tag:theconversation.com,2011:/africa/topics/lamb-23562/articleslamb – The Conversation2024-03-28T12:17:22Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2247522024-03-28T12:17:22Z2024-03-28T12:17:22ZProtected products: what makes lamb from South Africa’s Karoo and France’s Mont Saint-Michel so special<p>A meal or food shopping experience can be more interesting and enjoyable when you know more about a particular product, like what region it came from and the culture that shaped it. Knowing what makes the food “unique” can improve the tasting experience.</p>
<p>Think about drinking an ice-cold glass of <a href="https://www.vindulge.com/what-is-champagne/">“real” Champagne</a> from France or the satisfaction of serving your dinner guests <a href="https://parmacrown.com/why-prosciutto-di-parma/">“Parma ham”</a> from Italy’s Parma region. </p>
<p>In 1994 the World Trade Organisation put in place an agreement on intellectual property (Trips) that had a <a href="https://www.wto.org/english/docs_e/legal_e/27-trips_04b_e.htm#3">section</a> on Geographical Indications. This increased the protection of certain products, and extended it to more countries. The rights are territorial – the name of a product can only be used if it is sourced from a designated country or region. All members of the WTO are required to make sure this protection happens in their territories. </p>
<p>As a result of the agreement most countries realised they had food products with unique “backstories”. Examples include: Basmati rice (India and Pakistan); Darjeeling tea (India) and Café de Colombia (Colombia).</p>
<p>African countries have also joined the global Geographical Indication family: there’s <a href="https://www.adams.africa/alissa-naran/poivre-de-penja-cameroons-first-eu-geographical-indication/">Poivre de Penja (Penja pepper) from Cameroon</a>, for example. And in 2021 South Africa registered <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32021R0865">Rooibos</a>, a locally grown fragrant plant used to make tea. In 2023 it registered <a href="https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/202310/49556gon3992.pdf">Karoo lamb</a>. This is meat from lambs born and raised in the Karoo, a semi-desert area of the country which gives it a distinctive flavour.</p>
<p>This means that Karoo lamb has its <a href="https://www.news24.com/fin24/economy/amazing-day-for-sa-karoo-lamb-is-now-protected-just-like-champagne-20231027">own Geographical Indication</a> protection with its own unique story.</p>
<p>There are similarities between the backstories of Karoo lamb and Mont Saint-Michel lamb, also known as <a href="http://www.aop-pressales-montsaintmichel.fr/">Agneau de Prés-salés du Mont-Saint-Michel</a> (salt meadow lamb).</p>
<h2>Lamb: two tales</h2>
<p>The story of France’s Agneau de Prés-salés du Mont-Saint-Michel starts in the vast salt marshes that surround the <a href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/80/">Mont Saint-Michel abbey, a Unesco World Heritage Site in Normandy, France</a>. The marshes are flooded twice daily by the tides of the English Channel. The sheep that roam these salt meadows feed on a variety of grasses and herbs that impart a distinctive flavour to their meat. </p>
<p>The high saline content of the vegetation, combined with the coastal climate, results in lamb that is tender, succulent, and imbued with the essence of the sea. For centuries the farmers have moved their livestock between different grazing areas seasonally, and during spring and summer the sheep are brought to the salt marshes to graze. In 2013, Mont Saint-Michel lamb was given <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52023XC0526(03)">official recognition</a> as a Protected Geographical Indication under European Union law.</p>
<p>This designation acknowledges the unique characteristics of the lamb produced in the bay area and provides legal protection against imitation or misuse of the name. The <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A52023XC0526%2803%29&qid=1709802332744">status</a> ensures that Mont Saint-Michel lamb can only be produced within the designated geographical area and according to specific production criteria outlined in the official regulations. </p>
<p>South Africa’s Karoo lamb story has echoes of this.</p>
<p>The Karoo covers <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-Karoo-region-in-South-Africa-KMOO-2016a_fig1_320066652">almost 50%</a> of the total area of South Africa and is sparsely populated, far away from major urban and distribution centres. This lonely corner of the earth is home to one of South Africa’s living treasures: flocks of sheep, grazing freely among the scattered shrubs. Their meat is spiced on the hoof as the sheep feed on wild vegetation. </p>
<p>Karoo lamb Geographical Indication can now be traced to its own “salt marshes”, in this case the Karoo’s unique shrubs and grasses (“veld”). According to <a href="https://www.greengazette.co.za/notices/agricultural-product-standards-act-119-1990-registration-of-karoo-lamb-karoo-lam-as-a-south-african-geographical-indication-gi_20231027-GGN-49556-03992">the statement</a> giving it this special status: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>It is only Karoo Lamb when it is a lamb which was born and raised on Karoo veld in the defined Karoo region. It has never been in a feedlot, and never grazed on planted pastures. </p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Compliance</h2>
<p>Trading these authentic products outside the region of origin and beyond national borders brings into play a host of problems. These include traceability, labelling and consumers being misled. Protecting the reputation and authenticity of these products needs to be done with great care and precision. </p>
<p>Most high value products with intrinsic value lose their reputation through misappropriation, usurpation and simple fraudulent and counterfeit practices. This is why some form of assurance is critical to protect the value of the product.</p>
