tag:theconversation.com,2011:/africa/topics/neuroticism-19839/articlesNeuroticism – The Conversation2022-02-02T19:13:43Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1759032022-02-02T19:13:43Z2022-02-02T19:13:43ZASMR is linked to anxiety and neuroticism, our new research finds<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444043/original/file-20220202-17-1ics2r1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C8%2C5610%2C3726&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/unrecognisable-girl-about-do-autonomous-sensory-1802991208">YuliaLisitsa/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The autonomous sensory meridian response, or <a href="https://www.vox.com/2015/7/15/8965393/asmr-video-youtube-autonomous-sensory-meridian-response">ASMR</a>, is described as an intensely pleasant tingling sensation originating in the scalp and neck, and spreading down the body. ASMR is elicited by a range of <a href="https://peerj.com/articles/851/">video and auditory triggers</a>, such as watching someone pretend to perform relaxing actions like massaging or hair brushing, or listening to soft sounds such as whispers or tapping. There are countless ASMR videos on forums such as YouTube attracting thousands, or in some instances millions, of subscribers and hits.</p>
<p>The triggers vary from person to person. But for millions of people worldwide, ASMR is a go-to for relaxation, sleep and to reduce stress.</p>
<p>While research interest in the phenomenon is growing, there’s a lot we still don’t know about ASMR. For example, why do some people experience tingles and others don’t? Could understanding the personality traits associated with ASMR guide us when thinking about ASMR as a potential therapeutic intervention?</p>
<p>Emerging literature suggests that people who are capable of experiencing ASMR exhibit greater levels of <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00247/full">neuroticism</a>. Neuroticism is a personality trait typically defined as a tendency towards depression, self-doubt and other negative feelings. </p>
<p>Neuroticism is also associated with a tendency to experience negative emotional states <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0191886916300125?via%3Dihub">such as anxiety</a>. And we know that people who watch ASMR regularly may do so to relax or reduce stress, potentially indicating elevated levels of anxiety.</p>
<p>Currently, there is very little research linking neuroticism with anxiety in people who experience ASMR, or into the effect of watching ASMR videos on anxiety. Our <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0262668">new study</a> aimed to add to the evidence in these areas.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/asmr-what-we-know-so-far-about-this-unique-brain-phenomenon-and-what-we-dont-135106">ASMR: what we know so far about this unique brain phenomenon – and what we don't</a>
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<h2>What we did</h2>
<p>We recruited 36 people who experience ASMR and 28 people who don’t. All participants watched a five-minute ASMR video that was a compilation of multiple common ASMR triggers. </p>
<p>Before watching the video, the participants completed questionnaires assessing their levels of neuroticism, trait anxiety (a predisposition to experience ongoing anxiety), and state anxiety (their anxiety levels in the moment). They also answered questions about their state anxiety after viewing the video.</p>
<p>The ASMR-experiencers had significantly greater scores for neuroticism and trait anxiety compared to the non-experiencers, which suggests these are characteristics associated with the ability to experience ASMR. The ASMR-experiencers also had greater pre-video state anxiety scores, which were significantly reduced after watching the video. </p>
<p>In contrast, there was no difference in non-experiencers’ state anxiety scores before and after watching the video. So the ASMR video alleviated anxiety, but only among the ASMR-experiencers. </p>
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<img alt="A woman sitting in a park watching something on her laptop, with earphones in." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444051/original/file-20220202-25-178dhyg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444051/original/file-20220202-25-178dhyg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444051/original/file-20220202-25-178dhyg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444051/original/file-20220202-25-178dhyg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444051/original/file-20220202-25-178dhyg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444051/original/file-20220202-25-178dhyg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444051/original/file-20220202-25-178dhyg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">ASMR videos are very popular on YouTube.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/woman-sitting-on-grass-park-working-1286304514">Jacob Lund/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>However, when we looked at the data in a different way, we found that a propensity for greater neuroticism and anxiety overall – regardless of whether participants experienced ASMR or not – was associated with the ASMR video having a positive effect on anxiety levels. </p>
<p>This emphasises the importance of individual personality traits when thinking about ASMR as a potential therapeutic intervention. It also shows us that the benefits of watching ASMR videos can be experienced even if you don’t necessarily feel the “tingle”.</p>
<h2>What does this all mean?</h2>
<p>We have provided new evidence regarding the traits that may characterise people who experience ASMR, and an indication that ASMR could have potential as an alternative treatment for anxiety. </p>
<p>Our study supports previous research demonstrating that ASMR-experiencers exhibit greater levels of <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00247/full">neuroticism</a>. We’ve also found that people with elevated anxiety levels are more likely to experience ASMR.</p>
<p>Notably, in our study, watching the ASMR video reduced state anxiety among people who experience ASMR. While this seems logical considering that people who seek out ASMR often do so for therapeutic reasons, the results of our study also suggest that ASMR may have anxiety-reducing effects more generally.</p>
<p>So if people are prone to neuroticism and/or anxiety, they may benefit from watching ASMR – even if they don’t routinely watch ASMR videos or experience ASMR tingles.</p>
<h2>Where to next?</h2>
<p>Our study was only in a relatively small number of people, and we cannot discount that the targeted group most likely had a predisposition to seek out ASMR. So it will be important to carry out research with more ASMR-naive participants.</p>
<p>Certainly, further research into the use of ASMR as a psychological intervention will be important to better understand how this may help people who experience anxiety.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/asmr-videos-could-be-a-new-digital-therapy-for-mental-health-100989">ASMR videos could be a new digital therapy for mental health</a>
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<p>In the meantime, findings from recent neuroimaging studies are beginning to shed more light on this phenomenon. Using a type of brain imaging called electroenchephalograpy (<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/electroencephalography">EEG</a>), researchers have shown that the electrical activity known to be associated with relaxation (including <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/psychological-medicine/article/systematic-review-of-neurobiological-and-clinical-features-of-mindfulness-meditations/8DE9D44A8E413F7F2454668242808EB9">mindfulness meditation</a>) increased in response to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1053810020305201?via%3Dihub">ASMR stimuli</a>. This was true even when participants were performing a <a href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9391945">mentally demanding task</a>.</p>
<p>These studies suggest that ASMR leads to changes in brain activity typically associated with a relaxed state, possibly even during day-to-day activities. More neuroimaging research will compliment behavioural studies and help us to identify the mechanisms that could underpin ASMR’s anxiety-reducing capabilities.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/175903/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Joanna Greer does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Our study suggests ASMR could have potential as an intervention to reduce anxiety.Joanna Greer, Senior Lecturer, Psychology, Northumbria University, NewcastleLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1479492020-10-15T11:17:16Z2020-10-15T11:17:16ZHow we discovered that VR can profile your personality<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/363382/original/file-20201014-21-11r9pgc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=47%2C53%2C4446%2C3078&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/cheerful-girl-hands-wearing-virtual-reality-603345986">Mark Nazh/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://theconversation.com/facebooks-virtual-reality-push-is-about-data-not-gaming-145730">Virtual reality</a> (VR) has the power to take us out of our surroundings and transport us to far-off lands. From a quick round of golf, to fighting monsters or going for a skydive, all of this can be achieved from the comfort of your home. </p>
<p>But it’s not just gamers who love VR and see its potential. VR is used a lot in psychology research to investigate areas such as <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0226805">social anxiety</a>, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-13909-9">moral decision-making</a> and <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0223881">emotional responses</a>. And in our <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-74421-1">new research</a> we used VR to explore how people respond emotionally to a potential threat.</p>
