tag:theconversation.com,2011:/africa/topics/healthy-cities-44378/articlesHealthy cities – The Conversation2024-02-13T16:08:51Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2232832024-02-13T16:08:51Z2024-02-13T16:08:51ZLabour scaling back its £28 billion green pledge will impact UK housing – and public health<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575302/original/file-20240213-16-cnaxya.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/aerial-drone-sunrise-view-suburban-houses-1079721062">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The UK Labour party has <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2024/feb/08/labour-cuts-28bn-green-investment-pledge-by-half#:%7E:text=Labour%20announced%20the%20%C2%A328bn,flood%20defences%20and%20home%20insulation.">announced</a> its intention to reduce <a href="https://theconversation.com/labours-28-billion-green-investment-promise-could-be-watered-down-heres-why-222319">its £28 billion green investment pledge</a> to less than £15 billion if elected this year. The political fallout has been been largely focused on the party’s fiscal credibility and leader of the opposition Keir Starmer’s seeming proclivity for <a href="https://www.politico.eu/article/keir-starmer-labour-party-uk-election-u-turns/">U-turns</a>. </p>
<p>A crucial question so far overlooked is what impact the cut would have on <a href="https://theconversation.com/healthy-cities-arent-a-question-of-boring-or-exciting-buildings-but-about-creating-better-public-space-220456">public health</a>. The initial pledge included a key home-insulation plan to upgrade 72% – 19m homes – of the UK’s housing stock. </p>
<p>The revised plan, however, replaces that ambitious target with the more ambiguous statement that “millions of homes” will be refurbished. <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/07352166.2023.2260029">Research</a> has long shown that uninsulated homes have consequences for health, especially for those living in poverty and in poor quality housing. This in turn places <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/public-health/articles/10.3389/fpubh.2023.1070200/full">an extra burden</a> on an already over-stretched health service.</p>
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<img alt="A constructionn site." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575304/original/file-20240213-16-hkrvur.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575304/original/file-20240213-16-hkrvur.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575304/original/file-20240213-16-hkrvur.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575304/original/file-20240213-16-hkrvur.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575304/original/file-20240213-16-hkrvur.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575304/original/file-20240213-16-hkrvur.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575304/original/file-20240213-16-hkrvur.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Labour plans to build 1.5 million homes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/construction-new-houses-england-ground-1190120185">Shutterstock</a></span>
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<h2>Existing government failure</h2>
<p>The wider societal cost of poor-quality housing in the UK is estimated at <a href="https://www.brebookshop.com/details.jsp?id=327671">£18.6 billion a year</a>. Such costs, however, are often ignored when housing policy is being developed and implemented. </p>
<p>Labour promises to deliver 1.5 million homes by “<a href="https://labour.org.uk/updates/press-releases/how-not-if-labour-will-jump-start-planning-to-build-1-5-million-homes-and-save-the-dream-of-homeownership/">blitzing</a>” the planning system, but it has so far ignored the potential consequences for public health.</p>
<p>Of course, the failure to factor in health is by no means unique to Labour policy. It is already embedded in the government’s approach. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/07352166.2023.2260029">A recent academic review</a> of government housing and transport policy found that health is notably absent, despite well-established evidence that urban spaces are making us ill. This shows that on the occasions where health is included, it is lower in a hierarchy of priorities compared to other agendas such as growing the economy. </p>
<p>For many years, government housing policy has been shaped by the numeric gap between supply and demand, rather than the type or quality of the housing stock. The mechanisms for delivering have been based on land release and planning reform. Successive housing policies have mentioned involving communities and supporting their health, social, and cultural wellbeing. But there have been no clear targets for ensuring house retrofit and house building positively impact public health.</p>
<p>In his 2010 independent review on how to reduce
health inequalities in England, epidemiologist Michael Marmot <a href="https://www.instituteofhealthequity.org/resources-reports/fair-society-healthy-lives-the-marmot-review/fair-society-healthy-lives-full-report-pdf.pdf">showed</a> that prioritising health in urban policies, like housing and transport, can have significant health benefits for local populations. </p>
<p><a href="https://truud.ac.uk/briefings/">Our research project has shown</a> that health should be made a central factor in all national policy and guidance that shapes urban spaces. The World Health Organization <a href="https://unhabitat.org/global-report-on-urban-health-equitable-healthier-cities-for-sustainable-development">recommends</a> explicitly including health in housing policy – and tracking its impact with recognised metrics. UK politicians have largely failed to respond.</p>
<h2>Promising developments</h2>
<p>In addition to positive developments in government, such as the <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/groups/building-better-building-beautiful-commission">Build Back Beautiful Commission</a>, the opposition also has some promising ambitions. Labour is pledging to deliver a <a href="https://labour.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/Mission-Public-Services.pdf">“prevention-first revolution”</a>, in which it envisions a pro-active role for government in ensuring that everybody has the building blocks for a healthy life. </p>
<p>In its mission document for health policy, Labour says that retrofitting of millions of homes will “keep families warm rather than living in damp, mouldy conditions that give their children asthma”. The fact that the party is making explicit this link between housing and health signal is a potentially very positive step forward. </p>
<p>However, in all the furore about Labour scrapping its £28 billion pledge, this crucial link to public health has been entirely forgotten. Indeed, while Labour’s environmental policy has been carefully updated to revise and remove various targets, the preventative health agenda retains the now defunct promise to “<a href="https://labour.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/Mission-Public-Services.pdf#page=13">oversee retrofitting of 19 million homes</a>”. This is perhaps indicative of the extent to which policymakers just don’t think about health when they think about housing. </p>
<p>While the Conservative pledges for the next parliament remain unclear, analysis of their existing policies in government <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/07352166.2023.2260029">has found</a> a failure to think about or measure the way housing and urban development policis impact health. Instead, it is merely assumed that housing policies will have positive health outcomes. Rather than making such assumptions, policymakers should be putting public health considerations at the centre of all their decision making. </p>
<p>To ensure that the impact any given policy has on public health is <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bhcJN2WKAvo&t=76s">measured</a> and <a href="https://truud.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/D2900_Walton_Truud-report_Health-evidence-in-a-complex-system__v3.pdf">acted upon</a>, health needs to be an explicit urban planning policy outcome. It needs to be clearly defined, measurable, and built into policy implementation and political discourse.</p>
<p>It is also important that different government ministries and relevant stakeholders focused on public health, planning and the environment work together more effectively. Unhealthy homes should be a priority for both the housing minister and the health minister. </p>
<p>Healthier people are more economically productive. They have a smaller financial footprint on the NHS. In the long term, better preventative health is a key part of solving some of the UK’s biggest economic challenges, from labour shortages and sluggish productivity growth to stretched public finances. </p>
<p>Too often government policy is not often designed with the long-term in mind. Instead, short-term economic outcomes and political gains <a href="https://blogs.bath.ac.uk/iprblog/2023/10/24/uk-government-climate-policy-developments-leave-a-health-shaped-gap/">are prioritised</a> – to the detriment of public health. </p>
<p>The best way for the government to protect public health is for every department to consider how their work impacts on it. If political and economic calculations about creating, scrapping and rescaling major projects continue to ignore health, however, politicians are likely to continue coming up with the wrong answers.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/223283/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>This research comes from the TRUUD project, a research programme based at the University of Bristol, that aims to reduce non-communicable disease (such as cancers, diabetes, obesity, mental ill-health and respiratory illness) and health inequalities linked to the quality of urban planning and development for use in discussions with government and the developer industry.