<p>Rigorous traceability systems are needed to ensure compliance and to provide the necessary consumer assurance. The regional collective organisation, the <a href="https://www.karoolamb.org/">Karoo Lamb Consortium</a>, tries to ensure the integrity and honesty of all role players – from the farmer to the retailer to the restaurateur.</p>
<p>There are nevertheless opportunities for opportunistic behaviour, dishonesty, shirking and plain food fraud. These include:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>farmers who market feedlot or pasture lamb as Karoo lamb </p></li>
<li><p>abattoirs that source from farms outside the region </p></li>
<li><p>butchers who don’t confirm the origin but sell it as Karoo lamb</p></li>
<li><p>restaurateurs who tell the naive tourist that the lamb on the plate is from the Karoo when it is actually sourced from a feedlot far away from the Karoo.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Fortunately science can detect the origin of lamb through analysis of the meat and fat. In a 2017 <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0308814617307094">paper</a> researchers showed it was possible to authenticate the origin. Their results showed clearly that fat from Karoo lamb had a higher concentration of key terpenes, validating the direct link with the herbaceous plant samples. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/its-true-what-a-sheep-eats-affects-the-taste-of-your-lamb-roast-51877">It's true: what a sheep eats affects the taste of your lamb roast</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<p>Overall, the analysis shows considerable differences between the Karoo and non-Karoo samples.</p>
<p>This research was followed by an extensive exercise to develop a database for more regions and sub-regions in the Karoo. Scientists can now easily analyse samples from retail shelves and confirm the authenticity of claims on labels. </p>
<p>These techniques have been <a href="https://oritain.com/">successfully applied</a> to protect the authenticity of Welsh lamb and New Zealand lamb.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/224752/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Johann Kirsten is affiliated with the "Karoo Lamb Consortium".. </span></em></p>Meat from sheep that graze in South Africa’s Karoo and France’s Mont Saint-Michel lamb is deemed special.Johann Kirsten, Director of the Bureau for Economic Research, Stellenbosch UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1083952018-12-07T12:36:47Z2018-12-07T12:36:47ZAgroforestry can help the UK meet climate change commitments without cutting livestock numbers<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249424/original/file-20181207-128190-1stq4lu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/healthy-livestock-enjoying-early-morning-sunlight-155638616?src=Z7PBCLiyg04eMBwp-nSAIw-1-34">Martin Fowler/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Some 12m hectares of the UK is currently covered by agricultural grasslands which support a national lamb and beef industry worth approximately £3.7 billion. However, proposals have been made that this landscape should undergo radical changes to aid the country’s climate change commitments. A <a href="https://www.theccc.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/Land-use-Reducing-emissions-and-preparing-for-climate-change-CCC-2018.pdf">controversial government advisory report</a> recently produced by the independent Committee on Climate Change calls for UK lamb and beef production to be reduced by up to 50%. It claims that by replacing grazing land with forestry the UK will be able to substantially decrease its greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.</p>
<p>The National Farmers Union <a href="https://www.nfuonline.com/news/latest-news/nfu-response-to-committee-on-climate-change-report/">has responded</a> to the report stating that it has no plans to reduce livestock numbers. Lamb and beef production is an important part of the UK’s cultural heritage, and is vital for supporting rural communities. The lamb and beef industry also provides the country with a supply of high-welfare locally sourced meat. In fact, the UK is the top lamb producer and the third largest beef producer <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Meat_production_statistics">in the EU</a>. And in 2016, the UK was <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/515048/food-farming-stats-release-07apr16.pdf">76% self-sufficient</a> in terms of its own food production. But lamb and beef production is also the greatest contributor to agricultural GHG emissions – the CCC report states that, in 2016, lamb, beef and dairy production combined contributed to around 58% of UK agricultural emissions. </p>
<p>Sheep and cattle grazing is also an integral part of how upland landscapes are currently managed. This is particularly true for Scotland, where managing the upland landscape is important for supporting other industries, such as game bird production. These upland systems have great potential for afforestation – the planting of trees in previously unforested areas – though this doesn’t necessarily have to result in a decrease in livestock numbers. </p>
<h2>Woodland integration</h2>
<p>Planting trees is a crucial step in the fight against climate change. Trees act as a carbon sink for CO2 and also provide <a href="https://www.woodlands.co.uk/blog/woodland-economics/biofuels-from-trees/">a source of different biofuels</a> products. Previous planting schemes have seen success, for example, between 1990 and 2010 the area of the UK covered by woodland increased <a href="https://www.woodlandtrust.org.uk/mediafile/100229275/stake-of-uk-forest-report.pdf">from 2.6 to 2.8 million hectares</a>. But grazing land need not be taken away for the sake of this environmental initiative. Afforestation plans can be sensitive to the aforementioned socioeconomic and cultural factors if a balanced approach is taken.</p>
<p>So what can be done? Agroforestry might be a way to meet the Committee on Climate Change’s recommendation to release between three to seven million hectares of grassland for afforestation without affecting the UK’s food supply. </p>