<p>We knew from <a href="https://bmcbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12915-017-0463-6">earlier work</a> that being high up in VR provokes strong feelings of fear and anxiety. So we asked participants to walk across a grid of ice blocks suspended 200 metres above a snowy alpine valley. </p>
<p>We found that as we increased the precariousness of the ice block path, participants’ behaviour became more cautious and considered – as you would expect. But we also found that how people behave in virtual reality can provide clear evidence of their personality. In that we were able to pinpoint participants with a certain personality trait based on the way they behaved in the VR scenario.</p>
<p>While this may be an interesting finding, it obviously raises concerns in terms of <a href="https://theconversation.com/think-facebook-can-manipulate-you-look-out-for-virtual-reality-93118">people’s data</a>. As technology companies could profile people’s personality via their VR interactions and then use this information to target advertising, for example. And this clearly raises concerns about how data collected through VR platforms can be used.</p>
<h2>Virtual fall</h2>
<p>As part of our study, we used head-mounted VR displays and handheld controllers, but we also attached sensors to people’s feet. These sensors allowed participants to test out a block before stepping onto it with both feet. </p>
<p>As participants made their way across the ice, some blocks would crack and change colour when participants stepped onto them with one foot or both feet. As the experiment progressed, the number of crack blocks increased. </p>
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<p>We also included a few fall blocks. These treacherous blocks were identical to crack blocks until activated with both feet, when they shattered and participants experienced a short but uncomfortable virtual fall.</p>
<p>We found that as we increased the number of crack and fall blocks, participants’ behaviour became more cautious and considered. We saw a lot more testing with one foot to identify and avoid the cracks and more time spent considering the next move.</p>
<p>But this tendency towards risk-averse behaviour was more pronounced for participants with a higher level of a personality trait called neuroticism. People with high neuroticism are more sensitive to negative stimuli and potential threat. </p>
<h2>Personality and privacy</h2>
<p>We had participants complete a personality scale before performing the study. We specifically looked at neuroticism, as this measures the extent to which each person is likely to experience negative emotions such as anxiety and fear. And we found that participants with higher levels of neuroticism could be identified in our sample based on their behaviour. These people did more testing with one foot and spent longer standing on “safe” solid blocks when the threat was high.</p>
<p>Neuroticism is one of the five major personality traits most commonly used to profile people. These traits are normally assessed by a self-report questionnaire, but can also be assessed based on behaviour – as demonstrated in our experiment. </p>
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<img alt="Excited teen hipster girl playing virtual reality video game wear vr goggles headset." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/363384/original/file-20201014-13-1xopeqm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/363384/original/file-20201014-13-1xopeqm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363384/original/file-20201014-13-1xopeqm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363384/original/file-20201014-13-1xopeqm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363384/original/file-20201014-13-1xopeqm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363384/original/file-20201014-13-1xopeqm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363384/original/file-20201014-13-1xopeqm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">As advances in technology continue to develop, so too does the power of surveillance.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/excited-teen-hipster-girl-playing-virtual-1739807582">insta_photos/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>Our findings show how users of VR could have their personality profiled in a virtual world. This approach, where private traits are predicted based on implicit monitoring of digital behaviour, was demonstrated with a <a href="https://www.pnas.org/content/110/15/5802">dataset</a> derived from Facebook likes back in 2013. This paved the way for controversial commercial applications and the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/04/us/politics/cambridge-analytica-scandal-fallout.html">Cambridge Analytica scandal</a> – when psychological profiles of users were allegedly harvested and sold to political campaigns. And our work demonstrates how the same approach could be applied to users of commercial VR headsets, which raises major concerns for people’s privacy. </p>
<p>Users should know if their data is being tracked, whether historical records are kept, whether data can be traced to individual accounts, along with what the data is used for and who it can be shared with. After all, we wouldn’t settle for anything less if such a comprehensive level of surveillance could be achieved in the real world.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/147949/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stephen Fairclough received funding from Emteq Labs and Liverpool John Moores University for this work.</span></em></p>How much does your virtual reality headset know about your life?Stephen Fairclough, Professor of Psychophysiology in the School of Psychology, Liverpool John Moores UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1423642020-07-15T12:13:30Z2020-07-15T12:13:30ZPersonality can predict who’s a rule-follower and who flouts COVID-19 social distancing guidelines<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/347340/original/file-20200714-139854-1wyiypp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=107%2C86%2C3368%2C2069&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Who will wait on the checkout line footprints and who will rage against them?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/vons-shopper-maintain-safe-distance-in-the-checkout-line-at-news-photo/1212798930">Al Seib/Los Angeles Times via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>As states struggle to get the COVID-19 balance right – between eased restrictions and rising infection rates – it falls to individuals to abide by mask-wearing rules and to maintain six feet of distance between themselves and others when out and about.</p>
<p>Some people dutifully endure the hardships of coronavirus lockdown, while others can’t be bothered to keep their distance. Why?</p>
<p><a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=fXwMNNMAAAAJ&hl=en">As a cognitive researcher</a>, I’m interested in how what psychologists call the <a href="https://www.verywellmind.com/the-big-five-personality-dimensions-2795422">“Big Five” personality traits</a> influence the ways individuals deal with social distancing rules in daily life. Who is more likely to mask up every time they leave their home? And who is more likely to flout these evolving behavioral expectations?</p>
<h2>Personal space, territorial invasion</h2>
<p>How comfortable you are being near to other people has a big cultural component. Anthropologist Edward T. Hall made a study of <a href="https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-proxemics-definition-examples.html">what he called proxemics</a>, measuring personal space expectations around the world.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/347172/original/file-20200713-50-13b1guu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/347172/original/file-20200713-50-13b1guu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/347172/original/file-20200713-50-13b1guu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347172/original/file-20200713-50-13b1guu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347172/original/file-20200713-50-13b1guu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347172/original/file-20200713-50-13b1guu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=575&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347172/original/file-20200713-50-13b1guu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=575&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347172/original/file-20200713-50-13b1guu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=575&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Pandemic response means the personal space bubble is now bigger than the previous norm.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Personal_Spaces_in_Proxemics.svg">Jean-Louis Grall/Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
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<p>Touching or whispering happens in the closest zone. From about 1.5 to 4 feet away is the distance reserved for communicating with friends. Now public health recommendations have extended that zone to 6 feet or more, the distance that had been normal for interactions with those you don’t know well.</p>
<p>When people violate proximity norms, it can feel like they’re invading your territory. And nowadays, the stakes are higher than just your personal comfort – these distance guidelines are meant to protect you from infectious germs.</p>
<p>Subconsciously, everyone knows the traditional spatial zones. The “wait here” foot emblems now found at a store’s checkout line are necessary to help rewrite the cognitive script for where you stand until it becomes a mindless habit. You are forced to “unlearn” subconscious behavior; old dogs must learn new tricks. </p>
<p>Strangers who invade your social distance are being aggressive if they’re aware of what they’re doing. But if it’s done mindlessly or subconsciously, then personality traits are helping drive the behavior.</p>
