tag:theconversation.com,2011:/africa/topics/ipads-9795/articlesipads – The Conversation2023-05-25T20:01:06Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2015632023-05-25T20:01:06Z2023-05-25T20:01:06ZFriday essay: what the migrant workers who made my iPhone taught me about love<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525790/original/file-20230512-39256-ha5kei.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=63%2C0%2C3167%2C2148&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Zhan Youbing</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Ten years ago, a group of images on a popular Chinese <a href="http://fj.sohu.com/20130911/n386381112.shtml">website</a> caught my attention. They showed young rural migrant workers in intimate, though not overtly sexual situations: talking quietly, holding hands, kissing, embracing, or simply sitting close to each other with their limbs intertwined. </p>
<p>These intimate moments all take place in public spaces in the industrial areas of Dongguan, Guangdong Province, where these workers live and work – on the lawn of a park, on a bench by the roadside, at a table outside a snack bar, in a community library, in a public phone booth, on a city street. While some women in the photos wear casual or even sexy clothes, others wear factory uniforms.</p>
<p>As a cultural anthropologist who has spent 20 years studying rural migrant workers in China, I was immediately captivated by these images. I liked their realism. But what intrigued me were the polarised comments about them.</p>
<p>Some were one-liners such as “So sweet”; “How romantic”; “They are so pure and innocent”; “Love doesn’t discriminate against the poor”; “Life is beautiful because love exists.”</p>
<p>Others were harsh. One comment said that Shenzhen and Dongguan were full of “illicit love birds”. Criticism of such intimate acts was also implied in another post, which said “most of these couples are just after sex; love doesn’t really come into it.” One of the comments struck me as particularly judgemental:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>They’re not interested in learning, they have no souls, they give free rein to their bodily urges. They feel no responsibility for themselves, their family, and society. They’re after cheap sexual pleasure. What do they know about love?</p>
</blockquote>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/524324/original/file-20230504-23-3u85uq.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/524324/original/file-20230504-23-3u85uq.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/524324/original/file-20230504-23-3u85uq.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524324/original/file-20230504-23-3u85uq.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524324/original/file-20230504-23-3u85uq.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524324/original/file-20230504-23-3u85uq.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524324/original/file-20230504-23-3u85uq.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524324/original/file-20230504-23-3u85uq.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Wanning Sun’s decade-long journey into the intimate consequences of inequality among Shenzen’s migrant workers began with a series of photos.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Zhan Youbing</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Looking back, I realise it was my initial fascination with this group of photos that started me on a decade-long journey of exploring the intimate consequences of inequality.</p>
<p>I wanted to know what rural migrant workers themselves would make of these images and these polarised responses. I wanted to know what it feels like to go on yet another blind date arranged by their parents, to steal an intimate moment in compromised circumstances, and to endure the stigma of not being able to afford a wife.</p>
<h2>The iPhone and iPad workers of Shenzen</h2>
<p>Driven by these questions, I started my fieldwork in 2015 in the newly created industrial zone of Longhua District in Shenzhen – a manufacturing sector in the Pearl River Delta that is a major employer of China’s rural migrant factory workers.</p>
<p>From 2015 to 2017, I spent an average of one month each year talking to a total of 50 migrant men and women who worked for <a href="https://theconversation.com/foxconns-labour-union-elections-put-chinese-workers-rights-under-the-spotlight-12122">Foxconn</a> in Shenzhen – people who assembled the iPhones and iPads we use. In addition to these in-depth, one-off interviews, I also invited ten workers – five men and five women – to participate in my research over three years, so I could document the changes in their lives. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/524328/original/file-20230504-23-v47tvu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/524328/original/file-20230504-23-v47tvu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/524328/original/file-20230504-23-v47tvu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524328/original/file-20230504-23-v47tvu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524328/original/file-20230504-23-v47tvu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524328/original/file-20230504-23-v47tvu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=523&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524328/original/file-20230504-23-v47tvu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=523&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524328/original/file-20230504-23-v47tvu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=523&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The production line at Foxconn, making iPhones and iPads.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Kin Cheung/AP</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>During this period, I met members of these workers’ families, and spent as much time as possible with them: chatting, cooking, eating, shopping and watching television, or simply “hanging out.” I closely followed the developments in their love lives in 2018 and 2019. To this day, I still communicate with them regularly via WeChat.</p>
<p>The main site of my fieldwork was Village Q, a “village within the city” enclave that lies outside Foxconn’s plant. Inside the village, the smell of food wafts in the street, as does the sound of popular songs lamenting the travails of unrequited love, betrayal and <a href="https://theconversation.com/loneliness-is-a-health-issue-and-needs-targeted-solutions-96262">loneliness</a>. </p>
<p>Spicy aromas of food from Hunan, Hubei and Sichuan fill the nostrils, ameliorating homesickness and gratifying the chilli-loving palates of large cohorts of workers from these provinces. Shops selling lottery tickets, mobile phone accessories and groceries line the streets, as do internet cafes, hair salons, and “accommodation” venues of a dubious nature, selling temporary intimacy at hourly rates. </p>
<p>The streets are littered with promotional material in the form of cards or leaflets advertising myriad goods and services, ranging from “factory girls” who are happy to spend a night with you for a reasonable fee, to clinics offering a “quick and painless abortion.” </p>
<p>Everything migrant workers need for subsistence can be found here. It’s all cheap and cheerful, catering exclusively to workers on a wage of around 3,000 yuan (approximately US$440) a month.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/524327/original/file-20230504-23-icu5sy.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/524327/original/file-20230504-23-icu5sy.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/524327/original/file-20230504-23-icu5sy.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524327/original/file-20230504-23-icu5sy.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524327/original/file-20230504-23-icu5sy.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524327/original/file-20230504-23-icu5sy.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524327/original/file-20230504-23-icu5sy.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524327/original/file-20230504-23-icu5sy.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Shenzen’s ‘Village Q’</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wanning Sun</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Each morning, around 7.30, I would see a steady stream of workers hurrying toward the northern and western gates of the Foxconn factory, breakfast in one hand and sleep still in their eyes, afraid to risk having their pay docked for being even a couple of minutes late. </p>
<p>At the same time, another stream of workers going in the opposite direction would emerge from the same gates, dragging their tired bodies after a 12-hour shift, looking pale and numb, heading for bed in their dormitory or rental accommodation. Everyone wore a lanyard with their Foxconn photo ID card hanging from it; no one was allowed to enter or leave the plant without swiping their card.</p>
<h2>‘A very modest dream’</h2>
<p>The rural migrant workers I talked to are often referred to as <em>nongmingong</em>, literally translated into “peasant worker”. Rural migrants can be found in the manufacturing sector, where I conducted this study. They are also in the <a href="https://rowman.com/ISBN/9781442236776/Subaltern-China-Rural-Migrants-Media-and-Cultural-Practices">construction sector</a>, the <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Maid-China-Morality-Cultural-Boundaries/dp/0415592194">service and hospitality</a> sector, small businesses, and a wide range of other areas. </p>
<p>Chinese cities cannot function smoothly for a single day without rural migrants. The China’s so-called <a href="https://theconversation.com/chinas-economic-miracle-is-close-to-fruition-but-what-now-for-workers-10926">economic miracle</a> simply would not have been possible without the cheap labour they supply.</p>
<p><em>Nongmingong</em> have become part of urban life since the start of the economic reforms of the 1980s. China’s <a href="http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjsj/zxfb/202104/t20210430_1816933.html">National Bureau of Statistics</a> finds that as of 2020, there were up to 286 million “peasant workers”. That’s more than ten times Australia’s entire population.</p>
<p>The rural migrants I talked to were born in the 1980s and 1990s. They are the children of the rural migrants who went to the city to seek employment during China’s first two decades of economic reforms. Most of these younger workers have little or no experience in farming. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525800/original/file-20230512-36129-z3np5w.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525800/original/file-20230512-36129-z3np5w.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525800/original/file-20230512-36129-z3np5w.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525800/original/file-20230512-36129-z3np5w.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525800/original/file-20230512-36129-z3np5w.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525800/original/file-20230512-36129-z3np5w.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525800/original/file-20230512-36129-z3np5w.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525800/original/file-20230512-36129-z3np5w.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Most rural migrants Wanning Sun spoke to harbour the ‘very modest dream’ of finding a life partner, and the chance for family and a better life.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Zhan Youbing</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>They tend to be better educated and more engaged with urban consumption culture than their parents, but they also feel more stuck, angry and disillusioned – unlike their parents, who had always intended to go back to the village, they generally want to remain in the city. However, they see little hope of doing so, and are often unwilling even to contemplate returning to their native villages.</p>
<p>Most rural migrants I talked to harbour what might seem to be a very modest dream: of finding a life partner, having the chance to start a family, and living with a little more dignity and less discrimination in their often bleak and harsh lives. </p>
<p>Since they still hold rural residential registration status, they have less access to a wide range of socioeconomic benefits – health care, education, housing and employment – than city folk do. This is despite the fact they have lived in the city all their lives, and have spent their youth and prime years contributing to <a href="https://theconversation.com/vital-signs-slower-chinese-economic-growth-inevitable-without-internal-reform-170277">China’s economic growth</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-china-does-valentines-day-129420">How China does Valentine's Day</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>‘Without betrothal gift, my family would be embarrassed’</h2>
<p>I first met WJ, a clerical employee at Foxconn, in August 201. WJ comes from a rural village in Henan Province, one of the biggest labour-sending counties in Henan. She was 27 years old, and had been away from home for more than ten years. </p>
<p>WJ’s mother was also a first-generation rural migrant worker. But several years of long hours and night shifts working in a garment factory finally took their toll, and WJ’s mother returned home, nursing a chronic high blood pressure condition. WJ’s only brother had just gotten married and was expecting a baby, so he was living at home for the moment. </p>
<p>At the age of 16, just after finishing middle school, WJ decided to “go out” (<em>chu qu</em> – leave her hometown), since there was nothing to do in the village, and there was no work. The small piece of farming land available to the family brought in little income.</p>
<p>WJ’s story exemplifies the dilemma of being caught between parental opinions and her own desires.</p>
<p>Born in 1988, WJ was aware that many women her age were already married with children. She liked someone she met online, but she was not sure how to proceed. In the eyes of her mother, this potential marriage partner had three strikes against him: he owned no property; he had two younger, unmarried brothers (so he may have needed to support them in the future); and his mother could not help with childcare. And to add the final straw, he may not have been able to afford a betrothal gift, even though the expected betrothal “fee” (<a href="https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/opinion/2015-11/23/content_22510352.htm"><em>caili</em></a>) from the groom’s family in WJ’s hometown is not high.</p>
<p>Then WJ met S, who had a university degree, and then worked in a company in Shenzhen. WJ hoped to find someone better educated or financially better off than she was.</p>
<p>This traditional preference to “marry up” on the part of female rural migrants explains why, despite the large number of male workers in Foxconn, women still report difficulty in finding “suitable partners”.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525782/original/file-20230512-33099-1sxqpo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525782/original/file-20230512-33099-1sxqpo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525782/original/file-20230512-33099-1sxqpo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525782/original/file-20230512-33099-1sxqpo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525782/original/file-20230512-33099-1sxqpo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525782/original/file-20230512-33099-1sxqpo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525782/original/file-20230512-33099-1sxqpo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525782/original/file-20230512-33099-1sxqpo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">There is a traditional preference to ‘marry up’ on the part of female rural migrants.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Zhan Youbing</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Even though WJ did not think S was very “handsome”, she felt what he lacked in looks was compensated for by his superior education. While WJ was keen on S, her mother disapproved. S’s mother was mentally ill, and there was not a marital house for the would-be couple. Furthermore, S’s family could not afford to pay betrothal money – an amount of about 100,000 yuan (more than AUD$20,000) – in WJ’s hometown.</p>
<p>The practice of giving “betrothal money” to the bride’s family has survived in China from a much earlier era. WJ was aware that paying a betrothal fee to the bride’s family was a bad “feudal” custom, but it had been done for generations and her family felt it should be followed:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Personally, I don’t care if he has no caili, but I know my family would be embarrassed. What would our neighbours think of us? Everybody else follows the tradition, and who are we to break it? People may say that your daughter is so cheap she’s prepared to go without any betrothal money.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>WJ’s mother put pressure on her to consider a young man who now had a small local business, and whose family was keen to cement the marriage with a handsome amount of betrothal money as well as an engagement ring. </p>