<p>Under agroforestry schemes, new woodlands are grown and existing trees are cultivated on farmlands. The aim is to optimise farming systems by incorporating woodland into them rather than replacing grazing land with trees. Planting trees and hedgerows improves grass growth, protects against flooding and topsoil erosion, increases farmland biodiversity and provides a source of natural shelter for livestock. And if the trees are used for biofuel or timber they can provide additional farm income. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249425/original/file-20181207-128220-yulktv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249425/original/file-20181207-128220-yulktv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249425/original/file-20181207-128220-yulktv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249425/original/file-20181207-128220-yulktv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249425/original/file-20181207-128220-yulktv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249425/original/file-20181207-128220-yulktv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249425/original/file-20181207-128220-yulktv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249425/original/file-20181207-128220-yulktv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A Highland cow enjoys the autumn sunshine.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/highland-cow-on-edge-woodland-autumn-1240210684?src=dLembf21rWDePeGiVzYDlw-1-1">PJ photography/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Agroforestry schemes can improve animal welfare too. The 2018 lambing season resulted in an <a href="https://www.fginsight.com/news/news/fallen-stock-at-highest-levels-probably-ever-following-tough-lambing-season-63184">unprecedented lamb mortality rate</a>. But it has <a href="http://www.asap.asn.au/livestocklibrary/1984/Bird84.PDF">been shown that</a>, by providing a source of natural shelter, lamb mortality rates can be reduced by up to 50% during inclement weather.</p>
<p>Projects like this are already in place, for example the Welsh government’s Glastir scheme. Launched in 2012, this pan-Wales sustainable land management scheme rewards farmers financially for adhering to environmental guidelines. Though <a href="http://www.audit.wales/system/files/publications/Glastir_English_2014.pdf">it must be noted</a> that while Glastir has proven more effective than previous agri-environmental schemes, it has been criticised for its lack of measureable outcomes and its limited uptake by Welsh farmers.</p>
<p>With Brexit looming, now is the perfect time for agricultural reform as the country <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/sep/12/gove-hails-plans-to-reward-uk-farmers-for-adopting-green-policies">revisits current land use policies</a>. As an industry that is currently so reliant on EU subsidies, there is a strong incentive to optimise production methods. Government discussions are already <a href="https://beta.gov.wales/sites/default/files/consultations/2018-07/brexit-and-our-land-consultation-document_0.pdf">well under way</a> over how to bring together the agriculture and forestry sectors in order to better manage pastoral landscapes. If agroforestry is incorporated in to these new agricultural policies and subsidy schemes there will be huge benefits for farmers, conservationists, the general public and the livestock they rely on.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/108395/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Charlotte Pritchard receives funding from KESS 2, a pan-Wales higher level skills initiative led by Bangor University on behalf of the HE sector in Wales. It is part funded by the Welsh Government’s European Social Fund (ESF) convergence programme for West Wales and the Valleys.</span></em></p>Integrating trees into farming systems can improve farming, help the environment, and boost animal welfare too.Charlotte Pritchard, PhD Researcher, Bangor UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/805342017-07-10T23:46:13Z2017-07-10T23:46:13ZAnimal emotions stare us in the face — are our pets happy?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/177446/original/file-20170709-14908-utpt9s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=130%2C4%2C2856%2C2074&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Tabatha Bundesen's pet Tardar Sauce became an Internet sensation known as "Grumpy Cat" for a resting facial appearance that resembles a look of dissatisfaction. Now, scientists are starting to be able to read animal emotions from their expressions.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.cpimages.com/fotoweb/cpimages_details.pop.fwx?position=5&archiveType=ImageFolder&sorting=ModifiedTimeAsc&search=grumpy%20and%20cat&fileId=7ED4E565C8CEED27AEA6EAB315B987A8EB1B023AB80A6779EEECB0F082709652BF4B180AE6F446F48ACB7DB1B8CDE7E37BF497D18515FAB7978750CE214B0837D1853405FB9357B8D2D38EA4AF756B35591C2A1ED75B0C1C8263BC53D42B3063E297922C28FCC5CFEB24C714341D040567C393E3A4F903B8FFD9EA1880EECDE5D4AFE96D7A3AFF38CCFCF9B6D113233831DFAC6A9AAA139C">(AP Photo/Richard Vogel)</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Scientists are starting to be able to accurately read animal facial expressions and understand what they communicate.</p>
<p>Facial expressions project our internal emotions to the outside world. Reading other people’s faces comes naturally and automatically to most of us. Without your best friend saying a word, you know — by seeing the little wrinkles around her eyes, her rounded, raised cheeks and upturned lip corners — that she got that promotion she wanted. </p>
<p>What if we could just as easily read the faces of other living beings? Will there come a day when we can hold up a smart phone to our cat and know how he’s feeling?</p>
<p>Researchers are developing coding systems that enable them to objectively read animal facial expressions rather than inferring or guessing at their meaning. A coding system precisely describes how different facial features change when an animal feels a particular emotion, such as squinting an eye or pursing lips. By looking at photographs and scoring how much each of these features or “action units” change, we can determine how strongly an emotion is felt.</p>