<p>[<em>Deep knowledge, daily.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=deepknowledge">Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter</a>.]</p>
<h2>Predictions based on personality traits</h2>
<p>For more than four decades, psychology researchers have divvied people up by personality types based on an individual’s <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781849200479.n9">combination of five key traits</a>. They’re used to predict how people make purchases, <a href="https://www.floridatechonline.com/blog/business/how-the-big-five-personality-traits-influence-work-behavior/">behave at work</a>, even <a href="https://www.psychologicalscience.org/news/releases/personality-traits-life-outcomes-replication.html">long-term life outcomes</a> like marriage stability and career achievement. <a href="http://psychology.iresearchnet.com/counseling-psychology/history-of-counseling/paul-costa-and-robert-mccrae/">Paul Costa and Robert McRae</a> popularized the acronym OCEAN, for openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness and neuroticism.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/347342/original/file-20200714-38-fdgfjd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/347342/original/file-20200714-38-fdgfjd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/347342/original/file-20200714-38-fdgfjd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=342&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347342/original/file-20200714-38-fdgfjd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=342&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347342/original/file-20200714-38-fdgfjd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=342&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347342/original/file-20200714-38-fdgfjd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347342/original/file-20200714-38-fdgfjd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347342/original/file-20200714-38-fdgfjd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Everyone varies from high to low on each of the five personality traits.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/big-five-personality-traits-psychology-concept-royalty-free-image/1242962102">Olivier Le Moal/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span>
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<p>An open individual is inclined to be curious, imaginative, creative, original, artistic and flexible. Openness reflects a tendency to think in abstract, complex ways. People high in openness tend to be adventurous and intellectual and enjoy the arts, while those on the opposite end of the spectrum tend to be practical, conventional and focused on the concrete. The more open your personality is, the better you might cope with uncertainty over a long, sustained period – as in the case of a global pandemic.</p>
<p>Conscientiousness is the tendency to be habitually careful, reliable, hard-working, well-organized and purposeful. A conscientious person controls, regulates and directs their impulses. They would likely be early adopters of mask-wearing, even without direction to do so. This trait makes someone less willing to violate territorial space and social distancing guidelines.</p>
<p>Extroversion is characterized by being outgoing and drawing energy from interacting with others, compared to introverts who get their energy from within themselves. Behavioral neuroscience research has <a href="https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-014-0331-6">revealed two subtypes of this trait</a>.</p>
<p>Agentic extroversion is about being comfortable in the limelight and taking a leadership position. These people are less likely to feel a strong bond with others and have more interest in going for rewards in social or workplace contexts.</p>
<p>On the other hand, affiliative extroverts don’t seek out leadership roles as much and have close social bonds with a lot of people from which they gather happiness and meaning.</p>
<p>Both types of extroverts would likely enjoy virtual networking during isolation, while probably struggling with isolation if sheltering alone.</p>
<p>Agreeableness reflects compliance. It is the opposite pole of antagonism and reflects a tendency to be good-natured, acquiescent, courteous, helpful and trusting. People high in this trait would probably go along with mask-wearing right away and be more likely to follow social distancing guidelines as soon as they’re announced without grumbling about the rules.</p>
<p>Neuroticism is characterized by impulsivity and a tendency to experience negative emotions including anxiety, worry, fear, anger, depression or sadness, hostility, self-consciousness and loneliness. This trait is associated with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.093008.100352">wishful thinking and disengagement</a> in order to escape feelings of distress. Presumably people high on neuroticism would tend to react to the pandemic with avoidance and denial.</p>
<h2>The dark triad of personality traits</h2>
<p>Personalities can have their dark sides, too.</p>
<p>Narcissism involves loving oneself obsessively; it goes along with grandiosity and vanity.</p>
<p>Machiavellianism is about manipulating others; it’s characterized by cynicism and long-term, calculating strategies.</p>
<p>Finally there’s psychopathy, meaning a lack of empathy. Psychopathic people are usually impulsive and have cold interpersonal relations. Individuals at the higher end of the continuum are deceptive, aggressive, sexually promiscuous and coercive.</p>
<p>All of these dark triad traits, as psychologists group them, would likely be associated with more social distancing violations.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/347344/original/file-20200714-22-102fpcp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/347344/original/file-20200714-22-102fpcp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/347344/original/file-20200714-22-102fpcp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=437&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347344/original/file-20200714-22-102fpcp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=437&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347344/original/file-20200714-22-102fpcp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=437&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347344/original/file-20200714-22-102fpcp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=549&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347344/original/file-20200714-22-102fpcp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=549&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347344/original/file-20200714-22-102fpcp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=549&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Personality traits influence who’s fine with masks and who isn’t.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/taxi-driver-with-thumbs-up-and-wearing-a-facemask-royalty-free-image/1223488542">andresr/E+ via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Personality influences your behavior</h2>
<p>Everyone varies on all of those personality traits from high to low. It’s possible to deduce a personality profile for someone more likely to rampantly violate social distancing guidelines.</p>
<p>Pulling from meta-analyses of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/psrm.2017.14">how personality affects pro-social behaviors</a>, I’ve come up with this formulation. I have in mind coronavirus-mitigating behaviors in the U.S., but it could be tested cross-culturally and in other contexts.</p>
<p>Social distancing violator = Low openness + Low conscientiousness + Low agreeableness + High neuroticism + High Machiavellianism + High narcissism + High psychopathy + Error</p>
<p>My model predicts that a person who scores lower in openness, conscientiousness and agreeableness would be more likely to violate social distancing guidelines. Same for someone higher in neuroticism, Machiavellianism, narcissism and psychopathy.</p>
<p>The error term in the equation is a bit of a fudge factor; it represents all the variation in social distancing that is not explained by the personality traits. For example, political ideology influences social distancing compliance, with <a href="https://voxeu.org/article/political-beliefs-and-compliance-social-distancing-orders">Republicans less likely to adhere</a> to social distancing orders.</p>
<p>Psychology researchers are starting to collect data during the pandemic that supports this model. In one study, for instance, Pavel Blagov found that people with lower levels of agreeableness and conscientiousness were less likely to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550620936439">endorse health recommendations</a> related to social distancing and hygiene during the coronavirus pandemic. </p>
<p>Personality is not fixed; it <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8721.2008.00543.x">can evolve over one’s lifespan</a>. As the coronavirus crisis drags on, I’ll be interested to see how adherence to social distancing guidelines changes over time – and wondering how much personality traits are changing too.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/142364/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>James M. Honeycutt does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Psychologists call these traits the ‘Big Five’: openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness and neuroticism. A researcher suggests your profile implies your response to social distancing.James M. Honeycutt, Lecturer in Executive Education; Distinguished Professor Emeritus of Communication Studies from Louisiana State University, University of Texas at DallasLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1284282019-12-18T12:03:09Z2019-12-18T12:03:09ZYour personality determines how you experience pain – and it’s the same with your pet<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/305839/original/file-20191209-90569-kpzmjs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5760%2C3240&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/sad-dog-lying-on-bed-sick-278446295?src=c890f676-5d03-4f21-a55b-05272df9b1f9-1-1">Iryna Kalamurza/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Would you brush off a serious injury as “just a scratch”? Perhaps you’re the opposite and a stubbed toe is unbearable. Anyone who follows sports will be used to seeing rugby players spending 90 minutes pretending they’re unhurt while the footballer writhes in apparent agony (though that usually happens in the penalty area, strangely enough). People often find it difficult to understand others who are more or less stoic than themselves – but personality often has a great deal to do with why some people are better at tolerating pain than others. </p>