The TRUUD research project (<a href="https://truud.ac.uk/">https://truud.ac.uk/</a>) is funded by the the UK Prevention Research Partnership (<a href="https://ukprp.org/">https://ukprp.org/</a>).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Geoff Bates receives funding as part of the TRUUD research project (<a href="https://truud.ac.uk/">https://truud.ac.uk/</a>), which is funded by the the UK Prevention Research Partnership (<a href="https://ukprp.org/">https://ukprp.org/</a>).</span></em></p>Too often government policy is not designed with the long-term in mind. Instead, short-term economic outcomes and political gains are prioritised - to the detriment of public health.Jack Newman, Research Fellow, School for Policy Studies, University of BristolGeoff Bates, Lecturer in Social Policy, Research Fellow, University of BathLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2204562024-01-10T17:17:49Z2024-01-10T17:17:49ZHealthy cities aren’t a question of boring or exciting buildings but about creating better public space<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568630/original/file-20240110-27-hhywf8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Interstate 5 near downtown San Diego, US.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/aerial-view-on-concrete-road-8Nn49K7Snow">Abraham Barrera|Unsplash</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The US developers of a 300ft glowing orb, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2024/jan/09/developer-las-vegas-style-sphere-east-london-withdraws-plans">set to be built</a> in the middle of Stratford, east London, and accommodate upwards of 21,500 concert goers, have withdrawn their planning application. </p>
<p>Las Vegas, in the US, already boasts one such venue, known as Sphere. Citing its “extreme” disappointment at London residents not similarly benefiting from what a spokesperson said was its “groundbreaking technology and the thousands of well-paying jobs it would have created”, Madison Square Garden Entertainment (MSG) has decided the British capital is not one of the forward-thinking cities it aims to work with.</p>
<p>Campaigners have responded with glee, not least because, in response to concerns over the proposed structure’s potential noise and light pollution, developers had initially suggested they invest in blackout curtains. “Residents would be served far better by building social housing on the site,” a representative for Stop MSG Sphere London <a href="https://www.insidehousing.co.uk/news/campaigners-call-for-rejected-msg-sphere-site-to-be-turned-into-social-housing-84023#:%7E:text=London%20mayor%20Sadiq%20Khan%20ruled,negative%20impact%20on%20local%20residents%E2%80%9D.">reportedly said</a>. </p>
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<p>Quite how a city both caters to its residents’ needs and sustains its economy is an enduring debate. The tension is between innovation aimed at boosting investment (in this instance, in the entertainment industry) and what urban geographer <a href="https://www.versobooks.com/en-gb/products/917-waste-and-the-city">Colin McFarlne</a> terms the “right to citylife”. </p>
<p>Projects like the Sphere sit on one extreme end of what gets built in a city. The British designer Thomas Heatherwick recently highlighted what he sees as another extreme, though no less harmful: <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2023/oct/19/demand-interestingness-thomas-heatherwick-rails-against-boring-buildings">“boring buildings”</a>. </p>
<p>In his new book, Humanise – a Maker’s Guide to Building Our world, Heatherwick <a href="https://www.penguin.co.uk/books/312740/humanise-by-heatherwick-thomas/9780241389799">says</a> “bland architecture” causes stress, illness, loneliness, fear, division and conflict. Research shows, however, that more than individual buildings, how the city is planned as a whole variously harms or improves people’s lives. </p>
<h2>The city as a complex system</h2>
<p>The physical and social environment of any given city are just two contributing factors in the complex system that shapes residents’ wellbeing. <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanpsy/article/PIIS2215-0366(21)00047-X/fulltext">Public health research</a> has found a positive, non-linear relationship with a higher prevalence of mental health problems in more urbanised countries, particularly for anxiety disorders. </p>
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<img alt="People ice-skating outdoors in a city." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568627/original/file-20240110-25-bcyhld.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568627/original/file-20240110-25-bcyhld.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568627/original/file-20240110-25-bcyhld.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568627/original/file-20240110-25-bcyhld.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568627/original/file-20240110-25-bcyhld.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568627/original/file-20240110-25-bcyhld.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568627/original/file-20240110-25-bcyhld.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Copenhagen: public space is the very essence of urban life.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/people-on-ice-field-during-daytime-wCP9Mk0iisU">Brian Kyed|Unsplash</a></span>
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<p>Mental health problems now account for over a third of the total burden of disease in adolescents in urban settings. <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(23)02238-9/fulltext">Research</a> shows that, for young people (a significant proportion of urban populations), health and wellbeing constitute major determinants in their future life prospects. </p>
<p>In Humanise, Heatherwick ignores this complexity. The book is a collection of thoughts, ideas, visuals and reflections on the role of contemporary architecture and architects. In it, the designer suggests that the world is facing a “global epidemic of inhuman buildings” and suggests a list of what to do and what not to do to achieve the reverse: “interesting buildings”. </p>
<p>Heatherwick sees cities as collections of buildings, of architectural objects. The problem here, of course, is that the various aesthetic merits of any given structure can be endlessly debated. </p>
<p>Some of Heatherwick’s arguments (“boring places contribute to division and war”; “boring buildings help to cause climate change”) are plainly simplistic. They also beg the question of who decides what is and what isn’t interesting. </p>
<p>As examples of interesting buildings that bolster people’s wellbeing, he cites, among others, the <a href="https://www.archdaily.com/363164/parkroyal-on-pickering-woha-2">Parkroyal Collection hotel in Singapore</a> and the <a href="https://www.ribaj.com/buildings/edgewood-mews-housing-london-north-circular-road-peter-barber-architects">Edgewood Mews housing project</a> in Finchley, north London for their generosity. </p>
<p>The first, he says, is “enthusiastic to share its wonder with everyone” and the second offers “more than minimum to the world”. </p>
<p>To me, though, these are extravagant architectural statements of capitalist power (the Singaporean hotel) and an over-designed fortress building (London’s Edgewood housing project).</p>
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<img alt="An overhead view of greenery in a city next to a road." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568626/original/file-20240110-15-tzarot.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568626/original/file-20240110-15-tzarot.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=464&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568626/original/file-20240110-15-tzarot.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=464&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568626/original/file-20240110-15-tzarot.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=464&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568626/original/file-20240110-15-tzarot.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=583&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568626/original/file-20240110-15-tzarot.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=583&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568626/original/file-20240110-15-tzarot.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=583&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Singapore’s Parkroyal Collection hotel.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/aerial-view-of-cars-on-road-RG7jGL8wkCs">Meric Dagli/Unsplash</a></span>
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<h2>Recognising the importance of public space in cities</h2>
<p>In the early 1900s, the German sociologist and philosopher, Georg Simmel, <a href="https://www.blackwellpublishing.com/content/bpl_images/content_store/sample_chapter/0631225137/bridge.pdf">hailed</a> the advent of a new urban condition. Compared to rural life, he said, the metropolis made people more individualistic, prioritised capitalist modes of production and intensified sensory exposure. As a result, he said: “Instead of reacting emotionally, the metropolitan type reacts primarily in a rational manner”. City dwellers were, Simmel said, less sensitive and further removed from “the depths of personality”.</p>
<p>Mid-20th century architects and planners further explored the socio-psychological damage wrought by urban expansion in the post-war era. In his 1971 book, <a href="https://www.udg.org.uk/publications/udlibrary/life-between-buildings-using-public-space">Life Between Buildings</a>, Danish architect and urban planner Jan Gehl underlined how, more than architecture, urban space itself had the potential to either harm or affirm social interactions. </p>
<p>The capitalist logic underpinning modernist urban planning was harming residents. More and more people were living in high-rise buildings. Open, green spaces were commodified. Private transport was prioritised. Gehl thought it was precisely in these daily situations, where people move between home and work and play, that cities should both “function and provide enjoyment”. </p>
<p>In over-emphasising the design of exciting buildings, Heatherwick overlooks this: that it is between and around buildings that you find the essence of urban life. </p>
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<img alt="A construction site." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568628/original/file-20240110-28-5mjtu7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568628/original/file-20240110-28-5mjtu7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568628/original/file-20240110-28-5mjtu7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568628/original/file-20240110-28-5mjtu7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568628/original/file-20240110-28-5mjtu7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=479&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568628/original/file-20240110-28-5mjtu7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=479&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568628/original/file-20240110-28-5mjtu7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=479&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Architectural objects in themselves cannot tackle the issues city residents face.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/aerial-view-photography-of-building-zaxoaZVazCs">Ricardo Gomez Angel|Unsplash</a></span>
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<p><a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books/about/Towards_Cosmopolis.html?id=GzdsRAAACAAJ&redir_esc=y">Research shows</a> that urban policies have evolved since the 1970s, largely to try to shape cities for the better and to ensure better accessibility, better quality and diversity of housing, open spaces, more reliable infrastructure and more robust services. </p>
<p>After joining the World Health Organisation’s <a href="https://www.who.int/europe/groups/who-european-healthy-cities-network">healthy cities initiative</a> in 1987, Copenhagen developed a holistic urban policy. This included walkable streets, public transportation, diverse housing opportunities, more pointed social policies around ideas of community and using taxation to encourage smoking control. Nearly four decades on, the Danish capital <a href="https://radar.brookes.ac.uk/radar/file/1f3e2ab5-70f8-4a9a-85e6-6c9fda88a426/1/s11524-023-00798-9.pdf">continues to be upheld</a> as one of the world’s healthiest cities. </p>
<p>However “good” or “interesting” architecture might be, it cannot tackle poverty, social exclusion and public health on its own. But even <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanwpc/article/PIIS2666-6065(23)00125-6/fulltext">high-rise buildings</a> can make a difference to people’s lives if they’re well designed and well regulated. How the built environment is shaped as a whole is crucial.</p>