<p>WJ was not in the least interested in that man – “we have nothing in common” – but she was worried that her open defiance might further upset her mother’s health. So, while her mother went ahead and accepted the betrothal money and ring from the other suitor, WJ secretly continued seeing S.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-tv-dating-shows-helped-change-love-and-marriage-in-china-forever-60594">How TV dating shows helped change love and marriage in China forever</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>‘My daughter doesn’t want to talk to me anymore’</h2>
<p>In the married cohort I talked to, MB’s story was fairly common: parents arranging matchmaking, the couple getting married after a few meetings, the relationship falling apart soon after marriage. </p>
<p>After MB married this way and their daughter was born, she and her husband came to work at Foxconn in Shenzhen. Their daughter, four years old at the time I met MB for our first interview in 2015, was being cared for by MB’s mother-in-law back in the village.</p>
<p>At that meeting, MB told me she had not seen her daughter for a couple of years. She could only get leave during the Chinese New Year period, but she could not secure a train ticket because of the high demand during peak seasons. Once, she got up at 4am and queued for three hours, only to find that the tickets for her train home had sold out.</p>
<p>Social media platforms such as QQ and WeChat were useful to connect with her daughter, but only to a limited extent. Her mother-in-law did not know how to use QQ – she did not even have QQ on her phone – so MB could only see her daughter on QQ when her mother-in-law visited relatives. On average, she saw her daughter once every two or three months. But she was sad that her daughter no longer wanted to talk to her.</p>
<p>MB lived in Foxconn’s dormitory, whereas her husband lived in a small rented room near the factory. They seldom saw each other in the factory – it was a huge complex and they worked in different departments. MB went to visit him on Sundays when they both had a day off. She told me that she would help him tidy up his room, wash his clothes, and cook a meal. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525787/original/file-20230512-25-dozci7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525787/original/file-20230512-25-dozci7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525787/original/file-20230512-25-dozci7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525787/original/file-20230512-25-dozci7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525787/original/file-20230512-25-dozci7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525787/original/file-20230512-25-dozci7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525787/original/file-20230512-25-dozci7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525787/original/file-20230512-25-dozci7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">MB (not pictured) lived in Foxconn’s dormitory and visited her husband in the small rented room where he lived on their shared day off.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Zhan Youbing</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>My first guess about their decision to live separately was that it was a way of saving costs. But it wasn’t until I met MB for a second face-to-face interview in the following year that she became more open about her conjugal problems.</p>
<p>They fought all the time, and could not agree on anything, even though she was quite sure there was no other woman in his life. The tension between the couple was not just due to an incompatibility of personalities. They also disagreed about the future. </p>
<p>MB believed they should work as hard as possible while they were still young, and save enough money so that they would not have to work so hard when they eventually went back home. At this stage of her life she also preferred to be living in the city, and did not want to go back home. In comparison, her husband was less enthusiastic about city living, and would not mind going back home.</p>
<p>MB has tried to engineer opportunities for her to talk with her husband.</p>
<blockquote>
<p>His rental room is small – only big enough for a bed – dark and stuffy, so one time I suggested we go out for a walk. So, we went for a walk, and I sensed he was in a much better mood, and for the first time, he talked about some things from his childhood. After that, whenever we had another fight, I’d suggest we get out of his room and go for a walk. But he wouldn’t do that anymore. He said, “That’s just your trick of getting me out so you can discuss our relationship.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>MB knew in theory that she needed to “communicate”, but she said she did not know how to in practice. Nor did she know how to communicate with someone who refused to engage.</p>
<p>MB echoed the sentiments of quite a few migrant women I spoke to, who were eager to talk to their husbands but did not know how to get through to them. An expression that came up frequently in my conversations with migrant women about their partners was “cold violence” (<em>lengbaoli</em>), referring to the absence of physical violence but the presence of aggressive and hostile refusals to engage – in effect, emotional abuse.</p>
<p>Last year, MB told me via WeChat, 11 years since I first spoke to her, that she was finally divorced. She is still working at Foxconn.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/hukou-and-what-birthplace-can-still-mean-for-marriage-in-china-75032">'Hukou', and what birthplace can still mean for marriage in China</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>‘You never get ahead by working hard’</h2>
<p>These conversations made me realise experiences in people’s intimate lives are shaped by differences in gender as well as socioeconomic status. ZB is one of the five men whose love lives I followed, but he was the only one who recently found someone and got married. </p>
<p>When I first met ZB in 2015, he was still single, and he offered this explanation why the odds were against migrant men like him “getting girls”:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>People like us come from the countryside, and we don’t own a house or car, and many of us can’t afford the cost of getting married, including caili. If you’re poor but good-looking, you may have a chance. But then again, if you are that good-looking, you wouldn’t be a worker at Foxconn, would you? </p>
<p>Also, girls like boys who have glib tongues and pay them a lot of attention and shower them with gifts, even though these boys may not have serious intentions. Younger people, those born in the 1990s, tend to have a more casual approach when it comes to girls. Older ones like me who were born in the 1980s are more serious. </p>
<p>I’ve seen too many boys who are honest and want to do the honourable thing by girls, but they’re shy and don’t know how to talk to them. That may not be a problem if you’re loaded with money; your money can talk on your behalf. But what chance do you have if you have no money, you look ordinary, and you don’t know how to talk to girls? Most of the men you see here fit that description, especially those born in the 1980s. </p>
<p>And let’s face it, girls like men who are confident and can sweet talk them, even though they may not be as dependable as the honest, quiet ones. That’s why you see so many lonely souls here – starving for love, sexually frustrated, and feeling lost.</p>
</blockquote>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525784/original/file-20230512-43932-eabman.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525784/original/file-20230512-43932-eabman.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525784/original/file-20230512-43932-eabman.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525784/original/file-20230512-43932-eabman.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525784/original/file-20230512-43932-eabman.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525784/original/file-20230512-43932-eabman.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525784/original/file-20230512-43932-eabman.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525784/original/file-20230512-43932-eabman.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Wanning Sun followed some of China’s so-called ‘leftover men’.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Zhan Youbing</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>JH is one of the so-called “leftover men” I followed. Born in 1986, JH grew up in a mountain village in southeast of China. When I first met him in 2015 in Shenzhen, he was working 12 hours a day, six days a week at Foxconn plant, assembling iPhones. “That’s one of the iPads we make,” he said, noticing mine.</p>
<p>JH frequently changed jobs during the period of my fieldwork. By August 2019, he was working as a security guard in a hotel. I asked him why he had left his last job making furniture. He told me the company had to lay off many people because of China’s trade war with the United States, and his company faced too much competition from inland factories in Chengdu and Jiangsu, so he had to work more for less pay. He could no longer make enough to support himself.</p>
<p>JH is tall and dark, with a well-chiselled face – my assessment of his good looks was shared by other workers, both male and female. But he had had no luck in finding a girlfriend. In my meetings with him, he was quiet, softly spoken and shy. He found it difficult to strike up a conversation with a stranger. But other migrants who knew him well all commented on his loyalty as a friend. </p>
<p>Unlike those glib-tongued men who “get girls easily”, JH would not ask a girl out even if he was attracted to her, because he feared rejection. Because of this, he lived with a constant sense of failure. Furthermore, he did not believe in wasting time on frivolous affairs:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>If I like a girl and want to go out with her, I want to make sure she knows I’m serious. I don’t want to waste her time, or my time. Also, I want to behave responsibly toward the girl. I don’t want to take advantage of her, only to leave her later. I also don’t want to say and do nice things – such as buying her gifts – just to please her and get close to her, with no intention of marrying her. It’s not the right thing to do. I know I’m old-fashioned.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>JH was referring here to some younger rural migrant workers in their twenties, some even as young as their late teens, who “get girls” easily, but have no intention of staying in a relationship with them or getting married.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/524341/original/file-20230504-27-e04xvs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/524341/original/file-20230504-27-e04xvs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/524341/original/file-20230504-27-e04xvs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524341/original/file-20230504-27-e04xvs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524341/original/file-20230504-27-e04xvs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524341/original/file-20230504-27-e04xvs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524341/original/file-20230504-27-e04xvs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524341/original/file-20230504-27-e04xvs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Some younger rural migrant workers ‘get girls easily’, but have no intention of staying in a relationship or getting married.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Zhan Youbing</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In addition to his loneliness, JH’s sense of failure is exacerbated by a feeling of guilt for letting his parents down:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>They [his parents] sacrificed so much to bring me up, and all they want to see is that I’m married. But I’m not able to give them that. They try not to put too much pressure on me, but I know they’re also under a lot of pressure from neighbours and relatives. I have two sisters and I’m their only son. So, they always try to set me up with a date when I go home. I feel I need to go along with these meetings, but nothing ever comes of them.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>In the past, JH had believed that, as long as he was prepared to work hard, he might have been able to change his circumstances. After all these years of job hopping, he remains a source of disposable cheap labour. He earns enough money to survive on, but has nothing left to save, and certainly isn’t acquiring any certified professional skills. Now, he is adamant that “you never get ahead by working hard.”</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/pity-chinas-bare-branches-unmarried-men-stuck-between-tradition-and-capitalism-68592">Pity China's 'bare branches': unmarried men stuck between tradition and capitalism</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Love doesn’t conquer all</h2>
<p>One key message I got from my conversations with workers is that love does not conquer all, as we are often told. Instead, market logic and socioeconomic inequality largely determine the extent of success or failure in the pursuit of dreams and intimate desires on the part of the rural men and women in the study. </p>
<p>My research tells me that although people from all social classes experience “love troubles”, an individual’s capacity to ward off such troubles often depends on their socioeconomic position.</p>
<p>As shown in the polarised responses to the photos discussed earlier, inequality not only shapes how much access people in different classes have to intimacy, it also shapes how their intimate practices are talked about: both by themselves and in public narratives. </p>
<p>For instance, I talked to both young rural migrants and their educated urban counterparts about how they made decisions about wedding photography. Both cohorts considered wedding photography essential to their marriages, but they attached different meanings and significance to this ritual of consumption.</p>
<p>The love lives of the workers are not only personal and individual matters; they are closely related to how the Chinese state governs. Much government funding has gone into research about the lived reality of a large cohort of unmarried and sexually repressed rural migrant men in urban China: mainly because sexual frustration is usually believed to be a law and order issue, and may pose a serious threat to moral order and social stability. The aim, therefore, is largely to find ways of governing vulnerable communities and managing inequality.</p>
<p>I did get to ask workers to comment on those images of lovers in Dongguan: the ones that started me on my ten-year journey of discovery. Their responses were mostly along the lines of “So what?” </p>
<p>To them, what was represented in these pictures was simply their everyday lives: “These are very familiar to me; I see people like this everywhere, all the time.” Some even told me they had “been there and done that” and that “it’s nothing to make a fuss about.” </p>
<p>It’s clear that workers didn’t want people to romanticise their love lives – and nor did they wish to be patronised, judged or censured.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Wanning Sun’s new book, Love Troubles: Inequality in China and its Intimate Consequences, is published by <a href="https://www.bloomsbury.com/au/love-troubles-9781350329614/">Bloomsbury</a>, May 2023.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/201563/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>This study was funded by the Australian Research Council Discovery Grant "Inequality in Love - Romance and Intimacy among China's Young Migrant Workers" (ARC DP150103544) </span></em></p>Wanning Sun spent nearly a decade talking to migrant workers at the Apple factory in China’s Shenzhen about their intimate lives – and how their relationships are affected by inequality.Wanning Sun, Professor of Media and Cultural Studies, University of Technology SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1864622022-07-07T19:51:54Z2022-07-07T19:51:54Z‘Screen time’ for kids is an outdated concept, so let’s ditch it and focus on quality instead<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/472910/original/file-20220707-15-swzx3y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C6240%2C4116&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>It is school holidays in Australia and, in many parts of the country, it’s also raining and bitterly cold. This means many children are stuck indoors and many parents will be grappling with how much “screen time” their kids are having. </p>
<p>As as early childhood researcher and parent to a four-year-old, this is a question I am asked a lot. How much screen time is too much? Should I be worried about how much my child is watching? </p>
<p>If I had magic powers, I would get rid of the concept of screen “time”. We need to be talking about screen quality instead. </p>
<h2>Parents find it very tricky to stick to the guidelines</h2>
<p>There are <a href="https://www.who.int/news/item/24-04-2019-to-grow-up-healthy-children-need-to-sit-less-and-play-more">international</a> and <a href="https://aifs.gov.au/resources/short-articles/too-much-time-screens-screen-time-effects-and-guidelines-children-and">national</a> guidelines around screen time, depending on the age of children. </p>
<p>In Australia, no more than one hour of screen time a day is recommended for two- to five-year-olds. For five- to 17-year-olds it is no more than two hours of sedentary screen time per day (not including schoolwork).</p>