<p>The first thing to understand about pain is that it’s an emotional response. The signal that the body has been damaged is sent to the brain via the nervous system. There, the brain interprets those signals and creates the unpleasant emotional experience of pain. This modifies your behaviour, protecting you from the present threat, and it also helps you learn from the experience so that you avoid it in future. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/307499/original/file-20191217-58321-133dfvv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/307499/original/file-20191217-58321-133dfvv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/307499/original/file-20191217-58321-133dfvv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/307499/original/file-20191217-58321-133dfvv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/307499/original/file-20191217-58321-133dfvv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/307499/original/file-20191217-58321-133dfvv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/307499/original/file-20191217-58321-133dfvv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">People who are more extroverted are also more likely to make a bigger demonstration of physical pain.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/man-screaming-pain-his-knee-while-160334447">BlueSkyImage/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>Personality reflects individual differences in how people respond emotionally and behaviourally to their environment. People who are more extroverted tend to be louder and more likely to share their thoughts and experiences with others. Little wonder that these people tend to express their pain very clearly too, often by telling others the gory details or making a very clear physical demonstration like an exaggerated limp. It’s important to extroverts that people recognise and acknowledge their suffering, while someone who’s more introverted might prefer to suffer in silence and avoid seeking help from others.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/people-feel-more-pain-if-they-carry-a-sense-of-grievance-why-58960">People feel more pain if they carry a sense of grievance – why?</a>
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<p>Even though extroversion has a great deal to do with how people communicate their suffering, it has very little to do with how people actually feel about pain. That has more to do with neuroticism, which reflects how emotionally stable people are. Since pain is an emotional response, it makes sense that people who score highly for neuroticism experience pain more severely. They protect the injury more carefully and may “catastrophise” their prognosis and struggle to imagine a time when the pain will be resolved. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/307485/original/file-20191217-58339-1rm87s2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/307485/original/file-20191217-58339-1rm87s2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/307485/original/file-20191217-58339-1rm87s2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/307485/original/file-20191217-58339-1rm87s2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/307485/original/file-20191217-58339-1rm87s2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/307485/original/file-20191217-58339-1rm87s2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/307485/original/file-20191217-58339-1rm87s2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/307485/original/file-20191217-58339-1rm87s2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">How responses to pain relate to differences in personality.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Carrie Ijichi</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>So what about pets?</h2>
<p>Though we might think of personality as exclusively human, companion animals also share the personality factors extroversion and neuroticism. Vets have reported for some time that it’s harder to detect pain in some animals compared to others. This has important ethical implications for deciding when an animal is given pain relief, how much they should receive and, crucially, when it’s time to euthanise an animal to relieve suffering. We wondered whether these differences in how animals experience pain could relate to personality, just as they do in humans. </p>
<p>To do this, we conducted two studies. The first looked at <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0168159113002967">horses receiving veterinary attention for lameness</a> and the other <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S155878781730165X">observed dogs recovering from castration surgery</a>. Extroverted animals are recognisable by traits such as being exuberant, adventurous and easily excited. Neurotic animals tend to be easily stressed, anxious and tense. We asked owners to score their animal for traits like these and then added up the scores for each trait to give an overall score for each personality factor. This is the same technique for measuring personality in humans, but instead of people answering questions about themselves, animals are rated by someone who knows them well. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-stroke-a-cat-according-to-science-116025">How to stroke a cat, according to science</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>In the equine study, the vet gave each horse a lameness grade from 0-5. They then assessed their injury using ultrasound or X-ray and scored the severity of the damage from 0-5. We learned that horses that scored more highly for neuroticism were rated as less tolerant of pain by their owners and were less stoic according to their veterinary scores. They also tended to arrive at the vet’s surgery with less severe injuries, perhaps protecting their injury more carefully. They may limit their movement to reduce how much they use the damaged limb – just like more neurotic humans do. Meanwhile, more extroverted horses had higher lameness scores, giving clearer indicators of their pain to others through their behaviour.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/307506/original/file-20191217-58292-fp9hyc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/307506/original/file-20191217-58292-fp9hyc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/307506/original/file-20191217-58292-fp9hyc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/307506/original/file-20191217-58292-fp9hyc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/307506/original/file-20191217-58292-fp9hyc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/307506/original/file-20191217-58292-fp9hyc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/307506/original/file-20191217-58292-fp9hyc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">A veterinarian evaluates lameness in a horse’s lower limb.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lameness_(equine)#/media/File:Radio_ant_profil_01.jpg">Karlyne/Wikipedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>For the dog study, we <a href="http://www.newmetrica.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/Reid-et-al-2007.pdf">observed their behaviour</a> and also recorded the temperature of their eyes, as eye temperature usually increases with emotional arousal and decreases with pain. Again, we saw that dogs with higher scores for extroversion had clearer behavioural indicators of pain such as chewing the wound and whimpering. These dogs also had raised eye temperatures, which suggests a more pronounced emotional response. The eye temperatures of the more introverted dogs decreased after surgery, suggesting a more depressed response to pain.</p>
<p>So it seems that extroverted animals express their pain more obviously, just like in humans. We also think that more neurotic animals are more sensitive to pain in the same way as people, hopefully the next phase of our research will teach us more about this. It’s important to learn more because outward behaviour doesn’t always <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0168159118300674">reflect the internal emotional experience</a>. </p>
<p>Our pets are unique individuals just like we are – understanding this helps us recognise each animal’s individual needs so that we can provide for them. The more we pay attention to their individual differences the more we see in common with ourselves.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/128428/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Carrie Ijichi received funding from the Department of Education and Learning for part of this research.</span></em></p>Whether you’re a human, a dog or even a horse – how you handle pain will depend on how emotionally stable and guarded you are.Carrie Ijichi, Senior Lecturer in Animal Behaviour & Welfare, Nottingham Trent UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/718262017-01-25T06:06:26Z2017-01-25T06:06:26ZWhat your brain structure says about your personality<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/154050/original/image-20170124-26971-1b1cty9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Research can help explain why we get more chilled out as we age.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ruslan Guzov/Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>From <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/lifestyle/wellbeing/5125678/Foot-reading-what-your-toes-say-about-you.html">toe length</a> to <a href="http://uk.businessinsider.com/what-handwriting-says-about-your-personality-2015-1?r=US&IR=T">handwriting</a> and <a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/3112170.stmhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/3112170.stm">sleeping position</a>, there have been countless studies linking various features with specific personality traits. But these are of course just associations between incidental features – which toe length we happen to have does not, after all, shape who we are as individuals.</p>