<p>In denying MSG planning permission for a London Sphere, city authorities have prioritised residents’ concerns over private investment. Everyone benefits from public space and infrastructure being seen as public goods, not commodities.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/220456/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Haim Yacobi does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>From lit-up orbs to bland office blocks, cities are full of buildings that people do or do not like. What really shapes how they live – for better or for worse – is urban planning.Haim Yacobi, Professor of Development Planning, UCLLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1366992020-04-28T14:48:06Z2020-04-28T14:48:06ZWhat cities can learn from lockdown about planning for life after the coronavirus pandemic<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/329599/original/file-20200421-82666-1p3m91g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=138%2C307%2C3693%2C2486&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Cities are going to be reshaped by the coronavirus pandemic, which has closed public parks, decreased traffic and put pressures on housing.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Nathan Shurr/Unsplash)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>For decades, epidemiologists have warned of <a href="https://www.lauriegarrett.com/the-coming-plague">the risks of new pandemics</a> in our world of stressed natural environments, densely populated cities and <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2018/07/when-the-next-plague-hits/561734/">global travel networks</a>. The <a href="https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/112492/plagues-and-peoples-by-william-h-mcneill/">history of the relationship between cities</a>, the environment and disease shows that cities and civilizations have always been vulnerable to the rapid spread of infections: <a href="https://www.ancient.eu/article/1528/plague-in-the-ancient--medieval-world/">what the ancients called plagues</a>.</p>
<p>While societies often rebounded from such catastrophes, outbreaks set the stage for subsequent social and political change. For instance, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qORbiGWBBJ0">plague during the third century</a> helped <a href="https://www.ancient.eu/Antonine_Plague/">undermine the Roman Empire</a> not only <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/how-climate-change-and-disease-helped-fall-rome-180967591/">by decimating the population</a> but also by <a href="https://archive.org/details/panstravailenvir00hugh">weakening the economic, cultural and religious underpinnings</a> of urban and state structures. </p>
<p>As recovering Romans increasingly converted to Christianity, they refused to contribute to maintaining temples and fountains associated with pagan gods. Grand cities began to decline.</p>
<p>In the 14th century, <a href="https://www.history.com/topics/middle-ages/black-death">the Black Death</a> killed a third to a half of Europeans. In the aftermath, <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/city-in-history-its-origins-its-transformations-and-its-prospects/oclc/7102629">towns that in previous years had expanded their walls</a> to accommodate growth <a href="https://voxeu.org/article/how-black-death-changed-europes-cities">found themselves with open space</a> that Renaissance aristocrats and their urban designers subsequently transformed into parks, urban squares and promenades that now grace the great cities of Europe.</p>
<h2>How recovery built cities</h2>
<p>Waves of epidemics following European contact in the 15th century devastated cultures across the Americas, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nhncJH4UFQI">leaving towns emptied</a> and sophisticated knowledge lost. </p>
<p>Cholera and other outbreaks in the crowded and <a href="https://www.ph.ucla.edu/epi/snow/snowcricketarticle.html">unsanitary cities of the 19th century</a> led not only to major sanitary reforms but to the institutionalization of public health measures and <a href="https://searchworks.stanford.edu/view/2244099">town planning practices</a>. The desire for ventilation and
daylight that Victorian-era epidemics reinforced influenced the streets, parks, urban spaces and homes we <a href="https://archive.org/details/townplanninginp00unwigoog/page/n9/mode/2up">planned and built through the 20th century</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/328933/original/file-20200419-152576-1hgif4a.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/328933/original/file-20200419-152576-1hgif4a.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/328933/original/file-20200419-152576-1hgif4a.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/328933/original/file-20200419-152576-1hgif4a.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/328933/original/file-20200419-152576-1hgif4a.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/328933/original/file-20200419-152576-1hgif4a.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/328933/original/file-20200419-152576-1hgif4a.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/328933/original/file-20200419-152576-1hgif4a.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">During the Renaissance, European cities — like Brussels — expanded public spaces like grand central squares.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Jill Grant)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>History reminds us that civilizations and <a href="https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/lab-rat/plague-and-the-city/">cities create the conditions</a> within which diseases rise and spread; pandemics in return can <a href="https://www.newyorker.com/news/q-and-a/how-pandemics-change-history">change important features of cities and civilizations</a>.</p>
<h2>Cities challenged by the pandemic</h2>
<p>In his 1912 pamphlet “<a href="https://www.hgstrust.org/documents/nothing-gained.pdf">Nothing gained from overcrowding</a>”, the British town planner Raymond Unwin advocated a maximum of 12 houses per acre. By the 1990s, the planning preference for relatively low urban densities, which <a href="https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/S/bo3614185.html">contributed to sprawl</a> and <a href="https://academic.oup.com/sf/article-abstract/62/4/905/1927494">suburbanization</a>, was replaced in many Western nations with policies encouraging high densities, mixed use and transit-oriented development thought to enhance the efficiency of infrastructure and services.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/329246/original/file-20200420-152585-1ag7z9b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/329246/original/file-20200420-152585-1ag7z9b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/329246/original/file-20200420-152585-1ag7z9b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/329246/original/file-20200420-152585-1ag7z9b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/329246/original/file-20200420-152585-1ag7z9b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/329246/original/file-20200420-152585-1ag7z9b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/329246/original/file-20200420-152585-1ag7z9b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/329246/original/file-20200420-152585-1ag7z9b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">McKenzie Towne in Calgary is an example of the recent focus on planning denser residential environments.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Jill Grant)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The current pandemic challenges contemporary planning prescriptions for urban <a href="http://livable.org/about-us/what-is-livability">livability</a> and <a href="https://www.citylab.com/life/2012/11/cities-denser-cores-do-better/3911/">economic vitality</a>. Cities face significant risks during density-susceptible epidemics, with numbers of cases and death rates linked to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-072X-12-9">population density</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.03.22.20041004">city size</a>. </p>
<p>Many cities have <a href="https://www.thecoast.ca/COVID19Needtoknow/archives/2020/04/03/parks-beaches-and-trails-are-still-definitely-closed">closed the green spaces</a> intended to provide recreation for the residents of dense neighbourhoods, <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-health-quarantine/sealed-in-chinese-trapped-at-home-by-coronavirus-feel-the-strain-idUSKCN20G0AY">leaving home-bound residents of small units feeling trapped</a>, especially if they have <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-keep-your-children-active-and-healthy-while-in-coronavirus-isolation-134973">children to keep active and engaged</a>. The poorest urban residents <a href="https://www.homelesshub.ca/resource/covid-19-response-framework-people-experiencing-homelessness">lack adequate shelter</a> and <a href="https://www.wired.com/story/coronavirus-covid-19-homeless/">sanitation to stay safe</a> and socially distanced.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-keep-your-children-active-and-healthy-while-in-coronavirus-isolation-134973">How to keep your children active and healthy while in coronavirus isolation</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Essential transit systems, often feared as <a href="https://www.pix11.com/news/coronavirus/covid-19-killing-nyc-transit-workers-at-staggering-rate">nodes and corridors for virus spread</a>, are <a href="https://torontosun.com/news/local-news/go-transit-ridership-drops-80-amid-covid-19-shutdowns">operating below capacity</a>. <a href="https://www.hamilton.ca/city-planning/official-plan-zoning-by-law/commercial-and-mixed-use-zones">Mixed-use zones</a> with concentrations of cafes, <a href="https://globalnews.ca/news/6770746/coronavirus-interior-health-closure-fitness-centres/">fitness studios</a> and <a href="https://www.tvo.org/article/covid-19-and-the-restaurant-apocalypse">restaurants are struggling</a> to survive as the “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00986754">third places</a>” valued for social interaction have had to go virtual. </p>
<p>Higher death rates among <a href="https://www.brookings.edu/blog/fixgov/2020/04/09/why-are-blacks-dying-at-higher-rates-from-covid-19/">racialized populations</a> and <a href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/nation/asian-americans-describe-gut-punch-of-racist-attacks-during-coronavirus-pandemic">racist attacks</a> against Asian residents threaten planning’s commitment to diversity and integration. The usual strategies for designing cities may need to be reconsidered.</p>
<h2>What can cities learn from lockdown?</h2>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/cities-lead-the-charge-on-the-coronavirus-front-lines-134502">What lessons can cities draw</a> from this crisis <a href="https://ottawacitizen.com/opinion/dreessen-lets-use-what-covid-19-has-taught-us-to-redesign-our-city/">to inform future planning</a>? We may need to reconsider the push for higher urban densities. <a href="https://theconversation.com/homelessness-and-overcrowding-expose-us-all-to-coronavirus-heres-what-we-can-do-to-stop-the-spread-134378">Crowded housing</a> increases contagion risks.</p>
<p>After being cooped up in towers for months on end, urban dwellers may begin to look at suburban lots more longingly than they did in past: <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10901-019-09678-8">living preferences may change</a>. Everyone needs some <a href="https://www.nrpa.org/blog/a-park-planners-perspective-on-the-covid-19-pandemic/">access to outside space</a> for mental health and exercise. We may want to consider broader park paths or longer benches that enable physical distancing, or <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2020/04/closing-parks-ineffective-pandemic-theater/609580/">better strategies for managing who uses space</a> when. Those who can walk to work <a href="https://montreal.ctvnews.ca/quebec-encouraging-people-to-shop-local-during-covid-19-pandemic-1.4877196">or to shop</a> are appreciating that ability during these times, but we need to ensure that more have that choice.</p>
<p>The pandemic has <a href="https://theconversation.com/coronavirus-pandemic-is-an-opportunity-to-create-affordable-cities-134735">brought inequality into stark relief</a>. Everyone needs <a href="https://theconversation.com/job-guarantees-basic-income-can-save-us-from-covid-19-depression-133997">a living income</a> to keep us all safe. Governments need to plan <a href="https://www.policyalternatives.ca/publications/commentary/fast-facts-homelessness-precarious-housing-and-covid-19">decent housing for all</a>, not only for social justice reasons but <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/diseases/2019-novel-coronavirus-infection/guidance-documents/homelessness.html">for public health</a>.</p>
<p>Although it’s too early to predict the long-term impacts of the pandemic on our cities, our societies and ourselves, we know that things will never be quite the same again. We need to learn the lessons of our current difficulties and plan effectively to meet the challenges ahead.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/136699/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jill L Grant has received funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Council of Canada. </span></em></p>Cities can learn from past pandemics to see how communities and lifestyles are shaped by outbreaks.Jill L Grant, Professor Emeritus, School of Planning, Dalhousie UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1007562018-08-06T19:39:29Z2018-08-06T19:39:29ZMore children are living in high-rise apartments, so designers should keep them in mind<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/230696/original/file-20180806-119612-x9htn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">More Australian families are raising children in high-rise apartments.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Australian cities are changing. Instead of families living in low-density suburban areas, more parents are raising children in high-rise housing in inner-city areas. Despite this, much of the <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00420980601131894?journalCode=usja">high-rise housing stock</a> in Australia has been developed for residents without children.</p>
