tag:theconversation.com,2011:/africa/topics/pupils-3556/articlesPupils – The Conversation2020-02-07T14:07:34Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1301562020-02-07T14:07:34Z2020-02-07T14:07:34ZRunning a mile a day can make children healthier – here’s how schools can make it more fun<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/313802/original/file-20200205-149772-1hkofgp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=1%2C10%2C957%2C625&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The Daily Mile gets children out of the classroom for fifteen minutes every day to run or jog, at their own pace.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.facebook.com/thedailymile.uk/photos/a.634705280010769/1581957871952167/?type=3&theater">The Daily Mile </a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Children today <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/detail/24-04-2019-to-grow-up-healthy-children-need-to-sit-less-and-play-more">spend more time sitting</a> than ever before. And <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41366-019-0459-0#Ack1%20%22External%20website">research shows</a> that as they grow up, children tend to become more sedentary and less active.</p>
<p>This is where The <a href="https://theconversation.com/when-kids-run-for-15-minutes-in-school-every-day-heres-what-happens-to-their-health-96371">Daily Mile</a>, a teacher-led running programme for primary school children, aims to make a difference. Designed by a <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/education/2015/sep/28/daily-mile-school-st-ninians-stirling-scotland">headteacher</a> in Scotland in 2012 in a bid to get children more active, the concept involves children running laps of the playground or school playing fields for 15 minutes everyday. Its simple design combined with political, <a href="https://thedailymile.co.uk/media-centre/news/press-release-the-mayor-of-london-and-sir-mo-farah-back-the-daily-mile/">public health and celebrity endorsement</a> has seen it expand to over 10,000 schools in 78 countries worldwide. </p>
<p>Recent <a href="https://bmcmedicine.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12916-018-1049-z">research</a> has shown that The Daily Mile may help children become fitter and reduce their body fat. But with over <a href="https://thedailymile.co.uk/">2.3 million children</a> taking part over the last eight years, we wanted to find out what school children thought of The Daily Mile. </p>
<p>In our <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0228149">new research</a> that we conducted with our primary school health <a href="https://theconversation.com/schools-shouldnt-be-left-alone-to-deal-with-child-health-and-well-being-any-longer-69579">network</a>, <a href="https://happen-wales.co.uk/">HAPPEN</a>, we found that The Daily Mile can make a massive difference to children’s lives. It makes children realise they are good at running, that running is something they can do with friends and most importantly that they can have fun being active. </p>
<p>By talking to pupils, we also found that how schools promote The Daily Mile can greatly affect children’s experiences of it – and a lot of those we spoke to had great ideas on how to make it more fun and engaging. </p>
<h2>What the kids say</h2>
<p>On the whole, pupils enjoyed taking part in The Daily Mile but some also spoke of it becoming repetitive and boring. Pupils suggested playing music while running, setting up an obstacle course or running with a buddy around the mile to make it more interactive and fun.</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I like it because you can run with your friends and also listen to music, but it could be better by adding obstacles in maybe, hurdles or something</p>
</blockquote>
<p>This is important as research shows that finding a form of physical activity that <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0277953616301733?via%253Dihub">you enjoy</a> increases the likelihood of you starting and <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338630390_A_Meta-Analysis_of_Self-Determination_Theory-Informed_Intervention_Studies_in_the_Health_Domain_Effects_on_Motivation_Health_Behavior_Physical_and_Psychological_Health">maintaining</a> a <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17437190903229462">physically active lifestyle</a>.</p>
<p>In our research, children also told us they didn’t like it when The Daily Mile replaced their play time – as is the case in some schools. One of the children we spoke to told us:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>If it wasn’t taking up our play time which is one of the fun moments of the day, then I would do it, because it is during play I don’t really want to do it.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Indeed, play is an essential component of child development and there has been a recent emphasis on the importance of <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/2019/05/10/school-playtime-becoming-thing-past-generation-children-new/">protecting</a> the ever decreasing opportunities of school play times.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/313803/original/file-20200205-149789-rcyixh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/313803/original/file-20200205-149789-rcyixh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313803/original/file-20200205-149789-rcyixh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313803/original/file-20200205-149789-rcyixh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313803/original/file-20200205-149789-rcyixh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313803/original/file-20200205-149789-rcyixh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313803/original/file-20200205-149789-rcyixh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Daily Mile: making children fitter, healthier and more able to concentrate in the classroom.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.facebook.com/thedailymile.uk/photos/a.634705280010769/1524633864351235/?type=3&theater">The Daily Mile</a>, <a class="license" href="http://artlibre.org/licence/lal/en">FAL</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Some pupils also told us how they thrived at the competitive aspect of The Daily Mile, but others were worried about “finishing last”. Encouraging pupils to set their own personal goals helped to tackle this and enabled children to see improvements in their running.</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Well I know it’s supposed to improve your running, and it did for me because at the start I couldn’t really run long distance, but now I can run about 36 laps nonstop running.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Pupils in our study also reported enjoying The Daily Mile more when teachers ran it with them. </p>
<blockquote>
<p>I think the teachers should start running it, because they’re just like standing there while we’re doing all the running and I feel like they should be doing it … If they joined in I would run more.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>We also found that some schools would organise termly launch events to create excitement and enthusiasm in school around The Daily Mile – with parents, other family members and the wider community getting involved too. Pupils told us how much they enjoyed this, along with meeting local sporting celebrities who supported The Daily Mile. </p>
<h2>Long term impact</h2>
<p>Tackling health inequalities remains a <a href="https://gov.wales/sites/default/files/publications/2019-06/measuring-the-health-and-well-being-of-a-nation.pdf">public health priority</a>. So as part of our research we also wanted to see if the impact of The Daily Mile on children’s fitness differed between children living in poorer and wealthier areas. We found that deprivation didn’t matter – our findings seem to indicate that The Daily Mile can improve the fitness of all children. </p>
<p>While this positive news is to be welcomed, our research also highlights the importance of involving children in the design and delivery of programmes like The Daily Mile. As their great ideas could help to create meaningful and enjoyable experiences and encourage a lifetime habit of physical activity.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/130156/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Emily Marchant receives funding from ESRC and the National Centre for Population Health and Wellbeing Research (NCPHWR). </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Charlotte Todd receives funding from the National Centre for Population Health and Wellbeing Research (NCPHWR)</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gareth Stratton receives funding from Wales European Funding Office, British Heart Foundation, British Academy</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michaela James receives funding from the National Centre for Population Health and Wellbeing Research (NCPHWR)</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sinead Brophy receives funding from Health Care Research Wales, MRC, ESRC. </span></em></p>From obstacle courses to playing music, school children give their thoughts on how to make a daily run more exciting.Emily Marchant, PhD Researcher in Medical Studies, Swansea UniversityCharlotte Todd, Research Assistant in Child Health and Well-being, Swansea UniversityGareth Stratton, Chair in Paediatric Exercise Science, Swansea UniversityMichaela James, Research Assistant in Childhood Physical Activity, Swansea UniversitySinead Brophy, Professor in Public Health Data Science, Swansea UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1208102020-01-30T11:49:08Z2020-01-30T11:49:08ZTeachers less likely to take phones away from white, privileged children<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/312843/original/file-20200130-41507-1pn5nzu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=32%2C32%2C5431%2C3604&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/two-teen-students-sneakily-looking-smart-585788537">Shutterstock/DGLimages</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>For many children today, before they even start school they are already digitally literate. They know how to use a phone, make videos and take photographs. This is to be welcomed given <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/current-and-future-demand-for-digital-skills-in-the-workplace">government research</a> has found that 82% of all advertised openings require some level of digital skills.</p>
<p>But our <a href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/695766">new research</a> with schools in the US and France shows that teachers perceive the benefits and harms of tech use for students differently depending on the student’s race, social class and disability status. </p>
<p>We found that teachers are more likely to see technology use by marginalised students as “messing around” and unhelpful to learning, but when it comes to their more privileged peers, teachers are more likely to see the benefits. </p>
<h2>Tech at school</h2>
<p>Our research looked at the day-to-day uses of technology in two countries and 12 schools. We investigated tech use in three US middle schools with different student demographics. We also collaborated with a French education service provider for blind children and nine of the primary, middle and high schools it works with in France.</p>
<p>In the US, in a predominantly white, private school, we found that educational technologies were not only welcomed, but nearly all uses of technology by students (including video games) were treated by the school as potentially useful for education. Social media, often vilified elsewhere, was seen as just another part of a college application: used to showcase dedication in areas such as sports or photography.</p>
<p>But in other middle schools – including one with mostly working-class students of Latin American origin or descent and another that had mostly middle-class, Asian American students – social media was perceived as irrelevant and, at times, even threatening to learning. Teachers at these schools felt students had enough to do learning the basics of programming and office software.</p>
<h2>Excluding disabled students</h2>
<p>France recently became the first country to impose a so-called <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/20/world/europe/france-smartphones-schools.html">“ban” on smartphones at school</a>. The new law enables schools <a href="https://www.service-public.fr/particuliers/actualites/A12828">to write their own smartphone policies</a>. This includes allowing smartphones for learning purposes or in certain areas of schools and banning them in others. </p>
<p>In France, we found that legitimate phone use in the classroom was in many instances now also forbidden. And visually impaired middle- and high-school students, who increasingly rely on their smartphones to be able to participate in school life and learning activities, found themselves unable to do so. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/312025/original/file-20200127-81369-yf2926.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/312025/original/file-20200127-81369-yf2926.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/312025/original/file-20200127-81369-yf2926.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/312025/original/file-20200127-81369-yf2926.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/312025/original/file-20200127-81369-yf2926.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/312025/original/file-20200127-81369-yf2926.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/312025/original/file-20200127-81369-yf2926.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Tech can help students to connect what they are learning to real life.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/smiling-school-kids-using-digital-tablet-574078363">wavebreakmedia</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This adds to existing forms of discrimination, such as the widespread practice to sit these students apart from their peers, because of concerns that using a computer may <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360131512002254">impair the learning of nearby students</a>. </p>
<p>And in this sense, our findings show that if strategies to discipline smartphone use in schools are not carefully considered and implemented, they may simply reproduce inequality or even create new divides. This is why it’s important this phenomenon is looked at more broadly, in a larger number of schools and countries.</p>
<h2>Widening tech access</h2>
<p>Libraries and museums, often show how tech can be <a href="https://youmedia.org">playfully and responsibly embedded in young people’s lives</a>. Indeed, Catherine Cormier, programme manager at The Mix at <a href="https://sfpl.org/">San Francisco Public Library</a> – a free space and digital media lab for teens to “<a href="https://themixatsfpl.org/">connect, explore, learn and hang out</a>” – explains how equal access to technological resources for all teens can help to bridge the social divide in tech:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Teens have little confidence that they can do something adults will find worthwhile with technologies. We try to meet them where they are – often [with] video games. Mostly I try to establish boundaries [or structures rather than] barriers – as rigid barriers always exclude kids who need us. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>This is important because more and more jobs require applicants to have <a href="https://www.brookings.edu/research/digitalization-and-the-american-workforce/">digital skills</a>. Indeed, a <a href="https://www.nesta.org.uk/news/nesta-identifies-the-digital-skills-required-for-a-future-proof-job/">study by the charity Nesta</a> found that not all digital skills will be equally valuable in the future and the most beneficial ones will involve creativity – such as animation skills, multimedia production and design in engineering.</p>
<p>So instead of forbidding technology use, all young people should be supported in their explorations. And this begins with showing interest and providing space for students’ current digital practices, be they video games, social media, video calls or vlogging.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/120810/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Emeline Brulé has received funding from the French National Research Agency (for the Accessimap Project). </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Matt Rafalow does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Privileged children get to use phones in school while others face bans for ‘messing around’‘.Emeline Brulé, Lecturer in Product Design, University of SussexMatt Rafalow, Sociologist and Visiting Scholar, University of California, BerkeleyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1286772019-12-16T10:23:49Z2019-12-16T10:23:49ZConservative parliamentary majority: what it could mean for schools<p>How will schools fare under a new Conservative government that’s in a strong position to implement its manifesto commitments?</p>
<p>Although much of the Conservative manifesto signalled a business as usual approach to education policy, <a href="https://assets-global.website-files.com/5da42e2cae7ebd3f8bde353c/5dda924905da587992a064ba_Conservative%25202019%2520Manifesto.pdf">there was the big promise</a> of £14 billion extra funding for schools – though this was a reaffirmation of <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/news/prime-minister-boosts-schools-with-14-billion-package">a pledge made by the prime minister, Boris Johnson, in August</a>.</p>
<p>The funding will be delivered over the next three years: £2.6 billion in 2020-21, increasing to £4.8 billion in 2021-22 and £7.1 billion in 2022-23. According to <a href="https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/publication/performance-tracker-2019/schools">some commentators</a>, this should bring real-terms funding per pupil back to 2010 levels – when funding was at its highest. </p>
<p>On the steps of Number 10, the morning after the election, Johnson once again promised “more money for schools”. But with <a href="https://theconversation.com/school-funding-promised-increases-are-actually-real-term-cuts-and-poorer-schools-are-hit-hardest-123618">increasing costs and rising pupil numbers</a> this <a href="https://theconversation.com/headteachers-march-the-school-funding-protests-explained-104012">may not equate to a real-terms increase</a> – as has been the case before.</p>
<h2>More money, fewer teachers?</h2>
<p>Alongside the funding boost also comes a promise of higher expenditure, with starting salaries for teachers of £30,000 a year. Again here, the manifesto restates <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/news/30000-starting-salaries-proposed-for-teachers">an earlier promise</a>, and what a promise – for some newly qualified teachers this would be a 20% boost on their current salary. </p>
<p>There’s no indication of whether there would be comparable or knock-on uplifts for more experienced teachers, though Gavin Williamson, secretary of state for education, <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/832425/SoS_to_STRB_Sept_2019.pdf">suggested that</a> “flatter pay progression” structures in schools will be encouraged.</p>
