has also provoked <a href="https://yougov.co.uk/news/2014/02/27/stop-fines-holidays-term-time/">libertarian demands</a> that it should be for the parent and not the state to make decisions, within the law, about what is in their children’s best interests. </p>
<p>The response of the Department for Education (DfE) has been to double-down. <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/news/short-breaks-damage-young-peoples-futures">Nicky Morgan</a>, secretary of state for education, repeated the claim that <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/education/2015/oct/16/father-overturns-120-fine-taking-daughter-term-time-holiday">even a week missed from school</a> impacts on attainment. </p>
<p>It would seem that the DfE is minded to <a href="http://schoolsweek.co.uk/government-plans-to-change-term-time-holiday-law/">change the law</a> to specify what “regular attendance” means and to bear down on any day missed other than for <a href="http://www.naht.org.uk/welcome/news-and-media/key-topics/parents-and-pupils/naht-issues-new-guidance-on-authorised-absence/">unavoidable causes</a>.</p>
<p>But this policy is out of step with the evidence used to support it. It is based on the myth that each missing day of school, including days missed for holidays, <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/news/just-one-day-off-can-hamper-childrens-life-chances">has a measurable impact on educational achievement</a>. That myth, and the numbers used to support it, have become something of a meme in the educational community, cited by <a href="http://www.rusheymead-sec.leicester.sch.uk/parents-area/attendance.php">schools</a> and <a href="http://www.gloucestershire.gov.uk/schoolsnet/CHttpHandler.ashx?id=56898">Local Education Authorities</a>. </p>
<h2>Out to get truants</h2>
<p>The first intimations of the policy came in 2011 <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/183445/DFE-RR171.pdf">when the DfE reported that there was a clear link between absence and attainment</a>. The report was rooted in comparisons between those who were persistent absentees (higher than 20% absence) and the rest, making no attempt to distinguish between the relationship between grades and levels of absence of less than 20%. Its authors warned for caution surrounding claims in this area because of the reality that the majority of absences are caused by a minority of pupils. </p>
<p>Under Morgan’s predecessor, Michael Gove, attention continued to focus on the persistent absentees, changing the definition of this to refer to those with more than 15% absence <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/509708/Guide_to_absence_statistics.pdf">(the definition is now 10%)</a>.</p>
<p>Since 2012, there has been a focus on evidence to support the claims that all patterns of attendance explain attainment and that the attainment impact can be tracked to ever-smaller units of relevant attendance. It is within this context that the term-time holiday rule was brought in, even though holidays <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/509989/SFR10_2016_text.pdf">accounted</a> for around 7.5% of all absence compared to 60% for illness.</p>
<p>The primary source of evidence to support this relentless focus on attendance was a <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/412638/The_link_between_absence_and_attainment_at_KS2_and_KS4.pdf">February 2015 DfE report</a>. It is this report which led to the headline claims that:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>44% of pupils with no absence in Key Stage 4 (normally aged 16) achieve the English Baccalaureate – the gold standard package of GCSE qualifications that includes English, maths, science, history or geography and a language – opening doors to their future. But this figure falls by a quarter to just 31.7% for pupils who miss just 14 days of lessons over the two years that pupils study for their GCSEs, which equates to around one week per year, and to 16.4% for those who miss up to 28 days.</p>
</blockquote>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/123379/original/image-20160520-4466-1y7vwgm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/123379/original/image-20160520-4466-1y7vwgm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/123379/original/image-20160520-4466-1y7vwgm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=263&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/123379/original/image-20160520-4466-1y7vwgm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=263&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/123379/original/image-20160520-4466-1y7vwgm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=263&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/123379/original/image-20160520-4466-1y7vwgm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=331&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/123379/original/image-20160520-4466-1y7vwgm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=331&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/123379/original/image-20160520-4466-1y7vwgm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=331&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Percentage of pupils achieving stated qualifications at the end of KS4 in 2012-13 academic year by percentage of sessions missed.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/412638/The_link_between_absence_and_attainment_at_KS2_and_KS4.pdf">Department for Education</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Difficulties with the data</h2>
<p>There are a number of problems with the data and the claims. First, attainment at the end of Key Stage 4 – GCSE level – is only considered in relation to attendance in five terms over Years 10 and 11 when children are 14- to 16-years-old. This is despite data for the whole of secondary school being available through the <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/national-pupil-database">National Pupil Database</a>. </p>