<p>For that, we need to look at the brain and its complex anatomy. Now we have discovered striking structural differences in the brains of people with different personality types. We believe that the structural changes – seen as variations in the thickness, area and folding of the brain – may result from differences in development in early life.</p>
<p>I led the international team of researchers behind the study, published in Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience. We analysed the brains of over 500 healthy people aged 22 to 36 years. The structural brain scans were provided by the <a href="http://www.humanconnectomeproject.org/">Human Connectome Project</a>, a US project funded by the National Institutes of Health. </p>
<p>We evaluated personality traits using a questionnaire called the <a href="http://www.sigmaassessmentsystems.com/assessments/neo-five-factor-inventory-3/">NEO five factor inventory</a>. By doing this, we were able to divide the participants into the so-called <a href="http://pages.uoregon.edu/sanjay/bigfive.html">“big five” personality traits</a>: neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness and conscientiousness.</p>
<p>We found that neuroticism, a personality trait underlying mental illnesses such as anxiety disorders, was linked to a thicker cortex (the brain’s outer layer of neural tissue) and a smaller area and folding in some brain regions. Conversely, openness, a trait reflecting curiosity and creativity, was associated to thinner cortex and greater area and folding in the brain. The other personality traits were linked to other differences in brain structure, such as agreeableness, which was correlated with a thinner prefrontal cortex (this area is involved in tasks including processing empathy and other social skills). </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/154051/original/image-20170124-27009-zf92r6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/154051/original/image-20170124-27009-zf92r6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/154051/original/image-20170124-27009-zf92r6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/154051/original/image-20170124-27009-zf92r6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/154051/original/image-20170124-27009-zf92r6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/154051/original/image-20170124-27009-zf92r6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/154051/original/image-20170124-27009-zf92r6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">The folding of our brains seems to play a role in personality.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">_DJ_/Flickr</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
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<p>This is the first time the big five personality traits have been clearly linked to differences in brain thickness, area and folding in a large sample of healthy individuals. However we have <a href="http://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/map-of-teenage-brain-provides-strong-evidence-of-link-between-serious-antisocial-behaviour-and-brain">previously found</a> that the brains of teenagers with serious antisocial behavioural problems differ significantly in structure to those of their peers who do not display such disruptive behaviour.</p>
<p>The relation between differences in brain structure and personality in healthy people suggests that brain changes may be even more pronounced in people with mental illnesses. Linking the brain structure to basic personality traits is a crucial step to improving our understanding of mental disorders. In the future, it may even give us the opportunity to detect those who are at high risk of developing mental illnesses early, which has obvious implications for prompt intervention. </p>
<h2>Stretching the brain</h2>
<p>The differences are likely to stem from “cortical stretching”, a developmental process that shapes our brain in a way that maximises its area and amount of folding while minimising its thickness. In other words, as we grow up in the womb and throughout our life, the brain cortex – including the prefrontral cortex and all other parts of it – becomes thinner while its area and folding increase. It’s like stretching and folding a rubber sheet – this enhances its area, but, at the same time, the sheet gets thinner. </p>
<p>This supports the observation that we are often <a href="http://www.apa.org/monitor/julaug03/personality.aspx">more neurotic when we are young</a>. As we age, we learn how to deal with emotions and become more conscientious and agreeable.</p>
<p>The new study suggests that personality is strongly rooted in core principles that govern brain evolution. Indeed, cortical stretching is a key evolutionary process that has enabled the human brain to grow rapidly while still fitting into the skull.</p>
<p>The fact that there are such pronounced differences in brain structure between people with different personality types suggests personality is at least partly genetic. However, brain scans alone cannot get to the bottom of the causes of differences in personality. The next step will be to run studies that follow up people from young ages, to understand how their genes and the environment they are brought up in affect their brain maturation and personality.</p>
<p>Studies like this provide new pieces to the puzzle that is understanding human behaviour. While the fact that brain maturation plays an important role in shaping our personality is an important piece of research, it’s important that we don’t lose sight of the fact that genes aren’t everything. We should always nurture what’s good about our personalities and strive to become better people.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/71826/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Luca Passamonti receives funding from Medical Research Council.
Luca Passamonti is also affiliated with the National Research Council (Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche) in Italy (a government-funded research council in Italy).
Data were provided by the Human Connectome Project, WU-Minn Consortium (Principal Investigators: David Van Essen and Kamil Ugurbil; 1U54MH091657) funded by the 16 NIH Institutes and Centers that support the NIH Blueprint for Neuroscience Research; and by the McDonnell Center for Systems Neuroscience at Washington University. Data collection and sharing for this project was provided by the MGH-USC Human Connectome Project. The HCP project is supported by the National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research (NIDCR), the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) and the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS).. HCP is also the result of efforts of co-investigators from the University of Southern California, Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging at Massachusetts General Hospital (MGH), Washington University, and the University of Minnesota.</span></em></p>Are you neurotic? This may be due to a thick cerebral cortexLuca Passamonti, Clinical Research Associate, University of CambridgeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/571682016-04-19T10:07:57Z2016-04-19T10:07:57ZWhy grammar mistakes in a short email could make some people judge you<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/118927/original/image-20160415-11155-yk1jxv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Who is more sensitive to email errors?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/robinhutton/11046211453/in/photolist-hQ7HPB-9fqVcZ-2ddor-bzrEQ-6PLZxi-iNu3o-2x12za-iNvHn-4jX6af-iNtz1-iNvGY-gn4ks-48BW8T-jj2LxD-6tMm78-hEGNwB-8qhoPU-5hPdkc-6wUXoY-7TT3jY-eh8L4D-qUdJ2A-5X9uMJ-2Yxwou-2jBH7N-oMzfd6-hpHEFo-rpUXf-fVep9z-5XPo9h-4me9DH-7dkfS2-cTFHUf-97wA5w-4hZkPw-fSng3o-9DpnHN-7kzY6e-6jjhJy-aMyJY-bfcu2D-5X5g4k-8YQ25-cMcE7-M5NcQ-39tXB-br4N2m-5ntDNv-Hzcca-7YGoH9">Robin Hutton</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>I’m a cognitive psychologist who studies language comprehension. If I see an <a href="https://www.airbnb.com/rooms/2375030#_=_">ad for a vacation rental</a> that says “Your going to Hollywood!” it really bugs me. But my collaborator, Robin Queen, a sociolinguist, who studies how language use varies across social groups, is not annoyed by those errors at all. </p>
<p>We were curious: what makes our reactions so different?</p>
<p>We didn’t think the difference was due to our professional specialties. So we did some research to find out what makes some people more sensitive to writing mistakes than others.</p>
<h2>What prior research tells us</h2>
<p>Writing errors often appear in text messages, emails, web posts and other types of informal electronic communication. In fact, these errors have interested other scholars as well. </p>
<p>Several years before our study, Jane Vignovic and <a href="http://www.iotech4d.org/dr-lori-foster-thompson/">Lori Foster Thompson</a>, who are psychologists at North Carolina State University, conducted an experiment <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0018628">about vetting a potential new colleague</a>, based only on an email message. </p>
<p>College students who read the email messages perceived the writer to be less conscientious, intelligent and trustworthy when the message contained many grammatical errors, compared to the same message without any errors. </p>