<p>Our recent study, published in the journal <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/23748834.2018.1483711">Cities & Health</a>, explored parents’ experiences of raising preschool-aged children in high-rise apartments. We found while parents appreciated that apartments offered affordable housing close to employment, they found the design challenging for raising children.</p>
<p>Considering the growing number of families raising children in inner-city apartments, city planners must start designing for more child-friendly living. This includes providing communal spaces where children can play, adequate laundry facilities and ensuring design features are safe for children.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/density-threatens-liveability-if-we-miss-the-big-picture-of-how-a-city-works-69549">Density threatens liveability if we miss the big picture of how a city works</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Photographed experiences</h2>
<p>Apartment living for families with children is a relatively new phenomenon in Australia, but it’s growing. According to <a href="http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Lookup/by%20Subject/2071.0%7E2016%7EMain%20Features%7EApartment%20Living%7E20">2016 Census data</a>, the number of families with children living in apartments increased by 56% between 2011 and 2016. And nearly half of all apartment dwellers on census night in 2016 were families with children.</p>
<p>But this type of housing may not be meeting the needs of Australian families. A 2015 <a href="https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:ND5h3G6APdEJ:https://www.yarracity.vic.gov.au/-/media/files/the-area/yarras-future/liveable-yarra/planning-for-the-future-2015--results-from-a-randomised-household-survey--yarra-city-council.pdf%3Fla%3Den%26hash%3D4347CF25B93E3040A32FBE3F459D3746D5EF42CE+&cd=1&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=au">household survey</a> in the City of Yarra (an inner-Melbourne municipality where apartments now <a href="http://quickstats.censusdata.abs.gov.au/census_services/getproduct/census/2016/quickstat/LGA27350">make up 46% of the housing stock</a>), found residents in high-density areas were less satisfied with their neighbourhood as a place to raise children than those in lower-density areas.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/whats-equity-got-to-do-with-health-in-a-higher-density-city-82071">What's equity got to do with health in a higher-density city?</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Our research used a method called <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9158980">Photovoice</a> to help understand why parents in private, high-rise dwellings in Yarra felt this way. Over a three-week period, parents photographed aspects of apartment living they considered beneficial and challenging for raising preschool-aged children.</p>
<p>We then interviewed them individually and as a group. Parents accepted some of the challenges in return for having easy access to employment, which they said allowed them to spend more time with their children. They were also accepting of having only a small amount of private outdoor space or none. </p>
<p>But many were concerned that the communal outdoor space in their apartment complex was either absent or inappropriate. This reduced the opportunity to spend time outdoors with their children. One parent captured this in the below photograph.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/230690/original/file-20180806-119599-8qdlpw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/230690/original/file-20180806-119599-8qdlpw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/230690/original/file-20180806-119599-8qdlpw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230690/original/file-20180806-119599-8qdlpw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230690/original/file-20180806-119599-8qdlpw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230690/original/file-20180806-119599-8qdlpw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230690/original/file-20180806-119599-8qdlpw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230690/original/file-20180806-119599-8qdlpw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">One parent’s photograph, ‘concrete non-playground’, shows the space available for her child to play outdoors.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/23748834.2018.1483711?scroll=top&needAccess=true">Fiona Andrews, Elyse Warner, Belinda Robson</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>She explained:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>There’s no softness in the space, there’s no child-friendly area… I can’t just hang out in my complex, I have to leave if I want to give him some outside time… so I find that really challenging ’cos I just want to be able to go outside with a cup of tea and put him down so he can crawl around.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The close proximity of apartments was problematic too. One parent described it as “like living in Big Brother house”. This had the effect of some families keeping their blinds down all day. </p>
<p>Parents were also concerned about opening windows at night because noise from other residents would wake their children. Conversely, trying to keep family noise to a minimum so as not to disturb neighbours was a constant battle.</p>
<p>Child-unfriendly indoor and outdoor design features were a challenge too. These included tiny sinks, unsuitable for washing nappies, and no clothes drying facilities. The design of windows, balconies and car parking areas were potentially dangerous. One parent photographed the window in her apartment and explained:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>… our bedroom window … opens to someone’s balcony underneath us… the monkey’s lying at floor level, the window opens from the floor up … there is a lock on the window which does restrict it to just being open about 10 centimetres but … the layout to the apartment is incredibly narrow … it gets really hot and stuffy and then if we undo the lock to let any air in, it’s a hazard.</p>
</blockquote>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/230692/original/file-20180806-119624-tgy4l0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/230692/original/file-20180806-119624-tgy4l0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/230692/original/file-20180806-119624-tgy4l0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230692/original/file-20180806-119624-tgy4l0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230692/original/file-20180806-119624-tgy4l0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230692/original/file-20180806-119624-tgy4l0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230692/original/file-20180806-119624-tgy4l0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230692/original/file-20180806-119624-tgy4l0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">One parent showed the dangerous windows in her apartment in her photograph ‘Monkey might fall to his death’.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/23748834.2018.1483711?scroll=top&needAccess=true">Fiona Andrews, Elyse Warner, Belinda Robson</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Health impacts</h2>
<p>A range of housing issues have been <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23953987">associated with poor health</a> and development outcomes for children. These include overcrowding, insecure tenancy, air quality, exposure to pollutants, hazards and noise. Yet specific research on the impacts of high-rise living on children is sparse.</p>
<p>There are <a href="https://spssi.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/1540-4560.00074">some reviews</a> that highlight negative impacts on children’s psychological <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.3763/asre.2007.5002">health and development</a>. But many such studies have focused on disadvantaged children in high-rise housing, so it’s difficult to isolate the physical aspects of dwellings from other socioeconomic influences. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/its-time-to-recognise-how-harmful-high-rise-living-can-be-for-residents-87209">It's time to recognise how harmful high-rise living can be for residents</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Evidence of some negative aspects of apartment living in Australia is emerging though. Research in Sydney showed an <a href="https://kidshealth.schn.health.nsw.gov.au/sites/default/files/2012_2_prop_l_rev_22-_cathy_sherry_article_2.pdf">increase in children presenting</a> at The Children’s Hospital at Westmead with serious injuries due to falling from apartment windows and balconies. </p>
<p>Another <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1755458617301093">study showed</a> parents’ management of children’s noise in high-rise apartments in Sydney affected the way parents allowed their children to sleep and play. Parents reported closing windows and not having friends visit. </p>
<p>Similarly, a Melbourne study showed that primary-school-aged <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08111146.2012.663729">children felt discouraged</a> from everyday play in so-called “communal areas” in private high-rise apartment complexes due to neighbour complaints.</p>
<h2>What needs to be done</h2>
<p>A recent report by the <a href="https://www.melbourne.vic.gov.au/SiteCollectionDocuments/future-living-discussion-paper.pdf">City of Melbourne</a> states that one in three apartments in Melbourne built prior to new guidelines being implemented were considered to be of poor quality in relation to criteria including size, privacy, ventilation and communal space.</p>
<p>New <a href="https://www.planning.vic.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0030/80994/Apartment-Design-Guidelines-for-Victoria_August-2017.pdf">apartment design guidelines</a> in Victoria, which include requirements for building arrangements and amenity, are a start to addressing some of the generic issues raised by families in our study. </p>
<p>But these can’t resolve problems in apartments designed before the guidelines were implemented. And given the high proportion of children living in high-rise apartments in Australia, it is disappointing that the Victorian guidelines mention them only once. </p>
<p>It may be time to consider more explicit child-friendly guidelines for high-rise living. Overseas <a href="https://www.toronto.ca/legdocs/mmis/2017/pg/bgrd/backgroundfile-103920.pdf">examples could be drawn on</a>, such as <a href="https://www.newwestcity.ca/database/files/library/Family_Friendly_Housing_Policy_(July_2016).pdf">those developed</a> in <a href="https://guidelines.vancouver.ca/H004.pdf">several Canadian cities</a>. These include objectives such as designing the environment with the safety needs of children in mind and providing children of all ages with easy access to appropriately located, designed and landscaped outdoor play areas.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>The study was carried out in conjunction with Dr Elyse Warner from the School of Health & Social Development, Deakin University, and Dr Belinda Robson from the City of Yarra.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/100756/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Fiona Andrews does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The number of families living in high-rise, inner-city apartments is growing. Yet our research shows many parents find it challenging to raise children in such housing.Fiona Andrews, Senior Lecturer, School of Health & Social Development, Deakin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/972482018-07-02T20:07:02Z2018-07-02T20:07:02ZLook up #happycity and here’s what you’ll find<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/225430/original/file-20180629-117425-rzt0gv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The same things tend to make people happy - such as nature and colour. (Jardin des Curiosités, Lyon, France)
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/MfNHW8vlbLs">Léonard Cotte/Unsplash</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>City planners and designers want to build cities that are liveable, healthy and smart. Yet, in the abundance of research and guidelines on how to make healthy cities, happiness seems to be missing.</p>
<p>Research shows urban environments have an impact on our well-being and <a href="https://www.urbandesignmentalhealth.com/how-mental-health-affects-the-city.html">mental health</a>, affect our behaviour and moods, interactions, day-to-day lives and even alter <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2011/jun/22/city-living-afffects-brain">how our brain functions</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/tweet-all-about-it-people-in-parks-feel-more-positive-95290">Tweet all about it – people in parks feel more positive</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Our recent <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322777034_Images_of_Urban_Happiness_A_Pilot_Study_in_the_Self-representation_of_Happiness_in_Urban_Spaces">study found</a> people associate their happiness with particular natural and built elements in the environment. This highlights how we can improve the design of cities to enhance people’s happiness.</p>