<h2>Pain recognition first frontier</h2>
<p>So far, only pain coding systems (grimace scales) for non-primate animals have been scientifically developed. Despite their different anatomy; <a href="https://www.nature.com/nmeth/journal/v7/n6/full/nmeth.1455.html">mice</a>, <a href="https://molecularpain.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1744-8069-7-55">rats</a>, <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0044437">rabbits</a>, <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0092281">horses</a> and <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0168159116000101">sheep</a> (including <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0376635716302662">lambs</a>) all pull a similar pain-face. They tighten their eyes, bulge or flatten their cheeks, change the position of their ears and tense their mouths.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/177343/original/file-20170707-18198-ecnud.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/177343/original/file-20170707-18198-ecnud.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/177343/original/file-20170707-18198-ecnud.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/177343/original/file-20170707-18198-ecnud.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/177343/original/file-20170707-18198-ecnud.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/177343/original/file-20170707-18198-ecnud.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/177343/original/file-20170707-18198-ecnud.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/177343/original/file-20170707-18198-ecnud.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Lambs are one of the animals that have been shown to grimace when in pain.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beproc.2016.09.010">(Mirjam Guesgen)</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The push to develop grimace scales has largely come from our desire and ethical duty to assess and <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Kris_Descovich/publication/313349990_Facial_expression_An_under-utilised_tool_for_the_assessment_of_welfare_in_mammals/links/589bfd7ba6fdcc7541743716/Facial-expression-An-under-utilised-tool-for-the-assessment-of-welfare-in-mammals.pdf">improve the welfare</a> of animals used in labs or for food products.</p>
<p>Ideally, we want a way to accurately and reliably know how an animal is feeling by simply looking at them, rather than by drawing blood for tests or monitoring heart rates. By knowing their emotional states, we can change help to reduce pain, boredom or fear and, ideally, <a href="http://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/6/3/21">foster curiosity or joy</a>.</p>
<p>Animals, particularly social ones, may have evolved facial expressions for the same reason we did — <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/behavioral-and-brain-sciences/article/facial-expression-of-pain-an-evolutionary-account/F32F82D2FB5D9AF8980B16239B7EB994">to communicate with one another</a> or, in the case of dogs, <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0376635713000326">with us</a>. </p>
<p>Particularly for prey animals, subtle cues that other members of their group (but not predators) can pick up on are useful for safety, for example. A pain behaviour cue may trigger help or comfort from other group members, or serve as a warning to stay away from the source of pain.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/177447/original/file-20170709-14908-khisqq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/177447/original/file-20170709-14908-khisqq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/177447/original/file-20170709-14908-khisqq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/177447/original/file-20170709-14908-khisqq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/177447/original/file-20170709-14908-khisqq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/177447/original/file-20170709-14908-khisqq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/177447/original/file-20170709-14908-khisqq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A girl shares a moment with her dog at the 10th annual Dog Show in Beirut in June. We may be able to easily read dogs’ faces because they evolved alongside humans over 100,000 years.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.cpimages.com/fotoweb/cpimages_details.pop.fwx?position=131&archiveType=ImageFolder&sorting=ModifiedTimeAsc&search=dog&fileId=7ED4E565C8CEED276553137C3F07278F0211563F5E7047DF3AAB663AE59BB0CF1642B0B80D34257E6710EC2568FB7698B59B4D70A14C35A5085499F7776FCE74F2B7765E8750034730859FC82D50AED991D2D934849019DFB3B41BCC634D8CD042F841C1FF39A6F82A1B1FF576DC98DFDFA8B4906E2B2637CA6ABE2F54441DF0E41DB96B4682A54674266B70D538C8384B7097AA1ED5BA40">(AP Photo/Hassan Ammar)</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>If we can decipher grimacing, we should also, theoretically, be able to understand facial expressions for other emotions such as joy or sadness. We would also likely want to comprehend facial expressions for the animals closest to our hearts: our pets. </p>
<h2>Smart phone app for animal emotions</h2>
<p>One day, pet owners, farmhands or veterinarians could hold up a smart phone to a dog, sheep or cat and have an app tell them the specific emotion the animal is showing.</p>
<p>However, getting to an automated emotion-identification system requires many steps. The first is to define emotions in a testable, non-species-specific way.</p>