<p>Second, “success” in the English Baccalaureate subjects is not available to students not taking those subjects – they are <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/news/new-reforms-to-raise-standards-and-improve-behaviour">not yet compulsory</a>. It may well be the case that pupils who don’t take the English Baccalaureate have poor patterns of attainment or are not engaged with schooling. </p>
<p>Third, the attendance bands are very broad – over 50% of pupils are absent only 0-5% of the time. As the 90-95% attendance band covers absences of between 16 and 32 missed days over the five terms in Year 10 and Year 11, this grossly lumps together quite disparate patterns of attendance.</p>
<p>The government makes no distinction between types of attendance and the data cannot be used to support claims that all types of absence, including days missed for holidays, contribute uniformly to a pupil’s grades. </p>
<p>Nonetheless, the claims linking poor attendance to poor school performance continue to be made. With the percentage of pupils who were absent for at least one session of school because of a term-time holiday <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/524081/SFR13_2016_Text.pdf">increasing from</a> 4.9% in autumn 2014 to 5.2% in autumn 2015, the struggles between parents, schools, the DfE and the courts look set to continue. </p>
<p> </p>
<p> </p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/59548/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Peter Jones does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Picking over the government’s claims that missing class to go on holiday impacts on attainment.Peter Jones, Lecturer in Education, Keele UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/395562015-05-20T10:07:42Z2015-05-20T10:07:42ZStudents cheat for good grades. Why not make the classroom about learning and not testing?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/81928/original/image-20150515-25444-17xya76.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Students' academic goals play an important role in cheating.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/downloading_tips.mhtml?code=&id=81455890&size=huge&image_format=jpg&method=download&super_url=http%3A%2F%2Fdownload.shutterstock.com%2Fgatekeeper%2FW3siZSI6MTQzMTc1MTc4MCwiYyI6Il9waG90b19zZXNzaW9uX2lkIiwiZGMiOiJpZGxfODE0NTU4OTAiLCJwIjoidjF8MTkzNjIzNTl8ODE0NTU4OTAiLCJrIjoicGhvdG8vODE0NTU4OTAvaHVnZS5qcGciLCJtIjoiMSIsImQiOiJzaHV0dGVyc3RvY2stbWVkaWEifSwibDltVTlxWk1uMjc3WkNPd2VLRFpIaGdWQmxVIl0%2Fshutterstock_81455890.jpg&racksite_id=ny&chosen_subscription=1&license=standard&src=tbPt2ayQMHf6OR7zqYPtsg-1-32&el_order_id=">Girl Image via www.shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>We have been hearing stories about academic cheating: from students caught cheating on homework assignments as well as college entrance exams to teachers being caught in cheating scandals, such as the ones in <a href="http://www.huffingtonpost.com/news/atlanta-teachers-cheating/">Atlanta</a>, Georgia, and <a href="http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702303277704579349202004452142">Columbus</a>, Ohio. </p>
<p>Today, <a href="http://www.glass-castle.com/clients/www-nocheating-org/adcouncil/research/cheatingfactsheet.html">between 75% and 98%</a> of college students surveyed each year report having cheated in high school. So, if cheating is happening at that large a scale, is it just inevitable? And can we even blame our students? </p>
<p>In order to figure out how to answer these questions, it’s important to consider why students cheat in the first place. Although the obvious reason seems to be the desire of students to get ahead (eg, to get a good grade, or to avoid a punishment), the real reason is actually a bit more complicated. </p>
<h2>Academic goals matter</h2>
<p>When students do their schoolwork (which includes everything from daily homework assignments to major examinations), they usually have certain goals in mind. These goals vary from one academic task to another. </p>
<p>In other words, if you were to ask a student, “What is your goal in taking next week’s chemistry test?”, the student should be able to tell you what she wants to get out of the experience.</p>
<p>My colleagues and I have been <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0361476X04000232">studying</a> the <a href="http://store.elsevier.com/Psychology-of-Academic-Cheating/isbn-9780123725417/">psychology</a> behind academic cheating for the past two decades, and we have found that students’ goals in their academic tasks are related in very predictable ways to their likelihood of cheating. <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00220970903224636">Research</a> also indicates that teachers and parents can influence those goals, and thus potentially deter cheating.</p>
<p>If the <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1207/s15326985ep4103_1#.VVDk2OsuhxAhttp://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1207/s15326985ep4103_1">sole reason</a> for engaging in an academic task is to get a good grade, then it’s probably easy for a student to justify the act of cheating. </p>
<p>As my colleagues and I <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0361476X04000232">found</a>, some students might have short-term reasons. For instance, for some students, it might be as simple a motivation as the desire to go to a friend’s party on Saturday night. If they think that their parents will not let them go if they fail the test, they might take the easier option to cheat, to be able to go to the party.</p>
<p>For some others, it might be a longer-term reason: They might want a good salary and other luxuries in their adult life and believe that the only path to those things would be a good college. And they might be willing to cheat on their tests to be able to get ahead in their future. </p>