<h2>Searching Instagram</h2>
<p>In the first part of our study, we searched Instagram for images of the city people associated with happiness. We did this using four hashtags:</p>
<ul>
<li>#cityhappy</li>
<li>#happycity</li>
<li>#cityofhappiness</li>
<li>#urbanhappiness</li>
</ul>
<p>The images came from all corners of the globe, with no geographical limitation. </p>
<p>We sifted through hundreds of images, excluding photographs that were “selfies”, had non-urban attributes, or if they included people posing. Overall, we narrowed it down to 196 images, all of which exhibited characteristics of an urban area. </p>
<p>We found photographs tagged with one of the above hashtags consistently featured particular design elements. These were:</p>
<ul>
<li>open space</li>
<li>natural elements (vegetation, sand, rocks)</li>
<li>historic or heritage buildings</li>
<li>colour</li>
<li>medium density buildings (up to six storeys)</li>
<li>water </li>
<li>human scale buildings (horizontal rather than vertical).</li>
</ul>
<p>The same features came up time and again, irrespective of demographic and geographic location. This supports the idea there may be universal urban features that enhance happiness. </p>
<p>We then tested these themes on Brisbane residents through an online questionnaire.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/225454/original/file-20180629-117374-1hrehok.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/225454/original/file-20180629-117374-1hrehok.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/225454/original/file-20180629-117374-1hrehok.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/225454/original/file-20180629-117374-1hrehok.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/225454/original/file-20180629-117374-1hrehok.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/225454/original/file-20180629-117374-1hrehok.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=552&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/225454/original/file-20180629-117374-1hrehok.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=552&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/225454/original/file-20180629-117374-1hrehok.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=552&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Water and vegetation came up time and again as relating to happiness.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.instagram.com/p/BkST-t2g39k/?tagged=happycity">screenshot/Instagram</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Online survey</h2>
<p>Twenty-two people took part in the online survey. They were asked to evaluate their happiness relative to different features, characteristics and images of areas in Brisbane. The survey comprised a series of multiple choice, selection and rating questions.</p>
<p>The results showed participants associated happiness with the same features as those who had posted on Instagram using the above hashtags. Most common to happiness was open space (86% of respondents) and natural lighting (81%).</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/sustainable-cities-need-more-than-parks-cafes-and-a-riverwalk-88760">Sustainable cities need more than parks, cafes and a riverwalk</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Natural spaces with greenery such as parks, gardens and areas with trees, as well as areas that had water, had a significant positive impact on respondents’ happiness. Proximity to facilities, walkability of the area, green belts and views to mountains were also significant factors.</p>
<p>Historic or heritage character buildings ranked pretty highly (72%), over the more modern style buildings. Laneways also scored pretty highly (72%) as did views of the city (68%) and colour (59%). We noticed people liked other things, such as the materials used on sidewalks, roads and building facades.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/225458/original/file-20180629-117389-u91rfw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/225458/original/file-20180629-117389-u91rfw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/225458/original/file-20180629-117389-u91rfw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/225458/original/file-20180629-117389-u91rfw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/225458/original/file-20180629-117389-u91rfw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/225458/original/file-20180629-117389-u91rfw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/225458/original/file-20180629-117389-u91rfw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/225458/original/file-20180629-117389-u91rfw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Colourful buildings, like these in Venice, are associated with happiness.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/MUsfb_f1I4E">Toa Heftiba/Flickr</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This pilot study confirms there are specific elements which can be incorporated and factored into the planning and design of cities to enhance people’s happiness. Our further research is currently building on these initial findings, focusing on the relationship between density, urban design and happiness. </p>
<h2>How can we use this?</h2>
<p>Happiness is a major component of human well-being. But it isn’t factored into the widely recognised <a href="https://mobilityexchange.mercer.com/quality-of-living">quality of life</a> (including health, well-being and a number of economic factors) and <a href="https://store.eiu.com/product/liveability-ranking-and-overview">liveability</a> (including the standard of living) surveys of cities.</p>
<p>Some evidence suggests average happiness levels in Western nations haven’t improved in the last 68 years (<a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/30529548_Happiness_Lessons_From_A_New_Science">since 1950</a>). This is despite first-world incomes more than doubling in that time.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-might-explain-the-unhappiness-epidemic-90212">What might explain the unhappiness epidemic?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Happiness studies look at the links between human “<a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2162125">subjective well-being</a>” and the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00343404.2011.589830">environment</a>. We can determine people’s preferences, subjective view and association with elements of the built environment through research, and then apply the lessons to design to improve the quality of the urban environment. </p>
<p>Our research highlights the key elements to be cognisant of in urban transformation projects and designing for future urban areas. These findings show we can use such knowledge and apply this to existing cities to retrofit them for happiness. </p>
<p>People are increasingly leaving the broad acre, single detached home to live in denser, more compact urban areas. There are many benefits to this urban settlement. But to make this lifestyle compatible with human happiness and foster mental health, the design, planning and governing policy needs to consider such factors. </p>
<p>Density can be done well, if happiness becomes part of the equation.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/97248/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sofie Pringle works at Pedde Thorp and QUT
</span></em></p>We searched Instagram for city images people associated with happiness. And they consistently included similar features, such as water, nature and heritage buildings.Sofie Pringle, PhD researcher & consultant, Queensland University of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/941712018-04-16T20:48:22Z2018-04-16T20:48:22ZWith health assuming its rightful place in planning, here are 3 key lessons from NSW<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/214466/original/file-20180412-549-1xplikd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Health objectives are at last being integrated into all levels of planning in New South Wales, from cities and towns to local places and buildings.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/sydney-australia-awesome-aerial-view-helicopter-417392848?src=Fy2hIdXvkN3QpJwf9ivcBQ-1-85">pisaphotography/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The way cities are designed and managed has big <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140673616300666">impacts on our health</a>. While Australia is considered a world leader in research on health and cities, nationally our planning policies <a href="http://cur.org.au/project/national-liveability-report/">remain underdeveloped</a> relative to our knowledge base. To remedy this, healthy planning advocates need to better understand how urban planning systems can be influenced. </p>
<p>Several recent, mostly positive, experiences in the New South Wales (NSW) planning system provide insights into this process. Each represents a milestone for land-use planning in this state given extensive reforms have been on and off the table for the past decade.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-mysterious-disappearance-of-health-from-new-south-wales-planning-laws-72098">The mysterious disappearance of health from New South Wales planning laws</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The connections between city planning and health are many and varied. Key aspects include environmental sustainability, pollution risks and liveable places. Being liveable means having access to healthy food, nearby employment and services, and opportunities for active lifestyles. </p>
<p>These issues are increasingly important given projected population growth pressures on urban infrastructure. Other areas facing similar pressures, in Australia and overseas, might wish to take note of what has happened in NSW.</p>
<p>Since 2014 we have used political science <a href="http://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/5/7/e008822.short">to investigate</a> attempts in NSW to include health in <a href="https://academic.oup.com/heapro/advance-article/doi/10.1093/heapro/dax055/4104494?searchresult=1">legislative reform</a>, <a href="http://sydney.edu.au/halloran/research/projects2016.shtml">strategic city planning</a> and major <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195925517301804?via%3Dihub">urban infrastructure assessments</a>. As well as scrutinising relevant policies and associated documentation, we have interviewed more than 50 stakeholders. This has provided insights into how and why recent developments came about. </p>
<h2>How has NSW brought health into planning?</h2>
<p>Healthy planning has always had champions in NSW, but really hit its stride during a major legislative reform exercise that began in 2011. This came to a head in November 2017, when the state parliament <a href="https://www.legislation.nsw.gov.au/#/view/act/2017/60/full">passed amendments</a> to the Environmental Planning and Assessment Act 1979. </p>
<p>This legislation now lists two objects of direct importance for health:</p>
<ul>
<li>protection of the health and safety of occupants of buildings</li>
<li>promotion of good design and amenity of the built environment. </li>
</ul>
<p>Also in 2017, the NSW Office of the Government Architect produced a policy of “design-led planning”. Known as “<a href="http://www.governmentarchitect.nsw.gov.au/resources/ga/media/files/ga/strategy-documents/better-placed-a-strategic-design-policy-for-the-built-environment-of-new-south-wales-2017.pdf">Better Placed</a>”, this policy positions health as a top priority. It embeds health within design processes, methods and outcomes for different levels of planning from cities and towns to places and buildings. </p>
<p>In our view, Better Placed is an exemplary policy in demonstrating the importance of urban planning for health.</p>
<p>In another positive development, the Greater Sydney Commission recently released <a href="https://www.greater.sydney/strategic-planning">Metropolitan and District Plans</a> that position health as a core objective (number 7). The plans consistently refer to health across the central themes of liveability, productivity and sustainability. </p>
<p>To their credit, the NSW government and the commission have developed plans concurrently with transport and infrastructure and <a href="https://future.transport.nsw.gov.au/">released them together</a>. The <a href="http://www.thelancet.com/series/urban-design">evidence</a> suggests this integration should have public health benefits. The emphasis across the commission, transport and infrastructure plans on creating a liveable and accessible city increases our confidence in this outcome.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-healthy-approach-how-to-turn-what-we-know-about-liveable-cities-into-public-policy-50185">A healthy approach: how to turn what we know about liveable cities into public policy</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Three key factors in making health a priority</h2>
<p>Our research suggests three crucial factors in elevating the status of health in planning. </p>
<p><strong>1.</strong> A core group of non-government, government and academic representatives has led health advocacy for over a decade. The group’s messages and activities intentionally focused on collaboration across agencies in the public interest. </p>
<p>This advocacy has grown in sophistication since the early days of making submissions about “health” issues that risked being treated as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0277953615302379?via%3Dihub">peripheral</a> to the main game of planning (infrastructure, for instance).</p>