<p>The second is to gather descriptive baseline data about emotional expression in a controlled, experimental environment. One way to do this might be to put animals in situations that will elicit a particular emotion and see how their physiology, brain patterns, behaviour and faces change. Any changes would need to occur reliably enough that we could call them a facial expression.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/177448/original/file-20170709-6227-12dknwt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/177448/original/file-20170709-6227-12dknwt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/177448/original/file-20170709-6227-12dknwt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=387&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/177448/original/file-20170709-6227-12dknwt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=387&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/177448/original/file-20170709-6227-12dknwt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=387&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/177448/original/file-20170709-6227-12dknwt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=486&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/177448/original/file-20170709-6227-12dknwt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=486&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/177448/original/file-20170709-6227-12dknwt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=486&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A device-linked smartphone app by Anicall of Japan purports to show a cat’s ‘feeling.’ Apps may one day interpret animal expressions into emotions.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.cpimages.com/fotoweb/cpimages_details.pop.fwx?position=138&archiveType=ImageFolder&sorting=ModifiedTimeAsc&search=cat&fileId=7ED4E565C8CEED276553137C3F07278F0211563F5E7047DF3AAB663AE59BB0CF1642B0B80D34257E6710EC2568FB7698B59B4D70A14C35A5085499F7776FCE74F2B7765E8750034730859FC82D50AED9FE59D2970D2E169702AF0483B6B5EB6C42F841C1FF39A6F82A1B1FF576DC98DFDFA8B4906E2B2637CA6ABE2F54441DF0E41DB96B4682A54674266B70D538C8384B7097AA1ED5BA40">(AP Photo/Eugene Hoshiko)</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We already have some hints to go on: <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0039280">Depressed horses</a> close their eyes, even when not resting. <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022030215003690">Fearful cows</a> lay their ears flat on their heads and open their eyes wide. <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0166446">Joyful rats</a> have pinker ears that point more forward and outward.</p>
<p>Once we have gathered this data, we would then need to turn that scientific information into an automated, technological system. <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877050915003786">The system</a> would have to be able to extract the key facial action units from an image and calculate how those features differ from a neutral baseline expression. </p>
<p>The system would also need to be able to deal with individual differences in facial features as well as subtle differences in how individuals express emotion. The process of feature extraction and calculation also becomes difficult or fails when a face is poorly lit, on an angle or partially covered.</p>
<p>While we are making <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167865517301083">progress in automated human facial expression identification</a>, we are still a long way off when it come to animals. A more realistic short-term goal would be to better understand which emotions non-human animals express and how. The answers could be staring us right in the face.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/80534/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mirjam Guesgen* does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Scientists are beginning to link animal facial expressions to emotions, making it possible for us to understand how they feel.Mirjam Guesgen*, Postdoctoral Fellow in Animal Welfare, University of AlbertaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/781002017-06-09T00:45:35Z2017-06-09T00:45:35ZThree charts on: Australia’s declining taste for beef and growing appetite for chicken<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/170266/original/file-20170522-4489-1fby1xm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Australian consumption of chicken and pork both now far outstrip beef, mutton and lamb.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/figophilm/33709662682/">Ben Phillips/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Australians were once world champion beef-eaters but now you’re much more likely to find chicken than steak on Australian dinner tables. </p>
<p>Total meat consumption per capita in Australia has been <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264999315000656">stable since the 1960s</a>, at around <a href="http://www.agriculture.gov.au/abares/publications/display?url=http://143.188.17.20/anrdl/DAFFService/display.php?fid=pb_agcomd9abcc20170307_0S6mp.xml">110 kilograms per person per year</a>. But the type of meat consumed has changed significantly, with chicken and pork both now far outstripping beef, mutton and lamb, according to historical data from researchers <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264999315000656">Wong et al</a> and more recent data from the <a href="http://www.agriculture.gov.au/abares/publications/display?url=http://143.188.17.20/anrdl/DAFFService/display.php?fid=pb_agcomd9abcc20170307_0S6mp.xml">Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics and Sciences</a> (ABARES).</p>
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<p>(The apparent spike in beef consumption in the late 1970s is linked to Australia’s <a href="http://www.publish.csiro.au/an/Fulltext/EA05175">beef export trade crash</a> and <a href="https://www.mlahealthymeals.com.au/meat-consumption/meat-consumption-trends/">much of this spike</a> was thought to have gone to <a href="http://www.farmweekly.com.au/news/agriculture/cattle/beef/foreign-investment-has-a-long-history-in-meat-processing/2752964.aspx?storypage=0">pet food and by-products</a> rather than the dinner table). </p>
<p>Whereas chicken was once a rare meal, eaten on special occasions, today the Australian chicken industry produces around <a href="http://www.chicken.org.au/files/ACMF%20Media%20Release%20-%20Chicken%20Meat%20Outlook%20-%206%20March%202015.pdf">600 million chickens a year</a>. Most are consumed domestically. </p>