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</figure>
<p>But <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapediatrics/article-abstract/2789094">research indicates</a> many Australian parents find the current “time-based” regulations difficult to comply with. The Royal Children’s Hospital <a href="https://www.rchpoll.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/NCHP20-Poll-report-A4_FA.pdf">2021 child health poll</a> found too much screen time was parents’ number-one health concern about their kids. More than 90% of surveyed parents said it was a “big” problem or “somewhat” of a problem. </p>
<p>But the idea that we need to focus on the “time” aspect is an outdated one. It only measures quantity and not the quality of what children are watching. This is not to suggest a free-for-all (sorry, kids!). Instead, we need to look at what our kids are watching and how they are watching it. </p>
<h2>Moving beyond ‘screen time’</h2>
<p>Longstanding research <a href="https://developingchild.harvard.edu/resources/the-foundations-of-lifelong-health-are-built-in-early-childhood/">highlights</a> the importance of the first years of life, with clear links between children’s early childhood experiences and their ongoing <a href="https://developingchild.harvard.edu/resources/connecting-the-brain-to-the-rest-of-the-body-early-childhood-development-and-lifelong-health-are-deeply-intertwined/">mental and physical health</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Small child looks at a tablet." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/472912/original/file-20220707-160-fuggny.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/472912/original/file-20220707-160-fuggny.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=467&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/472912/original/file-20220707-160-fuggny.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=467&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/472912/original/file-20220707-160-fuggny.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=467&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/472912/original/file-20220707-160-fuggny.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=587&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/472912/original/file-20220707-160-fuggny.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=587&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/472912/original/file-20220707-160-fuggny.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=587&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Play is a huge part of a child’s learning and development.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">www.shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We also know that play and physical activity are vital to development and so, if you are using screens, it should only be one part of a child’s life. But let’s consider the following scenarios:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Jenny (aged 4) watches Spiderman with her older brother. She only watches for a few minutes but during this period views a dramatic fight scene.</p></li>
<li><p>Bryce’s (aged 5) friend Lucas has moved interstate. Bryce regularly spends 20 minutes video chatting to Lucas. They talk about toys, play hide-and-seek, and occasionally send emojis.</p></li>
<li><p>Leo (aged 6) and his aunt are watching Sing. They watch the movie for more than 60 minutes, singing along to the music. Leo actively talks about the characters for days after viewing, commenting that Meena (a character with stage fright) had to keep trying to be brave.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Each of these examples, among all those that occur in Australian homes every day, show different uses of “screens”. Yet, as researchers, we often put these in the same bucket, labelled “screen time”. </p>
<p>Researchers are <a href="https://www.acu.edu.au/research-and-enterprise/our-research-institutes/institute-for-learning-sciences-and-teacher-education/our-research/early-childhood-futures/young-children-in-digital-society-an-online-tool-for-service-provision">looking at how</a> kids can <a href="https://www.digitalchild.org.au/about/">best use screens</a> in our increasingly digital world. But we also need popular discussions to move beyond inflexible ideas that only encourage parental guilt. </p>
<h2>What does quality screen use look like?</h2>
<p>There are two main strategies to focus on. The first is to engage with what your child is watching or playing.</p>
<p>The research calls this <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/co-viewing">“co-viewing”</a> or “co-engaging”. This idea focuses on using children’s engagement with television and games as a chance to talk, promote language and build comprehension. </p>
<p>After or during viewing, parents could ask children to explain what they watched. For example, “wow, you watched some PAW Patrol today, what were you noticing?” or “I see you’re loving Hey Duggee, which parts do you like?”. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/making-up-games-is-more-important-than-you-think-why-bluey-is-a-font-of-parenting-wisdom-118583">'Making up games is more important than you think': why Bluey is a font of parenting wisdom</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>This also gives us a chance to say if something doesn’t align with your values: “they fight a lot in Ninjago, it is better to talk about your problems than fight about them”. This also allows you to teach your kids to be critical about the media they watch. </p>
<h2>You choose what your kids watch</h2>
<p>The second strategy is to make active choices about what your kids watch. This means we can select content that supports learning and matches our values. This doesn’t mean every show has be blatantly educational but there are a lot of programs out there that can help kids grow and develop their skills. </p>
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<p>For example, in my house, Numberblocks has created an interest in early numeracy and Bluey promotes physically active play, emotional resilience and self-regulation. Dino Dana and Andy’s Dinosaur Adventures connect children to the prehistoric world, and of course Play School continues to be a favourite. </p>
<p>Other families report video games such as Mario Kart promote fine motor skills and teamwork. Of course, a “dose” of Peppa Pig or something else just for fun is OK sometimes, too, in the same way adult viewers might veg out with Bridgerton or James Bond movies. </p>
<p>The message here is that parents and carers can make conscious choices about quality. This means that rather than just turn on the TV or iPad and walk away, we need to need to engage with what our kids are watching and playing. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-coronavirus-lockdown-is-forcing-us-to-view-screen-time-differently-thats-a-good-thing-135641">The coronavirus lockdown is forcing us to view 'screen time' differently. That's a good thing</a>
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</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/186462/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kate Highfield consults for ABC Kids, with a focus on supporting healthy technology use in play and learning. With colleagues, she receives or has received funding from the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p>Recent polling shows more than 90% of Australian parents think their kids’ screen time is a problem.Kate Highfield, Senior Lecturer, Deputy Head of School (ACT and regional NSW), Australian Catholic UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1112652019-02-22T11:46:00Z2019-02-22T11:46:00Z3 tips: How to teach children to watch commercials more closely<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/257445/original/file-20190206-174883-5w8684.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Teaching young people to analyze TV commercials will serve them well in other areas of life, researchers say.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/two-boys-brothers-watching-tv-attentively-56826280?src=EDgxvNIul0erbrY6O6b8TQ-1-47">threerocksimages from www.shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>With all the time that young people spend in front of screens these days – from TVs to laptops, cellphones and iPads – children are bound to see a lot of ads and commercials.</p>
<p>On average, American children spend anywhere between <a href="http://cdn.cnn.com/cnn/2017/images/11/07/csm_zerotoeight_full.report.final.2017.pdf">three</a> to <a href="http://cdn.cnn.com/cnn/2017/images/11/07/commonsensecensus.mediausebytweensandteens.2015.final.pdf">nine hours</a> of time on screen. This includes TV, DVD, mobile, computer and video games. </p>
<p>To take advantage of all the time that is spent being plugged in, companies are spending <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-advertising-digital/global-spending-on-digital-marketing-nears-100-billion-study-idUSKCN1M30XN">billions of dollars</a> on <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZK3c9GCjSx8">slick techniques</a> to <a href="https://www.ted.com/talks/kristi_rogers_where_are_our_digital_ads_really_going">get attention</a>. And it’s working. For instance, children between the ages of 2 to 11 see an average of <a href="https://www.commonsensemedia.org/research/advertising-to-children-and-teens-current-practices">25,600 TV ads a year</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/260264/original/file-20190221-195873-9xanhs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/260264/original/file-20190221-195873-9xanhs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/260264/original/file-20190221-195873-9xanhs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=404&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/260264/original/file-20190221-195873-9xanhs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=404&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/260264/original/file-20190221-195873-9xanhs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=404&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/260264/original/file-20190221-195873-9xanhs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=508&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/260264/original/file-20190221-195873-9xanhs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=508&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/260264/original/file-20190221-195873-9xanhs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=508&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Children 2 to 11 are exposed to more than 25,000 ads per year.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/cute-little-children-lying-under-blanket-569859622">Africa Studio from www.shutterstock.com</a></span>
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<p>As entertaining as commercials may be, research has shown young people can’t always separate fact from fiction. For instance, a <a href="https://purl.stanford.edu/fv751yt5934">2016 study</a> found that out of 7,804 student responses, more than 80 percent of middle school students <a href="https://purl.stanford.edu/fv751yt5934">believed that web ads were real news stories</a>. The same study found that more than 80 percent of high school students had a hard time distinguishing between real and fake photos.</p>
<p>Based on this evidence, America’s young people, it seems, could benefit from <a href="https://namle.net/publications/media-literacy-definitions/">media literacy</a> – a subject that is one of the focal areas of <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=cp2B1zoAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">my research</a>. Media literacy is about being able analyze and evaluate the messages we see in different media platforms.</p>
<p>For parents and others who want to empower children to be <a href="https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED523447">more aware</a> of how commercials influence what they think and do, here are three ways to use media literacy skills to accomplish that end. The tips may be particularly useful during major TV events that prompt companies to make special commercials, such as the Super Bowl or the Oscars.</p>
<h2>1. Ask questions</h2>
<p>While ads can help young viewers <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/209559?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents">socialize as consumers</a> and tell them about products, research also shows that young audiences aren’t always able to <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25651622?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents">detect persuasion in advertising</a>. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/education/media-literacy/creating-healthy-media-literacy-habits/10230936">National Association for Media Literacy Education</a> suggests that people <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/education/media-literacy/creating-healthy-media-literacy-habits/10230936">get in the habit of asking questions</a> so it can help them intelligently process the information to which they are being exposed.</p>
<p>One of the questions viewers should ask is: Who created the message? All media messages are <a href="https://ila.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1598/JAAL.49.6.4">constructed by an author</a>. Thinking about who that is helps create distance from the message of the commercial itself.</p>
<p>Viewers should also ask if the commercial appeared credible. Commercials often <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02650487.2014.994803">transport many of us into a story world</a>. Resisting the enticement of stories allows viewers to stay grounded in a critical mindset.</p>
<h2>2. Use your senses</h2>
<p>Young viewers should be encouraged to ask how a commercial made them feel. Advertising <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/derekrucker/2017/10/05/emotion-in-advertising-the-difference-between-a-spark-and-a-backfire/#57351b2631e5">relies heavily on people’s emotional reactions</a>. Becoming more aware of how we’re made to feel during an ad can give us a clue about its effect on us.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/260263/original/file-20190221-195892-1v862h9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/260263/original/file-20190221-195892-1v862h9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/260263/original/file-20190221-195892-1v862h9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/260263/original/file-20190221-195892-1v862h9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/260263/original/file-20190221-195892-1v862h9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/260263/original/file-20190221-195892-1v862h9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/260263/original/file-20190221-195892-1v862h9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Discussing how ads make children feel helps make children more aware of how ads influence their behavior.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/african-family-spending-time-together-1024985206">Rawpixel.com</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>Young viewers should also be encouraged to analyze what techniques were used to get their attention. Media makers <a href="http://researchrepository.murdoch.edu.au/id/eprint/28837/">use a variety of creative techniques</a> to catch our eye, like bright colors, humor or celebrity endorsements. Focusing on how words, colors or camera angles affect the way we see or hear the message is important to analyze its appeal.</p>
<p>By teaching young viewers to question the <a href="https://frankwbaker.com/mlc/streaming-videos-for-teaching-media-literacy/">“behind the scenes” of commercials</a>, it will better enable them to understand the production techniques that marketers employ to sell their seemingly perfect products.</p>
<h2>3. Reflect</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/0305764X.2010.526589">Dialogue and reflection</a> are important aspects of media literacy. Talking about commercials with others creates a common ground to exchange perspectives.</p>
<p>Young viewers should also be encouraged to ask why a particular message is being sent. Most media messages are typically <a href="https://understandmedia.com/resources/practical-media-literacy-an-essential-guide-to-the-critical-thinking-skills-for-our-digital-world">developed to generate revenue or influence decisions</a> Young viewers should be taught to look for motives, such as to inform, persuade or entertain.</p>
<p>Also, young viewers should be encouraged to ask what values are represented? Commercials often <a href="https://www.npr.org/2012/02/03/146336389/3-hidden-themes-of-this-years-super-bowl-ads">carry underlying themes</a> that deal with politics, sexuality or identity. Looking at the points of view represented in the message is important to detect how chosen values are being reinforced.</p>