<p>But school leaders will be agonising over the question of whether the funding injection, estimated at <a href="https://www.ifs.org.uk/election/2019/article/conservative-manifesto-an-initial-reaction-from-ifs-researchers">7.5% by the The Institute for Fiscal Studies</a>, will be sufficient to cover the additional costs of new teachers. If not, a promise that ought to attract more into the profession may actually lead to <a href="https://theconversation.com/heres-the-real-reason-teachers-are-quitting-its-not-just-the-money-55468">fewer teachers in schools</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/306842/original/file-20191213-85391-13hriq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/306842/original/file-20191213-85391-13hriq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/306842/original/file-20191213-85391-13hriq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/306842/original/file-20191213-85391-13hriq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/306842/original/file-20191213-85391-13hriq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/306842/original/file-20191213-85391-13hriq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/306842/original/file-20191213-85391-13hriq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">More money for new teachers, but schools could still financially struggle.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/teacher-sitting-table-her-classroom-primary-634019516?src=f522c7db-8bfc-4c2d-bdeb-f0221d702275-1-1&studio=1">DGLimages/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The government is also promising an additional £780 million package to support children with special educational needs. This money, distributed through local authorities, will go some way towards mitigating the £1.2 billion shortfall projected by a recent <a href="https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201719/cmselect/cmeduc/969/969.pdf">official Education Committee report</a>, but wider change will need to happen for this to be effective. Indeed, a <a href="https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201919/cmselect/cmeduc/20/20.pdf">further report</a> from the same committee highlighted how additional funding will make little difference to the lives of young people unless there is a “systemic cultural shift” in the way special needs education is managed in schools.</p>
<h2>Reforming the systems</h2>
<p>It’s not just funding that has been promised by the Conservatives, but further reform to school systems too. More places in special schools, for those with the most complex needs, alongside an expansion of alternative provision, for children who are at risk of, or have suffered, permanent exclusion. These may be needed if the Conservatives’ plan to <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/education/2019/aug/27/leaked-documents-reveal-tories-dramatic-plans-for-schools">crackdown on behaviour</a> and back [headteachers] to use exclusions more widely is to be implemented.</p>
<p>There are also commitments to seeing more Free Schools opened, along with “innovative” schools with specialisms – a possible hark back to the <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4618601">specialist schools</a> movement instigated under former prime minister John Major, and enthusiastically maintained by New Labour.</p>
<p>It’s also very likely that a richer curriculum will be developed in schools. This may be in response to the new <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/education-inspection-framework">Ofsted inspection framework</a>, which looks for an ambitious and comprehensive curriculum. But it will also be a result of new funding for a new premium to provide money for art, music and sport, as well as more PE in primary schools. For many pupils and parents this will be welcome, after a decade of narrowing curriculum driven by too much emphasis on performance data, <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/752721/HMCI_PAC_letter_311018.pdf">according to the chief inspector of schools</a>.</p>
<p>But this doesn’t mean the Ofsted inspection regime has gone soft. <a href="https://vote.conservatives.com/news/only-the-conservatives-will-protect-standards-in-our-schools">The government has promised</a> to revisit no-notice inspections – where teams simply turn up at schools unannounced. It will also provide extra funding for Ofsted to allow for longer inspections in bigger schools. </p>
<p>This, along with revisiting outstanding schools, may seem fairer, but it won’t take away much of the stress caused by Ofsted – which is identified <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/teacher-well-being-at-work-in-schools-and-further-education-providers/summary-and-recommendations-teacher-well-being-research-report">as in issue in its own research</a> – nor will it give the support that struggling schools need. While the manifesto promises to intervene in schools with “entrenched underperformance” it’s not clear what form that intervention would take.</p>
<h2>More choice for parents</h2>
<p>The neoliberal commitment to market forces remains at the centre of ongoing reforms, with the promise that parents will be able to choose the school that best suits their children. <a href="https://theconversation.com/abolishing-private-schools-is-admirable-but-wont-make-choosing-a-state-one-any-easier-for-parents-124111">This concept of “choice” </a> has led to secondary schools becoming larger and fewer in number – with government policy producing not more schools but an increase in different types of schools. For parents, this had made choices at once more limited, but also more complicated – and it looks like this is set to continue.</p>
<p>In the end, the story is of more of the same, but with more power to the Department for Education. The government looks set to continue reforms in the same direction as before. But over time, these may become more rapid and perhaps also more extreme.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/128677/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Chris Rolph does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Reforms are set to continue in the same direction as before.Chris Rolph, Director, Nottingham Institute of Education, Nottingham Trent UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1240442019-10-03T11:39:36Z2019-10-03T11:39:36ZHow do my eyes adjust to the dark and how long does it take?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/294898/original/file-20190930-194829-1hizumo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C107%2C2820%2C1787&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Give yourself time and you can see in the dark.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/green-eye-dark-closeup-toned-681643954">Anton Watman/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/curious-kids-us-74795">Curious Kids</a> is a series for children of all ages. If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, send it to <a href="mailto:curiouskidsus@theconversation.com">CuriousKidsUS@theconversation.com</a>.</em></p>
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<blockquote>
<p><strong>How long does it take for your eyes to adjust to the dark and how does it happen? – Ellen T., 8, Cambridge, Massachusetts</strong></p>
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<hr>
<p>No one can see in total darkness. Fortunately, there’s almost always some light available. Even if it’s only dim starlight, that’s enough for your eyes to detect. What’s truly amazing is how little light is required for you to see.</p>
<p>Human eyes have two main features that <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptation_(eye)">help us see better in low light</a>: the pupil’s ability to change size, and the eye’s two types of light-sensing cells.</p>
<h2>Opening up to let in more light</h2>
<p>Your pupils are the black areas at the front of your eyes that let light enter. They look black because the light that reaches them is absorbed inside the eyeball. It’s then converted by your brain into your perceptions of the world.</p>
<p>You’ve probably noticed that <a href="http://markfairchild.org/WhyIsColor/Questions/3-2.html">pupils can change size</a> in response to light. Outside on a bright sunny day, your pupils become very small. This lets less light into the eye since there’s plenty available. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/experts-eyes-adjust-to-darkness/">When you move to a dark place</a>, your pupils open up to become as large as possible. This expansion allows your eye to collect more of whatever light there is.</p>
<p>But from its tiniest size to its most wide open, your pupil can enlarge its area by a factor of only about 16 times. You can see well across changes in light level of far more than a million times. So there has to be something else going on.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/294899/original/file-20190930-194852-1r4geu1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/294899/original/file-20190930-194852-1r4geu1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/294899/original/file-20190930-194852-1r4geu1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/294899/original/file-20190930-194852-1r4geu1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/294899/original/file-20190930-194852-1r4geu1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/294899/original/file-20190930-194852-1r4geu1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=574&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/294899/original/file-20190930-194852-1r4geu1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=574&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/294899/original/file-20190930-194852-1r4geu1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=574&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Light enters the eye through the pupil (on the left) and hits the retina, which is covered with light-sensitive rod and cone cells.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/schematic-structure-retina-rod-cells-cone-117249538">Designua/Shutterstock.com</a></span>
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<h2>Switching to different light sensors</h2>
<p>That’s where the photorecepters come in. These are <a href="https://www.exploratorium.edu/video/peripheral-vision-whats-going">the light-sensing cells</a> that line your retina, the back part of your eyeball. The two kinds of photorecepters are called cones and rods, named because of their shapes.</p>
<p>Cones work when there is plenty of light. They’re able to respond to different colors of light, providing color vision. They also allow you to see fine detail and do things like read when the light is bright enough.</p>
<p>Rods, on the other hand, are far more sensitive to light and <a href="http://markfairchild.org/WhyIsColor/Questions/5-2.html">incapable of discriminating colors</a>. They also pool their responses together when needed – that makes you more sensitive to light, but also means you’re less able to see fine details. That’s why you can’t read a book in the dark, though you might see its rectangular shape.</p>
<p>As you move from a brightly lit area to a dark one, your eyes automatically change from using the cones to using the rods and you become far more sensitive to light. You can see in the dark, or at least in very low light.</p>
<h2>Just how long does it take?</h2>
<p>When you’re in bright light, your rods are completely overwhelmed and don’t work. If you flip off the lights, your pupil will immediately open up. Your photorecepters start to improve their sensitivity, to soak up whatever light they can in the new dim conditions.</p>
<p>The cones do this quickly – after about five minutes, their sensitivity maxes out. After about 10 minutes in a darker place, your rods finally catch up and take over. You’ll start to see much better. After about 20 minutes, your rods will be doing their best and you will see as well as possible “in the dark.”</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/294600/original/file-20190927-185383-2bg6qy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/294600/original/file-20190927-185383-2bg6qy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/294600/original/file-20190927-185383-2bg6qy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/294600/original/file-20190927-185383-2bg6qy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/294600/original/file-20190927-185383-2bg6qy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/294600/original/file-20190927-185383-2bg6qy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/294600/original/file-20190927-185383-2bg6qy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/294600/original/file-20190927-185383-2bg6qy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Let your eyes adapt to the dark and see what you can see.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/huW_b5gK280">yann bervas/Unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
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<p><a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/seeing-in-the-dark1/">Try it</a>. Find a very dark place, maybe your bedroom at night. Turn on whatever light you have and gather some colorful objects. Spend some time noticing how colorful, sharp and full of contrast things look.</p>
<p>Then turn off the lights and watch how the appearance of your room and objects <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4380301/">changes over time</a>. First it will seem very dark; then you will rapidly see better, thanks to your pupils and cones doing their jobs. Then, if it is dark enough, you will notice another rather sudden improvement after about 10 minutes, when the rods start to show their stuff. This is called <a href="http://markfairchild.org/WhyIsColor/Questions/5-5.html">dark adaptation</a>.</p>
<p>What about total darkness? If you can find a place with absolutely no light, perhaps a closet, bathroom or basement, you can try the experiment again. This time, even after 20 minutes you won’t see any objects in the room. But you won’t see total blackness either. Try it and observe what happens.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Hello, curious kids! Do you have a question you’d like an expert to answer? Ask an adult to send your question to <a href="mailto:curiouskidsus@theconversation.com">CuriousKidsUS@theconversation.com</a>.</em></p>
<p><em>Please tell us your name, age and the city where you live. We won’t be able to answer every question, but we will do our best.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/124044/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mark D. Fairchild does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Just the tiniest bit of light can let you see in the ‘dark.’ Here’s how your eyes do it.Mark D. Fairchild, Professor of Color Science, Rochester Institute of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1241112019-09-26T11:12:44Z2019-09-26T11:12:44ZAbolishing private schools is admirable, but won’t make choosing a state one any easier for parents<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/294346/original/file-20190926-51434-jdmdua.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=90%2C0%2C3935%2C2685&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/etonian-schoolboys-english-independent-boarding-school-1174007794?src=gsQnkNVbQ4elEAK3BQOSTA-1-0">Shutterstock/Bell Photography 423</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Labour has voted on plans to <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/education-49798861">abolish private schools</a> by removing their charitable status and redistributing their wealth to the state sector.
At the <a href="https://theconversation.com/labour-party-conference-what-to-expect-as-party-debates-its-brexit-position-and-election-plan-123933">party’s conference</a> delegates approved a motion for this to be included in the party’s next general election manifesto.</p>
<p>The idea behind the move is that it will ensure every child gets the best education and start in life – helping to end inequality in the British school system. A system where the prospect of doing well is still significantly <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-britains-private-schools-are-such-a-social-problem-111369">shaped by a student’s socioeconomic background</a>. But the motion has not been taken well by private schools, which have <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2019/09/23/private-schools-threaten-sue-labour-plans-abolish/">threatened to sue Labour</a> over plans to abolish them.</p>
<h2>The problem with private schools</h2>
<p>Private schooling has inequality as a founding premise – with entry almost entirely dependent on the ability of parents to pay. Private schools perpetuate inequalities and maintain privilege. This can be seen in the <a href="https://theconversation.com/private-school-and-an-oxbridge-degree-remain-the-currency-of-british-politics-37189">over-representation of privately educated people</a> in better universities, and in key professional careers that shape society – such as journalism, law, politics and finance. </p>
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<p>This dominance is achieved not only through the educational outcomes produced by the schools in terms of qualifications but also through what sociologists regard as the <a href="https://www.suttontrust.com/newsarchive/creating-cultural-capital/">social and cultural capital</a> that can be gained in private schools. In this way, attending a private school gives students a ready-made network of similarly advantaged friends to help them in the future. </p>
<p>And pupils will also have learned ways of “being” and interacting, which can help ease the way through interviews for university, professional training and jobs. The <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/women/life/every-woman-should-part-old-girls-network/">“old boys” or “old girls” networks</a> thrive on a sense of entitlement, belonging and common cultural references.</p>
<h2>A question of choice</h2>
<p>In the meantime, the state schooling system has also become permeated by choice – a concept that was formalised by Margaret Thatcher in the <a href="http://www.educationengland.org.uk/history/timeline.html">1980 Education Act</a> – and has remained key in education ever since. </p>
<p>The logic of the market and choice has led to a rapid increase of different types of state schools – including grammar schools, religious schools, academies and free schools. Meaning that parents – and occasionally young people – are increasingly seen as <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/0965975940020102">consumers of educational options</a>. </p>
<p>So rather than ideas of social welfare, there is a “parentocracy” made up of individual consumers. This is at odds with an education system <a href="https://www.palgrave.com/gp/book/9780230224018">that aims to reduce inequality</a> and provide good outcomes for children regardless of their family background. </p>
<h2>Impact on parents</h2>
<p>This concept of “choice” has led to secondary schools becoming larger and fewer in number – with government policy producing not more schools but an increase in different types of schools. And for parents, this had made choices at once more limited, but also more complicated. </p>
<p>Navigating the complex terrain of different kinds of schools with different entry policies has become a key part of being a “good” and “effective” parent. <a href="https://www.spectator.co.uk/2018/11/why-are-the-middle-classes-so-obsessed-with-schools/">Media coverage</a>, and much <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/30036294?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents">academic literature</a>, might suggest that concern about this is a particularly <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.2304/eerj.2008.7.2.176">middle-class anxiety</a>. But in an <a href="https://www.manchesteruniversitypress.co.uk/9780719091155/">in-depth study</a> conducted in three areas of Manchester with different social-economic and ethnic profiles, I found that many parents are deeply ambivalent about the process of choosing schools. </p>
<p>Indeed, I found that at all parts of the economic spectrum parents are concerned and sometimes deeply anxious about making the right choices for their children. The study found that for parents, emphasis on choice can produce feelings of inadequacy. Both in terms of feeling there aren’t enough acceptable choices available, and in feeling that if there is only one school to (in practice) choose from, something is wrong – as no choice is being made. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/294348/original/file-20190926-51401-8cep98.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/294348/original/file-20190926-51401-8cep98.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/294348/original/file-20190926-51401-8cep98.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/294348/original/file-20190926-51401-8cep98.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/294348/original/file-20190926-51401-8cep98.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/294348/original/file-20190926-51401-8cep98.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/294348/original/file-20190926-51401-8cep98.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">The world-famous Eton College.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/windsor-england-26-may-2017-architecture-1006187545?src=gsQnkNVbQ4elEAK3BQOSTA-1-2">Shutterstock/Kurt Pacaud</a></span>