<p>The per-capita annual consumption of chicken meat in Australia <a href="http://www.chicken.org.au/files/_system/Image/Graphs/Consumption%20of%20meat.jpg?Production=Per+Capita+Consumption+of+Meats">increased ten-fold</a> from 4.6 kilograms per person in 1965 to 47 kilograms in <a href="http://www.agriculture.gov.au/abares/publications/display?url=http://143.188.17.20/anrdl/DAFFService/display.php?fid=pb_agcomd9abcc20170307_0S6mp.xml">2016</a>. The industry projects growth to <a href="http://www.chicken.org.au/files/ACMF%20Media%20Release%20-%20Chicken%20Meat%20Outlook%20-%206%20March%202015.pdf">49.2 kilograms a person by 2019–20</a>.</p>
<p>From the 1960s on, public health messages steered people away from red meats. There was also a rapid proliferation of fast food franchises selling chicken - <a href="http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article55478360">notably the entry of Kentucky Fried Chicken in 1969</a>.</p>
<p>Similarly, pork consumption has been bolstered by re-marketing. Once considered a red meat, pork was <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YfFUbwMXaeg">reinvented as “the other white meat”</a> through a marketing campaign categorising pork as lighter and healthier, alongside chicken (and due to changes in breeding, pork meat really has lightened in colour over recent decades). While not as steep an increase as chicken, pork consumption in Australia has nearly tripled since the 1980s. </p>
<p>However, a major driver of these changes has been price, linked to massive changes in production.</p>
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<p>After adjusting for inflation, chicken per kilo costs less than a third of its price than it did in the early 1970s, while real prices for other meats have been comparatively static. The Australian Chicken Meat Federation, which represents chicken producers, <a href="http://www.chicken.org.au/files/ACMF%20Media%20Release%20-%20Chicken%20Meat%20Outlook%20-%206%20March%202015.pdf">reports</a> that over the five years to 2014–15, chicken meat was on average 50% cheaper than pork, 59% cheaper than lamb and 65% cheaper than beef. </p>
<p>Since the 1960s, most Australian chicken and pork production has become rapidly industrialised and automated in large intensive indoors operations. Piggeries and broiler farms have typically become specialised, intensified, high technology factory farm complexes. Intensification of chicken production has increased efficiency, in turn steadily decreasing the retail price of chicken. <a href="http://www.chicken.org.au/files/ACMF%20Media%20Release%20-%20Chicken%20Meat%20Outlook%20-%206%20March%202015.pdf">Around 70%</a> of chicken meat is supplied by two privately owned processing companies, the Australian Chicken Meat Federation says.</p>
<p>Chicken farms in Australia have increased markedly in size and intensity. Our research on planning disputes shows farms of the <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02697459.2015.1028252">1970s housed around 10,000 chickens</a>. Now, while nearly 600 million broiler chickens were slaughtered in Australia in 2014-15, there were <a href="http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/Lookup/7121.0Main+Features102014-15?OpenDocument">only around 750</a> broiler farms, a decline from the 1990s. The average chicken farm now has nearly 120,000 chickens at any one time and some run into millions. The number of pork farms has also dropped, <a href="http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/7121.0">consolidating into larger operations</a>. </p>
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<p><a href="https://ensia.com/articles/these-maps-show-changes-in-global-meat-consumption-by-2024-heres-why-that-matters/">Global meat consumption continues to rise rapidly</a> as more countries – notably China – increase their consumption of meat and dairy products. Australia imports very little meat due to strict quarantine, but is a major exporter of beef, sheep and goats.</p>
<p>Sheep and cattle farms are more extensive, more common, and produce fewer animals than pork or chicken farms. <a href="http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/DetailsPage/7121.02014-15?OpenDocument">There were</a> over 66,000 <a href="http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/7121.0">cattle farms</a> and around 39,000 <a href="http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/7121.0">sheep farms</a> in Australia in 2015-16. Cattle farm numbers and the overall cattle herd declined slightly, although this belies the formation of two extremes: at one end large and export-focussed grazing, while other areas have seen a proliferation of sub-commercial, small-scale, scattered “hobby” grazing. The national sheep flock also declined, and is transitioning away <a href="https://www.mla.com.au/prices-markets/market-news/the-transitioning-australian-sheep-flock--where-have-we-come-from-where-are-we-now/">from wool production to meat and dual-purpose breeds</a>. </p>
<p>These transitions in production and consumption of meat result in some rural and semi-rural landscapes shifting to expansive, remotely-managed holdings in areas with declining population. Closer to cities, hobby farmers and amenity migrants <a href="https://theconversation.com/done-like-a-chicken-dinner-city-fringes-locked-in-battles-over-broiler-farms-54886">sit in often uneasy proximity to industrial scale production</a>. </p>
<p>As other countries take up Australia’s traditional fondness for meat, global as well as domestic forces continue to change the nature of farming and Australian rural landscapes. That, in turn, also affects the price and type of meat Australians consume.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/78100/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Total meat consumption per capita in Australia has been stable since the 1960s but the type of meat consumed has changed significantly. Chicken and pork both now far outstrip beef, mutton and lamb.Elizabeth Taylor, Vice Chancellor's Post-Doctoral Research Fellow, RMIT UniversityAndrew Butt, Senior Lecturer in Community Planning and Development, La Trobe UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/518782016-01-14T04:39:03Z2016-01-14T04:39:03ZHow red meat has become leaner in South Africa over the last four decades<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/106068/original/image-20151215-23176-wo2k27.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">When fat is trimmed off red meat it compares favourably to other lean meats. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Understanding the composition of food and its chemical content is the first step to managing your diet well. It is particularly important to know the composition of meat, since the fat content of meat has changed over time. </p>