<p>And at our own University of Michigan, Randall J. Hucks, a doctoral student in business administration, was studying how spelling errors in online peer-to-peer loan requests at LendingTree.com affected the likelihood of funding. He found that spelling errors <a href="http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/handle/2027.42/113335">led to worse outcomes</a> on multiple dimensions.</p>
<p>In both of these studies, readers judged strangers harshly simply because of writing errors.</p>
<h2>Typos vs. grammos</h2>
<p>Over the last several years, we conducted a series of experiments to investigate how written errors change a reader’s interpretation of the message, including the inferences that the reader makes about the writer. </p>
<p>For our <a href="http://doi.org/10.1515/lingvan-2015-0011">original experiments</a>, we recruited college students to be our readers, and for our most <a href="http://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0149885">recent experiment</a>, we recruited people from across the country who differed widely in terms of age and level of education. </p>
<p>In all of our experiments, we asked our participants for information about themselves (e.g., age, gender), literacy behaviors (e.g., time spent pleasure reading, texts per day), and attitudes (e.g., How important is good grammar?). In the most recent experiment, we also gave participants a <a href="https://www.ocf.berkeley.edu/%7Ejohnlab/bfi.htm">personality test</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/118932/original/image-20160415-11155-o7z9ki.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/118932/original/image-20160415-11155-o7z9ki.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118932/original/image-20160415-11155-o7z9ki.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118932/original/image-20160415-11155-o7z9ki.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118932/original/image-20160415-11155-o7z9ki.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118932/original/image-20160415-11155-o7z9ki.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118932/original/image-20160415-11155-o7z9ki.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Responses to errors in emails depend on personality types.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/peskylibrary/2414318190/in/photolist-4Fm1FG-u7ys4-9NRZrn-Dm1pi-dRfkA8-Lq1u5-3fEWCg-7w9q1G-7EEYi8-6ezy5c-e7XEyZ-ekHpdy-dNHCvV-2ukyy5-ckPF4-nmpK3R-motb3-8tgUQX-DS8V7-4seQeo-8LjQce-9zZVbh-ferjFR-8KmyiG-ksAY5n-4fWxMs-9qgV29-7tVY8m-en1gXd-98zxjk-kjjLfk-kNqsQH-h5R7nq-6vg19a-dYAWU-quG7iV-fugNFK-8CwGMT-dyQ27S-FvhUn-ancL5U-eFfkue-8amY99-n8KVBh-bHBmbz-dYB9b-VeacC-8jebih-7Ek5rj-8jaTkt">Pesky Librarians</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In each experiment, we told our participants to pretend that they had posted an ad for a housemate and gotten 12 email responses. After reading each email, the participants rated the writer as a potential housemate, and on other factors like intelligence, friendliness, laziness, etc. </p>
<p>In fact, we had created three versions of each email. One version had no mistakes. One version included a few typos, e.g. <em>abuot</em> for <em>about</em>. Another version had errors involving words that people often mix up, such as <em>there</em> for <em>their</em> (we called these grammos).</p>
<p>Everyone read four normal messages, four with “typos,” and four with “grammos.” Different people read the other versions of each message, so that we could separate responses to the errors from responses to the message content.</p>
<h2>Errors matter – but to whom?</h2>
<p>In all of our experiments, readers rated the writers as less desirable if the emails included either typos or grammos. We expected this based on the earlier research, described above. In addition, people differed in their sensitivity to the two types of errors.</p>
<p>For example, college students who reported higher use of electronic media were less sensitive to the errors, though time spent pleasure reading had no effect. Prior research on writing errors had not compared types of errors, nor collected information about the readers, in order to see which reader characteristics influenced interpretation.</p>
<p>Both of these strategies for understanding how errors impact interpretation are unique to our research. </p>
<p>Perhaps the most interesting finding is from the experiment in which we gave participants the personality test. It measured the five traits considered to be important in personality research: extraversion (i.e. how outgoing or social a person is), agreeableness, openness to experience, conscientiousness and neuroticism (prone to anxiety, fear, moodiness). </p>
<p>This experiment involved adults who varied a lot in age and education, but those differences didn’t affect their interpretation of the writing errors.</p>
<p>Unlike the initial study with college students, use of electronic media had no effect. What mattered were the personality traits: people responded to the writing errors based on their personality type.</p>
<p>People who scored high in conscientiousness or low on the “open-to-experience” trait were more bothered by the typos. People who scored low on agreeability were more bothered by the grammos. And people who scored low on “extraversion” were more bothered by both types of errors. In contrast, how people scored on neuroticism did not alter the impact of either type of error. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/118173/original/image-20160411-21989-ki34nf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=6%2C231%2C1830%2C1119&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/118173/original/image-20160411-21989-ki34nf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118173/original/image-20160411-21989-ki34nf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118173/original/image-20160411-21989-ki34nf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118173/original/image-20160411-21989-ki34nf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118173/original/image-20160411-21989-ki34nf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118173/original/image-20160411-21989-ki34nf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Personality traits that influence reactions to writing errors.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Julie Boland</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Remember, by being bothered we mean that the reader gave lower ratings on the housemate questionnaire to writers who made that type of error.</p>
<h2>Why a short email could matter</h2>
<p>Our findings – that our personality influences our interpretation of a message – complement other research that has found that our personality influences what we say and how we say it. </p>
<p>In 2015, <a href="http://gregorypark.org/">Gregory Park</a> and other researchers at the University of Pennsylvania and the University of Cambridge <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=en&user=sXaHW_sAAAAJ&citation_for_view=sXaHW_sAAAAJ:XoXfffV-tXoC">analyzed Facebook posts</a> from more than 66,000 users who had also completed a personality test based on the same five personality traits that we measured in our study. They found the use of words like <em>love, party</em> and <em>amazing</em> are correlated with extraversion, while the words <em>sick, hate</em> and <em>anymore</em> are correlated with neuroticism. </p>
<p>This research <a href="http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2010.04.001">built upon</a> <a href="http://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145041">earlier work</a> by researchers <a href="http://talyarkoni.org/">Tal Yarkoni</a> and <a href="http://homepage.psy.utexas.edu/homepage/faculty/pennebaker/home2000/jwphome.htm">James W. Pennebaker</a>. </p>
<p>While reading our research, two key points need to be kept in mind. First, we think that errors influenced readers’ perception of the writer mainly because the writer was otherwise unknown – the short email was the only basis for judgment. Second, we didn’t ask the readers how likely they were to point out errors to the people who make them. </p>
<p>So, it doesn’t necessarily follow from our study that your friends will view you more negatively if you don’t proofread your email messages, or that you can predict which people will call you on it based on their personality.</p>
<p>But, you might want to keep these findings in mind when you write for an unknown audience or when you read something from someone you don’t know.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/57168/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Writing errors often appear in text messages, emails and other types of informal electronic communication. These errors matter when a short email is the only basis for judgment.Julie Boland, Professor of Psychology and Linguistics, University of MichiganRobin Queen, Professor of Linguistics, English Language and Literatures and Germanic Languages and Literatures, University of MichiganLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/492132015-10-19T19:05:55Z2015-10-19T19:05:55ZAnxious conservative or easygoing rebel? Busting the birth-order myths<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/98797/original/image-20151019-7748-19v3bto.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Birth order clearly matters, just not for personality.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/charamelody/5258526958/">charamelody/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Anyone with siblings knows they can differ from us in maddening ways. They share our parents and our family history, but their personalities can be so different. Birth order offers an intuitively appealing explanation for these perplexing differences. </p>
<p>The only problem is, it’s a myth. </p>