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<p>For most of the people I spoke to, the option of attending a private school was a financial impossibility. And for many it was something they were also politically or morally opposed to. Many of the parents in my study assumed that a private education would be a better education. But many also felt their children would suffer in an alien social and cultural environment – where they would be made to feel economically disadvantaged. </p>
<p>I suspect then that many of the parents in my study would welcome the Labour Party proposal to abolish or withdraw state support for private schools – and would feel that it makes the education system more just. </p>
<p>That said, others might feel that it goes against the idea of choice – which has become so deeply embedded in the education system. That is to say even though such a choice is not available to most parents, the idea that – on an aspirational level at least – it is still an option may still be an important factor for some parents and pupils. So it may well be that Labour would have their work cut out to convince all parents that abolishing private schools really is a step in the right direction.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/124111/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bridget Byrne receives funding from the ESRC (Economic and Social Research Council). </span></em></p>Over the past few decades secondary schools have become larger and fewer in number. For parents, this had made choices at once more limited, but also more complicated.Bridget Byrne, Professor of Sociology, University of ManchesterLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1216692019-09-02T11:33:46Z2019-09-02T11:33:46ZSchools could teach children how to be happy – but they foster competition instead<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/290524/original/file-20190902-175686-1b3zbyn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=248%2C0%2C4764%2C3391&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/portrait-school-pupils-sitting-on-wall-300290351?src=-1-7">Shutterstock.</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Diagnoses of mental disorders and <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/jcpp.12381">drug prescriptions</a> among school-age children have skyrocketed over the last two decades. The World Health Organisation (WHO) reports that <a href="http://apps.who.int/gb/ebwha/pdf_files/WHA66/A66_R8-en.pdf?ua=1">20% of children</a> experience mental disorders – such as depression, anxiety and <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adhd/">ADHD</a> – at any given time. </p>
<p>This is a significant problem in the UK, where one in eight children between the ages of five and 19 has been diagnosed with an <a href="https://digital.nhs.uk/data-and-information/publications/statistical/mental-health-of-children-and-young-people-in-england/2017/2017">emotional or behavioural disorder</a>. Even children as young as five are getting ill: according to the latest reports, <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/mental-health-of-children-and-young-people-in-england-2017-pas">6% of five year olds</a> suffer from a mental disorder. The challenges are greater still for children from low income families, who are four times more likely to <a href="https://www.centreformentalhealth.org.uk/fact-sheet-children-and-young-peoples-mental-health">develop mental health problems</a> than their better off peers. </p>
<p>While home life, friends, social media and body image all have an impact on the mental health of children, <a href="https://www.childrenssociety.org.uk/sites/default/files/the_good_childhood_report_2019_summary.pdf">a recent report</a> from The Children’s Society found that more young people feel unhappy about school than any other area of their lives. Yet a growing body of research from around the world shows that schools can actually help children lead happier lives – if they value such outcomes. </p>
<h2>Under pressure</h2>
<p>Generally speaking, the UK’s education system – like many others around the world – is geared toward competition. International rankings such as OECD’s <a href="http://www.oecd.org/pisa/">Programme for International Student Assessment</a> (PISA) rate the performance of schools, placing pressure on governors, teachers and pupils. As a result, schools seem to value the academic achievement of students over their <a href="https://researchonline.lshtm.ac.uk/2548662/1/The%20WHO%20Health%20Promoting%20School_GREEN%20VoR.pdf">mental health and well-being</a>, which is reflected not only in the way students are taught, but also how they are assessed. </p>
<p>Teachers also face a lot of pressure to ensure their students obtain the highest grades possible. This is also contributing to poor mental health among teachers, with many developing mental health problems such as burnout, which <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24721572.pdf?casa_token=WljMiAI8xicAAAAA:fQGyRsdseJ4ZxCz0b157VA_7ZhEXWOnQrRxQX-XPTbpYwHFRa7foZ4iOcKViHDeJan69v-bErQLK_2xRJBL1FNGeBElz7FBkatekffAiK4TnV2og8oY">negatively impacts</a> their performance and can ultimately lead them to <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/education/2018/may/13/teacher-burnout-shortages-recruitment-problems-budget-cuts">quit the profession</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/290526/original/file-20190902-175714-f57ng7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/290526/original/file-20190902-175714-f57ng7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290526/original/file-20190902-175714-f57ng7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290526/original/file-20190902-175714-f57ng7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290526/original/file-20190902-175714-f57ng7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290526/original/file-20190902-175714-f57ng7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290526/original/file-20190902-175714-f57ng7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A mountain of marking.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/female-asian-teacher-her-desk-marking-388588402?src=-1-4">Shutterstock.</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>While there are <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/801429/Education_inspection_framework.pdf">requirements</a> for UK schools to teach pupils how to stay physically and mentally healthy, it’s clearly not enough. All too often, academic demands on pupils <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/10.1086/431180.pdf?casa_token=kmzyEr-NSR4AAAAA:oZ9zsV7ZQXCyR7cT8pRpNYJVsCxIBbj754AW29VdW-2-ef96NxGOaWo2Wop2r0Sz2OFi0Ua6veDGIF4FN_WrzRjf7UpF0btxjitRJLZ01gafhCenLVs">provoke a sense of rivalry</a>, rather than teaching them how to enjoy life and cultivate positive emotions. Yet educational performance does not need to come at the cost of children’s happiness and well-being. </p>
<p>Education systems, including the UK’s, have the capacity to respond to the growing mental health crisis among children. And research shows that promoting mental health and well-being in schools, on a par with core skills such as maths and literacy, has <a href="https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/44875/9789241503648_eng.pdf?sequence=1">a positive impact</a> on the self-esteem, academic achievement, social relations, motivation and career prospects of pupils. </p>
<h2>The Nordic way</h2>
<p>To see how schools can teach pupils to be happy, consider the education systems of some of the happiest countries in the world. For instance, all five of the Nordic countries – Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland and Iceland – appear in the top ten happiest countries, according to the <a href="https://worldhappiness.report/ed/2019/">World Happiness Report</a>. </p>
<p>It’s well known that Nordic countries place a greater emphasis on <a href="https://www.cfchildren.org/what-is-social-emotional-learning/">social-emotional learning</a>, which gives children the skills and knowledge to recognise and manage emotions in effectively. This forms <a href="https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/807c/3297fdd2e64e3d94cbfeb76b72a95d6ae8db.pdf">the basis of well-being</a>, and can significantly improve <a href="https://campbellcollaboration.org/media/k2/attachments/Maynard_Mindfulness_Title.pdf">academic achievement</a> among students. </p>
<p>Nordic countries also value the judgements of teachers over national examinations, and schools are <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/best-education-world-finland-what-uk-schools-can-learn-a7319056.html">not rated or ranked</a> as they are in the UK or US. This prevents the education system from placing needless <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2019/02/how-does-finland-s-top-ranking-education-system-work">pressure on schools</a>, leading to less rivalry, stress and anxiety among students, and <a href="https://ro.ecu.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://scholar.google.co.uk/&httpsredir=1&article=2809&context=ajte">lower rates of burnout</a> among teachers. </p>
<h2>Finding happiness</h2>
<p>When it comes to being healthy and happy, research suggests that money only matters to a certain extent. What matters most is <a href="https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10902-006-9023-4.pdf">developing self-knowledge</a> – that is, knowing how you think, behave and manage your own emotions – and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0191886907000359">positive social relationships</a>. This is evident in some Latin American countries. For example, Costa Rica and Mexico also score well on the World Happiness Index, and rank among the happiest countries according to the <a href="http://happyplanetindex.org/">Happy Planet Index</a> (which takes into account well-being, life expectancy and inequality, as well as ecological footprint). </p>
<p>These nations have a culture of promoting social networks of <a href="https://blogs.iadb.org/ideas-matter/en/latin-americans-happier-gdp-suggest/">friends, families and neighbourhoods</a>. Despite living on the <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/01/inequality-is-getting-worse-in-latin-america-here-s-how-to-fix-it/">most unequal continent</a> in the world, research indicates that Latin American people <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/10680702010003011?casa_token=QUyoQGlSVpEAAAAA:pdQkhfWKv_Btm3nZqx2XN_EXOzdC8YzkvRCkPnsheOi1U657yCdYN8WnFYRLzf1MYD7zIO9aFVoP">are extremely resilient</a>, meaning they have the ability to successfully overcome adversity and enjoy life in spite of difficult circumstances. </p>
<p>According to <a href="https://www.unicef.org/lac/sites/unicef.org.lac/files/2018-06/CandY_guide_for_governments.pdf">recent UN reports</a>, schools in Latin America are also doing a good job in promoting resilience among children. Environmental sustainability is also <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S073805930700051X">a key part of education policies</a> in places like Costa Rica. This promotes empathy toward other members of the society – a core skill of social-emotional learning. </p>
<p>My own research has found that education systems in both <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03057925.2019.1647513?journalCode=ccom20">developing and developed countries</a> value forming responsible citizens through valuing equality, harmony and diversity among others. Yet none of the countries included in the analysis – China, England, Mexico and Spain – seem to place an explicit value on mental health in their education systems. </p>
<p>Education systems around the world can tackle the mental health crisis among children – if they set out to do so. And countries that prioritise children’s happiness and well-being offer a strong starting point. By promoting positive relationships over rivalry, and learning over league tables, children around the world can be given the chance to flourish. </p>
<p><em>The article has been corrected to remove a reference to <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/autism/what-is-autism/">autism</a> as a mental disorder, since it is not relevant in the context of this article.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/121669/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Angel Urbina-Garcia does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>In Nordic and Latin American countries, education systems promote well-being and resilience. The UK still has a lot to learn.Angel Urbina-Garcia, Assistant Professor in Early Childhood Studies, University of HullLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1222222019-08-26T14:17:05Z2019-08-26T14:17:05ZWhat student teachers learn when putting theory into classroom practice<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/288908/original/file-20190821-170906-1w8s0o4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">When faced with a class full of learners, student teachers must adapt theory to practice. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Sunshine Seeds/Shutterstock/Editorial use only</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The preparation of student teachers is a critical aspect of their journey to being professional teachers. And teaching practice – real-world experiences that students acquire from actual classroom teaching before they are qualified teachers – is one important characteristic of this preparation process. </p>
<p>During this process, student teachers entering the profession are supported to realise that teaching is not just about applying learnt theories. It also requires practical problem solving expertise that leads to effective teaching. Simply put, it’s not adequate for student teachers to only observe and read about teaching if they don’t also practise it. </p>
<p><a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/2158244017709863">According to research</a>, mentorship from experienced teachers and systematic reflection in practice helps student teachers to cultivate knowledge of the subject, learners and teaching communities.</p>
<p>In South Africa, all initial teacher education institutions are mandated through policy to include teaching practice as part of the Bachelor of Education programme. I recently conducted <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/334724654_Reflecting_on_English_student_teachers'_critical_incidents_during_teaching_practicum">a study</a> about teaching practice at one South African university. </p>
<p>At this institution, teaching practice begins in the first year of enrolment. In the first two years, the students are sent to schools for a time to observe an experienced teacher in the actual process of teaching. In the last two years of the study, the student teachers began the actual teaching under the mentorship of an experienced mentor teacher. </p>
<p>I wanted to know how student teachers in their third year deal with what are known as <a href="https://assets.cambridge.org/97805218/49111/sample/9780521849111ws.pdf">“critical incidents”</a>. These are defined as unplanned and unanticipated events that occur during a lesson or outside the classroom that provide an important insight to the practitioner about teaching and learning. For example, a high school teacher might plan to have learners debate on a topic, but discover that the learners are unable to construct a comprehensible English sentence. This incident will serve as a future reference to the teacher not to assume the learners’ level of proficiency. </p>
<p>In my study, I found that the student teachers used critical incidents to notice, reflect and reshape their teaching practices. Such reflection is critical as it enables them to question their practices, the initial process to their professional development. </p>
<h2>Three key areas</h2>
<p>In my study, I examined the critical incidents that the 38 student teachers who were being prepared to teach English in high school encountered during teaching practice. These incidents resulted from situations in which student teachers were puzzled about how to maintain an effective teaching environment. </p>
<p>Three key areas emerged from the study. One related to discipline; the second was about student teachers’ professional identity; the third outlined how student teachers grappled with differences between theory and practice.</p>
<p>Firstly, the student teachers felt challenged in maintaining classroom discipline. They found that there was a mismatch between the theories of classroom management they had studied at university and the realities of the classrooms where they had been placed. </p>
<p>Classroom indiscipline was largely a result of large classes and limited learning resources. Learners also often struggled with the English language – they came from multi-lingual backgrounds and were learning English as a second language.</p>
<p>The student teachers seem to have learnt that the failure to match subject knowledge and the actual context of the classroom caused ill-discipline among learners.</p>
<p>Secondly, the student teachers learnt that the way they chose to groom themselves as professionals, especially in dress, influenced how learners assigned credibility to them as teachers. The student teachers became aware that their developing professional identity was shaped in interactions with others – including the learners during various activities of teaching and learning. </p>
<p>While the student teachers had only focused on the classroom as a source of practising their professionalism, they came to realise that sites of instruction were multiple and, at times, informal.</p>
<p>Thirdly, the student teachers experienced estrangement between the theories of second language teaching and the practical instruction needs in the classroom. Although the student teachers have theoretical knowledge of teaching English, the realities in the classroom did not align to their preparation experiences.</p>
<p>Perhaps the most significant “incident” that all the student teachers described on this point was that their learners lacked the prior knowledge they’d expected to be in place at those levels. They filled the gap by developing remedial programmes to help their learners. But they told me they weren’t certain they’d be able to continue with this sort of support when they actually became full-time teachers. They worried doing this would add to an already heavy work load.</p>
<h2>What does this mean?</h2>
<p>These findings lay bare just some of the wide range of experiences to which student teachers are exposed when they work in classrooms and schools. The study also shows how student teachers responded to these incidents: they saw them as a learning process that caused them to act, respond and reflect so they could maintain quality teaching. </p>
<p>These descriptions are important as evidence of the way student teachers reframe, rephrase, reshape and ultimately transform their teaching practices to reflect both context and diversity in English Language teaching.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/122222/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nhlanhla Mpofu receives funding from the National Research Foundation Thuthuka Grant (TTK170427229083)</span></em></p>Student teachers saw certain incidents in their classrooms as a learning process that caused them to act, respond and reflect so they could maintain quality teaching.Nhlanhla Mpofu, Senior Lecturer, University of the Free StateLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1197612019-08-08T09:59:54Z2019-08-08T09:59:54ZTeachers’ expectations help students to work harder, but can also reduce enjoyment and confidence – new research<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/284525/original/file-20190717-147284-132dbep.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>For many students, <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/search?utf8=%E2%9C%93&q=teacher+pressure">pressure and expectation</a> are just another part of the school experience. There is pressure to perform certain tasks, conform to uniform standards and to achieve one’s full potential. Then there are <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/search?utf8=%E2%9C%93&q=students+pressure">the expectations</a> – that students will do their homework, turn up on time, and perform to the best of their ability.</p>