<p>Our <a href="http://www.ajol.info/index.php/sajas/article/view/121445">research</a> shows that:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>different species have different fat content;</p></li>
<li><p>that this has changed over the last 40-plus years; and</p></li>
<li><p>that the fat content of red meat is lower in South Africa than in the US and Australia. </p></li>
</ul>
<h2>Less fat to go around</h2>
<p>Fat is an <a href="http://healthyeating.sfgate.com/three-functions-fat-body-3402.html">essential component</a> of our bodies. It insulates the body from cold and helps our bodies absorb and transport fat soluble vitamins. It is also a rich source of energy and important for hormone production. </p>
<p>Every gram of fat in our bodies provides us with 37 kilojoules of energy. Other energy providing nutrients such as carbohydrates or proteins only produce 17 kilojoules of energy for each gram.</p>
<p>Although all meat contains fat, the fat content of South African red meat has decreased dramatically over time. <a href="http://www.ajol.info/index.php/sajas/article/view/121445">Data</a> on the physical composition of South African beef shows this. Today’s meat has higher muscle content and less fat content.</p>
<p>In 1972 beef contained about 22.8% of fat, 63.5% of muscle and 13.9% of bone. By 2010 this dropped had to 18.6% fat, 64.8% muscle and 16.9% bone. Figures from 2014 show that there is now only 11% fat in a piece of beef with 72% muscle and 17.3% bone. </p>
<p>This decline in fat content means that South African beef can now be classified as lean. This is reflected in the latest draft <a href="http://www.saafost.org.za/Legislation/2014/D/2014-5%20Food%20labelling%20Guidelines%20for_R429.pdf">regulations</a> on the labelling and advertising of foods, which states that meat with a fat percentage of between 5% and 10% can be classified as “lean”. </p>
<p>The reduction in fat has been driven by a number of factors. These include farmers choosing lean breeds and meat being trimmed at retail outlets and then again at home before it is cooked. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/105452/original/image-20151211-22337-1uhp4gz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/105452/original/image-20151211-22337-1uhp4gz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=228&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/105452/original/image-20151211-22337-1uhp4gz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=228&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/105452/original/image-20151211-22337-1uhp4gz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=228&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/105452/original/image-20151211-22337-1uhp4gz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=286&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/105452/original/image-20151211-22337-1uhp4gz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=286&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/105452/original/image-20151211-22337-1uhp4gz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=286&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The quest for leaner meat.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">supplied</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The <a href="http://www.ajol.info/index.php/sajas/article/view/121445">study</a> also compared data from the <a href="http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/">US</a> and <a href="http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/science/monitoringnutrients/nutrientables/nuttab/Pages/NUTTAB-2010-electronic-database-files.aspx">Australia</a> and found that <a href="http://www.samic.co.za/downloads/Redmeat.pdf">South African</a> lamb and mutton leg cuts contain notably less fat. </p>
<p>But not all fat is bad. Meat also contains “good fats”. Nearly half of the fat in South African red meat consists of healthy mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids. Diets high in monounsaturated fatty acids from olive oil, fish and certain meats like lamb offer protection from coronary heart disease and certain types of cancers.</p>
<p>Lamb and mutton are also natural sources of conjugated linoleic acid. A high intake has been <a href="http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/85/5/1203.long">linked</a> to reductions in heart disease, cancer and cholesterol levels.</p>
<h2>Knowing what you eat</h2>
<p>Red meat, trimmed or not, compares favourably with other animal source foods such as chicken and pork. The <a href="http://www.sajcn.co.za/index.php/SAJCN/article/view/747/1079">data</a> shows that a roasted lamb loin chop trimmed of fat contains 7.8% fat while a roasted chicken drumstick without the skin contains 9.8% fat. A slice of roast leg of lamb, untrimmed, contains 11.7% fat, while an untrimmed grilled pork loin contains 13.9%. </p>