<p>Psychologists have speculated on the effects of birth order on personality for well over a century. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Galton">Sir Francis Galton</a> – pioneer of statistics, fingerprint analysis, weather maps and <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/2006-01672-004">arithmetic by smell</a> – supposed that firstborn children benefited from greater responsibility and undivided parental attention. As a result they were over-represented among high achievers. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/98798/original/image-20151019-7789-1m9d7d0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/98798/original/image-20151019-7789-1m9d7d0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/98798/original/image-20151019-7789-1m9d7d0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98798/original/image-20151019-7789-1m9d7d0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98798/original/image-20151019-7789-1m9d7d0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98798/original/image-20151019-7789-1m9d7d0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98798/original/image-20151019-7789-1m9d7d0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98798/original/image-20151019-7789-1m9d7d0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Firstborns are thought to have more authoritarian tendencies.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/22280677@N07/4158482035/">Sean/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Adler">Alfred Adler</a>, protégé of Sigmund Freud, argued that the dethroning of firstborns by younger siblings left an enduring impression on their character. </p>
<p>Firstborns, he argued, feel weighed down by responsibility and have neurotic and authoritarian tendencies. Laterborn siblings are often overindulged and seek creative alternatives to conventional achievement.</p>
<p>Frank Sulloway’s <a href="http://www.sulloway.org/borntorebel.html">Born to Rebel</a>, published in 1996, made the strongest case for birth-order effects on personality. Referring to the popular <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Five_personality_traits">big five personality traits</a>, he proposed that firstborns tend to be more conscientiousness and neurotic than laterborns, are less agreeable and less open to new experiences. In essence, firstborns are anxious conservatives and laterborns are easygoing rebels.</p>
<p>Scouring the historical record, Sulloway found that laterborns were more likely than firstborns to support the French Revolution and the Protestant Reformation. They were also more likely to be at the vanguard of scientific revolutions, such as Darwin’s theory of evolution.</p>
<p>These links between personality and birth order ring true for many people. But decades of research have failed to show any consistent and substantial association between birth order and any personality trait. </p>
<p>Two studies published this month should drive the final nails into the coffin of birth-order effects.</p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/98801/original/image-20151019-7756-9utkol.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/98801/original/image-20151019-7756-9utkol.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98801/original/image-20151019-7756-9utkol.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98801/original/image-20151019-7756-9utkol.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98801/original/image-20151019-7756-9utkol.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98801/original/image-20151019-7756-9utkol.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98801/original/image-20151019-7756-9utkol.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Any differences in their personalities may simply reflect firstborns’ greater maturity.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/criminalintent/6845667576/">Lars Plougmann/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In the first study, published today in the <a href="http://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Science</a>, researchers examined the big five traits (openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness and neuroticism) in very large samples from the United States, Great Britain and Germany. </p>
<p>In every sample, there was no statistically reliable link between any trait and birth order, after controlling for factors such as gender, age and family size. Firstborns did not differ from laterborns, either when comparing siblings from different families or within the same family.</p>
<p>The <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0092656615000525">second study</a> examined the big five traits in 377,000 American high school students. </p>
<p>After statistically controlling for gender, age, family size, socioeconomic status and family structure, associations between personality and birth order were uniformly tiny. </p>
<p>The trivially small effects they found also contradicted common beliefs about birth-order effects. Firstborns were very slightly more conscientious than laterborns, but they were also very slightly more agreeable and less neurotic, contrary to expectation.</p>
<p>If the evidence for birth-order effects on personality is so flimsy, why do people continue to believe in them? This belief is a classic example of what psychologists call “<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illusory_correlation">illusory correlation</a>”: the conviction that two things are associated when they are not.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/98787/original/image-20151019-7751-1axumuy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/98787/original/image-20151019-7751-1axumuy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98787/original/image-20151019-7751-1axumuy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98787/original/image-20151019-7751-1axumuy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98787/original/image-20151019-7751-1axumuy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98787/original/image-20151019-7751-1axumuy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98787/original/image-20151019-7751-1axumuy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">There is no statistically reliable link between any trait and birth order.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/jdennes/5106744234/">James Dennes/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>One reason for this illusory belief is that birth order is confounded with age. Any differences in sibling personalities may simply reflect firstborns’ greater maturity. </p>
<p>Conscientiousness, for instance, increases over the course of childhood development. So, at any given time, firstborn children will tend to be more conscientious than their laterborn siblings.</p>
<p>A second reason for the illusory correlation involves birth-order stereotypes. People who are aware of common beliefs about birth order will bias their perceptions to confirm their expectations, even in the absence of supportive evidence. </p>
<p>This dynamic accounts for supposed correlations between astrological star signs and personality traits. Some weak associations exist, but only among people who are aware of the traits associated with their sign. These people perceive their personalities through the distorting lens of their <a href="http://www.amazon.com/Astrology-Superstition-Nias-David-Eysenck/dp/0140223975">astrological expectations</a>.</p>
<p>The third reason for illusory correlations between personality and birth order is overgeneralisation. Birth order may indeed be associated with differences in behaviour in the context of early family life. </p>
<p>Older siblings may tend to be more dominant and responsible; young ones to be more indulged and free-spirited. However, differences in specific roles within the narrow confines of the childhood family environment do not generalise to broad, enduring personality traits in the big wide world of adult life. </p>
<p>But while birth-order effects on personality are illusory, it is now generally accepted that birth order influences IQ. Both studies mentioned earlier support this link. </p>
<p>On average, laterborn children are somewhat less intelligent than firstborns. Six times out of ten, the second of a pair of siblings will score lower on IQ than the first. </p>
<p>Birth-order effects may also extend to physical health. A <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0277953614007308">recent study</a> of more than 200,000 Swedish military conscripts found that firstborns have somewhat greater cardiovascular fitness than laterborns. </p>
<p><a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs13524-015-0377-2#page-1">Another study</a> of more than one million Swedes found firstborns were significantly less likely to die prematurely, especially of accidents and suicide. </p>
<p>Birth order clearly matters, just not for personality. Siblings loom large in our lives, and the extent of their individuality can be striking. Their differences cry out for an explanation, which unfounded ideas about birth order provide.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Nick will be on hand for an Author Q&A between 10 and 11am AEDT on Wednesday, October 21, 2015. Post your questions in the comments section below.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/49213/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nick Haslam does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Birth order offers an intuitively appealing explanation for the perplexing differences between us and our siblings. Only problem is, it’s a myth.Nick Haslam, Professor of Psychology, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/466132015-08-27T20:01:47Z2015-08-27T20:01:47ZAre creative people more prone to psychological distress or is the ‘mad genius’ a myth?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/93153/original/image-20150827-364-rggqcx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The idea of a common biological cause for the association between psychological distress and creativity is clearly an attractive one.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/jox1989/5829963058/">Gioia De Antoniis/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2015.07.003">A new theory</a> for why neurotic unhappiness and creativity are often found in the same person suggests the link results from the fact that the same part of the brain is responsible for both.</p>