<p>By reflecting on the <a href="https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=t9BEDwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=media+techniques+and+motives&ots=xuzvevvj_H&sig=Qk4As4tupuyPba4yzSnNHmMN3E8#v=onepage&q=media%20techniques%20and%20motives&f=false">techniques and motives surrounding commercials</a>, parents, educators and others can teach young people to make better sense of the many commercial messages they will see throughout their lives.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/111265/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sarah Gretter does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Thanks to the prevalence of technology, children are exposed to thousands of commercials a year. How can parents make their children more aware of how commercials influence what they think and do?Sarah Gretter, Senior Learning Experience (LX) Designer, Michigan State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1067572018-11-19T12:43:39Z2018-11-19T12:43:39ZWatching violence on screens makes children more emotionally distressed<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/245927/original/file-20181116-194494-j7v1e6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Cartoons often have scenes of physical or verbal violence.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Chris Beckett/Flickr</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Children today can access media <a href="http://www.commonsensemedia.org/sites/default/files/uploads/research/csm_zerotoeight_fullreport_release_2.pdf">through both</a> traditional devices, like televisions, and portable devices like laptops and tablets. </p>
<p>With more access, children are more likely to be exposed to violent content – like real-life or cartoons where force is being used and harm is being done to a person or character. Studies <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/record/2008-10558-011">show that</a> 37% of media aimed at children have scenes of physical or verbal violence. What’s more, 90% of movies, 68% of video games, 60% of TV shows, and 15% of music videos have some form of violence. In some cases, it’s rising – the amount of violence in mainstream movies has <a href="https://scholar.google.ca/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=Gun+violence+trends+in+movies&btnG=">been growing</a> steadily over the past 50 years. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2792691/">Evidence shows</a> that this can be detrimental to young children. Around the ages of three and four children begin to develop perceptions and expectations about the world around them. These views are strongly influenced by their daily experiences. If children are often exposed to scenes of violence, they may develop a view of the world as a more dangerous place than it actually is. </p>
<p>To investigate this further, and predict the types of mental health outcomes this has, my colleagues and I <a href="https://journals.lww.com/jrnldbp/Abstract/2012/05000/Early_Exposure_to_Media_Violence_and_Later_Child.2.aspx">examined</a> the potential long-term risks associated with exposure to violent media on children’s development. We found that those exposed to violence become more antisocial and emotionally distressed.</p>
<h2>Exposed to violence</h2>
<p>Through parent reports, we measured children’s exposure to violent movies and programmes in 1,800 preschool aged children between the ages of three and four. Four years later, second grade teachers rated the same childrens’ classroom behaviour using a <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11039858">social behaviour questionnaire</a> – which covers behaviour such as physical aggression, inattentiveness and emotional distress over the course of the school year. Teachers were unaware of which children had been exposed to violent media.</p>
<p>To rule out the impact of the home environment on the development of these behaviours, we controlled for the contribution of early childhood aggression, parenting quality, maternal education, parent antisocial behaviour and family structure.</p>
<p>According to our results, teachers rated exposed children as more antisocial. Antisocial behaviours include; a lack of remorse, lying, insensitivity to the emotions of others, and manipulating others. </p>
<p>Our results also reveal significant associations between exposure to violent media and classroom attention problems. Furthermore, exposed children were reported to show more signs of emotional distress; in terms of sadness and a lack of enthusiasm.</p>
<p>The results were similar for boys and girls.</p>
<h2>Child development</h2>
<p>The content of media to which young children are exposed is closely related to child outcomes. </p>
<p>Age-appropriate programmes – like sesame street for kindergarteners– which aim to help children understand words or ideas, are known to help <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3181552?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents">them</a> develop language and mental skills. </p>
<p>New technology can be useful too. Video chat technologies – like Skype or Facetime – which give children an interactive, two-way live exchange with adults <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/cdev.12166">facilitate</a> language learning.</p>
<p>On the other hand, violent films and video games often feature attractive protagonists that engage in a disproportionate number of aggressive actions. Children exposed to this type of content can develop a deformed perception of violence and its actual frequency in real life. </p>
<p>Eventually, <a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.publhealth.26.021304.144640">this can</a> give rise to the impression that the world is an overly dangerous place filled with ill-intentioned people. People that have such a worldview are more likely to interpret an ambiguous or accidental gesture as hostile or as a personal attack. </p>
<p>There are steps that parents can take. By modelling, positive non-violent behaviour – like using respectful communication to solve problems rather than aggression – and having conversations about the violent images their children are exposed to, parents can reduce the negative effects of violent media on their child’s development. </p>
<p>Parents should also keep bedrooms free from screens, closely monitoring children’s media usage, and shutting off the internet at night.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/106757/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Caroline Fitzpatrick does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Children exposed to scenes of violence may develop a view that the world is more dangerous than it actually is.Caroline Fitzpatrick, Researcher at Concordia's PERFORM center and Assistant Professor of Psychology, Université Sainte-AnneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/834312017-09-05T20:11:20Z2017-09-05T20:11:20ZTechnology in the classroom can improve primary mathematics<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/184656/original/file-20170905-28074-1wx7i8h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">There’s much more to mathematics than computation, and that’s where more contemporary technologies can improve primary mathematics.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Many parents are beginning to demand less technology use in the primary classroom due to the amount of screen time children have at home. This raises questions about whether technology in the classroom helps or hinders learning, and whether it should be used to teach maths.</p>
<h2>Blaming the calculator for poor results</h2>
<p>We often hear complaints that children have lost the ability to carry out simple computations because of the reliance on calculators in primary schools. This is not the case. In fact, there has been very little research conducted on the use of calculators in classrooms since the 80’s and 90’s because they are not a significant feature of primary school maths lessons. When calculators are used in primary classrooms, it’s usually to help children develop number sense, to investigate number patterns and relationships, or to check the accuracy of mental or written computation. </p>
<p>There is also <a href="http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED373963.pdf">evidence</a> that children become more flexible in the way they compute through the use of calculators. It allows them to apply their knowledge of place value and other number related concepts rather than using a traditional algorithm. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/">Australian Curriculum</a> promotes a strong focus on the development of <a href="https://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/media/1077/general-capabilities-numeracy-learning-continuum.pdf">numeracy</a>, including the development of estimation and mental computation. These are skills that children need in order to use calculators and other technologies efficiently. </p>
<p>The curriculum also promotes the thinking and doing of mathematics (referred to as <a href="http://v7-5.australiancurriculum.edu.au/mathematics/content-structure">“proficiencies”</a>) rather than just the mechanics. There’s much more to mathematics than computation. That’s where more contemporary technologies can improve primary mathematics.</p>
<h2>The importance of technology in learning maths</h2>
<p>The use of digital technologies in the primary mathematics classroom is not an option. The Australian Curriculum and Reporting Authority (<a href="https://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/">ACARA</a>) has made it mandatory for teachers to incorporate technologies in all subject areas. Fortunately, schools have access to more powerful, affordable devices than ever before. Importantly, these are the same devices that many children already have access to at home, providing an opportunity to bridge the gap between the mathematics at school and their lives outside the classroom.</p>
<p>Literature around digital technologies and mathematics suggest new technologies have potentially changed teaching and learning, providing opportunities for a shift of focus from a traditional view to a more problem-solving approach. This notion is supported by <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09669760.2010.494426">research</a> that claims the traditional view of mathematics that was focused on memorisation and rote learning is now replaced with one that has purpose and application.</p>
<p>When used well, technology <a href="http://researchdirect.westernsydney.edu.au/islandora/object/uws%3A29162/">can improve student engagement</a> with mathematics and assists in improving their understanding of mathematical concepts. </p>
<p>In a recent <a href="http://researchdirect.westernsydney.edu.au/islandora/object/uws:37189">research evaluation</a> of the Matific digital resources, the findings were positive. The students found that they enjoyed using the digital resource on iPads and computers, and went from thinking about mathematics as something to be tolerated or endured to something that is fun to learn. An added bonus was that the children voluntarily started to use their screen time at home to do maths. Pre- and post-test data also indicated that the use of the technology contributed to improved mathematics results.</p>
<h2>How technology is used in the classroom</h2>
<p>Many would consider that the use of mobile devices in maths would consist of simple game playing. A search of the App Store reveals tens of thousands of supposedly educational maths games, creating a potential <a href="https://engagingmaths.co/2015/06/02/technology-and-mathematics-have-you-fallen-into-the-app-trap/">app trap</a> for teachers who might spend hours searching through many low- quality apps. Although playing games can have benefits in terms of building fluency, they don’t usually help children learn new concepts. Luckily, there’s much that teachers can and are doing with technology. </p>
<p>The following are some of the different ways teachers are using technology:</p>
<p>– <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/285620177_Showing_and_telling_using_tablet_technology_to_engage_students_in_mathematics">Show and tell apps</a>, such as Explain Everything, <a href="https://www.educreations.com/lesson/view/maths-work/10191743/?s=oChXE1&ref=appemail">EduCreations</a> or ShowMe, allow students to show and explain the solution to a mathematical problem using voice and images</p>
<p>– Flipped learning, where teachers use the technology to replace traditional classroom instruction. YouTube videos or apps that provide an explanation of mathematical concepts are accessed by students anywhere and anytime</p>
<p>– Subscription based resource packages such as Matific which provide interactive, game-based learning activities, allow the teacher to set activities for individual students and keep track of student achievement</p>
<p>– Generic apps (camera, Google Earth, Google Maps, Geocaching) that allow students to explore mathematics outside the classroom.</p>
<p>Just as the world has changed, the mathematics classroom has also changed. Although technology is an integral part of our lives, it shouldn’t be the only resource used to teach maths. When it comes to technology in the classroom, it’s all about balance.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/83431/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>In 2016 Catherine Attard received funding from Slate Science, who produce the Matific digital resources. </span></em></p>Many parents are demanding less technology use in the classroom due to the amount of screen time children get at home. This story explores whether maths education and technology go hand in hand.Catherine Attard, Associate Professor, Mathematics Education, Western Sydney UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/767462017-06-09T11:32:57Z2017-06-09T11:32:57ZFrom little Acorns – a brief history of computer games in the classroom<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/169338/original/file-20170515-7009-1dijane.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Why game playing can be such a powerful tool.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Play <a href="http://www.press.uillinois.edu/books/catalog/64rcw3ts9780252070334.html">has always been central to growing up</a>, – whether it’s in the <a href="http://www.opieproject.group.shef.ac.uk/opies-biography.html">street or on a playing field</a> – or in the structured formality of teachers’ quizzes. </p>
<p>These days tablet computers are in nearly every pupil’s hands and children learn through computer games – both in the classroom and at home. <a href="http://www.technocamps.com/">Children’s coding initiatives</a> and tiny computers such as the <a href="http://www.raspberrypi.org/">Raspberry Pi</a> and the BBC’s <a href="http://www.microbit.org/">micro:bit</a> have also become big hits in the education world, helping to teach computer basics in <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/articles/52yF6JCCn1X2L4HKBQtgWlP/doctor-who-and-the-micro-bit-mission-sonic">playful ways</a>.</p>
<p>But while it’s tempting to see the <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-gaming-in-the-classroom-prepares-children-for-life-in-a-surveillance-state-77287">gamification of education</a> as a new development, there is in fact a long history of children using computer games to help with their learning – which goes right back to the 1970s. </p>
<p>This was the decade during which computers first inched out of <a href="http://www.unix.org/what_is_unix/history_timeline.html">the research lab</a> and into everyday life, making the idea of a home or personal computer somewhat closer to a reality. In 1974, <a href="http://ted.hyperland.com/">Ted Nelson</a>, a US pioneer of information technology, wrote what is often considered “<a href="http://www.newmediareader.com/book_samples/nmr-21-nelson.pdf">the first personal computer book</a>” – Computer Lib/Dream Machines. It was in this book that with uncanny foresight, Nelson suggested pupils in the future would make use of hyperlinked documents, and touchscreens to widen their knowledge.</p>
<p>Away from Nelson’s speculation, the classroom reality was more mundane. Few schools could afford computers of their own. And for those that could, computer science meant <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/education-35890450">punching instructions onto paper tape</a> – a form of data storage, consisting of a long strip of paper in which holes are punched to store said data.</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/169343/original/file-20170515-6987-t5anz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/169343/original/file-20170515-6987-t5anz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/169343/original/file-20170515-6987-t5anz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169343/original/file-20170515-6987-t5anz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169343/original/file-20170515-6987-t5anz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169343/original/file-20170515-6987-t5anz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169343/original/file-20170515-6987-t5anz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169343/original/file-20170515-6987-t5anz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">GCSE Computing - 1970’s style.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">The National Museum of Computing</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But in the late 1970s, something of a change happened – at least in the UK. And a worried government, concerned about Japanese innovation and <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p01z4rrj">threats of automation</a>, commissioned a report from the <a href="http://oxfordindex.oup.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100131636">Manpower Services Commission (MSC)</a> and the BBC to look into how to develop computer literacy initiatives. </p>