<p>Pressure is even higher when expectations are accompanied by threats of repercussions, teacher disappointment, low grades, or being reprimanded. Indeed, researchers have found that “controlling behaviour” from teachers is <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2008-05694-014">linked with lower student interest</a>. </p>
<p>Although much research has focused on students’ motivation and the role of positive and nurturing expectations by teachers, not much is known about how students experience “pressure expectations”. Nor do we know much about how these pressure expectations happen in real-time, such as the tasks students “have to do” and the things their teachers “want them to do” – from lesson to lesson, day to day. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0361476X18302315?via%3Dihub">Our latest research</a> has looked at just this and found that teachers’ pressure expectations can lead to students working harder – but that this increased effort comes at a cost to some students.</p>
<h2>Under pressure</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0361476X18302315?via%3Dihub">In our study</a>, we asked 231 students in year five and six classes in UK schools, to report on their learning experiences once in each lesson, each day for one week. In each lesson, students reported on why they were doing the task at hand. The response options were, “I enjoyed it”, “I chose to do it”, and “I was interested in it”. These would be classed as “autonomous motivation” in that students themselves wanted to carry out the task. Students could also select “I had to do it” and “my teacher wanted me to do it”. These would be classed as “pressure expectations”. </p>
<p>Students also reported on how hard they were working, and how confident they felt about what they learned. Teachers reported how involved they were with each student in their class, detailing how much time they spent with each student, and how much attention they gave each student. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/284526/original/file-20190717-147270-1rx45la.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/284526/original/file-20190717-147270-1rx45la.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284526/original/file-20190717-147270-1rx45la.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284526/original/file-20190717-147270-1rx45la.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284526/original/file-20190717-147270-1rx45la.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284526/original/file-20190717-147270-1rx45la.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284526/original/file-20190717-147270-1rx45la.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Students who experience higher pressure expectations in lessons worked harder.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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<p>We found the higher the pressure expectations in a lesson, the harder students worked in subsequent lessons. But our research also found that students reported enjoying these lessons less – and felt less confident in that particular subject. </p>
<p>Our research also showed that if students enjoyed their tasks in the previous lesson of a particular subject, it seems teachers picked up on this and relaxed their pressure expectations in the following lesson. But this actually went on to have the effect of students then reducing their subsequent effort – demonstrating a somewhat complex and dynamic relationship between teacher pressure expectations and students’ effort, enjoyment and confidence.</p>
<h2>Breaking free</h2>
<p>Of course, realistically, some students might need a little bit of a push at times to get started, to get tasks done, or to work harder. But as our results show, too much pushing can lead students to feel demotivated or less confident. In the long run, a reasonable <a href="https://theconversation.com/secondary-students-can-suffer-from-spending-an-extra-year-drilling-for-gcse-exams-88974">balance between pressure and reassurance</a> seems desirable, otherwise exhaustion and disaffection could take over – which can eventually lead to lower academic performance. </p>
<p>Indeed, <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2010-15712-005">research</a> shows that teachers who place less emphasis on the realities of deadlines, task completion, and expectations, and place more emphasis on students’ perspectives – so getting to know students, their values and thoughts – are able to better identify students’ needs, interests and preferences and provide meaningful learning goals by using relevant and enriched activities. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/feedback-from-teachers-doesnt-always-help-pupils-improve-41000">Feedback from teachers doesn't always help pupils improve</a>
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<p>So instead of relying on controlling language, teachers should aim to provide understandable goals, frame upcoming lessons clearly and explain things concisely. Teachers would also benefit from acknowledging negative feelings in the classroom – telling students it’s okay to feel tired or nervous. </p>
<p>Teachers can also look to <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.3102/0034654308325583?journalCode=rera">provide supportive reassurance</a> in everyday interactions with students, using praise and encouragement to help students reach their full potential. All of which hopefully will help students to feel more supported and enable them to achieve their full potential in the classroom.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/119761/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lars-Erik Malmberg has received funding from Research Councils UK and The John Fell Fund (Oxford University) for the Learning Every Lesson Study (LEL)</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrew J. Martin does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Study shows how to help students achieve their full potential.Lars-Erik Malmberg, Professor of Quantitative Methods in Education, University of OxfordAndrew J. Martin, Scientia Professor and Professor of Educational Psychology, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1020822018-09-20T12:25:11Z2018-09-20T12:25:11ZAutistic children need the world to acknowledge the significance of the challenges they face<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/236871/original/file-20180918-158246-oea5dw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/girl-in-white-long-sleeve-shirt-and-black-skirt-sitting-on-swing-during-day-time-12165/">Pexels</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Autistic children are increasingly being suspended or expelled from school, because of “behavioural problems” official figures show. Some regions in the UK have seen a <a href="https://www.tes.com/news/exclusions-autistic-pupils-60-cent">100% increase</a> in these types of exclusions since 2011.</p>
<p><a href="http://shura.shu.ac.uk/11825/3/Hodge%20-%20I%20didn%27t%20stand%20a%20chance.pdf">Research</a> carried out by myself and colleagues at Sheffield Hallam University demonstrates the devastating consequences these exclusions have for disabled children and their families. </p>
<p>A landmark legal ruling in August stated that the <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/education-45182213">exclusion of autistic children</a> from school is a violation of their human rights. This decision by the upper tribunal should bring to a halt the alarming rise in the number of <a href="https://www.standard.co.uk/news/education/surge-in-exclusions-of-autistic-pupils-set-to-be-halted-after-landmark-legal-ruling-a3914051.html">school exclusions</a> of autistic pupils. </p>
<p>Schools can no longer exclude pupils for aggression if this results from the pupil being autistic and is not, therefore, an act of choice.</p>
<h2>Autism as a problem</h2>
<p>The ruling means that schools are now legally obliged to make reasonable adjustments under the Equality Act 2010 to support autistic children whose behaviour they find challenging. </p>
<p>But while the results of the tribunal are to be welcomed, some elements of the reported ruling reproduce the fundamental misrepresentation of autism that gives rise to these exclusions – for example, Judge Rowley <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/education/2018/aug/14/school-discriminated-against-expelled-autistic-boy-judge-rules">asserted that</a>: “aggressive behaviour is not a choice for children with autism”. In doing so, Judge Rowley seems to imply that acting aggressively is an expected characteristic of being autistic.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.tes.com/news/tes-magazine/tes-magazine/labels-autism-and-adhd-are-nothing-shout-about-0">Thinking about “problem” behaviour</a> as a characteristic of autism has predominated within society since the condition was first formulated over 70 years ago. The American Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (<a href="https://images.pearsonclinical.com/images/assets/basc-3/basc3resources/DSM5_DiagnosticCriteria_AutismSpectrumDisorder.pdf">DSM-5</a>) sets out the personal characteristics that warrant a diagnosis of autism. This defines autistic people through terms such as “deficit” and “failure”. Their behaviour is represented as abnormal and a problem: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>Persistent deficits in social communication and social interaction … Deficits in social-emotional reciprocity … abnormal social approach and failure of normal back-and-forth conversation … inflexible adherence to routines.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>In this way, autism is made a personal problem with social rules and practices, as well as issues with communication and coping readily with change. Thinking of autism in this way has engendered a multi-million pound <a href="https://blog.marketresearch.com/autism-treatment-programs-are-growing-a-1.8-billion-market-in-the-u.s">industry</a> that depends on selling the idea that autistic children are in desperate need of a cure.</p>
<h2>Misunderstood and misrepresented</h2>
<p>This dominant mode of thinking about autism is often referred to as the <a href="https://disability-studies.leeds.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/sites/40/library/Oliver-in-soc-dis.pdf">Individual Model of Disability </a>. This is the view that a person has a disability because in some critical way their body fails them. And it is this understanding of autism that is failing autistic children and young people. </p>
<p>You only have to look at the issue of school exclusions, the prevalence of <a href="https://www.autism.org.uk/about/health/mental-health.aspx">mental health issues</a> and the disturbingly high level of <a href="https://www.spectrumnews.org/features/suicidal-thoughts-alarmingly-common-in-people-with-autism/">suicides</a> in autistic adults to know that it is time to think differently about autism.</p>
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</figure>
<p>Ask autistic people what the problem is and they won’t answer that it is because there is something wrong with them. Instead they will tell you about how other people don’t understand them and so reject and exclude them.</p>
<p>It is reported that only 16% of autistic adults in the UK are in full-time, paid <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/society/2017/oct/09/autism-working-spectrum-capable-employees-talent">employment</a>. This is not because autism makes you unable to work. It is because employers have a very limited concept of what an employee should look like and how they should behave.</p>
<h2>Wider acceptance</h2>
<p>This is why the “problem” of autism needs to be reframed – making it less about the individual and more about the way society relates to and views autistic people. This approach is known as the Social Model of Disability. </p>
<p>Through my <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-9604.2009.01433.x">research</a>, I encourage education practitioners to shift from <a href="https://www.tes.com/news/tes-magazine/tes-magazine/labels-autism-and-adhd-are-nothing-shout-about-0">thinking about “problem” behaviour</a> as a characteristic of autism. I ask them instead to reflect on how a child might be experiencing what is happening to them at school and why that might result in unwanted behaviours. To help with this, I offer practitioners an alternative, <a href="https://www.sheffieldtelegraph.co.uk/news/opinion/education-education-system-should-help-autistic-pupils-achieve-potential-1-8365121">rights-based</a> definition of autism to the deficit focused one presented by the DSM 5.</p>
<p>This still acknowledges the significance of the challenges that autistic people face. However, in this new definition, the responsibility and focus for change is placed with school practices rather than with the child. In this different way of thinking about autism it becomes defined as:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Profound and fundamental challenges with: knowing and/or applying customary social rules and practices if these are not made clear; accessing commonly available communication systems; adapting quickly to unexpected and enforced change.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>It is critical to think about autism in terms of the need for schools to develop more responsive practices to meet a diverse range of pupils – rather than a fundamental problem with a child. Doing so will compel schools to recognise where the problem of behaviour really lies.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/102082/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nick Hodge does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Autism doesn’t have to be viewed as a disability or disorder.Nick Hodge, Professor of Inclusive Practice, Sheffield Hallam UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/984792018-07-20T05:49:59Z2018-07-20T05:49:59ZWhy moot courts can play a valuable role in teaching kids about human rights<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/227136/original/file-20180711-27039-14a2zt0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Moot courts give pupils the chance to argue different scenarios.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Supplied </span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The <a href="http://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/">Universal Declaration of Human Rights</a> turns 70 this year. It was adopted by global leaders after World War II to try and avoid future conflict on that scale. The declaration ushered in what we know and understand about human rights today. It calls for nations to “strive by teaching and education to promote respect for these rights and freedoms and by progressive measures, national and international, to secure their universal and effective recognition and observance”.</p>
<p>But some think that the human rights project has <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/news/2014/dec/04/-sp-case-against-human-rights">had its innings</a>. They believe the notion of human rights for all is too idealistic. And populist leaders push the idea that the most powerful should prevail. </p>
<p>They’re wrong. Many <a href="http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/humanrights/2015/03/25/revealing-the-real-world-benefits-of-the-uks-human-rights-act/">people</a> <a href="https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=15374&LangID=E">have benefited</a> since the declaration was adopted. </p>
<p>But there’s little hope that people will understand the importance of a common normative framework like the Universal Declaration of Human Rights if it’s taught to them in the abstract. They need to see how it works in practice, through experience. </p>
<p>One especially powerful way to do this is through moot courts, or moots. At these events, school or university students play the role of lawyers in a hypothetical court case involving real-life legal and human right questions. The students appear in a simulated court in front of real judges and engage in a very real debate about the questions. The student “lawyers” must make the best case for whatever side they represent. </p>
<p>Moots are used around the world to help participants understand many aspects of varying <a href="https://www.ilsa.org/jessuphome">fields of law</a>. They’ve also proved to be a powerful tool in the field of human rights in a number of countries, including the <a href="https://www.wcl.american.edu/impact/initiatives-programs/hracademy/moot/">Americas</a>, <a href="http://www.europeanlawmootcourt.eu/home">Europe</a> and <a href="http://www.chr.up.ac.za/index.php/moot-archives/moot-2017.html">Africa</a>. There is now also an <a href="http://www.chr.up.ac.za/index.php/world-moot-court.html">annual world human rights moot competition</a>, held at the United Nations headquarters in Geneva.</p>
<p>One of most of the attractive features of moots as a tool for human rights education is that participants must argue both sides of the case. This helps them appreciate the multiplicity of perspectives and differences of opinion.</p>
<h2>School moots</h2>
<p>School moots are becoming an increasingly popular way to teach young people about the value of human rights. South Africa is one of the leaders in this field: the country’s <a href="http://www.up.ac.za/national-schools-moot-court-competitions-nsmcc/">National Schools Moot Court Competition</a> has grown dramatically since it started eight years ago. In 2018 it is expected to reach up to 2 million learners across the country, out of <a href="http://www.childrencount.uct.ac.za/domain.php?domain=6">around 11 million</a>. </p>
<p>The competition is co-organised by the country’s <a href="https://www.sahrc.org.za/">Human Rights Commission</a>, which investigates and seeks redress for human rights violations, and teaches people about the value of human rights; the government; and universities. The learners are required to prepare written and oral arguments for both sides of a typical dispute involving human rights questions, using the South African <a href="http://www.justice.gov.za/legislation/constitution/SAConstitution-web-eng.pdf">Constitution</a> as their point of reference. </p>
<p>The hypothetical cases they have to argue resonate with everyone. For example, should learners be allowed to come to school with nose rings or dreadlocks when the school rules forbid them? What’s to be done when a learner challenges the school’s language policy, or says things that offend some people?</p>