<p>Within government, NSW Health (both state and local departments) has developed an increasingly effective response to urban planning opportunities for promoting and protecting health.</p>
<p><strong>2.</strong> The previous minister for planning (Rob Stokes), the Office of the Government Architect and the Greater Sydney Commission have each provided vital policy mechanisms for including health. This illustrates the importance of particular agents in the right place at the right time.</p>
<p>The minister was essential in establishing the commission. This effectively created a respectful distance between strategic planning and the “economics trumps all” planning agenda seen in some policy environments. </p>
<p>The “design-led planning” emphasis came about when Stokes was planning minister. The starring role given to health in Better Placed gives healthy planning advocates, for the time being, unprecedented opportunity to influence strategies and plans.</p>
<p><strong>3.</strong> Delivery now requires close attention, as these positive shifts alone have limited power. For instance, the commission’s plans emphasise collaborative infrastructure delivery to create an equitable city. Infrastructure has profound health impacts, costs and benefits. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/transport-access-is-good-for-new-housing-but-beware-the-pollution-77790">Transport access is good for new housing, but beware the pollution</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Shifting infrastructure funding to benefit the city’s West will be the core fault line for delivering on promises of equitable infrastructure provision. However, infrastructure project funding and appraisal are crying out for reform. Better indicators, transparent analyses to inform options, improved governance arrangements and greater accountability have all been <a href="https://www.pc.gov.au/inquiries/completed/infrastructure/report">identified as required reforms</a>.</p>
<p>The NSW planning system has begun to recognise the importance of urban planning for health. These developments present a tremendous opportunity to influence how healthy public policy can be delivered for the benefit of the whole city.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/94171/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Funding for the research that informed this article was provided from various sources including NSW Health, the NSW Heart Foundation, and the Henry Halloran Trust at the University of Sydney. Patrick Harris receives funding from the Australian National Health and Medical Research Council and the Australian Research Council. He is Deputy Chair of the NSW Branch Executive of the Public Health Association of Australia.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Elizabeth Harris, Emily Riley, Jennifer L. Kent, and Peter Sainsbury do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The connections between city planning and health are many and varied, but getting health objectives integrated into all aspects of planning in New South Wales has been a long struggle.Patrick Harris, Senior Research Fellow, Menzies Centre for Health Policy, University of SydneyElizabeth Harris, Senior Research Fellow, UNSW SydneyEmily Riley, Research Assistant, University of SydneyJennifer L. Kent, Research Fellow, University of SydneyPeter Sainsbury, Adjunct Associate Professor, South Western Sydney Local Health DistrictLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/839612017-10-18T19:19:24Z2017-10-18T19:19:24ZDesigning suburbs to cut car use closes gaps in health and wealth<p><em>This article is one in a series, <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/healthy-liveable-cities-44685">Healthy Liveable Cities</a>, in the lead-up to the <a href="http://liveable-cities.aomevents.com.au/">Designing Healthy Liveable Cities Conference</a> in Melbourne on October 19 and 20.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>Large health inequalities <a href="https://www.google.com.au/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwjv3O3vo-rWAhXHsJQKHXi1BNUQFggmMAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.adelaidenow.com.au%2Flifestyle%2Fhealth%2Faustralias-frightening-healthwealth-gap%2Fnews-story%2F7f30190e661c978537720a1db3b49188&usg=AOvVaw0Qf8w9seRsCEc9KfPJlSUc">exist</a> in Australia. Car ownership and its costs add to the health inequalities between low-income and high-income households. The physical characteristics of neighbourhoods influence our transport use and, in turn, make health inequalities better or worse.</p>
<p>Rising housing prices have forced many low-income families <a href="https://theconversation.com/density-sprawl-growth-how-australian-cities-have-changed-in-the-last-30-years-65870">to live on the fringes</a> of Australian capital cities. Residents of these sprawling outer suburbs often have <a href="http://theconversation.com/some-suburbs-are-being-short-changed-on-services-and-liveability-which-ones-and-whats-the-solution-83966">worse access</a> to public transport, employment, shops and services. They need one or more motor vehicles simply to get to work and take children to school. </p>
<p>Buying and maintaining vehicles in Australia is expensive. These costs have a large impact on household budgets. Household finances then affect health in two main ways:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>through the ability to access health-related resources, such as healthy foods, health care and high-quality living conditions (like heating and cooling)</p></li>
<li><p>through stress caused by financial difficulties, insecure incomes and exposure to poorer environments such as crowding, crime and noise pollution. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>Living in the car-dependent urban fringes also often dooms residents to <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0091743515003655">long sedentary</a> commutes.</p>
<h2>Four scenarios of transport costs</h2>
<p>The following four hypothetical households demonstrate the costs of varying levels of car ownership and transport behaviours. </p>
<p><strong>Scenario 1:</strong> A household with two cars that are 15,000km and 10,000km, respectively, per year. The car that is driven 15,000km is assumed to be less than three years old, bought new and financed with a loan. The other car is assumed to be 10 years old and owned outright. This household aligns with estimates by the <a href="http://www.aaa.asn.au/storage/aaa-transport-affordability-index-june-2017.pdf">Australian Automobile Association</a>. </p>
<p><strong>Scenario 2:</strong> Scenario one, minus the used car and substituting five return public transport trips a week to the Melbourne central business district from the outer suburbs.</p>
<p><strong>Scenario 3:</strong> No cars, substituting 10 return trips to the CBD from the outer suburbs.</p>
<p><strong>Scenario 4:</strong> No cars, substituting three return trips to the CBD (i.e. occasional public transport use), with walking and cycling as the main forms of transport.</p>
<p>Table 1 shows how reducing household car ownership, even after adding the cost of public transport, can improve household finances. </p>
<iframe src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/7y0Zn/2/" scrolling="no" frameborder="0" allowtransparency="true" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen" webkitallowfullscreen="webkitallowfullscreen" mozallowfullscreen="mozallowfullscreen" oallowfullscreen="oallowfullscreen" msallowfullscreen="msallowfullscreen" width="100%" height="600"></iframe>
<p>Moving from a two-car household to a one-car household cuts weekly costs by as much as A$41, even after increased public transport use adds a A$41-a-week cost. </p>
<p>Moving from a two-car household to having no cars can improve weekly finances by as much as A$237, after adding 10 return trips to the CBD.</p>
<p>The fourth scenario, emphasising walking and cycling, shows the greatest improvement in household finances. These families are $294 per week better off.</p>
<p>The impacts on households of each of these car ownership and transport scenarios differ depending on their incomes. To illustrate this, we’ve taken the median disposable household income from the lowest, middle and highest quintiles from the <a href="http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/Lookup/6523.0Main+Features12015-16?OpenDocument">ABS in 2015-16</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/190506/original/file-20171016-22304-10xttga.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/190506/original/file-20171016-22304-10xttga.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=389&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/190506/original/file-20171016-22304-10xttga.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=389&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/190506/original/file-20171016-22304-10xttga.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=389&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/190506/original/file-20171016-22304-10xttga.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=489&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/190506/original/file-20171016-22304-10xttga.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=489&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/190506/original/file-20171016-22304-10xttga.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=489&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Figure 1. Proportion of disposable household income remaining after transport costs for four scenarios of car ownership.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Although becoming car-free will increase disposable household income after paying for transport, the largest proportional differences are for the lowest-income households. This means these households will benefit most from reducing car ownership and switching to more active and affordable forms of transport.</p>
<h2>Urban design can boost household health and wealth</h2>
<p>So how do we help households make the transition from private car ownership? The answer lies in the environments we live in.</p>
<p>The <a href="http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(16)30066-6/abstract">evidence from research</a> suggests several strategies to improve uptake of active and affordable transport, while reducing car dependence and related health inequities. These include local urban design features such as:</p>
<ul>
<li>connected and safe street networks (including pedestrian and bicycle infrastructure) that reduce exposure to traffic</li>
</ul>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"920012275511185408"}"></div></p>
<ul>
<li><p>residential areas mixed with commercial, public service and recreational opportunities</p></li>
<li><p>public transport that is convenient, affordable, frequent, safe and comfortable</p></li>
<li><p>higher residential density with different types of housing (including affordable housing) to support the viability of local businesses and high-frequency public transport services</p></li>
<li><p>cycling education and promotion</p></li>
<li><p>car-free pedestrian zones, traffic calming measures, signage and accessibility for all (including wheelchair and pram access).</p></li>
</ul>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"750069569302265856"}"></div></p>
<p>Australia has yet to fully realise the potential of promoting active transport and reducing car dependency as a way to reduce health inequities. </p>
<p>For example, the Victorian government <a href="http://www.premier.vic.gov.au/unlocking-new-communities-and-affordable-housing/">recently announced</a> 17 new low-density suburbs for Melbourne’s outer fringes (up to 50 kilometres from the CBD). It did so with a goal of creating more affordable housing. But urban planning experts have <a href="http://www.news.com.au/finance/real-estate/buying/victorian-government-to-unlock-17-new-suburbs-in-melbourne-to-tackle-housing-affordability/news-story/1fdfbcc12261365d7c4c910d39268a60">criticised</a> these plans for increasing car dependence and commute times – due to the lack of nearby destinations and amenities – <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214140517300154">which have been shown</a> to be bad for health. </p>
<p>In another case, the Planning Institute of Australia <a href="https://architectureau.com/articles/retrograde-solution-west-gate-tunnel-project-a-permanent-blight-says-pia/">described</a> the proposed A$5.5 billion West Gate Tunnel as a “retrograde solution”. The institute expressed concern about “entrenched inequality for those in the outer suburbs”.</p>
<p>Changes to city transport environments can take <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01441647.2016.1177799">years or even decades</a>, and funding is often limited. Phased interventions that target lower-income neighbourhoods should be considered first as these are likely to produce the greatest gains in health equity. </p>
<p>This approach does have some caveats. Urban renewal projects carry a risk of gentrification, whereby higher and middle-income households displace those on lower incomes. Place-based government investment, such as improvements to public transport, <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1540-6229.2012.00339.x/full">has been shown</a> to increase local housing prices. That could force lower-income households to relocate, often to car-dependent neighbourhoods on the urban fringes. </p>