<p>Designed to raise computer awareness, these initiatives happily coincided with the rise of microprocessors which were enabling the manufacture of cheaper, smaller machines. And the BBC decided to invite UK companies to submit proposals for a Microcomputer System, to <a href="http://stardot.org.uk/forums/viewtopic.php?f=41&t=11935">a predefined specification</a>. A <a href="http://www.bbcbasic.co.uk/bbcbasic/proposal.html">system proposed by a young company in Cambridge</a> was chosen and Acorn’s <a href="https://www.stairwaytohell.com/articles/AU-AcornHistory.html">BBC Microcomputer</a> was born.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/169339/original/file-20170515-7019-slm1b4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/169339/original/file-20170515-7019-slm1b4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/169339/original/file-20170515-7019-slm1b4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169339/original/file-20170515-7019-slm1b4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169339/original/file-20170515-7019-slm1b4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169339/original/file-20170515-7019-slm1b4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=538&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169339/original/file-20170515-7019-slm1b4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=538&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169339/original/file-20170515-7019-slm1b4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=538&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The BBC micro in all its glory.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=11672213">Public Domain</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Simpler and faster</h2>
<p><a href="https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/now-chips-are-down">The BBC Micro</a>, along with <a href="https://www.theregister.co.uk/2013/11/13/archaeologic_the_research_machines_380z_story/">some other machines</a>, could be bought by schools at half price via <a href="http://www.margaretthatcher.org/document/104609">government subsidies</a>. </p>
<p>Their beige cases and red function keys became a familiar sight from primary through to university level. But they were still expensive: a discounted “Beeb” and monitor would cost a school <a href="https://archive.org/stream/Acorn_User_Number_011_1983-06_Adn-Wesley_GB/Acorn_User_Number_011_1983-06_Addison-Wesley_GB#page/n1/mode/2up">more than £1,000 at today’s prices</a>. </p>
<p>Learning to program was simpler and faster on the Beeb than in years past, with paper tape replaced by a monitor and a beginner’s coding language known as <a href="http://www.bbcbasic.co.uk/bbcbasic.html">BASIC</a> – which stands for “beginner’s all purpose symbolic instruction code”. This meant many more students were able to engage with computer science. </p>
<h2>The rise of the games</h2>
<p>Then there were the games. Despite <a href="http://www.retrogamesnow.co.uk/killer-gorilla-on-the-bbc-micro/">excellent arcade clones</a> and some <a href="http://www.gamestudies.org/1302/articles/agazzard">true</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exile_(1988_video_game)">originals</a>, the cost of the unsubsidised Beeb made it difficult for it to gain a foothold as a home videogame system. </p>
<p>Perhaps its educational image didn’t help either – and maybe it never quite shook off what <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7tRErIeqLzg&t=22m53s">comedian Simon Munnery described as</a> </p>
<blockquote>
<p>The stench of school … most of the games would be … Isn’t Geography Nice?</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The Beebs’ dominance in schools led to a torrent of educational software being released, of varying quality. Indeed, many of these early educational “games” aided nothing more than rote learning.</p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/168129/original/file-20170505-19116-1vwkiqn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/168129/original/file-20170505-19116-1vwkiqn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=515&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/168129/original/file-20170505-19116-1vwkiqn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=515&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/168129/original/file-20170505-19116-1vwkiqn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=515&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/168129/original/file-20170505-19116-1vwkiqn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=647&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/168129/original/file-20170505-19116-1vwkiqn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=647&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/168129/original/file-20170505-19116-1vwkiqn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=647&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The stench of educational games.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But educational <a href="https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ362713">initiatives</a> helped push the boundaries, <a href="http://www.naec.org.uk/artefacts/software/micro-smile">particularly in science and maths</a>. The best-remembered games were imaginative, often programmed by teachers themselves, and learning happened by stealth. For example, the fondly recalled <a href="http://www.4mation.co.uk/retro/retrogranny.html">Granny’s Garden</a>, while limited, took players on a puzzle-solving journey to avoid traps and witches – all rendered in <a href="http://central.kaserver5.org/Kasoft/Typeset/BBC/Ch28.html">teletext graphics</a>. </p>
<p>Adventure was also central to <a href="https://www.atm.org.uk/Shop/L---a-Mathemagical-Adventure---Single-User-Licence/sof073">L: A Mathemagical Journey</a>, which used shades of Lewis Carroll to build players’ numeracy skills, while encouraging them to reflect on their experience.</p>
<p>Straddling home and school, Acorn’s software arm Acornsoft used <a href="http://www.acornelectron.co.uk/mags/eu/revs/acornsoft/Tree_Of_Knowledge_000.html">surprisingly entertaining</a> artificial intelligence techniques to test and extend subject-based learning. Younger, newly literate learners could encounter Podd, a floating head performing various actions at their typed command.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/G090ju-DpqU?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>But in the 21st century, it’s not just learning, but the whole education system that has become a game – as schools, classes, teachers and students strive to top the board in league tables and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/education/2016/dec/06/english-schools-core-subject-test-results-international-oecd-pisa">PISA rankings</a>. At the same time, <a href="https://www.teachers.org.uk/campaigns/primary-assessment">teachers’ unions</a>, <a href="http://www.oxfordmail.co.uk/news/14465501.Thousands_back_schoolchildren_strike_tomorrow_against_SATS_exams/">children</a> and <a href="https://you.38degrees.org.uk/petitions/parents-support-sats-boycott-kids-strike-3rd-may">parents</a> all argue against excessive assessment and testing. </p>
<p>Maybe then we should all learn from the classroom videogame pioneers of the past few decades. Because although it’s clear that game-based learning has a role to play in education, there still needs to be a point to it – within a wider context. </p>
<p>And while educational games can be creative and innovative, they are at their best when they don’t smell too much of school.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/76746/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rhys James Jones does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Video games have been helping kids to learn for years, here’s how.Rhys James Jones, Senior Lecturer in Digital Media, Swansea UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/709012017-01-25T00:02:24Z2017-01-25T00:02:24ZIt’s true, internet surfing during class is not so good for grades<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/152734/original/image-20170114-11834-1xp0kab.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Should laptops be used during class?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/catalystopensource/23887038194/in/photolist-CoPjf7-BujNYV-qR4AHy-GaZRJy-EkcBtK-AMAF77-FkvwEg-AMB23E-skAyBj-F8wDkc-Ekdvx4-ATeS9u-tTY5T7-drspwe-cEJnWs-cEJrdJ-P3cW8-P2Gsy-egDAjA-CWQjeE-drsqbZ-drsjsx-P2GqW-drsk1z-drsiUg-P2Gs1-43YU9U-43YUef-cEJjL1-drsB7q-cEJ6FG-cEJpCY-rfX2Xw-bzyULm-ibPN36-jfB2a2-hVL1YU-drsCcj-fuGmBy-ehBnRE-drsBxq-bx1jyp-cEJ1Zs-5uegbU-7Hkj6f-bx1skR-9FUKfq-8yksB8-fvT5PN-dn7w9M">Catalyst Open Source</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Many universities <a href="https://tech.msu.edu/about/guidelines-policies/computer-requiremen">encourage students to purchase</a> laptops that they can bring to class. Charities like <a href="http://one.laptop.org/">One Laptop per Child</a> provide low-cost laptops to disadvantaged students.</p>
<p>There is no doubt that having a desktop computer or laptop in school is useful for writing papers, gathering information and learning how to program and use software.</p>
<p>But, as would seem obvious, surfing the internet during class – and connecting with friends, shopping or streaming movies – could also prove to be a source of distraction and hinder learning. </p>
<p>I am an associate professor of psychology at Michigan State University. Over the past few years, I have noticed an increasing number of students who bring laptops to class. </p>
<p>So, I decided to use my research expertise in memory and attention to investigate: How do students use their laptop in class? How does it relate to their learning of class material?</p>
<p>Here’s what I found. </p>
<h2>Multitasking in the classroom</h2>
<p>Certainly, there have always been distractions in the classroom. Less high-tech distractions such as passing notes, doodling or reading the newspaper can be easily noticed. Even smartphone use is easy to tell, as there is a downward lap gaze.</p>
<p>In contrast, it is difficult to tell what students are doing on a laptop.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/152735/original/image-20170114-11837-8kt691.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/152735/original/image-20170114-11837-8kt691.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/152735/original/image-20170114-11837-8kt691.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/152735/original/image-20170114-11837-8kt691.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/152735/original/image-20170114-11837-8kt691.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/152735/original/image-20170114-11837-8kt691.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/152735/original/image-20170114-11837-8kt691.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">It is difficult to tell what students are doing on a laptop.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/tostie14/93871481/in/photolist-9i7HP-79iEnu-5ur4p5-8BgNuK-8BgMpe-8amxUP-8apNJd-8apMNL-8BjTKw-3VCRgx-6eyxRH-rKi8G-afLB4o-8amxNe-2sqzdG-8apNCd-8amyyg-8amxCT-8amyfi-6kHo2J-8BjSzb-dYKMHp-bDoRd-dyhKpP-5wTW-8BjTPG-tfLWf-4BLDNn-8xdksf-7VFqFk-cWcyXh-7ThPTV-8DAsW-8amwNz-6eCFVb-JrAdC-bdu5z-6QvMwA-bBe6pr-WjL8-5sHXE4-bBe6gR-bqJJDz-rz82Ve-7w39DA-bojcEJ-5kLSKa-6df119-6AeZDz-6TVfCg">Kevin Tostado/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Indeed, studies have shown that laptops are a source of distraction in the classroom – not only for the student themselves, <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360131512002254">but also for those sitting near</a>. Even if a students did not bring a laptop to class, the laptop screen of other students could be a source of distraction for those sitting in near proximity. </p>
<p>However, it is legitimate to ask: Could surfing the internet for academic reasons lead to better learning? Are some students smart enough to multitask in class?</p>
<p>We sought to answer these questions, among others, in a <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0956797616677314">recent study</a> in which we tracked internet use in a large introductory psychology course. </p>
<h2>Our classroom internet study</h2>
<p>For our study, we used a proxy server to track internet use. Out of a class of 507 students, 127 agreed to participate. The proxy server recorded all internet requests that students made during class so that we would know what websites students were visiting and not have to rely on their memory. Not all the participants remembered to log in to the proxy server. So, we ended up with 84 students who logged into the internet regularly.</p>
<p>We were surprised by how much these students used the internet for nonacademic purposes. On average, over a third of the class time was spent on the internet in activities not related to the class.</p>
<p>We then calculated each student’s internet use and compared it to their final exam grade. We found that students who surfed the internet more during class were also more likely to have lower scores on the final exam. </p>
<p>To make sure that this relationship between internet use and exam scores wasn’t related to students’ lack of interest in the class, motivation or intelligence, we conducted some further analyses. </p>
<p>Interest, motivation and intelligence are big predictors of exam scores – the largest being intelligence. We measured intelligence by gathering students’ ACT scores that were used for college admission, as they are <a href="http://www.iapsych.com/iqmr/koening2008.pdf">highly related to intelligence</a>. </p>
<p>As can be expected, our results show students’ class time surfing the internet for nonacademic purposes is related to lower grades. This is so even after accounting for all these other factors. If one imagines a pie chart representing all the reasons that students do well or poorly on the final exam, internet use would explain about 5 percent of performance. </p>
<h2>Benefits of browsing?</h2>
<p>What if students used the internet in class to browse academic material related to the class? Would it be beneficial to their grades? </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/152736/original/image-20170114-11831-xo3lw3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/152736/original/image-20170114-11831-xo3lw3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/152736/original/image-20170114-11831-xo3lw3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/152736/original/image-20170114-11831-xo3lw3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/152736/original/image-20170114-11831-xo3lw3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/152736/original/image-20170114-11831-xo3lw3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/152736/original/image-20170114-11831-xo3lw3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Are students distracted even when surfing class-related materials?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/stanfordedtech/6468101599/in/photolist-ig4cJU-rnict-7BSB9i-8AXrkv-aRyFwT-cbe81W-6pfqFy-aRyE8e-9VnPuJ-aRyFki-bA4aJu-aRyGRk-afJ6vz-4vLwLk-aRyETa-4awaKc-7GJRQc-ig4tyP-4yiwBV-9VjYzX-9VjZb4-GAiEXN-xhSvR-nLZc7-aRyJgT-8dcya2-aRyK6p-bA4ayA-aRyGFi-4UTQnq-c9t5w5-aRyHrz-3fZfrw-aRyHWi-aRyHAk-aJsFwt-4yixE6-9Preuz-bmLZBU-7gpSJi-aRyDZ4-aRyF3r-aRyHg6-6cb6Uf-aRyH4p-agDd5h-bNXPBV-7gpSbr-gSMK3-ne1uL">EdTech Stanford University School of Medicine Follow</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Some students browsed the class website and searched for materials being discussed in the classroom on Wikipedia. For example, some students searched for more information about <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_conditioning">classical conditioning</a>, a learning procedure taught in psychology. We wanted to see whether this type of internet browsing would be beneficial for exam scores. </p>
<p>We found even when internet browsing was about such academic content, it was not associated with higher exam scores. In other words, even when students were browsing for class-related information, there was no related benefit to the final exam. </p>
<h2>It’s way too tempting for students</h2>
<p>Nonacademic internet use predicted lower exam scores, and this was so regardless of motivation, interest or intelligence. In other words, these factors did not explain why students surfed the internet during class. </p>
<p>When a laptop is being used to take notes or download class slides, it may become tempting to check email, catch up on homework for another class or see who won the game the night before. </p>
<p>In fact, avoiding nonacademic internet use might require a great deal of behavioral control. A recent study found people who had a greater tendency for impulsive behaviors <a href="http://www.cla.temple.edu/tunl/publications/documents/Wilmer2016.pdf">engaged more heavily with mobile devices</a>. The ability to avoid the temptation for a 100-minute class could tax the abilities of many students. </p>
<p>There are other other downsides as well of laptop use in class: Taking notes on a computer has even been shown to be less effective for learning <a href="https://sites.udel.edu/victorp/files/2010/11/Psychological-Science-2014-Mueller-0956797614524581-1u0h0yu.pdf">than writing them by hand</a>. Researchers have found that writing notes by hand forces students to think more deeply about the material because they have to paraphrase what has been said. Students are more likely to type information verbatim when they use a laptop. </p>