<p>The best performers then participate in the oral provincial rounds. The provincial winners in turn get the opportunity to participate in the <a href="https://www.up.ac.za/national-schools-moot-court-competitions-nsmcc">final round at the Constitutional Court</a>, in front of real judges from that court. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/227139/original/file-20180711-27021-vihqdm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/227139/original/file-20180711-27021-vihqdm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/227139/original/file-20180711-27021-vihqdm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/227139/original/file-20180711-27021-vihqdm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/227139/original/file-20180711-27021-vihqdm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/227139/original/file-20180711-27021-vihqdm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/227139/original/file-20180711-27021-vihqdm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/227139/original/file-20180711-27021-vihqdm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A moot in South Africa’s Constitutional Court.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Supplied</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Other countries in Africa, such as <a href="https://www.modernghana.com/news/806333/moot-court-competition-for-senior-high-schools-launched.html">Ghana</a>, have started replicating the model of cooperation between National Human Rights Commissions, universities and governments. And preparations are under way in Mozambique for their very own national schools moot project modelled on the South African experience.</p>
<p>There are good reasons to think these moots can take root in all parts of the world. There are schools in even the most remote parts of the world. And almost all the countries of the world now have constitutions with a bills of rights. There are <a href="https://nhri.ohchr.org/EN/Pages/default.aspx">national human rights commissions</a> in most countries. If even half of those commissions were to team up with their countries’ departments of education and the judiciary to stage moots based on the countries’ constitutions in all its schools the impact would be enormous.</p>
<h2>Common understanding</h2>
<p>The school moots are extremely valuable learning experiences. One 16-year-old participant in South Africa, Shandre Smith, told us the moot had taught her “about human rights and the change it can bring in our lives”. Smith said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I think I am becoming a more responsible and tolerant global citizen. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>In a world rife with uncertainty, experiences like this can help to renew people’s faith in and commitment to the idea of human rights. That’s a significant step towards ensuring a common understanding of the basic terms of our shared existence.</p>
<p><em>Bongani Majola, the current Chairperson of the South African Human Rights Commission and former Assistant Secretary-General of the United Nations, and Gift Kgomosotho, Research Advisor at the South African Human Rights Commission, contributed to this article.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/98479/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Christof Heyns does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>School moots are becoming an increasingly popular way to teach young people about the value of human rights.Christof Heyns, Professor of human rights law, University of PretoriaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/930882018-04-11T10:34:51Z2018-04-11T10:34:51ZThe dying art of storytelling in the classroom<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/214144/original/file-20180410-570-xpm5vh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/download/success?src=nbZg2iGPDY3qcHXCMtvmBQ-2-57">shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Storytelling may be as old as the hills but it remains one of the most effective tools for teaching and learning. A good story can make a child (or adult) prick up their ears and settle back into their seat to listen and learn.</p>
<p>But despite the power a great story can have, <a href="https://ray.yorksj.ac.uk/id/eprint/2519/">storytelling has an endangered status</a> in the classroom – partly due to a huge emphasis on “<a href="https://www.cambridge-community.org.uk/professional-development/gswal/index.html">active learning</a>” in education. This is the idea that pupils learn best when they are doing something – or often, “seen to be doing” something.</p>
<p>Any lesson in which a teacher talks for 15 or more uninterrupted minutes would be regarded today as placing pupils in too passive a role. Indeed, even in English lessons teachers now very rarely read a whole poem or book chapter to pupils, <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/181204/110118.pdf">something which now worries even OFSTED</a>. </p>
<h2>Bringing history to life</h2>
<p>By contrast, teaching, particularly in the humanities, before the 1960s was heavily dependent on storytelling by teachers. A teacher would give a class, say, an account of the English Civil War, based on her own knowledge, reading and imagination. </p>
<p>The teacher would try to bring the febrile context, the battling causes, and the battles themselves to life. She might add an anecdote of her own visit to a village in which Charles I was said to have hidden out. The pupils would then write their own individual accounts of the history – the story – they had just heard, perhaps “from the perspective of a common footsoldier”. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/214141/original/file-20180410-577-a5x5m5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/214141/original/file-20180410-577-a5x5m5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214141/original/file-20180410-577-a5x5m5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214141/original/file-20180410-577-a5x5m5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214141/original/file-20180410-577-a5x5m5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214141/original/file-20180410-577-a5x5m5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214141/original/file-20180410-577-a5x5m5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Storytelling can be a powerful tool for teachers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/download/success?src=nbZg2iGPDY3qcHXCMtvmBQ-1-85">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Clearly, this approach has many limitations. There was often very little scope for critical discussion and pupils were over-reliant on their teachers’ view of events. But we mustn’t lose sight of the value of what was happening in that history classroom. </p>
<p>Pupils had the chance to become deeply absorbed in a context that was utterly alien to them – and their life experience was extended. Their imaginations were able to stitch this exotic secondhand experience to their library of personal experiences. In their retellings, they were never “just” copying, but making sense and interpreting. </p>
<h2>Layered learning</h2>
<p>Influential educational thinkers such as <a href="http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674003668">Jerome Bruner</a> have recognised the deep, contextually embedded, multi-layered learning that a story enables as a form of knowledge in its own right. My colleague Matthew Reason and I have called this “<a href="https://ray.yorksj.ac.uk/id/eprint/2077/">storyknowing</a>”.</p>
<p>And in this way, the storytelling of teachers and the storytelling of pupils can nourish each other – as I found in my long-term collaboration with secondary humanities teacher Sally Durham. </p>
<p>A story from me about my German mother-in-law’s World War Two experiences would trigger anecdotes from pupils and teaching assistants about their own relatives’ opposite perspective on the same events – until we had built a three-dimensional picture of the situation, and gained respect for each other’s experiential knowledge. </p>
<h2>A tree falls in the woods</h2>
<p>One day our topic was rainforest destruction. We asked the pupils to share their most powerful memories of trees and forests, until the classroom atmosphere began to feel almost “wooded”. I then told the story of an indigenous Indonesian chief who was approached by government officials to sell his people’s land for logging, to make space for poor tenant farmers. </p>
<p>The usually rambunctious pupils, without exception, listened avidly for 15 minutes, until I paused at a crucial point. They then experimented with their own endings to the story (many were by now confident storytellers). </p>
<p>At first these endings were optimistic, but as the pupils played out the tensions and power dynamics of the interactions between loggers, forest people, tenant farmers, experts and officials, the likelihood of the forest’s destruction hit them. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/214146/original/file-20180410-554-1lxp91k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/214146/original/file-20180410-554-1lxp91k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214146/original/file-20180410-554-1lxp91k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214146/original/file-20180410-554-1lxp91k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214146/original/file-20180410-554-1lxp91k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214146/original/file-20180410-554-1lxp91k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214146/original/file-20180410-554-1lxp91k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Effective storytelling lets children get to the heart of the action, however complex the tale.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/download/success?src=sAzpQi5gEfzFJGzZoVWk2A-1-2">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>At the group’s suggestion, we went online to research the work of organisations which support indigenous peoples worldwide to defend at least parts of their homeland. The level of complexity in the pupils’ stories and questions was such that we felt more like university lecturers than teachers of a “low ability” class of 12-year-olds. </p>
<p>What all this reveals is that we need to challenge the idea that pupils listening to a story are in a passive (or non-learning) role. As one of the pupils in the class I worked with explains:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>It’s just – you know when you’re telling a story and some of us put our heads down like that [puts head down on folded arms] – it’s only because some of us do it to, like, picture the images in our heads (Joe age 12)</p>
</blockquote>
<p>And as my story shows, the more complex the area of human experience, the more need there is for building knowledge through an exchange of stories. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-experts-who-put-storytelling-language-and-better-paid-teachers-at-the-heart-of-early-education-82346">The experts who put storytelling, language and better paid teachers at the heart of early education</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/93088/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Catherine Heinemeyer received funding from the Arts and Humanities Research Council for her research into storytelling with young people.</span></em></p>Storytelling has endangered status in UK schools, partly due to a huge emphasis on ‘active learning’.Catherine Heinemeyer, Postdoctoral researcher and arts practitioner, York St John UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/879142017-12-13T12:18:15Z2017-12-13T12:18:15ZResearch finds academies still too tied up by exams and inspections to adopt best practices<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198577/original/file-20171211-27674-18bsebv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The government has been criticised for a lack of accountability for academies</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Academies are back in the news – and not for a good reason. In the same week that parents, children and teachers united in <a href="https://socialistworker.co.uk/art/45780/Parents%2C+children+and+teachers+united+against+academies">strike action</a> against academy schools, new figures show that more than 64 of these schools are <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/education/2017/dec/03/thousand-pupils-trapped-in-zombie-academy-schools">waiting for a new sponsor</a>. These schools are unable to return to local authority control after being abandoned by, or stripped from, the trust that originally managing them.</p>
<p>Department for Education figures obtained through a freedom of information request show that more than 40,000 children are being educated in these so-called “zombie schools”. This comes at a time when <a href="https://www.tes.com/news/school-news/breaking-news/lord-agnew-large-pay-rises-academy-chiefs-unreasonable">large pay rises for academy chiefs</a> have been dubbed “unreasonable” by academies minister Lord Agnew. Trusts that are paying <a href="https://www.tes.com/news/school-news/breaking-news/academies-given-less-two-weeks-justify-high-salaries">leaders more than £150,000 have been asked to explain</a> their “rationale” to the Education and Skills Funding Agency.</p>
<p>Academies were first introduced by the Labour government in the early 2000s. The idea was to free schools from the constraints of local authority control. It was argued this would provide more opportunities for innovation – enabling schools to break the link between poverty and low educational achievement. There was also an assumption it would act as a stimulus for system-wide improvement. But almost 20 years on there is little evidence of these early promises bearing fruit. </p>
<h2>An inside view</h2>
<p>Our own <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Inside-the-Autonomous-School-Making-Sense-of-a-Global-Educational-Trend/Salokangas-Ainscow/p/book/9781138215412">new research</a> charts the highs and lows of one of the early English academies. During a 10-year study we saw how an academy replaced a school that was considered a failure – and how it initially became successful. </p>
<p>The school we focus on in <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Inside-the-Autonomous-School-Making-Sense-of-a-Global-Educational-Trend/Salokangas-Ainscow/p/book/9781138215412">our new book</a> was seen as a flagship of one of the larger academy groups – known as “chains” or, more recently, multi-academy trusts. In particular, after becoming an academy it became characterised by a greater sense of optimism as well as a far safer working environment and much higher expectations. </p>
<p>This was reflected in the school’s massively improved results in national examinations and in an inspection report that defined the school as being “outstanding”. Sadly, this progress was not maintained and the school slipped back – to be ruled by Ofsted as “requires improvement”. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198576/original/file-20171211-27689-nlb01j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198576/original/file-20171211-27689-nlb01j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198576/original/file-20171211-27689-nlb01j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198576/original/file-20171211-27689-nlb01j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198576/original/file-20171211-27689-nlb01j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198576/original/file-20171211-27689-nlb01j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198576/original/file-20171211-27689-nlb01j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Academies receive their funding directly from the government, rather than through local authorities like other state-funded schools.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In our research, we found the <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/401455/RR366_-_research_report_academy_autonomy.pdf">autonomy that academies are granted</a> mainly leads to administrative changes rather than new approaches to teaching. This is largely because acadamies’ performance are measured against the same <a href="http://researchbriefings.parliament.uk/ResearchBriefing/Summary/SN07091">national performance indicators as other schools</a> – so examinations and inspections set a tight frame for their teaching practices – encouraging sponsoring organisations to centralise much of the decision making.</p>
<p>Our findings suggest this erosion of teacher choice may go some way to explain why a school that has been “turned around”, can quickly go back into decline. This is because once teachers’ freedom to make choices about the way they teach has gone, a school is much less able to deal with the difficulties it faces. </p>
<h2>Increased segregation</h2>
<p>There are also concerns about the impact academies are having on segregation levels in the UK – with students from varied socioeconomic, <a href="http://cprtrust.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Mansell-report-160527.pdf">cultural and religious backgrounds</a> increasingly separated within the school system. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198588/original/file-20171211-27677-g5b287.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198588/original/file-20171211-27677-g5b287.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198588/original/file-20171211-27677-g5b287.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198588/original/file-20171211-27677-g5b287.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198588/original/file-20171211-27677-g5b287.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198588/original/file-20171211-27677-g5b287.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198588/original/file-20171211-27677-g5b287.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Competition between schools has led many academies to blindly focus on exam results.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In other countries that have adopted the idea of school autonomy, we also found evidence of a worrying trend towards greater segregation. In the US for example, <a href="https://www.aft.org/sites/default/files/kahlenberg.pdf">Albert Shanker</a>, an early advocate of charter schools (which are similar to academies) anticipated these schools would allow teachers to become more involved in decision making. </p>
<p>He also hoped this would help combat community segregation by bringing together children from different backgrounds. But recent reports indicate charter schools have not <a href="https://apnews.com/e9c25534dfd44851a5e56bd57454b4f5">solved the problem of segregation</a>. </p>
<h2>Making school autonomy work</h2>
<p>Despite these worrying trends, greater freedom for schools still makes sense – particularly if it provides opportunities for teachers to work together to develop more effective practices. </p>
<p>To make school autonomy work then, there needs to be a rethink of national accountability systems – as well as the way school inspections function. More resources must also be focused on teachers’ professional development. This is crucial, because well-supported staff are in the best position to respond to the varied needs of their students. </p>
<p>Incentives must also be provided to encourage greater collaboration within and between schools, so that successful practices are made available to more students. This emphasis on collaboration should also move well beyond the school gate, so that schools can draw on the energy and resources that exist within families and local communities. This will help to make schools truly representative of their students and also provide more opportunity for innovation – which should be the ultimate goal of the academy system in the long run.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/87914/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>More bad news for academies as new findings show deepening divisions within English education system.Mel Ainscow, Emeritus Professor of Education, University of ManchesterMaija Salokangas, Assistant Professor of Education, Trinity College DublinLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/725522017-11-30T11:36:45Z2017-11-30T11:36:45ZAs BBC drama The A word shows, mainstream schools can make special needs pupils feel isolated<p>As many parents who have children with autism will know, school can be a tough place. Maybe it’s not surprising then that <a href="http://library.autism.org.uk/Portal/Default/en-GB/RecordView/Index/25976">34% of children</a> on the autism spectrum say that the worst thing about being at school is being picked on.</p>
<p>The same study also found that 63% of children on the autism spectrum are not in the kind of school their parents believe would best support them – with a high percentage of these children ending up expelled or excluded.</p>