<p>In these scenarios, a lack of government policies that safeguard against displacement of low-income residents can make health inequities worse.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>You can read other articles in the series <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/healthy-liveable-cities-44685">here</a>.</em></p>
<p><em>The <a href="http://liveable-cities.aomevents.com.au/">Designing Healthy Liveable Cities Conference</a> is being hosted by the NHMRC Centre of Research Excellence in Healthy Liveable Communities in Melbourne on October 19-20. You can register <a href="https://aomevents.eventsair.com/nhmrc-cre-2017/wrp/Site/Register">here</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/83961/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jerome N Rachele receives funding from National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) Centre of Excellence in Healthy Liveable Communities (#1061404)</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Aislinn Healy is affiliated with The Public Health Association of Australia and The Australian Greens.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jim Sallis receives funding from National Institutes of Health, Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, The California Endowment, and Nike Inc.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Takemi Sugiyama does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>One of the most effective ways to reduce health inequalities across Australia is to design neighbourhoods that free residents from having to rely on cars for transport.Jerome N Rachele, Research Fellow in Social Epidemiology, Institute for Health and Ageing, Australian Catholic UniversityAislinn Healy, PhD Candidate, Institute for Health and Ageing, Australian Catholic UniversityJames F Sallis, Professorial Fellow, Institute for Health and Ageing, Australian Catholic University, and Emeritus Professor, Department of Family Medicine and Public Health, University of California, San DiegoTakemi Sugiyama, Professor of Built Environment, Institute for Health & Ageing, Australian Catholic UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/839662017-10-17T19:13:31Z2017-10-17T19:13:31ZSome suburbs are being short-changed on services and liveability – which ones and what’s the solution?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/189859/original/file-20171011-28106-187fwyx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">For suburbs like fast-growing Tarneit in the Wyndham area, 'hard' infrastructure gets priority, leaving 'soft' social infrastructure to catch up later. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/zoonabar/19706317216/in/photolist-w4JhHc-t7tLx3-w2o2xW-w55ptT-w45STu-dN6xCo-jTiJEF-jTie34-db3u1r-db3w3J-db3w1m-db3u5t-db3tLp-db3tTF-db3vTL-db3w9A-db3u2k-db3tQ4-db3vSb-uXQTEq-db3tRK-db3tYD-67m3ms-oBAZKT-uYASjF-ou1hEK-oMxDLP-oXz6yQ-qoxZiM-jTkZCG-pEni5q-rD84AR-8LNZLA-u2Umrf-oQfZYK-fS2otE-PCmtmr-oy3bSQ-oy3s3N-oy3s5G-9mjFHF-oQwRLe-nYzhKs-67gJTK-S4ujA-TD2Msn-pnfb14-oU5HeJ-m4dmPs">Chris Brown/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>This article is one in a series, <a href="https://theconversation.com/topics/healthy-liveable-cities-44685">Healthy Liveable Cities</a>, in the lead-up to the <a href="http://liveable-cities.aomevents.com.au/">Designing Healthy Liveable Cities Conference</a> in Melbourne on October 19 and 20.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>Australia’s population has <a href="http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/3218.0">grown by 3.8 million</a> over the last decade. Of the capital cities, Melbourne has grown the fastest – close to 1 million newcomers in the ten years to June 2016. </p>
<p>With such growth comes a need to expand social infrastructure – all the common social services and facilities people need over their lives which are critical for an area’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-do-we-create-liveable-cities-first-we-must-work-out-the-key-ingredients-50898">liveability</a>. However, our analysis shows a noticeable mismatch between the fastest-growing areas and the social infrastructure available to these communities. </p>
<p>The suburbs in the outer growth corridors of Melbourne are growing fastest, with large <a href="https://www.domain.com.au/news/its-a-baby-boom-melbourne-suburbs-attracting-thousands-of-new-families-20170923-gylbfu/">increases in young families</a> and school-age children. The concentration of population growth is clearly visible when growth rates across metropolitan Melbourne are mapped in Figure 1 below. </p>
<p><strong>Figure 1: Population growth rates across Melbourne</strong></p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/189340/original/file-20171009-6973-17sg5zn.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/189340/original/file-20171009-6973-17sg5zn.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/189340/original/file-20171009-6973-17sg5zn.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/189340/original/file-20171009-6973-17sg5zn.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/189340/original/file-20171009-6973-17sg5zn.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/189340/original/file-20171009-6973-17sg5zn.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/189340/original/file-20171009-6973-17sg5zn.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/189340/original/file-20171009-6973-17sg5zn.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Local Government Areas with the fastest population growth between 2006 and 2016 include Whittlesea, which increased by 62%, Cardinia by 69% and Wyndham by a staggering 98%, or 113,000 people. In stark contrast, Nillumbik had the smallest population growth of 4.5%, or 2,765 people.</p>
<p>Population growth has a huge impact on the planning of communities and the services to these. Governments use demographic data like the population statistics from the <a href="http://www.abs.gov.au/websitedbs/censushome.nsf/home/2016?opendocument&navpos=110">Australian Bureau of Statistics Census</a> to inform policy and planning decisions on the location and funding of schools, hospitals, parks, roads and public transport. These are the physical infrastructure needed for human settlement.</p>
<p>Most attention is usually directed to such <a href="https://theconversation.com/planes-trains-and-automobiles-the-importance-of-infrastructure-7717">“hard” infrastructure</a> – such as transportation, power, water and telecommunications – which is of great significance to economic development. </p>
<p>In comparison, social infrastructure is often described as “soft” infrastructure. It’s a name that fails to reflect its important role in society and the importance to health, wellbeing and liveability. </p>
<h2>What is social infrastructure?</h2>
<p>Social infrastructure describes the common services and facilities people need across their lives. These are very important influences on the <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-do-we-create-liveable-cities-first-we-must-work-out-the-key-ingredients-50898">liveability</a> of an area. It also refers to the amenities most people look for when making decisions about real estate or where to live. These include:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>hospitals, health services and medical centres</p></li>
<li><p>primary and secondary schools, kindergartens and child care</p></li>
<li><p>libraries, community centres and neighbourhood houses</p></li>
<li><p>public transport, walking and cycling options</p></li>
<li><p>community support agencies</p></li>
<li><p>movie theatres, museums and art galleries</p></li>
<li><p>pools, gyms, parks and public open spaces</p></li>
<li><p>police, ambulance and fire stations</p></li>
<li><p>aged care and retirement accommodation, social housing and a diverse range of housing options for all ages and demographic groups.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>These are key ingredients for liveable cities. They create the conditions needed to promote the health and wellbeing of all city residents – not just those living in affluent, well-serviced suburbs.</p>
<p>The quality and range of services available where people <a href="https://www.rwjf.org/en/library/research/2011/09/how-does-where-we-live--work--learn-and-play-affect-our-health-.html">live, learn, work and play</a> have a direct influence on their long-term health and the future development of chronic health conditions. </p>
<p>Importantly, this means that government-funded social infrastructure has longer term benefits for universal health prevention. As a result, good design and planning of well-serviced communities directly benefits all levels of society.</p>
<h2>Social infrastructure in Melbourne</h2>
<p>Social infrastructure should be fairly and equitably distributed across cities. However, the fastest growing suburbs of Melbourne, with increasing numbers of families and children, are the areas with the least services (Figure 2). </p>
<p><strong>Figure 2: Levels of social infrastructure across Melbourne</strong></p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/189341/original/file-20171009-6967-mhewzp.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/189341/original/file-20171009-6967-mhewzp.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/189341/original/file-20171009-6967-mhewzp.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/189341/original/file-20171009-6967-mhewzp.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/189341/original/file-20171009-6967-mhewzp.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/189341/original/file-20171009-6967-mhewzp.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/189341/original/file-20171009-6967-mhewzp.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/189341/original/file-20171009-6967-mhewzp.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">/</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This disparity is largely because current methods of planning social infrastructure are based on projected population targets measured before services are delivered to new areas. </p>
<p>People living in new suburbs have to wait for enough people to move in before government can justify delivering new social infrastructure. This means it can be years before important services like local schools, parks and community facilities are built. </p>
<p>The current approach to social infrastructure planning encourages car dependence, social isolation and stark inequity across our cities. This has a devastating impact on the liveability of some areas and the health and wellbeing of residents.</p>
<p>It’s particularly unfair when people are often forced to move to outer growth areas in search of affordable housing. This creates a breeding ground for <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/health/features/stories/2015/05/14/4235445.htm">complex social problems</a>, mental and physical health disparities. <a href="https://theconversation.com/build-in-good-services-from-day-one-for-healthier-communities-lessons-from-selandra-rise-58790">The result is</a> communities where people have less time and opportunity to live a healthy, active lifestyle and connect with each other.</p>
<h2>Creating more liveable communities from the start</h2>
<p>Building new infrastructure is very costly. The simple solution is for well-serviced inner and middle suburbs to share their existing social infrastructure with new neighbours. </p>
<p>This means increasing densities in these areas and sharing existing services (take note “not-in-my-backyard” development opponents). This is a key recommendation of the Infrastrcture Victoria <a href="http://www.infrastructurevictoria.com.au/sites/default/files/images/IV%2030%20Year%20Strategy%20WEB%20V2.PDF">30-year plan</a> and consistent with the <a href="http://www.planmelbourne.vic.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/377206/Plan_Melbourne_2017-2050_Strategy_.pdf">Plan Melbourne</a> goal of maintaining liveability. </p>
<p>New suburbs will also continue to be developed. Here, social infrastructure needs to be in place before people move in. This is important because changing the methods used to determine social infrastructure requirements in advance will also dramatically improve the liveability of these areas.</p>
<p>A more equitable method for social infrastructure planning is based on access. Hard infrastructure, like roads, is built as development occurs, and the same model should apply to the provision of social infrastructure. This will ensure easy and close access to social facilities and services, which in turn will create healthier and more liveable communities.</p>
<p>Government planning processes and developer contributions need to be rethought. We have much to learn from the <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-04-10/whitzman-we-can-learn-from-vancouver,-portland/6383772">Canadians</a>, who have been using these methods for years.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>You can read other articles in the series <a href="https://theconversation.com/topics/healthy-liveable-cities-44685">here</a>.</em></p>