<p>In classes with no computer-based assignments, how about asking students to leave their laptops behind when they come to class?</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/70901/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Susan Ravizza receives funding from the National Science Foundation. </span></em></p>Laptops in class are distracting – even for the most motivated students.Susan Ravizza, Associate Professor of Psychology, Michigan State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/542132016-02-11T05:54:06Z2016-02-11T05:54:06ZMany low-income students use only their phone to get online. What are they missing?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/110992/original/image-20160210-12157-f8c0jq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">What do students miss when they access the Internet only through mobile devices?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/monashuni/8218200759/in/photolist-dwdqLx-aer8Kg-aYKuN8-aYNN7i-aqjtxh-jR9gc-DiwRQy-5Axiq4-8mCpxo-5z8Fwo-5zhjCN-5zd2gK-5XnJgj-5AxiFe-pRatmy-oWwGyt-pAVWcU-oWwGS4-pT6eSa-pAVVWJ-5AByeQ-pKiK9C-5zd2cK-d3udhb-5sfurc-8SksYC-8RmgXZ-mLmKAi-mLmPUX-qUM4zd-7aT4jN-5AxhXk-ozXng8-5AxifB-5AByw3-5zjWKK-5zd2CH-d3ubvb-8KgkPa-5zhjnj-5z8FrL-bANkgT-5Axgnr-5ABxS7-d3ubCy-fbqQMM-fbF7yy-d3udQ7-d3udcL-d79YHE">Monash University</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>For many of us, access to the Internet through a variety of means is a given. I can access the Internet through two laptops, a tablet, a smartphone and even both of my game systems, from the comfort of my living room.</p>
<p>However, this access is unequally distributed. Although <a href="http://digitalequityforlearning.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/jgcc_opportunityforall.pdf">nine out of 10</a> low-income families have Internet access at home, most are underconnected: that is, they have “mobile-only” access – they are able to connect to the Internet only through a smart device, such as a tablet or a smartphone.</p>
<p>A recent report, “<a href="http://digitalequityforlearning.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/jgcc_opportunityforall.pdf">Opportunity for all? Technology and learning in low income families</a>,” shows that one-quarter of those earning below the median income and one-third of those living below poverty level accessed the Internet only through their mobile devices.</p>
<p>This leads to limited access: A third of families with mobile-only access quickly hit the data limits on their mobile phone plans and about a quarter have their phone service cut off for lack of payment. </p>
<p>So, what impact does this type of access have on youth learning?</p>
<h2>What changes with a computer connection</h2>
<p>My research has explored underserved youth’s use of technology to discover and participate in content related to their interests. Having access only through their mobile devices means that low-income families and youth do not have the same access to the Internet as those with other Internet connections.</p>
<p><a href="http://digitalequityforlearning.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/jgcc_opportunityforall.pdf">One-fifth of families</a> who access the Internet only through their mobile devices say too many family members have to share one device. This means that the amount of time each individual has to access the Internet is limited.</p>
<p>This can be a barrier to learning for young people. It can limit their access to resources to complete their homework, as well as create barriers for other learning. Thirty-five percent of youth who have mobile-only access look online for information about things they are interested in. But this goes up to 52 percent when young people have access to an Internet-connected computer.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/110996/original/image-20160210-12178-1g9vivv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/110996/original/image-20160210-12178-1g9vivv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/110996/original/image-20160210-12178-1g9vivv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/110996/original/image-20160210-12178-1g9vivv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/110996/original/image-20160210-12178-1g9vivv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/110996/original/image-20160210-12178-1g9vivv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/110996/original/image-20160210-12178-1g9vivv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">When young people have access to an Internet-supported computer, it facilitates their learning.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/yolaleah/2214632990/in/photolist-4nGzeq-3tYJzo-AHRnSg-3wTY9R-dTxTDZ-3wXaKt-3ye8q2-3yh1jm-7FV5U5-3ycPd8-3yFFEC-6Zd89f-b1R7x4-3wW59a-jS38RM-4hWy4e-7R8k88-3gMdbt-3gRApA-3gMe5z-3vBgsC-6xahbi-BmQsek-BjU7LN-5fv65R-n8Lkv-CqJyt-opPJmP-66eN63-o6Adst-3wmcAh-3ycy26-3yeJPA-3v97Qg-mbTk6-352cQf-8NrGnf-7FR8G4-acmaU3-39R1Nt-3ybRuZ-3yemiS-4Ksus7-6uvByB-36Z1cM-3yiGbh-3x5c9Q-iCSArN-4rHF1Q-o6yY1A">leah</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>When young people have their own access to the Internet, they have an opportunity to engage in <a href="http://clrn.dmlhub.net/publications/connected-learning-an-agenda-for-research-and-design">connected learning</a> – learning that is based on interest, is supported by peers and has the potential to offer better opportunities for the future.</p>
<p>A <a href="http://dmlhub.net/publications/hats-house-elves-connected-learning-and-civic-engagement-hogwarts-ravelry/">2014 paper</a> on the use of digital media as a learning tool highlights how learning around interests can be supported through online resources.</p>
<p>The paper tells the story of Amy, a participant in an online knitting community, Hogwarts at Ravelry, which combines both interest in knitting and the Harry Potter series. Amy finds inspiration in the vast knitting pattern library of the group and receiving support from others in the community. She begins to develop, design and write patterns of her own. And, as a teenager, she begins selling her patterns online. </p>
<p>Amy’s access to a stable Internet connection and her own dedication allowed her to dive deep into the activities of the community. Over time, it allowed her to become more active and engaged in knitting. </p>
<p>Another example of what youth can accomplish online comes from <a href="http://dmlhub.net/publications/learning-ropes-connected-learning-wwe-fan-community/">my 2014 research</a> on a professional wrestling fan community, a set of forums where professional wrestling fans get together virtually to discuss the many facets of professional wrestling.</p>
<p>Maria, a professional wrestling fan, seeks out an online community because she lacks local support for her interest. Through her participation, she realizes her deep enjoyment of writing. She carries this back into her English class and the school newspaper. This eventually leads her to take creative writing as a second degree in college.</p>
<p>Maria spent hours on her computer carefully crafting her narratives while participating on the forum. With a mobile-only access, she would not have had the amount of time online, or the amount of bandwidth, required for this work. This is supported by the fact that only <a href="http://digitalequityforlearning.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/jgcc_opportunityforall.pdf">31 percent of children</a> with mobile-only access go online daily as compared to 51 percent of those with other Internet access. </p>
<h2>How low-income youth get left behind</h2>
<p>Mobile-only access to the Internet can create serious barriers for youth who want to access content and educational supports.</p>
<p>As part of my research, I have been conducting workshops in libraries located in low-income communities, using an online coding program that is not yet available on mobile devices. In one of the workshops, students needed to work on projects outside of the sessions. </p>
<p>Because of the limited technology access at home, the librarian held additional open hours so the youth participating in the workshop could work on their projects outside of the workshop hours. A few youth had access to their own computers, but the majority had only mobile access.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/110999/original/image-20160210-12137-r2drul.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/110999/original/image-20160210-12137-r2drul.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/110999/original/image-20160210-12137-r2drul.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/110999/original/image-20160210-12137-r2drul.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/110999/original/image-20160210-12137-r2drul.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/110999/original/image-20160210-12137-r2drul.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/110999/original/image-20160210-12137-r2drul.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Young people who have computer access create may better projects.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/jeffwerner/2910585573/in/photolist-5rcvFT-rY6aZ-bzTgkc-6C86tZ-du9F5K-x4fj6-fZSc81-7XKY6R-7XKYGF-6mMJgj-7XPg4j-7XPeJU-6qu813-mEJyiQ-5BQ2oC-6qujn1-gBM9KR-7rB2vG-8jaWaX-6UjaUt-6PHY9n-8jaX6g-8jedyb-kcVQr-rKyEb4-EM9mQ-5zB54X-7H5opE-8gEP5T-7Gx3uV-oLed6-cieLub-8Qz3HX-ypsE-bDgv6u-6jndg9-3JNsPf-746uwM-oV493-61e2vt-e8R8DB-dH6oR-6HCJ3R-6Fvd8t-4wqDUP-iYnD-ShbF7-f53Uy-87h9c2-s2iCPq">Jeff Werner</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The youth with computer access at home created more complex projects. This was partly because they had more time to develop, modify and problem-solve their projects. But it was also because the coding program was available to only those with computer access. These youth also seemed to develop a deeper interest in coding potentially due to this greater level of exposure.</p>
<h2>Need for better understanding</h2>
<p>What becomes evident from the data from “<a href="http://digitalequityforlearning.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/jgcc_opportunityforall.pdf">Opportunity for all? Technology and learning in low income families</a>” and from the examples from research is that having access to the Internet only through a phone can have an impact on young people’s access to learning opportunities.</p>
<p>Designers, educators and researchers need to be aware and continually create more equity through mindful decision-making.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.uscrossier.org/pullias/amanda-ochsner/">Amanda Ochsner</a>, a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Southern California who studies how underrepresented groups of young people engage with games and digital media, argues that when designers and developers take the time to understand young people’s digital lives, they are ultimately able to make better tools. As she said to me: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>In offices where the most recent models of laptops, tablets, and iPhones are abundant, it’s far too easy for those of us who develop educational tools and technologies to misjudge the technological realities of the young people the education tools and technologies are designing for.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Just how young people access online, in other words, matters – a lot.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/54213/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Crystle Martin does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A third of families living below poverty level access the Internet only through their phones. And young people from these families get access to few learning opportunities.Crystle Martin, Postdoctoral Researcher , University of California, IrvineLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/529942016-01-15T04:36:57Z2016-01-15T04:36:57ZSchools must get the basics right before splashing out on technology<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/108003/original/image-20160113-10414-e1nawh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Technology can help kids learn – but the devices themselves aren't a silver bullet.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Kobi Gideon/EPA</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>For years, schools and education experts have debated whether technology belongs in the classroom. Now the discussion has shifted and even schools that had thus far resisted the educational tech revolution are being swept into what’s become a <a href="https://www.docebo.com/landing/contactform/elearning-market-trends-and-forecast-2014-2016-docebo-report.pdf">multi-billion-dollar market</a>. </p>
<p>The question now isn’t whether technology has a place in schools, but which devices would work best: laptops, tablets, smartphones or something else entirely? However, maybe it’s not the device that schools should be preoccupied with – but rather how students use them to learn.</p>
<h2>Leaning back or leaning forward</h2>
<p>The “lean back” vs “lean forward” model was originally developed by Danish academic <a href="http://www.nngroup.com/articles/media-velocity-tv-vs-the-web/">Jakob Nielsen</a> in 2008. It considers the position people use when engaging with technology and the impact this has on its use. </p>
<p>For example, when I grab a laptop I naturally want to sit at a desk. This is lean-forward device usage. When I use my iPhone or iPad I am more likely to do so while sitting on a chair – lean-back device usage. </p>
<p>Using a lean-forward device typically leads to greater brain activity. This is associated with skim reading, searching and content creation. But it also shortens users’ <a href="http://www.nngroup.com/articles/how-users-read-on-the-web/">attention spans</a>. </p>
<p>Lean-back devices, <a href="http://www.slideshare.net/EMEAHQ/the-difference-between-lean-back-and-lean-forward">on the other hand</a>, encourage deeper reading and consumption of content, particularly during “dead time” when the user is commuting or waiting.</p>
<p>When it comes to learning, <a href="https://sites.google.com/site/entelequiafilosofiapratica/aconselhamento-filosofico-1/the-structure-and-function-of-a-socratic-dialogue-by-lou-marinoff">lean-forward</a> and <a href="http://courses.educ.ubc.ca/etec540/Sept04/arthurp/researchtopic/index.htm">lean-back</a> approaches have been around for centuries. The development of tablets and specifically the iPad has resulted in <a href="http://www.slideshare.net/EMEAHQ/the-difference-between-lean-back-and-lean-forward">a return</a> to lean-back engagement.</p>
<p>One of the problems that’s arisen from this shift is the phenomenon of “second screen” <a href="http://www.slideshare.net/EMEAHQ/the-difference-between-lean-back-and-lean-forward">syndrome</a>. This sees people simultaneously using their smartphones or tablets while watching TV. From a learning perspective, this practice is resulting in shorter attention spans and <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/conquering-cyber-overload/201305/is-background-music-boost-or-bummer">increased cognitive load</a>.</p>
<p>While Nielsen’s model is useful, it predates the rise in the past five years of smartphones and tablets. As such it doesn’t consider other potentially important aspects, especially when it comes to education. A newer model may hold the answers for schools.</p>
<h2>A new way of thinking about learning</h2>
<p>Craig Will, a cognitive psychologist working for Cognitive Research & Design Corporation in California, has proposed what he <a href="http://johnnyholland.org/2012/03/engagement-styles-beyond-lean-forward-and-lean-back/">calls</a> the Mind:Engagement model.</p>
<p>Will maps activity and absorption. The middle area of this graphic is dominated by <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-binge-watching-is-to-blame-for-kids-not-learning-51056">consumption</a>. The upper right quadrant, which would be considered the goal of educators – high activity and high absorption – is where students are using their devices for search, curation and communication. In other words, activity. </p>
<p>Educators should be focusing on that upper right quadrant. It’s also where educational technology marketers ought to <a href="https://gigaom.com/2013/08/10/leaning-towards-a-better-way-to-gauge-consumer-media-interaction/">concentrate</a>, too.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/108002/original/image-20160113-10447-1dg63g9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/108002/original/image-20160113-10447-1dg63g9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/108002/original/image-20160113-10447-1dg63g9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=651&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/108002/original/image-20160113-10447-1dg63g9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=651&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/108002/original/image-20160113-10447-1dg63g9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=651&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/108002/original/image-20160113-10447-1dg63g9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=818&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/108002/original/image-20160113-10447-1dg63g9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=818&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/108002/original/image-20160113-10447-1dg63g9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=818&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Craig Will’s Mind:Engagement model.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This is because it’s not the device – the mode of consumption – that matters. Instead, it’s how that device is put to use in a classroom. As my <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-binge-watching-is-to-blame-for-kids-not-learning-51056">research</a> has found, schools tend to simply replicate old consumption based approaches with new technology devices.</p>