<p>The latest series of the BBC’s drama <a href="http://www.radiotimes.com/news/tv/2017-11-10/the-a-word-christopher-eccleston/">The A Word</a>, tells the story of Joe Hughes and his family as they adapt and come to terms with Joe’s autism diagnosis.</p>
<p>Set in the Lake District, the recent series has seen Joe and his wider family trying to navigate the education system. Viewers have seen Joe’s mum, Alison, and dad, Paul, doing their utmost to try and ensure Joe stays in mainstream education – believing it to be the best thing for Joe’s future. But they decide to uproot Joe and send him to a specialist school a number of miles away, after other parents complained about Joe’s behaviour in class.</p>
<h2>The realities of the system</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.theguardian.com/education/2008/nov/11/special-needs-autistic-children-education">Previous research</a> has shown that too many teachers and support staff are unfamiliar with the needs of autistic children and struggle to teach them effectively.</p>
<p>This is in part why, six years ago, the then coalition government <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/support-and-aspiration-a-new-approach-to-special-educational-needs-and-disability-consultation">started the process of radical reform</a> to the way children and young people with special educational needs (SEN) and disabilities were supported. </p>
<p>The aim was to give these children a better life, through fundamentally changing the way they got the help they need and deserve. Families were promised more openness and understanding, and more say in decision making.</p>
<p>But <a href="http://blogs.exeter.ac.uk/sen-policyforum/past-policy-papers/">our research</a>, which forms part of the <a href="http://blogs.exeter.ac.uk/sen-policyforum/">SEN Policy Research Forum</a>, shows that while the aspirations of the reforms are commendable, there is still a long way to go to achieve the desired outcomes. </p>
<h2>The same needs</h2>
<p>In essence, the reforms meant large changes to the systems of assessment and planning. So “statements” – which are individual records of a pupil’s identified special educational needs and the provision required to meet these – have been replaced with “education, health and care plans”. </p>
<p>Local authorities are also now required to give written information about their “local offer”. This is a summary of what provision and services are available for children and young people with SEN and disabilities in the local area. </p>
<p>The government expected that through these changes, parents would have greater influence on provision and services – both for their own children and for their area. It was also believed that they would have greater confidence in the system, because local authorities, schools and services would be more responsive to individual children’s needs – and to parental wishes and perspectives. </p>
<p>But as our research shows, this has not always been the case. So while most parents actually prefer the new “educational, health and care plans”, the extent of their involvement <a href="http://blogs.exeter.ac.uk/sen-policyforum/past-policy-papers/">may well have been overestimated</a> by local authorities and the government. </p>
<h2>Changes to schools</h2>
<p>A big part of the problem is that these developments are being introduced at a time of significant broader changes in mainstream educational policy and practice. This is a time of significant budgetary constraint, that has seen many schools restructuring and making reductions in staffing capacity. </p>
<p>And our research saw that while many local authorities have welcomed the cultural changes created by the new legislation, the implementation of the reforms has been a major challenge. There is <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/education/2017/sep/05/crisis-in-support-for-sen-children-ehc-plans">anecdotal evidence</a> of considerable variation in schools’ responses to the reforms, as well as differences in the degree of priority being given to special educational needs and disability issues.</p>
<p>What all this shows, is that while our findings are helpful, better evidence is still needed to assess the reality and extent of the changes – to help children, like Joe, who are struggling in school. </p>
<p>So while The A word might just be a TV programme, it captures very well the stresses and strains that can be created for parents by an education system that doesn’t fully grasp their child’s needs. Needs that when met, can make an enormous difference to a child’s life.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/72552/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Brahm Norwich does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Negative experiences in mainstream schools have harmful long-term effects on pupils with autism spectrum conditions.Brahm Norwich, Professor of Educational Psychology and Special Educational Needs, University of ExeterLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/813702017-08-24T08:10:22Z2017-08-24T08:10:22ZGCSE results 2017: A new grading system and a whole lot of confusion<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/183129/original/file-20170823-13313-11r9135.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">PA</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">PA</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Just over half a million 16-year-olds in the UK will collect their eagerly awaited GCSE results today – just as they have done for the last quarter of a century. </p>
<p>The difference this year is that for pupils in England, those results will take some explaining. There will be a mixture of familiar letter grades (A*-G), unfamiliar numbers (one-nine), and entirely new labels: good pass, standard pass and strong pass. And <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/2017/08/20/thousands-students-set-receive-wrong-gcse-mark-new-system-experts/">some experts</a> are warning that statistically the new system is more likely to throw up incorrect results.</p>
<p>That’s because this year’s students are the first to experience Michael Gove’s “<a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/oral-statement-on-education-reform">more challenging, more ambitious and more rigorous</a>” GCSEs. And they will have to spend the rest of their lives explaining the complicated mixture of grades on their CVs.</p>
<p>Plans for the changes were first announced back in 2003, when the coalition government <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/reformed-gcses-in-english-and-mathematics">confirmed its intention</a> to reform GCSEs. This included changing the content as well as the grading system – beginning with English and maths – in a bid to eliminate differences between exam boards. It was hoped the changes would also help to remove tiered exam papers which potentially cap the achievements of some students. </p>
<p>Another aim of the reforms was to remove coursework from the syllabus, in favour of end of course exams. But it seemed these changes also meant harder exams with more challenging content in the courses – introduced to eliminate what Michael Gove called “the pernicious damage caused by grade inflation and dumbing down”, even though the <a href="https://theconversation.com/gcse-results-remain-stable-so-why-are-ministers-concerned-exams-are-dumbed-down-46288">evidence for this is still contentious</a>.</p>
<h2>The new system</h2>
<p>For the first time since the introduction of GCSEs in 1986, the grading system for the new qualifications will be numerical, ranging from nine (the highest) to one, with the poorest performing students still receiving a U grade. </p>
<p>It is immediately apparent that there cannot be a direct equivalence between the eight old A* to G grades and the nine new grades. This is why The Office of Qualifications and Examinations Regulation (Ofqual) issued schools with so-called “<a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/596393/Grading_new_GCSEs_from_2017_v4.pdf">postcards</a>” to illustrate how the new grades would align with the old ones. These show that a “strong” GCSE pass is now identified as the new grade five – equivalent to the top half of the current C grade. This is the government’s benchmark for a good pass.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/pgZYx_fycrM?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>So far, so good, but unfortunately for students there’s an added complication, because the new GCSEs are being introduced in <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/gcse-changes-a-summary/summary-of-changes-to-gcses-from-2015">three waves</a>. So this year, English language, English literature and mathematics results will be graded under the new system, while the main bulk of curriculum subjects will be marked this way next year – and most of the remaining subjects the year after that. </p>
<h2>Grade confusion</h2>
<p>This means students finishing their GCSEs in 2017, 2018 and 2019 will have a mixture of numbers and letters on their certificates. And to add to the potential confusion, education secretary Justine Greening, <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/603594/ESC_letter.pdf">announced</a> earlier this year that the accepted understanding of a good pass (currently grade C or above) would die out, to be replaced instead with a “standard pass” (grade four) and a “strong pass” (grade five). </p>
<p>Schools will be measured on the number of children who manage to achieve grade five or better. While for students, grade four should be enough to secure them a place with a college, university or employer.</p>
<p>Conversations I’ve had with employers and parents suggest that most people who work outside of the world of education are unaware of any changes to GCSE grades. For the few who are, it seems there is confusion over the way the scale works – leading some parents to question if a nine is the top grade or a one? This is despite the minister for education Nick Gibb’s <a href="https://www.theyworkforyou.com/wrans/?id=2017-07-17.5530.h">admission in July</a> that over half a million pounds has been spent educating the public about the new qualifications. </p>
<p>So irrespective of the ongoing debate that <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-41000575">GCSEs have now become harder</a>, who would envy this week’s 16-year-olds trying to explain to grandma that they’ve got half a dozen good passes, two standard passes and a strong pass? It’s a conversation they’ll have to rehearse for the next few years until the new system has bedded in. But until then, it seems the muddle of grades and numbers and passes will be something many will have to become familiar with.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/81370/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Chris Rolph does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>This year’s changes to GCSE grades means results cannot be compared with those of previous years.Chris Rolph, Principal Lecturer in Education, Nottingham Trent UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/766102017-05-04T21:09:48Z2017-05-04T21:09:48ZFact Check: is education spending at the highest level on record?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/167763/original/file-20170503-21649-j7la0l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The school funding problem.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><blockquote>
<p>The level of funding going into schools is at record levels. </p>
</blockquote>
<p><strong>Prime Minister Theresa May <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/b08plldm/the-andrew-marr-show-30042017">in an interview</a> with Andrew Marr on the BBC on April 30, 2017.</strong></p>
<p>As she hit the campaign trail, Theresa May repeated a claim she has made several times before, including <a href="https://hansard.parliament.uk/commons/2017-04-19/debates/E28A633C-8DC8-4FAF-9258-2835F24836CB/Engagements">during</a> Prime Minister’s Questions in April, that education spending is at its highest ever level.</p>
<p>Her claim is based on Department of Education figures, which come from a National Audit Office report into the financial sustainability of schools. This report references the government’s total core schools budget, which is said to be at the highest ever level.</p>
<p>A Department of Education blog on school funding also details how <a href="https://dfemedia.blog.gov.uk/2017/03/22/education-in-the-media-22-march-2017/">school funding is</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>At its highest on record at more than £40 billion in 2016 to 2017 and is set to rise to £42 billion in 2019 to 2020, with increasing pupil numbers. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>When Theresa May made the claim, she was talking specifically about education in England, and she is referring to the “dedicated schools grant”. This is the whole block of money going to schools in England every year – which currently stands at £40 billion.</p>
<p>But while the <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/dedicated-schools-grant-dsg-2016-to-2017">£40 billion number</a> is about accurate and it is true that this is higher than in previous years, it is not the whole story.</p>
<p>This is because in terms of education spending, it is the “per pupil expenditure” – literally the amount spent on each pupil – that is relevant and not the total amount of the “dedicated schools grant”. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.ifs.org.uk/publications/8937">Recent research</a> on the subject has shown that day-to-day or current spending per pupil in England was largely frozen in real terms between 2010 and 2011 and 2015 and 2016. </p>
<p>Moreover, from 2015 to 2016 onwards school spending has been frozen in cash terms, which is likely to translate into a real terms reduction of around 6.5% between 2015 to 2016 and 2019 to 2020. </p>
<p>This would be the biggest real-term fall in school spending per pupil for 30 years. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/167764/original/file-20170503-21641-gf0kyk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/167764/original/file-20170503-21641-gf0kyk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/167764/original/file-20170503-21641-gf0kyk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/167764/original/file-20170503-21641-gf0kyk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/167764/original/file-20170503-21641-gf0kyk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/167764/original/file-20170503-21641-gf0kyk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/167764/original/file-20170503-21641-gf0kyk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Head teachers could bring in a four-and-a-half day week in schools around England to help ease budget pressures.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The outlook for spending per student in further education (age 16-18) is much worse, with the same research forecasting that this is likely to fall by around 13% between 2010 and 2011 and 2019 and 2020.</p>
<p>We should be worried about these cuts in school and further education expenditure, given not only the financial implications, but also because there is good evidence which shows that expenditure levels have a <a href="http://cep.lse.ac.uk/pubs/download/dp1226.pdf">direct impact on pupil performance</a>. </p>
<p>Research has also shown that <a href="http://www.lse.ac.uk/researchAndExpertise/units/growthCommission/documents/pdf/2017LSEGCReport.pdf">education plays an important role</a>
in generating improved productivity and growth and this is also acknowledged in the government’s own <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/586626/building-our-industrial-strategy-green-paper.pdf">industrial strategy</a>. It makes no sense then to actually disinvest in a “key pillar” of the industrial strategy. </p>
<h2>Verdict</h2>
<p>Theresa May’s claim is misleading because it omits important information, particularly details on “per pupil spending” which is the key figure here. When you look at the “per pupil” figures, it is clear to see that rather than being at the “highest levels”, school funding per pupil has been constant in the last few years. Research has also shown that “per pupil spending” is projected to fall dramatically in the coming years – which could have a direct impact on school budgets and pupil performance.</p>
<h2>Review</h2>
<p><em>Stephen Gorard, Professor in the School of Education, Durham University</em></p>
<p>While this Fact Check complains that Theresa May’s statement on school spending is not the “whole story”, according to official figures the prime minister’s statement is indeed correct – in the context of the schools budget in England. And this spending is set to rise in future years as pupil numbers increase.</p>
<p>The author is correct to point out that per pupil spending is at least as important as the overall total. But the <a href="https://www.ifs.org.uk/publications/8937">research mentioned above</a> shows that even this was still at a historical high in 2015 and 2016 – the most recent complete school year. </p>
<p>The same research shows that in real terms – allowing for inflation – per pupil spending has doubled since the 1997 to 1998 school year. It does predict that a freeze on total spending will lead to a real terms decrease in successive years, but this had not happened at time of writing. </p>
<p>Of course, none of this means that expenditure on schools is sufficient, or that we would not want more. Declines in spending would now be difficult for schools to cope with. Nor does it mean that the money is being spent wisely or in the most effective fashion by governments. </p>
<p><em>The Conversation is checking claims made by public figures. Statements are checked by an academic with expertise in the area. A second academic expert then reviews an anonymous copy of the article. Please get in touch if you spot a claim you would like us to check by emailing us at <a href="uk-factcheck@theconversation.com">uk-factcheck@theconversation.com</a>. Please include the statement you would like us to check, the date it was made, and a link if possible.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/76610/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sandra McNally receives funding from the Centre for Vocational Education Research, which is funded by the Department for Education. The views in this article do not represent those of the government. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stephen Gorard is a researcher working on academic projects funded by ESRC, EEF and the NLT. The views in this article do not represent those of the research councils. </span></em></p>‘Per pupil expenditure’ is where the real story lies.Sandra McNally, Professor in the School of Economics, University of SurreyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/742742017-03-21T14:44:24Z2017-03-21T14:44:24ZGrammar schools debate: four key questions answered<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/161651/original/image-20170320-9147-nk50uh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Lifting the lid on grammar schools.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Few subjects generate as much controversy in England as grammar schools do. Advocates uphold them as “a driver of social mobility” with the belief they can provide a ladder of opportunity for poor but able children. </p>
<p>Critics on the other hand, see them as socially divisive; the remnants of an outdated system that disproportionately benefits middle class children, while labelling others as “failures” early in their educational careers.</p>
<p>But while people hold strong opinions on the benefits (or otherwise) of grammar schools, these opinions are often not actually underpinned by a robust evidence base – research showing a clear answer either way doesn’t actually exist. </p>
<p>And because there is (and always has been) such a mixture of school types in England, it is impossible to get a clear picture of the system-wide benefits and drawbacks of selective education.</p>
<p>So with this in mind, I have answered some of the key questions surrounding the grammar school debate using evidence both for and against selective schooling.</p>
<h2>1. Do grammars provide better opportunities for bright but poor students?</h2>