<h2>Students have different goals</h2>
<p>Whereas these reasons may seem selfish and shortsighted to some adults, to many adolescents, who are still unable to consider the consequences of their actions, these goals may seem perfectly reasonable. </p>
<p>We refer to these goals as “extrinsic” goals. Research indicates that students who experience classrooms in which extrinsic goals are common are <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/1998-00166-007">more likely to cheat.</a> </p>
<p>Clearly, not all students have these goals. Some students are motivated by their desire to learn. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/81929/original/image-20150515-25422-14pcstc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/81929/original/image-20150515-25422-14pcstc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/81929/original/image-20150515-25422-14pcstc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/81929/original/image-20150515-25422-14pcstc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/81929/original/image-20150515-25422-14pcstc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/81929/original/image-20150515-25422-14pcstc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/81929/original/image-20150515-25422-14pcstc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Teachers can create a learning environment that does not motivate students only toward getting good grades.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/cat.mhtml?lang=en&language=en&ref_site=photo&search_source=search_form&version=llv1&anyorall=all&safesearch=1&use_local_boost=1&search_tracking_id=WIzeqySZl9X9C5TdT7-hgA&searchterm=classroom%20teacher&show_color_wheel=1&orient=&commercial_ok=&media_type=images&search_cat=&searchtermx=&photographer_name=&people_gender=&people_age=&people_ethnicity=&people_number=&color=&page=1&inline=144218422">Teacher image via www.shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>So, for some students, the goal might be to truly understand and master the material that is being studied. In other words, whereas some students might have a goal of getting a good grade on a chemistry test in order to get something (eg, to go to a party), others might have the goal of truly learning chemistry: “I want to understand chemistry because I want to develop drugs to help fight cancer; I know that understanding chemistry is essential for me to be successful in this career.” </p>
<p>We refer to these goals as “mastery” goals. Research indicates that students who experience classrooms in which mastery goals are valued and encouraged <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0361476X04000232">are less likely to cheat</a>. </p>
<p>If one thinks about this, it starts to make sense. When students are learning in classrooms where the teacher truly values mastery of the academic content (as opposed to getting a good grade on an assessment), then “cheating” really doesn’t offer any benefits to the students. </p>
<h2>Teachers can help</h2>
<p>The ways in which assessments of student learning are administered are particularly relevant in discussions of academic cheating. If results of assessments ultimately come down to a grade on a test or an assignment (eg, an “A” or an “F”), then students often will come to value the grade more than what they are actually learning. </p>
<p>However, if, in contrast, the assessment truly focuses on a demonstration of mastery of content, then students will focus on mastering that content and not just on getting an “A.” </p>
<p>When students have to demonstrate mastery of material, cheating doesn’t serve much of a purpose – if you truly have to show the teacher that you understand and can apply the information that you learned, then cheating won’t buy you any shortcuts.</p>
<p>Fortunately, there are <a href="http://www.pearsonhighered.com/educator/product/Classroom-Motivation/9780133017885.page">strategies</a> that educators can use to facilitate students’ adoption of mastery goals instead of extrinsic goals. </p>
<p>Here are a few suggestions, based on our <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1207/s15326985ep4103_1">research</a>:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Make sure that assignments and exams require students to demonstrate mastery of content, as opposed to just requiring the regurgitation of memorized facts.</p></li>
<li><p>When students do not demonstrate mastery on an assignment or a test, allow them to redo the assignment. Educators sometimes don’t think that this recommendation is fair – after all, if one student gets all of the answers right the first time, why should someone else get a second chance? But, if the goal is really to learn or “master” the content, then does it really matter if the student gets a second chance?</p></li>
<li><p>Avoid high-stakes, one-time assessments.</p></li>
<li><p>Always provide students’ grades privately – don’t share results publicly or display distributions of scores; students often will cheat in order to avoid looking “dumb.”</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Ultimately, some students will inevitably cheat. But, by considering why students are doing various academic tasks in the first place and helping them set their “mastery” goals, educators can make a significant dent in the <a href="http://www.glass-castle.com/clients/www-nocheating-org/adcouncil/research/cheatingfactsheet.html">epidemic </a> of academic cheating.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/39556/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Eric Anderman received funding from National Institutes of Health.</span></em></p>Is academic cheating inevitable? Not in classrooms where teachers emphasize mastery of content.Eric M. Anderman, Professor, Educational Psychology, The Ohio State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.