<p>And so blackboards have become smartboards, books have become ebooks, and teachers have become YouTube videos. Approaches grounded in consumption are simply receiving a new silicon coating. What is needed are methods that encourage active engagement in the classroom, not passive content consumption. So which device is doing this best?</p>
<h2>What’s the next big thing?</h2>
<p>The rapid rise in tablets has <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/education/tablets-proliferate-in-nations-classrooms-and-take-a-swipe-at-the-status-quo/2014/05/17/faa27ba4-dbbd-11e3-8009-71de85b9c527_story.html">prompted predictions</a> that tablets will take over the classroom. But those analysts who favoured lean-back devices such as tablets over lean-forward devices have been surprised.</p>
<p>A <a href="http://www.cnbc.com/2015/12/03/googles-chromebooks-make-up-half-of-us-classroom-devices.html">recent</a> report revealed that Google’s Chromebook makes up half of US classroom devices. Chromebooks – also called Netbooks – are lightweight laptops that have little onboard storage. Most of their applications and data reside on the web.</p>
<p>Has this shift arisen from <a href="http://www.nbcnews.com/tech/internet/sour-apple-los-angeles-schools-want-refund-failed-ipad-program-n342771">the highly publicised failure</a> of a massive school iPad program in the US? Or is it an organic move by schools from consumption-based approaches to more <a href="http://www.activatedclassroom.com">activated classrooms</a>? </p>
<p>Whatever the reasons, technology giant Apple has already taken note, as indicated by the recent entry of the iPad Pro into the market. This new device, which combines a larger screen size plus an optional keyboard and pen, is clearly targeted at both content consumption and content production. That’s everything from the middle to the top right quadrant of the Mind:Engagement model. </p>
<p>Early reports suggest that the iPad Pro is already <a href="http://www.forbes.com/sites/ianmorris/2015/11/27/apple-ipad-pro-claims-its-first-victim-as-it-destroys-googles-flagship/">eroding</a> Chromebooks’ dominance in US classrooms.</p>
<h2>Don’t get distracted</h2>
<p>These developments suggest that blogger Jason Saltmarsh was right when he <a href="http://www.huffingtonpost.com/jason-saltmarsh/2015-educational-technolo_b_6413936.html">warned</a> Huffington Post readers to:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Forget the device. Focus on web-based applications that best meet the needs of your students and teachers … more schools will officially embrace what has already been happening under the radar for years: BYOD (Bring Your Own Device). Students will bring in all kinds of technology ranging from smartphones to laptops.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>I would add that when it comes to education technology, it’s important to focus on the education – not on the technology. Train teachers rather than choosing devices. It’s when we consider how technology is used that schools will have the best chance at transforming their classrooms.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/52994/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Craig Blewett does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>There’s a great deal of debate about what devices schools should be using. But educators should be focusing on how children learn, not what they learn on.Craig Blewett, Senior Lecturer in Education & Technology, University of KwaZulu-NatalLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/516462015-12-04T11:10:17Z2015-12-04T11:10:17ZHere’s how screen time is changing the way kids tell stories<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/104316/original/image-20151203-22452-671u3o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">How much screen time should kids get?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/ticoneva/5581238453/in/photolist-9vciKc-czxg1y-cNCt2f-cEdiHw-9vfjhG-d8xR6q-cFoHN1-cFizYW-8HHKcW-8h3VKq-oHHVrV-9vfjn3-psg5Zp-dGhh3n-9vfjpb-9vciQ4-b9wfxp-pPqUYq-oaR3RE-rNwbmw-rwtr7X-ryff9m-rwubKt-b9wcMV-b9wY7D-b9wzna-adf5Rs-b9wzc2-b9wCVn-b9ws7r-b9wdHv-b9wofn-b9wWhM-b9woPx-b9wrUg-b9wA7n-b9wBVF-b9wzyB-b9wXWn-b9wTRZ-b9wbFz-b9w7TH-b9wBHa-b9wKde-b9wYic-b9wXAc-b9wAhT-b9waAB-b9wCJD-b9wejM">Yan Chi Vinci Chow</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Recently, at a child’s birthday party, I overheard a conversation between parents discussing their concern about “screen time.” </p>
<p>Phones, computers, iPads and the good old television are all around us. And this can be a source of anxiety for parents, caregivers and teachers. A recent <a href="https://www.aap.org/en-us/advocacy-and-policy/aap-health-initiatives/Pages/Media-and-Children.aspx">report</a> from the <a href="https://www.aap.org/en-us/Pages/Default.aspx">American Academy of Pediatrics</a> suggests the amount of time young children spend viewing television and movies and playing on handheld devices is increasing. </p>
<p>As an early childhood media researcher, an early childhood teacher educator and a parent, I understand these concerns. But, I believe, it is equally important that we consider how children are learning from the time spent in front of the screen. </p>
<p>My research shows that children are creating complex oral stories through the characters they see on screen.</p>
<h2>Educational opportunities in “screen time”</h2>
<p>A number of <a href="http://www.taylorandfrancis.com/books/details/9780805839364/">studies</a> show how viewing television and other media can contribute to children’s learning. Children have been known to improve their math and literacy skills from watching “educational” shows such as Sesame Street. </p>
<p>When children watch educational programs and interact with apps that promote learning, they make gains in literacy, numeracy and vocabulary. A <a href="http://www.naeyc.org/yc/files/yc/file/201205/McManis_YC0512.pdf">recent article</a> in Young Children, a publication of the <a href="http://www.naeyc.org/">National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC)</a> (a nonprofit organization that works to promote early learning), shows how children can gain several skills through experience with computers and handheld devices. </p>
<p>These devices can facilitate better language and literacy outcomes, such as letter recognition, listening, comprehension and vocabulary. When children play games that link letter sounds to written letters, it can increase their ability to hear and identify individual sounds – skills children need in order to read.</p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/104318/original/image-20151203-21427-144dprq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/104318/original/image-20151203-21427-144dprq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=327&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/104318/original/image-20151203-21427-144dprq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=327&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/104318/original/image-20151203-21427-144dprq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=327&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/104318/original/image-20151203-21427-144dprq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/104318/original/image-20151203-21427-144dprq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/104318/original/image-20151203-21427-144dprq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">How are children interpreting television show characters?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/wwworks/208917634/in/photolist-jsKWb-8wTXNJ-iHbn7m-8vw4mN-8vsCQR-8vwHnS-8vugpH-8uYX9q-aPFrM4-dUBkDB-8vvoaR-8vv6gX-8wQWZn-8wTXJy-dEQpbD-8w36Fd-8vsUSp-8vsJTt-8vupkr-hE5oza-bzDq69-am7ALL-9ozHnq-8vuFTD-8vvfSM-auo7zn-9JutQm-8vta3M-8vsETH-8vwNRd-8vt3Rn-6Kathh-aJPPrK-kBySf8-9eNTXx-8vyodS-8vxQn7-8vuJWV-8vxHZ5-8vtBUp-8vyoRj-8vydqG-8vv83p-8MK4qC-8wQXkB-57XARs-cRXbMd-bsexcT-8vtyRx-8vtw32">woodleywonderworks</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Researchers <a href="http://www.readinghalloffame.org/sites/default/files/yokota__teale-rt_may_2014.pdf">show</a> that children learn from both print and digital picture books. Digital storybooks (e-books) that pair spoken word with pictures and print text can enhance vocabulary. </p>
<p>Apps that allow a “read-along” experience, for example, can help children develop a <a href="http://www.literacyandtechnology.org/uploads/1/3/6/8/136889/jlt_v15_3.pdf">better understanding</a> of concepts about stories and print, especially if they have printed text that children can see. E-books that highlight words as they are read, help young children learn that print is read from left to right in English.</p>
<h2>Children learn from superheroes as well</h2>
<p>But it is important to realize that it is not just “educational” television and media from which children learn. Children pick up ideas from television (even television not considered “educational”) and use them to enhance literacy.</p>
<p>Children can learn from superheroes, too. Researcher on early childhood learning <a href="http://education.illinois.edu/faculty/ahdyson">Anne Haas Dyson</a> found that <a href="http://store.tcpress.com/0807736392.shtml">seven- to nine-year-old children</a>] took the superheroes they watched on cartoons and brought them into their fiction writing and dramatic play. </p>
<p>Her research shows children, like adults, often use media and media characters as tools. With the help of their teacher, children brought their home life and interests into school to make their writing come to life. </p>
<p>Dyson’s research demonstrates that when allowed, children <a href="http://store.tcpress.com/0807742805.shtml">use media</a> – songs, characters from their favorite shows and movies – as a way to enhance their “school learning.” </p>
<p>My own <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09540253.2014.949634">research</a> demonstrates how preschool children take unlikely characters in popular television shows and movies and blend them together to create complex oral stories. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/104323/original/image-20151203-32297-1lrk1hf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/104323/original/image-20151203-32297-1lrk1hf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/104323/original/image-20151203-32297-1lrk1hf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/104323/original/image-20151203-32297-1lrk1hf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/104323/original/image-20151203-32297-1lrk1hf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/104323/original/image-20151203-32297-1lrk1hf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/104323/original/image-20151203-32297-1lrk1hf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Children bring what they learn from superheroes into fiction writing and dramatic play.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/mrtea/572531978/in/photolist-4hFBue-f8kESr-7p34Lx-4VMBYX-dXWT7r-qHP1EX-7z3mTX-5WgaCb-SAnP1-8k5ddv-7y4AZN-LTBoH-9ZVsTq-o2JbF-4iAQTq-7uqB8b-96Vp7M-6cksVM-6fSaKB-xLDeCZ-5QTVF">Stephen Train</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>I spent nearly a year in a preschool to observe how three- to five-year-old preschool children talked and thought about television, movies and handheld devices. These preschool children often talked about characters from a wide range of television shows and movies.</p>
<p>For example, one preschooler, I observed, “borrowed” <a href="http://disneychannel.disney.com/hannah-montana">Disney Channel’s Hannah Montana</a>, a tween rockstar, as the protagonist in her tale. After introducing Hannah Montana, she brought Boots (the monkey from <a href="http://www.nickjr.com/dora-the-explorer/">Dora the Explorer</a>, a preschool cartoon) into her story. She spun a story in which Hannah Montana and Boots battled and ultimately defeated a villainous monster from a movie. </p>
<p>Preschoolers took ideas from shows such as Sesame Street, Mickey mouse Clubhouse, cartoons featuring Spiderman, Tinkerbell and Spongebob. Some combined these with shows that older siblings and family members watched such as action movies, professional wrestling and even monster movies.</p>
<p>Rather than repeating what they saw on television, they brought ideas from their own community to make new stories. </p>
<p>The stories children saw and the characters they knew from television also allowed them to relate to other children. Superheroes, characters from Frozen and other popular culture characters can give children from diverse backgrounds a common (and exciting) topic in which to <a href="https://rowman.com/isbn/9781475807967">create play scenarios</a>.</p>
<p>And this play involves negotiating and talking with other children about characters and plot, which in turn enhances oral language. Oral language is a crucial aspect of literacy for young children. </p>
<h2>How should adults monitor screen-time?</h2>
<p>Although research shows the way in which children learn from media, there are also legitimate concerns about what children see on these screens. </p>
<p>Media is created from viewpoints and stances that may not always be acceptable to parents and teachers. Media can show people in inaccurate and stereotypical lights. </p>
<p>So what should adults do with all of the media content coming into their children’s lives?</p>
<p><a href="https://www.routledge.com/products/9780415539517">Research</a> with preschoolers has shown that conversations allow a child to examine who is being shown in media and the way they are being shown. And it is important to note that <a href="http://cie.sagepub.com/content/14/2/138.abstract">children’s</a> view of these stereotypes often depends on their home lives and environments. These conversations are important for children. </p>
<p>Adults also need to recognize that screen time is one way for children to learn. It is certainly not the only way. The American Academy of Pediatrics <a href="https://www.aap.org/en-us/advocacy-and-policy/aap-health-initiatives/Pages/Media-and-Children.aspx">suggests</a> that children should engage with entertainment media for no more than one or two hours per day. </p>
<p>As they note, it is important for kids to spend time on outdoor play, reading, hobbies and using their imaginations in free play. Children need rich experiences in their lives and <a href="http://www.cambridge.org/ve/academic/subjects/languages-linguistics/sociolinguistics/words-work-and-play-three-decades-family-and-community-life">interactions</a> with other people. Screens cannot make up for this.</p>
<p>Children need a healthy balance. While we should be careful in flinging open the gates of media, we should be equally concerned about chaining them shut.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/51646/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Allison S Henward does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Research shows that preschool children take characters from popular television shows and movies and blend them together to create complex oral stories.Allison S Henward, Assistant Professor of Early Childhood Education, University of HawaiiLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/405032015-05-12T04:17:17Z2015-05-12T04:17:17ZOutdated teaching methods will blunt technology’s power<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/79602/original/image-20150428-3062-7czcsg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Is giving pupils iPads enough to revolutionise learning?</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jim Lo Scalzo/EPA</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The man who runs state education in South Africa’s richest province has no time for old-fashioned classroom accessories. In January, Panyaza Lesufi, who heads the education portfolio in the Gauteng province, told journalists at Boitumelong Secondary School just outside Johannesburg:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I’m signing the death warrant of the chalk, duster and chalkboard in Gauteng. We are moving on with the times and we are moving to better things.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Lesufi was at the school to promote the <a href="http://kemptonexpress.co.za/58603/seven-schools-go-paperless-on-first-day-of-school/">Big Switch On</a> pilot, a project in which pupils are given tablets loaded with textbooks and their schools receive interactive whiteboards. “You will never accuse me of failure to deliver textbooks,” he said. “You will now accuse me of failure to download.”</p>
<p>But is making technology available to schools without adapting curricula or teaching methods to a digital platform actually worthwhile?</p>
<h2>The trouble with copy-pasting</h2>
<p>According to John Hedberg from the Australian Centre for Educational Studies, e-learning can <a href="http://www.curriculum.edu.au/verve/_resources/hedberg_paper.pdf">only be successful</a> if there is a “revolutionary move away from replicating traditional classroom-based teaching practices”.</p>