<p>It is clear that grammar schools get better results in examinations than schools that do not select according to academic ability. But then it would be extremely surprising if they did not. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3443191?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents">Early studies</a> suggest that boys from working class backgrounds did less well at grammar school than their middle class peers. But <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-social-policy/article/div-classtitlehalseya-h-heatha-f-and-ridgej-m-origins-and-destinations-family-class-and-education-in-modern-britain-oxford-university-press-clarendon-oxford-1980-240-pp-1100-paper-495div/33B1C18D6E1757C4B9692AD0B22F76B2">long-term research</a> indicates that working class children still derived significant career gains from going to grammar school. </p>
<p>The problem though with arguments about the “ladder of opportunity” that grammar schools are alleged to provide, is that relatively few poor students – academically able or otherwise – are actually in grammar schools. Certainly those few state-maintained grammar schools that remain in England have very low numbers of <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/education/2016/oct/15/very-small-percentage-of-grammar-school-pupils-from-poorer-families-new-statistics-show">children eligible for free school meals</a>. </p>
<h2><strong>2. Do grammar schools disproportionately benefit middle class children?</strong></h2>
<p>“Yes” – and “no”. Middle class children are disproportionately <a href="http://www.ifs.org.uk/docs/Grammar_Schools2013.pdf#page=25">represented in grammar schools</a>, but a place in a grammar school <a href="https://theconversation.com/grammar-schools-why-academic-selection-only-benefits-the-very-affluent-74189">is by no means guaranteed</a> even for those with “professional” parents.</p>
<p>Between 1945 and the 1970s – at the height of the “tripartite system” – children were allocated to three types of school: grammar, technical and secondary modern. And under this system, over half of those from the groups known as “social classes I and II” <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YSJEBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA170&lpg=PA170&dq=Swift,+D.+(1965)+%E2%80%98Meritocratic+and+social+class+selection+at+age+11%E2%80%99,+Educational+Research,+8&source=bl&ots=PJLGiT_087&sig=MQF1rNDkl3M-cVPtMPf1r77f5Y0&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj7lrutyufSAhXKKMAKHUOaCVgQ6AEIIDAB#v=onepage&q=Swift%2C%20D.%20(1965)%20%E2%80%98Meritocratic%20and%20social%20class%20selection%20at%20age%2011%E2%80%99%2C%20Educational%20Research%2C%208&f=false">failed the 11+</a> – the exam children need to pass to attend grammar schools. </p>
<p>These groups of parents, with managerial and professional occupations, found that children they had that were consigned to secondary modern schools faced very limited opportunities for getting good qualifications and entry to university. </p>
<p>It has also <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=6biEAgAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=Ford,+J.+(1969).+Social+class+and+the+comprehensive+school.+London:+Routledge+and+Kegan+Paul.&ots=6mNgo_hhtP&sig=UypPzNPM8dVwAqG6-hiV5KWxa6s#v=onepage&q&f=false">previously been argued</a> that disappointed middle class parents were one of the driving forces behind “comprehensivation”. This involved getting rid of the 11+ examination which sorted children into different schools and instead encouraged all children to go to their nearest secondary school – irrespective of their academic ability.</p>
<p>And in a similar vein, a recent <a href="https://yougov.co.uk/news/2016/08/15/two-thirds-people-would-send-their-child-grammar-s/">opinion poll</a> showed that parents are only likely to support grammars if their child gets a place. </p>
<h2>3. What happens to those who fail to get into grammar schools?</h2>
<p>Secondary schools in the vicinity of a grammar schools will inevitably lose some of the most academically able children in the neighbourhood. But of course, the general weakening of school catchment areas – with the existence of private schools in England – means that there is already a significant amount of “socially-based” sorting of pupils and schools with or without grammar schools. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.civitas.org.uk/content/files/theselectiondebate.pdf">The most reliable evidence</a> also suggests that less academically able children do slightly better in schools with a more comprehensive intake than in the former secondary moderns. These modern comprehensives are schools that tend to have a mix of academic achievement and aptitude among pupils, compared with the previous secondary moderns – which was mainly where pupils who had failed the 11+ attended. </p>
<h2>4. What are the system-wide effects of a (partially) selective system?</h2>
<p><a href="https://orca.cf.ac.uk/73718/2/Sally%20Power%20and%20Geoff%20Whitty%20Final.pdf">The best available evidence</a> suggests that at a system level, the differences between a selective and a comprehensive school are small. And the average output – or “system productivity” – is much the same. In general, <a href="https://orca.cf.ac.uk/73718/2/Sally%20Power%20and%20Geoff%20Whitty%20Final.pdf">academically able children do better at grammar schools</a> and less able children do better in comprehensive schools – but these differences are really very small. </p>
<p>There are much larger differences between individual schools of the same type – even between different grammar schools – than between the average results of the different kinds of school. And it is also possible that some of these differences can be explained by the more favourable resourcing and teaching workforce associated with grammar schools.</p>
<p>So although for individual children the consequences of academic selection can be huge – in terms of the educational pathways that are open to them – overall there may actually be very little to choose between comprehensive or selective systems in terms of examination results.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/74274/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sally Power receives funding from HEFCW (Higher Education Funding Council Wales) and the Economic and Social Research Council. </span></em></p>Busting the myths on grammar schools.Sally Power, Director of Education, Wales Institute of Social and Economic Research Data and Method, Cardiff UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/725252017-02-23T10:26:52Z2017-02-23T10:26:52ZWhy both teens and teachers could benefit from later school start times<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/157915/original/image-20170222-6406-zi6ws8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">'Wakey, wakey, sleepy head.'</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>A typical school day in the UK starts around 8.30am. This is often even earlier elsewhere in the world, with students sitting down to their first lesson at 7.30am in the US. </p>
<p>But these early start times can play havoc with teenager’s natural sleeping patterns – with research showing that waking a teenager at seven in the morning for school is similar to <a href="https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/pol.3.3.62">waking an adult at four in the morning</a>. And while many adults wouldn’t relish such an early alarm call every working day, it’s a “non-negotiable” expectation for teenagers. </p>
<p>The average teenager ideally needs <a href="http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/early/2014/08/19/peds.2014-1697">eight to nine hours’ sleep</a> each night, but in reality a lot of teenagers struggle to get this much – which can then impact their performance in the classroom.</p>
<p>A lot of the problems arise because our sleep patterns are not fixed, and <a href="https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/pol.3.3.62">they change as we grow</a>. For teenagers, melatonin – the sleep hormone – doesn’t start being produced until 11pm. This is why teens don’t start feeling sleepy until late at night, and why simply telling a teenager to go to bed earlier doesn’t work. </p>
<p>This has <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-teen-brains-need-later-school-start-time-65308">led to calls for later school start times</a> for teenagers to align more closely with their bodies’ biology.</p>
<h2>What the research shows</h2>
<p><a href="http://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/162769">A major study published in 2014</a> examined the impact of later start times on 9,000 US teenagers. Researchers found that:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Grades earned in core subject areas of math, English, science and social studies, plus performance on state and national achievement tests, attendance rates and reduced tardiness show significantly positive improvement with the later start times. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>They also found that with less sleep than recommended, the students reported that they had:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Significantly higher depression symptoms, greater use of caffeine, and are at greater risk of making poor choices for substance use.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>In the US – where teenagers can legally drive from the age of 16 – the research also found later start times led to a decrease in car accidents involving teenage drivers.</p>
<h2>Why teenagers sleep differently</h2>
<p>To understand why a later school start time can make such a difference to teenagers’ lives, we need to take a look at the biology that governs their sleep wake cycle. </p>
<p>We all have a sort of hardwired “clock” in the brain – this is often referred to as our body clock. This “clock” controls the production of the hormone melatonin, and in turn, melatonin controls sleep. Melatonin is naturally produced in the brain and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12622846">starts the process of sleepiness</a> by telling your body that it’s time for bed.</p>
<p>Once asleep, <a href="https://psychcentral.com/lib/stages-of-sleep/">we normally go through five sleep stages</a> a night. And one of the stages – the REM (Rapid Eye Movement) stage – varies significantly with age. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/157916/original/image-20170222-6409-190j3hh.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/157916/original/image-20170222-6409-190j3hh.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/157916/original/image-20170222-6409-190j3hh.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/157916/original/image-20170222-6409-190j3hh.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/157916/original/image-20170222-6409-190j3hh.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/157916/original/image-20170222-6409-190j3hh.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/157916/original/image-20170222-6409-190j3hh.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The fact that many teens are sleep-deprived is reason enough to start school later in the morning.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Pexels.</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>REM sleep is linked to learning, and it’s during REM sleep that we dream. It is characterised by quick, random movements of the eyes and paralysis of the muscles. REM sleep normally makes up around 20-25% of an adult human’s total time spent asleep – or 90 to 120 minutes. We get to REM sleep about 70 to 90 minutes after falling asleep. And if we don’t achieve REM sleep, we wake up feeling tired. </p>
<p>Studies have also shown that lack of REM sleep <a href="https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/sleep/conditioninfo/Pages/rem-sleep.aspx">can impact our ability to learn</a>. And this is what happens to teenagers who do not get their full allocation of sleep. They fail to get to REM sleep and then wake up feeling tired, which can then impact their ability in the classroom that day.</p>
<h2>The benefits for late starters</h2>
<p>So a later school start time could help to solve this problem, by ensuring teenagers get their eight plus hours of sleep and react properly to their body’s natural rhythms.</p>
<p><a href="http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/early/2014/08/19/peds.2014-1697">The American Academy of Pediatrics</a>, said in a policy statement in 2014 that:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Delaying school start times is an effective countermeasure to chronic sleep loss and has a wide range of potential benefits to students with regard to physical and mental health, safety, and academic achievement.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>I believe we should also look again at the timing of the whole school day and see if we can make it better for everyone. Because in my experience, there has been a general shift over the past 25 years to shorten the school day. </p>
<p>This is not at the cost of teaching time (which has remained constant) but at the cost of natural breaks, which has led to reduced lunch times and lesson breaks. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/157917/original/image-20170222-6440-1kqevew.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/157917/original/image-20170222-6440-1kqevew.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/157917/original/image-20170222-6440-1kqevew.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/157917/original/image-20170222-6440-1kqevew.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/157917/original/image-20170222-6440-1kqevew.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/157917/original/image-20170222-6440-1kqevew.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/157917/original/image-20170222-6440-1kqevew.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Later start times could help teens’ grades and health.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This is mainly because it makes the management of children easier. Supervising hundreds of children “playing” requires effective staffing. And there is always the fear that behaviour deteriorates during breaks. So the theory goes that having them in class and strictly supervised must be better.</p>
<p>But this means that students barely have enough time to absorb what they were doing in maths before suddenly they are thrust into ancient history. And teaching staff also transition from one class to another, with hardly a rest or time to refocus. </p>
<p>Clearly rethinking the school day could benefit everyone involved. Yes, there may be challenges in terms of parental work patterns, transport to school or changing childcare arrangements, but it could also lead to better achievement in teenagers and less of a struggle for parents in the mornings. For teachers, it could also mean a less stressful day all around – and what could be better than that?</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/72525/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>James Williams does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A wake-up call for early school mornings?James Williams, Lecturer in Science Education, Sussex School of Education and Social Work, University of SussexLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/716652017-02-13T12:43:10Z2017-02-13T12:43:10ZSmall village schools are at risk of closure because of unfunded costs<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/156072/original/image-20170208-17337-ipwyb4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Village life, but for how much longer?</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>On the outskirts of many English towns, adjacent to green belt and farm land, you will find small village communities situated around a local school, church and public house (the pub) – and many of these communities have been established for centuries. </p>
<p>But these <a href="http://researchbriefings.parliament.uk/ResearchBriefing/Summary/SN06702">semi-rural areas could be no more</a> if the new funding formula proposed by the government has anything to do with it. This is because the proposals could lead to the closure of many of these small village schools. And when a village school is closed, the heart of the community goes with it. </p>
<p>In many of these villages, the shop, pub and post office <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2008/sep/14/ruralaffairs.britishidentity">have already closed</a>, making the school and church the only places that bring the community together. And without them, the English village community is lost – leaving behind a dormitory place where commuters simply go to sleep. </p>
<h2>The semi rural problem</h2>
<p>For many it is assumed that village schools in semi-rural communities are financially “stable”, or even well off, because of the background of the children that attend them. But notion that it is only middle class students from financially stable backgrounds that attend local village schools is simply not true. And in many cases, these schools are already struggling to survive from year to year.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/156076/original/image-20170208-17313-158djye.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/156076/original/image-20170208-17313-158djye.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/156076/original/image-20170208-17313-158djye.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/156076/original/image-20170208-17313-158djye.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/156076/original/image-20170208-17313-158djye.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/156076/original/image-20170208-17313-158djye.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/156076/original/image-20170208-17313-158djye.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Could village schools become a thing of the past?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A lot of this is down to the fact that school funding is given per pupil and many of these schools have a small number of children – many with less than 100 pupils. Many of these schools also have a tiny number of children, if any, who qualify for the additional “pupil premium” funding. This is <a href="http://www.gov.uk/pupil-premium-information-for-schools">a fund given to schools</a> to decrease the attainment gap for the most disadvantaged children. Due to the lower number of pupils who attend these schools there are also fewer children who are looked after, whose parents are in the armed forces, or are eligible for free school meals.</p>
<p>Parents of children with special educational needs <a href="http://www.gov.uk/government%20/news/special-educational-needs">can legally try</a> to get their child into any state funded school of their choice, and they often choose small village schools as these are thought to offer a safer environment for their children to learn. This can bring benefits for all the children involved, but it can also increase the costs involved for the school.</p>
<h2>To make matters worse</h2>
<p>Increasing financial constraints over recent years has seen governing bodies and head teachers working together to look for, sometimes drastic, cost saving measures. Many have entered into federation arrangements, where a group of two or more schools have a joint governing body. </p>
<p>There has also been an increase in the number of multi-academy trusts popping up. These have both been found to be good ways of sharing resources, improving efficiency and effectiveness to reduce costs overall. But in at least one case, this has also meant schools are now having to <a href="http://dera.ioe.ac.uk/7054/1/download%3Fid%3D17200%26filename%3Dhard-federations-of-small-primary-schools.pdf">share a head teacher</a>.</p>
<p>It is difficult to see then how these schools can reduce costs any further without the educational experience of their children suffering. But the proposed new funding policies suggest that they will need to in order to survive.</p>
<p>Under the proposed new formula, schools will receive funding in four ways.