<p><em>The <a href="http://liveable-cities.aomevents.com.au/">Designing Healthy Liveable Cities Conference</a> is being hosted by the NHMRC Centre of Research Excellence in Healthy Liveable Communities in Melbourne on October 19-20. You can register <a href="https://aomevents.eventsair.com/nhmrc-cre-2017/wrp/Site/Register">here</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/83966/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Melanie Davern receives funding from the Australian Research Council and the Clean Air and Urban Landscapes Hub of the National Environmental Science Programme</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lucy Gunn receives funding from the NHMRC Centre of Research Excellence in Healthy Liveable Communities.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Carl Higgs, Claire Boulange, and Rebecca Roberts do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Traditionally, new communities first get hard infrastructure – schools, hospitals, transport – and ‘soft’ social infrastructure comes later. Liveability and public health suffer as a result.Melanie Davern, Senior Research Fellow, Healthy Liveable Cities Group, Centre for Urban Research, RMIT UniversityCarl Higgs, Research Officer, Centre for Urban Research, RMIT UniversityClaire Boulange, Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Centre for Urban Research, RMIT UniversityLucy Gunn, Research Fellow, Centre for Urban Research, RMIT UniversityRebecca Roberts, GIS Analyst, Centre for Urban Studies, RMIT UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/839672017-10-12T06:04:07Z2017-10-12T06:04:07ZThis is what our cities need to do to be truly liveable for all<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/189938/original/file-20171012-9795-1muzw0w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">While parts of Australian capital cities are highly liveable, access to the features that underpin liveability is highly unequal. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/melbourne-australia-apr-12-people-walking-412050490?src=EYHPr-esg9cP5M4A8nGYXQ-1-13">kittis/shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>This article is one in a series, <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/healthy-liveable-cities-44685">Healthy Liveable Cities</a>, in the lead-up to the <a href="http://liveable-cities.aomevents.com.au/">Designing Healthy Liveable Cities Conference</a> in Melbourne on October 19 and 20.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>Urban planners, governments and developers are increasingly interested in making cities “liveable”. But what features contribute to liveability? Which areas in cities are the least and most liveable? The various liveability rankings – <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-08-16/melbourne-named-worlds-most-liveable-city-for-seventh-year/8812196">where Australia tends to do quite well</a> – don’t provide much useful guidance.</p>
<p>In a recently released report, <a href="http://cur.org.au/project/national-liveability-report/">Creating Liveable Cities in Australia</a>, our team defined and produced the first baseline measure of liveability in Australia’s capital cities. </p>
<p>We broke down liveability into seven “domains”: walkability, public transport, public open space, housing affordability, employment, the food environment, and the alcohol environment. This definition is based on what we found to be critical factors for creating <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-do-we-create-liveable-cities-first-we-must-work-out-the-key-ingredients-50898">liveable, sustainable and healthy communities</a>. </p>
<p>Each of the liveability domains is linked by evidence to health and wellbeing outcomes. They are also measurable at the individual house, suburb and city level. This means we can compare areas within and between cities. </p>
<p>While all seven domains are important, three are explored here in more detail. </p>
<h2>Walkability</h2>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/189894/original/file-20171012-9795-1mt8wl8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/189894/original/file-20171012-9795-1mt8wl8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/189894/original/file-20171012-9795-1mt8wl8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/189894/original/file-20171012-9795-1mt8wl8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/189894/original/file-20171012-9795-1mt8wl8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/189894/original/file-20171012-9795-1mt8wl8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/189894/original/file-20171012-9795-1mt8wl8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Urban planning that encourages walking is crucial for liveable cities.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Julianna Rozek/Author provided</span></span>
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<p>In liveable cities, streets and neighbourhoods are designed to encourage walking instead of driving. Homes, jobs, shops, schools and other everyday destinations are within easy walking distance of each other. The street network is convenient for pedestrians, with high-quality footpaths, short blocks, few cul-de-sacs and higher-density housing. </p>
<p>Walkability is an important factor in liveability because it promotes <a href="https://theconversation.com/death-by-suburban-sprawl-better-urban-planning-will-combat-sedentary-lifestyles-3395">active forms of transport</a>. Increasingly physically inactive and sedentary lifestyles are a global health problem, and contribute to around <a href="http://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/factsheet_inactivity/en/">3.2 million preventable deaths a year</a>. In Australia, 60% of adults and 70% of children and adolescents <a href="http://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/content/health-pubhlth-strateg-active-evidence.htm">do not get enough exercise</a>.</p>
<p>We measured walkability using a combination of features that are linked to health benefits. Our “walkability index” included housing density, access to everyday destinations and street connectivity within 1,600 metres of a residence. This is a commonly used “walkable” distance, equivalent to about 20 minutes’ walk, and features within this affect <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21631958">how likely a person is to walk</a>. </p>
<p>However, walkable neighbourhoods achieve their full potential only when residents have easy access to employment – particularly by public transport. </p>
<h2>Public transport</h2>
<p>Liveable cities promote public transport use instead of driving. Most homes are within easy walking distance of transport stops, and services are frequent enough to be convenient. </p>
<p>Good access to public transport supports community health in two ways: by <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16242589">encouraging walking</a> and by reducing dependence on driving. </p>
<p>Australian cities have largely been designed for cars, at the cost of community health. Each hour spent driving can increase a person’s risk of obesity by <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15261894">around 6%</a>. Road-traffic accidents are the eighth-leading cause of <a href="http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(16)30066-6/abstract">death and disability globally</a>, and one of the leading causes of death in <a href="http://203.2.121.30/deaths/leading-causes-of-death/">Australians up to the age of 44</a>. </p>
<p>Cars are also a major source of <a href="https://theconversation.com/counting-the-ways-vehicle-emissions-still-make-us-sick-658">urban air pollution</a> and noise, which are harmful to mental and physical health.</p>
<p>In <a href="http://preventioncentre.org.au/our-work/research-projects/creating-liveable-and-healthy-communities/">previous work</a>, our team found that people were more likely to walk for transport if they had a public transport stop within 400 metres of their home. The service frequency was also important – it needed to be least every 30 minutes on a normal weekday.</p>
<p>In Creating Liveable Cities in Australia we used this combined measure to map the percentage of homes in a suburb, local government area, or city with close access to frequent public transport.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/189892/original/file-20171012-9833-1pcoubs.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/189892/original/file-20171012-9833-1pcoubs.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/189892/original/file-20171012-9833-1pcoubs.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=308&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/189892/original/file-20171012-9833-1pcoubs.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=308&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/189892/original/file-20171012-9833-1pcoubs.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=308&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/189892/original/file-20171012-9833-1pcoubs.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=387&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/189892/original/file-20171012-9833-1pcoubs.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=387&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/189892/original/file-20171012-9833-1pcoubs.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=387&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Creating Liveable Cities in Australia</span></span>
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<h2>Public open space</h2>
<p>In liveable communities, most people live within walking distance of a green, publicly accessible open space such as a park, playground or reserve. </p>
<p>Green space has <a href="https://theconversation.com/green-space-how-much-is-enough-and-whats-the-best-way-to-deliver-it-77393">many physical and mental health benefits</a> for people, and social and environmental benefits for communities. Parks provide opportunities for <a href="https://theconversation.com/most-people-just-park-themselves-so-how-do-we-promote-more-healthy-activity-in-public-parks-56421">physical activity</a>, such as jogging, ball sports and dog walking. </p>
<p>Increasingly, research is finding clear links between living in neighbourhoods with lots of parks and <a href="http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(15)01284-2/abstract">higher physical activity</a>.</p>
<p>Urban green spaces are also important for plants and animals <a href="https://theconversation.com/concrete-jungle-well-have-to-do-more-than-plant-trees-to-bring-wildlife-back-to-our-cities-51047">displaced by urban development</a> and provide other <a href="https://theconversation.com/higher-density-cities-need-greening-to-stay-healthy-and-liveable-75840">environmental benefits</a>. The cooling effect of trees and green spaces can play an important part in maintaining the liveability of Australian cities, particularly as heatwaves in Melbourne and Sydney are <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-reality-of-living-with-50-temperatures-in-our-major-cities-85315">likely to reach 50°C by 2040</a>.</p>
<p>In soon-to-be-published work, having access to a public open space within 400 metres (about a five-minute walk) of at least 1.5 hectares in area was associated with recreational walking. </p>
<p>For this report, we struggled to find a dataset of public open space that was consistent and available nationally. Some areas have high-quality data available from previous research projects or local councils, and satellite imagery provides useful information about tree cover. </p>
<p>However, national data standards are needed to enable cities to benchmark and monitor their progress in meeting liveability targets.</p>
<h2>The liveable city is greater than the sum of its parts</h2>
<p>The phrase “liveable city” conjures up a vision of leafy streets, happy residents walking, cycling or catching public transport, and children playing in neighbourhood parks. This image, while inspiring, is not useful for urban planners and governments who are working to make cities more liveable.</p>
<p>Distilling liveability into seven domains, which can be measured and are linked to health and wellbeing outcomes, provides policymakers and practitioners with what they need to ensure we maintain and enhance the liveability of our cities as they grow. </p>
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<p><em>You can read other articles in the series <a href="https://theconversation.com/topics/healthy-liveable-cities-44685">here</a>.</em></p>
<p><em>You can hear more from researchers involved in Creating Liveable Cities in Australia at the <a href="http://liveable-cities.aomevents.com.au/">Designing Healthy Liveable Cities Conference</a> on October 19-20 in Melbourne. It’s being hosted by the NHMRC Centre of Research Excellence in Healthy Liveable Communities and you can register <a href="https://aomevents.eventsair.com/nhmrc-cre-2017/wrp/Site/Register">here</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/83967/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Julianna Rozek receives funding from the National Environment Science Program Clean Air and Urban Landscape Hub funded by the Department of the Environment; the National Health and Medical Research Council and The Australian Prevention Partnership Centre.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Billie Giles-Corti receives funding from the National Environment Science Program Clean Air and Urban Landscape Hub funded by the Department of the Environment; the National Health and Medical Research Council and The Australian Prevention Partnership Centre.</span></em></p>The challenge of creating liveable communities across Australia’s capital cities comes down to seven key factors. And assessed on this basis, parts of our cities don’t fare so well.Julianna Rozek, Research Officer, Healthy Liveable Cities Group, Centre for Urban Research, RMIT UniversityBillie Giles-Corti, Director, Urban Futures Enabling Capability Platform and Director, Healthy Liveable Cities Group, RMIT UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.