<p>At the heart of Hedberg’s critique is the idea of skeuomorphism, which is keeping the form of the old but discarding its function. Think of smart phone cameras that “click” like a DSLR camera or pages in an e-book reader that “curl” as they are turned – just like a paper book. Thanks to Hollywood star Tom Hanks you can even make your laptop’s keyboard sound like a <a href="http://techcrunch.com/2014/08/18/tom-hanks-typewriter-app-shoots-to-the-top-of-the-app-store/">quaint old typewriter</a>. </p>
<p>Technology giants like <a href="http://www.fastcodesign.com/3017236/apples-ios-7-redefines-industrial-design-through-evil-skeuomorphism">Apple</a>, Google and Microsoft have all used skeuomorphic designs to soften the transition from old technologies to new.</p>
<p>These features don’t have any functional value but their resemblance to forms of the past gives users a sense of comfort and familiarity. </p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/79745/original/image-20150429-23400-1bauy92.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/79745/original/image-20150429-23400-1bauy92.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/79745/original/image-20150429-23400-1bauy92.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/79745/original/image-20150429-23400-1bauy92.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/79745/original/image-20150429-23400-1bauy92.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/79745/original/image-20150429-23400-1bauy92.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/79745/original/image-20150429-23400-1bauy92.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">It looks like a bookshelf, but this tablet version is actually an example of skeumorphism.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Tablets and smart whiteboard won’t magically make pupils smarter unless teachers know how to use the devices properly and in a way that encourages learning. When Brandon Martinez and his colleagues from the University of Southern California started <a href="http://www.huffingtonpost.com/melora-sundt/teaching-online_b_4137858.html">training teachers to use educational technology</a>, they looked to the aviation industry for inspiration. Writing about their experiences, Martinez said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>To increase instructor skills, we borrowed a technique from airline pilot training – simulators. Teaching in a virtual classroom requires knowing the basics of the technology and being ready to adjust … We watched each other teach and practised new approaches, testing what captured student interest.</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Success story</h2>
<p>In 2011, Clintondale High School in Michigan became the <a href="https://www.techsmith.com/customer-stories-clintondale.html">global poster child</a> for “flipped” classrooms. This is an exciting example of how educational technology can change teaching and learning if it is properly used and doesn’t just become a copy-paste substitute for old methods. </p>
<p>A flipped classroom inverts traditional teaching methods. “Lectures” happen after hours, usually at home – students watch instructional videos at their own pace. </p>
<p>During formal class time, students are given activities that help them engage with concepts. Rather than just standing in front of the class and reading from a textbook or tablet – what some theorists call the “sage on the stage” model – teachers become “guides on the side”, available to answer questions and lead discussions. </p>
<p>Clintondale High’s combination of new technology and radically different teaching methods has pushed up its pass rates, improved discipline and seen more of its students securing college places.</p>
<p><figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/EceWjPUgWc8?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">It takes completely new approaches to make technology an asset in the classroom.</span></figcaption>
</figure></p>
<p>The educational technology boom isn’t limited to the developed world. It is <a href="http://elearningindustry.com/elearning-statistics-and-facts-for-2015">growing rapidly</a> in countries like India and Brazil. If teachers are exposed to new digital teaching approaches, and given the space to experiment with technology, we can begin to produce a whole new generation of pupils: those who think and create and not those who just sit in classrooms waiting to be told what they should do or know.</p>
<h2>Avoiding the white elephant syndrome</h2>
<p>In August 2013, the Los Angeles Unified School District launched a US$1 billion project designed to make its schools high-tech havens. A month later, officials discovered that nearly 300 students at one high school had hacked through security and were using their district-issued iPads to surf the Web rather than study.</p>
<p>Then, in April 2015, it emerged that a digital curriculum developed by publishers Pearson and loaded onto pupils’ iPads as part of the district’s ambitious project was <a href="http://appleinsider.com/articles/15/04/16/pearson-not-apple-to-blame-for-failed-la-schools-technology-program">simply “unusable”</a>. Critics complained that the project had been rushed from conception to execution far too quickly and without any proper planning.</p>
<p>Why wasn’t the technology pre-tested by the teachers who were expected to use it every day? Technology companies may understand the mechanics of their products, but it’s teachers who understand teaching and who must be involved in making those products more than just electronic white elephants in the classroom.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/40503/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Craig Blewett does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Educational technology can be a powerful tool, but it must be accompanied by new, modern teaching methods.Craig Blewett, Senior Lecturer in Education & Technology, University of KwaZulu-NatalLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/290742014-07-17T05:09:55Z2014-07-17T05:09:55ZLet’s chalk up some rules before iPads enter every classroom<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/54003/original/x42qy2bx-1405511157.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">iPads are fun but can distract.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/56155476@N08/6660140011/in/photolist-b9wcMV-b9wY7D-b9wdHv-b9wWhM-b9wofn-b9w7TH-b9wCyB-b9wCVn-b9wTRZ-b9wKde-b9wZ1t-b9wnTe-b9wYic-b9wrUg-do9HnM-b9wAtF-b9wbFz-9YtpZB-9mNcXQ-9n2mZB-b9wpJ4-b9wXWn-b9wfxp-b9wXAc-b9wwxz-b9wdng-b9wzna-b9wA7n-b9wrgr-b9wAhT-do9xCn-7WCNTx-b9wEfK-b9wEP8-b9woDp-b9weXP-b9wBVF-b9wRSx-b9ws7r-b9wH44-b9w9ZD-9CRgBu-b9wcBe-b9wrEx-b9wzyB-b9woPx-b9wQy8-b9wRat-do9xvD-do9vXX">Brad Flickinger</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Adults and youngsters are willing to queue overnight to get their hands on the latest product release from Apple and children <a href="http://ecl.sagepub.com/content/early/2014/05/19/1468798414533560.full.pdf+html">appear to be</a> drawn to iPads because of the immediate feedback they get when they use them.</p>
<p>But as excited as many of us are about how these devices can be used in the classroom, they’re still a long way from revolutionising public education.</p>
<p>Tablets certainly have some distinct advantages: they are portable (unlike whiteboards), light-weight (unlike netbooks and laptops), compact and touch-screen (unlike desktop computers) and they offer, so far, the <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-choose-the-best-educational-app-for-your-child-28170">widest range of apps</a> designed for educational purposes. </p>
<p>This software and hardware combo makes them attractive but what really makes teachers excited is the potential to make each lesson tailored towards each individual child’s needs. Such <a href="http://edglossary.org/personalized-learning/">personalised learning</a> has been heralded as one of the 21st century’s great learning innovations. </p>
<p>However, in all this enthusiasm, we should not gloss over the day-to-day reality. Even in affluent Western countries, iPads are still outside of the budgets of most schools. </p>
<p>In schools where they are used, iPads are a great motivational tool but also harm concentration, as one <a href="http://karsenti.ca/ipad/iPad_report_Karsenti-Fievez_EN.pdf">study of 6,000 pupils in Canada</a> found. Even the students themselves – more than 99% of them – reported they found the tablet a distraction. As for teachers, just one out of the 302 surveyed didn’t mention distraction as a “major challenge”. </p>
<p>Other schools have found iPads are incompatible with their existing technologies and that security issues have negatively affected their use.</p>
<p>Despite the novel features of iPads, we seem to have forgotten some lessons learnt with previous technologies. <a href="http://www.nesta.org.uk/publications/decoding-learning">Research by Nesta</a> in 2012 found relatively little evidence that technology in schools actually works, considering the money invested. Therefore, to get the best out of iPads we need to think seriously about exactly how they are used as learning tools, and train teachers in the best techniques.</p>
<p>Security lockers and internet firewalls alone won’t be good enough to minimise distractions and motivate kids to use their new toys for learning. This is the new technological “playground”, and it needs some ground rules. The more we can involve children in making these rules, the easier it will be to uphold them.</p>
<p>Technology and the science of education work together so if we want to see a change, we need to continue develop both. That means not just adding attractive tools like iPads but also devising well-informed guidance for their effective use and integration with the curricular objectives.</p>
<h2>Playground rules</h2>
<p>We already know a few things that will be needed to make the rules on iPads work well. Some carefully designed studies which look at the intersection of specific technology features with pedagogical principles would be a good start. So that we can reliably say what works, we also need randomised controlled trials and design-based research to allow us to <a href="http://journal.frontiersin.org/Journal/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00715/full">separate assumptions from evidence</a>.</p>
<p>We need more examples of schools where tech solutions have worked. Some steps in this direction have been undertaken, with companies like <a href="http://www.air-watch.com/solutions/education">Airwatch</a> enabling teachers to tailor and customise their lessons using an innovative suite of teacher tools.</p>
<p>And although it has been said before, it bears repeating: we all need to work together. More and more <a href="https://www.innovateuk.org/competition-display-page/-/asset_publisher/RqEt2AKmEBhi/content/learning-technologies-design-for-impact?p_p_auth=mJc5FPAC">government-funded schemes</a> are trying to encourage collaboration between developers and researchers but these efforts need to be extended to include input from designers, researchers, teachers and parents. All these people are bound by a <a href="http://www.nurseryworld.co.uk/nursery-world/opinion/1144929/childre-centre-thinking-about-digital-technology">shared commitment to children</a> and they need to be formally supported to work towards the same goal.</p>
<p>Finally, we need more innovative projects where children are involved in the coding process of the programs they use and where teachers co-design the apps they deploy in classrooms. In other words, we need active participation of all involved, especially children. Because ultimately such joint action will speak louder than words. </p>
<p>We are unlikely to see a revolution, but we can sow some seeds for change if we foster creative thinking and cooperation between all those who care about children and their education.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/29074/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Natalia Kucirkova receives funding as a KTP Associate. She is affiliated with The Open University and Booktrust.</span></em></p>Adults and youngsters are willing to queue overnight to get their hands on the latest product release from Apple and children appear to be drawn to iPads because of the immediate feedback they get when…Natalia Kucirkova, KTP Associate for Booktrust, The Open UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/253252014-04-15T20:38:41Z2014-04-15T20:38:41ZAs laptop scheme ends, what next for families and learning?<p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Education_Revolution">The computers for schools program</a>, which involved federal funding for the supply of laptops to high school students, is set to end in June. The program was a central piece of the former government’s “digital revolution” but is being discontinued by the current government.</p>
<p>The end of the program is already having consequences for schools and for families. Without funding for computers, schools are being forced to find other ways to fund educational technology. Often this means shifting the cost onto families or requiring students to <a href="http://www.afr.com/p/special_reports/future_workplace/when_byo_means_bringing_your_own_1bWt72ug0rwG7975YacUhJ">“bring your own device”</a>.</p>
<p>The end of the program has two main implications. The first is related to the access all children have to the basic technologies needed for 21st-century learning. The second involves the pedagogy that underpins the use of these tools for learning.</p>
<h2>Can everyone afford the best gadgets?</h2>
<p>Inequalities may arise in schools if families are unable to get the newest and best devices due to the often high cost. The newest and best technology is often expensive and the daily journey to school and back can be devastating to some devices. Purchasing, repairing and upgrading devices can become a significant drain on the family budget.</p>
<p>As not every family is able to supply their children with the latest technology, there is a risk that placing the onus on families to obtain these devices for their children will lead to a “digital divide”. The children from well-off families will have access to the latest and supposed best tools for learning while everyone else will have either no access to technology or be lumped with using older and often outdated technology.</p>
<h2>Are the gadgets doing students any good anyway?</h2>
<p>The more critical issue is whether the newest and best devices are actually the best options for enhancing learning.</p>
<p>Professor John Hattie from the University of Melbourne conducted a large <a href="http://books.google.com.au/books?id=ZO8jmUjQbs0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=%22visible+learning%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=lMtBU6LZMtG7iAeWy4HQCQ&ved=0CDMQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=%22visible%20learning%22&f=false">meta-analysis of meta-analyses</a>, which involves looking at the results of a very large pool of studies to determine what factors have the greatest impact on student learning. His findings suggest that technology or, as he put it, computer-assisted instruction, has only a marginal effect on student learning outcomes.</p>
<p>The issue is really then more about whether these devices are the best option for learning at all, than whether newer is better. Families shouldn’t be put in a position where they need to fork out a lot of money they may not have for technology that has a dubious effect on enhancing their child’s learning.</p>
<p>Underpinning the uncertainty surrounding the role of digital technologies in schools is that our understanding of these devices and how they can be best incorporated into teaching practice is far outpaced by the evolution of the devices themselves. No sooner do we come to understand how best to use a technology in classrooms than the technology has already become obsolete.</p>
<p>The research being conducted into the ways in which technology can be used to enhance learning is therefore unable to keep pace with the development and use of new devices and applications. While it is perhaps cliché for a researcher to call for further research, in this case the cost to families, and the potential to create further inequalities in our education system would seem to warrant it.</p>
<p>As I have argued <a href="https://theconversation.com/a-secret-formula-to-learning-extra-money-and-quick-fixes-wont-improve-education-13050">previously</a>, throwing money at quick fixes is not the answer to improving education. This applies to technology more than anything else in the sector.</p>
<p>A greater emphasis needs to be placed on professional development for teachers and on educational design so that the maximum benefit of these new tools can be realised. The tools themselves are useless if the learning activities designed to utilise the tools are not up to standard.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/25325/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jason Lodge works for the Science of Learning Research Centre (SLRC) at the University of Melbourne. The SLRC receives funding from the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p>The computers for schools program, which involved federal funding for the supply of laptops to high school students, is set to end in June. The program was a central piece of the former government’s “digital…Jason M Lodge, Research Affiliate, Science of Learning Research Centre, Melbourne Graduate School of Education, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.