<p>Whether you are on the <a href="http://www.goodhousekeeping.co.za/en/diet-health/banting-for-beginners/">banting</a> bandwagon which recommends a low carb high fat diet, or steering clear of any fat, in the era of “you are what you eat”, knowing what is in your food gives you the power to make informed food choices.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/51878/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nicolette Hall consults to the Red Meat Industry of South Africa and Lamb and Mutton SA. She has received funding from RMRDSA. She is affiliated with the Institute of Food, Nutrition and Well-being at the University of Pretoria. </span></em></p>There has been a drastic reduction in the fat content of red meat in the last 40 years. South African red meat can now be classified as lean.Nicolette Hall, Researcher in Human Nutrition, University of PretoriaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/518772016-01-06T04:19:39Z2016-01-06T04:19:39ZIt’s true: what a sheep eats affects the taste of your lamb roast<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/105399/original/image-20151211-8291-ejbz51.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">You are what you eat – and so's your festive lamb, in terms of flavour.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>For those who enjoy a meaty spread during the festive season, it’s worth knowing that not all lamb tastes the same. It depends on where it comes from, and what it has been eating.</p>
<p>South African folklore has long suggested that sheep meat in the country has a distinct – often herbal or even medicinal – flavour and aroma. But more recently, <a href="http://www.karoomeatoforigin.com/downloads/ARC%20Report%20on%20sensory%20analysis%2027%20sept%2007.PDF">studies</a> have confirmed that there is a detectable sensory difference in sheep meat produced in different regions of southern Africa.</p>
<p>The flavour of meat develops through cooking. Flavour can also be added to meat through brining or marinating. But the inherent flavour in meat is largely dependent on what the animal feeds on.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2286578">Traditionally</a> it has been believed that high-energy, grain-based diets produce more intense flavours in red meats than forage or grass diets. But the fact that the pungent flavour and aroma of local lamb and mutton comes from sheep reared on natural pastures and open fields goes against this. </p>
<p>Lamb and mutton from certain grazing regions such as the <a href="http://www.southafrica.net/za/en/articles/entry/article-southafrica.net-the-magical-great-karoo">Karoo</a> or <a href="http://freestatetourism.org/?page_id=1367">Free State</a> have their own unique flavours. These meats are often sought after by South African consumers who prefer a certain taste and are prepared to <a href="http://repository.up.ac.za/bitstream/handle/2263/19889/Weissnar_Consumer(2012).pdf?sequence=1">pay a premium</a> for it. </p>
<h2>Establishing an unique taste</h2>
<p>Sheep are produced in most corners of South Africa. Special breeds do well in arid areas. They can withstand harsh temperatures, arid soils and sparse vegetation in areas where there is limited rainfall. The Karoo in South Africa’s Northern Cape province is one such area. </p>
<p>The <a href="http://www.karoomeatoforigin.com/">Karoo Development Foundation</a> was established in 2009 to certify meat from the region. The certification scheme would mean lamb and mutton products from the area could be traded using the Karoo Meat of Origin <a href="http://www.karoomeatoforigin.com">certification</a>. </p>
<p>A <a href="http://www.karoomeatoforigin.com/downloads/ARC%20Report%20on%20sensory%20analysis%2027%20sept%2007.PDF">study</a> was done to evaluate the aroma, texture and flavour attributes of sheep meat from different regions in South Africa. The aim was to determine whether, statistically, there was a significant difference in the taste of meat from sheep reared in different parts of South Africa, stretching into Namibia.</p>
<p>During the <a href="http://www.karoomeatoforigin.com/downloads/ARC%20Report%20on%20sensory%20analysis%2027%20sept%2007.PDF">study</a>, mutton carcasses from two major breeds of sheep – <a href="http://www.dorpersa.co.za/info/characteristics">Dorper</a> and <a href="http://merinosa.co.za">Merino</a> – were procured from eight farms in various regions. These include the Free State, Kalahari, Northern Cape (specifically De Aar and Carnarvon), and Namibia. </p>
<p>The study found that mutton from the Karoo region – in the Northern Cape and Kalahari – had definite flavour characteristics. These could be attributed to the grazing plants the sheep fed on.</p>
<p>Lamb and sheep from Karoo graze on indigenous plants found exclusively in this region. These plants can endure heat, cold, wind and hail, providing feed for the animals all year round. Karoo plants have developed in different ways to survive the harsh conditions of the region.</p>
<p>Sheep reared in the Free State have a different diet. This is a summer-rainfall region that gets very cold during the winter months, especially towards the eastern mountainous regions. <a href="http://www.southafrica.info/about/geography/free-state.htm#.VmFW8nYrLIU">The landscape</a> features spacious grass-covered prairie land. These grasslands contribute to the associations of mild grass-like flavour attributes in meat produced in this region.</p>
<h2>The flavour is in the fat</h2>
<p>There are two other factors that play a role in the flavour of the meat: the fat and the age of the animal. </p>
<p>Fat is an energy source stored in animal muscles, which also contributes to the flavour of meat. Although water is the most prevalent component of meat, most of the aroma molecules which carry flavour are repelled by water but dissolve in fat.</p>
<p>Each animal has a unique fat content. This varies from cut to cut. Muscles that are used most by the animal contain the least amounts of fat. More tender cuts of meat which contain muscles that are less used by the animal will contain more fat and, as a result, more intense flavours.</p>
<p>Age also plays an important role in flavour development. The older the animal gets, the more time it has had to build up fat. As a result of age, more flavour is deposited within the meat.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/51877/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nicolette Hall consults to the South African Red Meat Industry and Lamb and Mutton South Africa. She has received funding from RMRDSA. </span></em></p>Lamb and mutton meat from parts of South Africa have a unique taste, which, according to science, depends on what the animal eats.Nicolette Hall, Researcher in Human Nutrition, University of PretoriaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.