<p>The theory, published today, holds that there are parts of the brain that control the number of spontaneous thoughts someone has, and how much they daydream and let their minds wander. People differ in the activity of these brain regions, so they experience a different number of spontaneous thoughts. </p>
<p>These same brain regions are also important for controlling the negativity of thoughts. Some spontaneous thoughts will thus be more negative in tone, turning into a negative thinking style, such as rumination or worry. And these negative thinking styles <a href="http://guilfordjournals.com/doi/abs/10.1521/ijct.2008.1.3.192">make people vulnerable</a> to psychological distress. But other thoughts will be more reflective and imaginative, increasing the chances of creative outcomes.</p>
<p>The idea of a common biological cause for the association between psychological distress and creativity is attractive. But is the assumption that creative people are more neurotic actually true? Are there really “mad geniuses” in our midst?</p>
<h2>A headache for researchers</h2>
<p>That psychological distress and creativity go hand in hand is one of the many common lay ideas about human psychology. The link has been highlighted in revelations of the personal battles of artists, writers, musicians and other people pursing creative endeavours. </p>
<p>Some, such as the stories of pianist David Helfgott (<a href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0117631/">Shine</a>, 1996) and mathematician John Nash (<a href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0268978/?ref_=nv_sr_1">A Beautiful Mind</a>, 2001), have even captured Hollywood’s imagination, fuelling the idea of the link. But what about scientific evidence?</p>
<p>To investigate, researchers have typically either compared the psychological distress of people in creative and non-creative professions, or compared the creativity of people with and without psychological distress. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/93151/original/image-20150827-372-1iuseun.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/93151/original/image-20150827-372-1iuseun.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=523&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/93151/original/image-20150827-372-1iuseun.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=523&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/93151/original/image-20150827-372-1iuseun.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=523&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/93151/original/image-20150827-372-1iuseun.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=658&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/93151/original/image-20150827-372-1iuseun.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=658&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/93151/original/image-20150827-372-1iuseun.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=658&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Researchers have typically either compared the psychological distress of people in creative and non-creative professions, or compared the creativity of people with and without psychological distress.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/rosengrant/3572847910/">B Rosen/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>Unfortunately, they’ve used different methods to measure creativity as well as psychological distress. For example, to measure the latter, studies may use interviews to diagnose mental disorders or questionnaires to assess personality traits such as neuroticism.</p>
<h2>From the beginning</h2>
<p>Research on psychological distress and creativity <a href="http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/abs/10.1176/ajp.144.10.1288">began in the 1980s</a> and <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2734415">early studies in the field</a> have often been cited to support a link. But much of this work has recently been criticised for using small and specialised samples of people and for a <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/2009-06908-006">lack of scientifically rigorous methodology</a>.</p>
<p>Criticisms have also been levelled at the <a href="http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00163/full">field of “mad genius” research</a> as a whole. The use of different measures of psychological distress and <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24512614">creativity in different studies</a>, for instance, makes it difficult to compare studies and get a fuller picture.</p>
<p>It has been suggested that this inconsistency of measures has contributed to contradictory findings. Neuroticism has been shown to be <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00221329709596653#.Vd21b_mNNtR">linked to creativity in one study</a>, for instance, but <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0092656696900136">not in another</a> that used a different measure of creativity.</p>
<p>Indeed, the whole field has been criticised for the <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24512614">absence of a good measure for creativity</a>, and for using <a href="http://www.karger.com/Article/Abstract/357822">dubious methods to assess</a> psychological distress. But the absence of quality evidence of a link is not evidence for the absence of that link.</p>
<h2>Some relief</h2>
<p>Recently, there have been some attempts to look at the literature on psychological distress and creativity as a whole to try to find patterns across studies (granted the criticisms noted above). </p>
<p><a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22088366">One critical review paper</a>, for instance, suggested an association between bipolar disorder and creativity. Another suggested creativity is <a href="http://www.karger.com/Article/FullText/357822">linked with bipolar disorder as well as schizotypy</a> (a personality trait related to schizophrenia).</p>
<p>Notably, these research papers are only qualitative reviews. They summarise patterns of associations but the size of associations they’ve found (between bipolar disorder and creativity, for instance) are not estimated.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/93150/original/image-20150827-378-i80lyb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/93150/original/image-20150827-378-i80lyb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/93150/original/image-20150827-378-i80lyb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/93150/original/image-20150827-378-i80lyb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/93150/original/image-20150827-378-i80lyb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=516&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/93150/original/image-20150827-378-i80lyb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=516&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/93150/original/image-20150827-378-i80lyb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=516&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Some recent papers have suggested links between creativity and bipolar disorder.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/ssoosay/6016311183/">Surian Soosay/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>Quantitative reviews such as meta-analyses can estimate the size of such associations because they’re based on multiple studies. And <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15647135">one meta-analysis</a> has shown neuroticism is only trivially associated with creativity. Sadly, such meta-analyses are generally lacking in the field.</p>
<h2>U-shaped you</h2>
<p>The good news is that large-scale studies with more rigorous methodology have recently started to be undertaken. <a href="http://bjp.rcpsych.org/content/199/5/373.long">One 2011 study</a>, for instance, found that people with bipolar disorder were more likely to work in creative occupations – scientific or artistic – than people without the disorder. And those with schizophrenia were similarly found to be more likely to work in an artistic occupation. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022395612002804">Another large study</a> in 2013 found a greater likelihood of bipolar disorder among people in creative professions compared to matched groups. But people in creative professions were not more likely to be diagnosed with other disorders, such as schizophrenia, depression and anxiety disorders.</p>
<p>Researchers contend that <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/aca/8/1/53/">one of the more consistent findings</a> in the field is that people with “a small dose” of psychological distress might actually be more creative than people without psychological distress <em>and</em> people with extreme levels of such distress. This has been been described as <a href="http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00750/full">a U-shaped relationship</a>.</p>
<p>As you’ve probably guessed by now, the state of this field of psychological research makes it difficult to provide a definitive answer to the question of whether there really is a link between psychological distress and creativity. All we can say for now is that the more recent research suggests a link between creativity and certain forms of psychological distress – possibly in small doses.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/46613/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dr. Quincy J. J. Wong is supported by a National Health and Medical Research Council Early Career Fellowship (APP1037618).
</span></em></p>Researchers have suggested a new theory for why neurotic unhappiness and creativity are often found in the same person. But is the assumption that creative people are more neurotic actually true?Quincy Wong, NHMRC Early Career Fellow (Psychology), Macquarie UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.