This includes an amount per pupil, along with “additional needs funding”. This is similar to pupil premium and is given according to four factors: deprivation, low prior attainment, English as an additional language and mobility. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/156074/original/image-20170208-17328-14eyb9e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/156074/original/image-20170208-17328-14eyb9e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/156074/original/image-20170208-17328-14eyb9e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/156074/original/image-20170208-17328-14eyb9e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/156074/original/image-20170208-17328-14eyb9e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/156074/original/image-20170208-17328-14eyb9e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/156074/original/image-20170208-17328-14eyb9e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">What is a village without a village school?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Funding will also be allocated as an amount per school, and this will be based on additional factors. This includes “sparsity”, so where the school is located in relation to other schools, “premises related” – such as being in an old building – and the “growth” of the school. </p>
<p>But herein lies the problem, because many of these village schools do not qualify for the sparsity allowance because they are not more than two miles apart. But they are unable to merge or increase pupil numbers to take advantage of the growth funding because of the restrictions of old school buildings.</p>
<p>Then there is also additional funding to be given based on the the geographic area and variation in costs – which will be much more likely to <a href="http://schoolsweek.co.uk/explainer-how-schools-will-be-funded-under-the-new-national-formula/">benefit city schools</a>.</p>
<h2>Left behind?</h2>
<p>The way things currently stand it seems as though the government and local authorities are not interested in these schools. </p>
<p>They may well think they have more pressing issues in schools with a bigger number of pupils. But they cannot afford for these schools to close. It could leave whole areas of a town with no primary schools. </p>
<p>Pressure on school places in other areas will also be significantly increased – with parents driving significant distances to take their children to school. And the educational experience and lives of the children involved will be disadvantaged.</p>
<p>When a village school is closed, the heart of the community is lost. So let’s give these schools a chance and keep our village communities alive.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/71665/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kay Smith is the chair of governors for the Greenhills First Federation. A federation of three small semi-rural first schools in the Kirklees Local Education Authority, West Yorkshire</span></em></p>Under new government funding proposals, village schools could soon become a thing of the past.Kay Smith, Senior Lecturer in Finance, University of HuddersfieldLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/722482017-02-02T09:13:05Z2017-02-02T09:13:05ZBody cameras: coming to a school near you soon<p>The use of body cameras by front line police and other uniformed enforcement agencies is increasing at an unstoppable rate both in the US and UK. </p>
<p>In the UK, video cameras have been seen primarily as a way of supporting police officers to better enforce order or collect evidence. Whereas in the US, their use has been very much driven by the need to <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2014/08/13/us/ferguson-missouri-town-under-siege-after-police-shooting.html?_r=0">control police behaviour</a> – particularly in light of the high number of <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/ng-interactive/2015/jun/01/the-counted-police-killings-us-database">police shootings of young black men</a>.</p>
<p>The <a href="http://tinyurl.com/h4r6ntr">first study in the UK</a> to evaluate the blanket roll out of cameras to all front line officers in a single jurisdiction was carried out on the Isle of Wight. And our research showed that public order and assault crimes went down by nearly 20% when all front line police officers wore the body cameras. It is not surprising then that police forces across the world, including in China, have made the decision to use these body worn video cameras.</p>
<p>Other professions have also decided to follow suit, with <a href="http://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2015/07/keep-body-cameras-off-public-school-educators/398030/">body cameras already in use</a> in many schools across the US – and many more in talks with local law enforcement about <a href="http://www.rochesterfirst.com/news/local-news/rcsd-considering-allowing-body-cameras-in-schools/647493463">how to introduce them</a>. </p>
<p>In the US, it tends to be that these cameras are worn by “school resource officers” rather than teachers. These are sworn law enforcement officers – otherwise known as police officers – responsible for <a href="http://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2015/03/04/body-cameras-on-school-police-spark-student.html">security and crime prevention</a> in US schools. </p>
<p>Of course, not everyone is happy with the move, and <a href="https://www.aclu.org/blog/free-future/body-cameras-police-schools?redirect=blog/criminal-law-reform-immigrants-rights-technology-and-liberty-racial-justice-national-security/b">The American Civil Liberties Union</a> has argued against the relatively recent trend. The union believes the presence of these enforcement officers in schools – many of whom have <a href="http://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2015/11/why-do-most-school-cops-have-no-student-training-requirements/414286/">not been trained to work with children</a> – will lead to criminalisation of routine school disciplinary matters, and will enhance the “<a href="https://www.aclu.org/feature/school-prison-pipeline">school-to-prison</a>” pipeline. This is the idea that children are “funneled” out of public state schools into the criminal justice system. </p>
<h2>Classroom cams</h2>
<p>Consequently, it may surprise you to know that front line teachers in two schools in the UK are already using body cameras to deter bad behaviour in the classroom. Industry sources have also told me how they are working to develop and support body cameras for use in “non-enforcement” environments, including schools.</p>
<p>While body cameras have been in use outside UK classrooms for <a href="http://schoolsweek.co.uk/dangerous-drivers-prompt-body-cameras-for-school-duty-staff/">school crossing patrols</a> for a while, this move towards teachers wearing cameras in the classroom is a relatively recent development.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/O313oqLnELk?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>Both schools are using the body cameras in line with <a href="https://www.google.co.uk/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=2&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwj8pq6anu_RAhWqCsAKHcpgAccQFgghMAE&url=https%3A%2F%2Fico.org.uk%2Fmedia%2Ffor-organisations%2Fdocuments%2F1132%2Freport_dp_guidance_for_schools.pdf&usg=AFQjCNEEIKtXuXGlTtnvxkhrg2f-bR8Yzw&sig2=PWv28lKNPyM_0h12_fh0ww">education board approved policy and guidelines</a>, meaning that all footage is recorded with government approved encryption. The footage is also securely stored on a dedicated cloud platform – like the ones used by the most advanced police forces. </p>
<p>Filming only occurs when it is legitimate, proportionate and necessary. This reduces the threat of oppressive and continuous surveillance of all pupils at all times and requires the approach to be “incident specific”.</p>
<p>The cameras are there to assist teachers in reducing persistent low level disturbances and resolving conflict by capturing evidence of misbehaviour. This means teachers can use the body cameras to resolve problems that prevent them from teaching. </p>
<h2>Capturing a moment</h2>
<p>While the cameras in schools can be used as an enforcement tool to provide evidence for disciplinary actions, the footage can also be used as a self-reflection tool with the students. The footage can also be shared with parents to help come up with joint approaches to problem behaviour. And in an educational setting, there is also further potential to use the body cameras to capture moments worth sharing or to celebrate a student’s development and positive achievements. This is obviously quite different to the more restricted ways the police use these types of cameras.</p>
<p>Early feedback from teachers suggests the cameras give them more control in difficult situations by deterring bad behaviour, and by giving them confidence that they have an independent witness to support their account. This can also improve transparency and accountability which in turn improves trust and the relationship between parents and the school. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/155205/original/image-20170201-29911-148ozds.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/155205/original/image-20170201-29911-148ozds.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/155205/original/image-20170201-29911-148ozds.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/155205/original/image-20170201-29911-148ozds.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/155205/original/image-20170201-29911-148ozds.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/155205/original/image-20170201-29911-148ozds.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/155205/original/image-20170201-29911-148ozds.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">What role should body cameras play in the classroom?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It has previously been suggested that <a href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg22730314-500-the-rise-of-on-body-cameras-and-how-they-will-change-how-we-live/">a world with more cameras might be more pleasant</a> to live in. This is because if surveillance becomes the norm, it might make our society more tolerant as everyone will have the potential to be embarrassed. </p>
<p>While cameras can be viewed with suspicion, it is important to consider the wider and rapid technological changes that will impact the classroom and school environment. Teachers could be filmed at any moment by anyone with a smart-phone – whether they are made aware of it or not. Body cameras are not only a way to balance this out, but they also offer security to teachers who – if properly trained – will be able to provide high quality footage of events with narrative and evidential value.</p>
<p>Ultimately, these types of cameras have the potential to reduce the time teachers spend resolving conflicts, allowing them more time to get back to doing what they do best: teaching. And what could be more important than that?</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/72248/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tom Ellis received funding from Hampshire Police and the College of Policing for Body camera evaluations. </span></em></p>But can they improve pupils’ behaviour?Tom Ellis, Principal Lecturer in Criminal Justice, University of PortsmouthLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/662872016-11-03T22:19:19Z2016-11-03T22:19:19ZHow training can prepare teachers for diversity in their classrooms<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/142319/original/image-20161019-20333-199u70p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Teachers need support to make sure they deal well with diversity and conflict.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Akintunde Akinleye/Reuters</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Teachers have been shaping lives for centuries. Everyone remembers their favourite (and of course their least favourite) teachers. This important group of people even has its <a href="http://en.unesco.org/events/world-teachers-day-0">own special day</a>, marked each October by the United Nations.</p>
<p>Teachers are at the coal face when it comes to watching societies change. South Africa’s classrooms, for instance, look vastly different today than they did two decades ago. They bring together children from different racial, cultural, economic and social backgrounds. This can sometimes cause conflict as varied ways of understanding the world bump up against each other. </p>
<p>How can teachers develop the skills to work with these differences in productive ways? What practical support do they need to bring the values of <a href="http://www.gov.za/documents/constitution/constitution-republic-south-Africa-1996-1">the Constitution</a> to life in their classes?</p>
<p>To answer these questions, my colleagues and I in the <a href="http://www.sun.ac.za/education">Faculty of Education</a> at Stellenbosch University have put together four examples <a href="http://www.sun.ac.za/english/Documents/Yearbooks/2016/2016Education.pdf">from modules</a> within our faculty’s teacher education programme. These ideas are by no means exhaustive; other institutions also tackle these issues. What we present here is based on our own research, teaching and experience and is open to further discussion.</p>
<h2>1. Working with multilingualism</h2>
<p>English is only South Africa’s <a href="http://www.southafrica.info/about/people/language.htm#.WActfeh97IU">fifth most spoken</a> home language. Teachers must remember this: even if their pupils are speaking English in the classroom, their home languages may be far more diverse.</p>
<p>Trainee teachers can benefit enormously from a course on multilingual education. In our faculty, for instance, students are given the chance to place multilingual education in a South African policy framework. They model multilingual classroom strategies like code switching and translation. They visit schools to observe how such strategies are applied in the real classroom. Students then report back on whether this approach helps learners from different language backgrounds to participate actively in the lesson. </p>
<p>There’s also great value in introducing student teachers to the notion of “<a href="http://blog.oxforddictionaries.com/2015/09/10-ways-speakers-of-world-english-are-changing-the-language/">World Englishes</a>”. This focuses on the role of English in multilingual communities, where it is seen as being used for communication and academic purposes rather than as a way for someone to be integrated into an English community. </p>
<h2>2. Supporting diverse learning needs</h2>
<p>Student teachers must be trained to identify and support pupils’ diverse learning needs. This helps teachers to identify and address barriers to learning and development and encourages linkages between the home and the school.</p>
<p>This is even more meaningful when it is embedded in experiential learning. For instance, in guided exercises with their own class groups, our students engage with their feelings, experiences and thinking about their own backgrounds and identities. Other activities may be based on real scenarios, such as discussing <a href="http://www.iol.co.za/news/south-africa/western-cape/rasta-boy-misses-school-over-dreads-1972722">the case</a> of a boy who was sanctioned by his school for wearing his hair in a way prescribed by his religion.</p>
<p>In these modules we focus on language, culture, race, socioeconomic conditions, disability, sexual orientation, learning differences and behavioural, health or emotional difficulties. The students also learn how to help vulnerable learners who are being bullied.</p>
<p>And these areas are constantly expanding. At Stellenbosch University, we’ve recently noted that we need to prepare teachers to deal with the bullying of <a href="http://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2015-02-17-homosexuality-in-south-african-schools-still-largely-a-silent-taboo/">LGBT</a> learners. They also need to be equipped with the tools to support pupils who’ve <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-teachers-can-help-migrant-learners-feel-more-included-56760">immigrated</a> from elsewhere in Africa.</p>
<h2>3. Advancing a democratic classroom</h2>
<p>Courses that deal with the philosophy of education are an important element of teacher education. These explore notions of diversity, human dignity, social justice and democratic citizenship.</p>
<p>In these classes, student teachers are encouraged to see their own lecture rooms as spaces for open and equal engagement, with regard and respect for different ways of being. They’re given opportunities to express and engage with controversial views. This stands them in good stead to create such spaces in their own classrooms.</p>
<p>Most importantly, students are invited to critically reconsider commonly held beliefs – and to disrupt their ideas of the world – so that they might encounter the other as they are and not as they desire them to be. In such a classroom, a teacher promotes discussion and debate. She cultivates respect and regard for the other by listening to different accounts and perspectives. Ultimately, the teacher accepts that she is just one voice in the classroom.</p>
<h2>4. Understanding constitutional rights in the classroom</h2>
<p>All the approaches to teacher education described here are underpinned by the Constitution. </p>
<p>The idea is that teacher education programmes should develop teachers who understand notions of justice, citizenship and <a href="http://www.litnet.co.za/racial-difference-common-citizenship-hair-raising-issue/">social cohesion</a>. Any good teacher needs to be able to reflect critically on their own role as leader and manager within the contexts of classrooms, schools and the broader society. This includes promoting values of democracy, social justice and equality, and building attitudes of respect and reciprocity.</p>
<p>A critical reflective ethos is encouraged. Students get numerous opportunities to interrogate, debate, research, express and reflect upon educational challenges, theories and policies, from different perspectives, as these apply to practice. This is all aimed at building a positive school environment for everyone.</p>
<h2>Moving into teaching</h2>
<p>What about when students become teachers themselves?</p>
<p>For many new teachers these inclusive practices are not easy to implement in schools. One lecturer in our faculty has been approached by former students who report that as beginner teachers, they don’t have “the status or voice to change existing discriminatory practices and what some experience as the resistance to inclusive education”. This suggests that ongoing discussion and training in both pre-service and in-service education is needed.</p>
<p>At the same time, however, there are signs that these modules are having a positive impact. Students post comments and ideas on social media and lecturers regularly hear from first-time teachers about how useful their acquired knowledge is in different contexts. Many are also eager to study further so they can explore the issues more deeply.</p>
<p>Everything I’ve described here is part of one faculty’s attempts to provide safe spaces where student teachers can learn to work constructively with the issues pertaining to diversity in education. In doing so, we hope they’ll become part of building a country based on respect for all.</p>
<p><em>Author’s note: I am grateful to my colleagues Lynette Collair, Nuraan Davids, Jerome Joorst and Christa van der Walt for the ideas contained in this article.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/66287/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Maureen Robinson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Teachers need training and support to deal with increasing diversity in their classrooms.Maureen Robinson, Dean, Faculty of Education, Stellenbosch UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/273572014-06-19T05:04:13Z2014-06-19T05:04:13ZPupils and teachers should get a say in how to spend £2bn for building new schools<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/51533/original/hmww7d9t-1403094696.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The happiest days of your life.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">P. Woolner</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The government’s announcement of a second phase of its <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/education-spending">Priority School Building Project</a> demonstrates a commitment to around £2 billion of capital investment in the UK’s school stock. But it also reveals distinctly mixed understandings of the impact that the physical learning environment has on education. It’s important that pupils, teachers and other staff are involved in making decisions about the buildings where they spend their time. </p>
<p>Fortunately, the Department for Education has understood one key message from the debate that surrounded the previous government’s Building Schools for the Future (BSF) programme: that there are clear negative consequences of inadequate school buildings. </p>
<p>Studies have revealed correlations between measures of school building quality with various student outcomes, including <a href="http://eab.sagepub.com/content/40/4/455.abstract">behaviour</a>, <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0272494408000194">attendance and attainment</a>. In addition, and importantly, more focused research has found direct effects on learning of specific physical problems including <a href="http://eab.sagepub.com/content/29/5/638.abstract">noise</a>, <a href="http://www.google.co.uk/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&ved=0CCAQFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.schoolfunding.info%2Fpolicy%2Ffacilities%2FACLUfacilities_report1-04.pdf&ei=KfqfU6y6DYTIObPsgMAD&usg=AFQjCNEdkq2ATbXr3V2y9tSprdVz8v7jvg&sig2=Ph4OcJBq5AmsLfOJWiGU3g&bvm=bv.68911936,d.ZGU&cad=rjt">high and low temperatures</a>, <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360132311002617">poor air quality</a> and <a href="http://eab.sagepub.com/content/35/4/566.abstract">limited learning space</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/50499/original/mx4t88b7-1402051806.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/50499/original/mx4t88b7-1402051806.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/50499/original/mx4t88b7-1402051806.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/50499/original/mx4t88b7-1402051806.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/50499/original/mx4t88b7-1402051806.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/50499/original/mx4t88b7-1402051806.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/50499/original/mx4t88b7-1402051806.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Who wants to learn here?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">P. Woolner</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>I have also carried out <a href="http://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/the-design-of-learning-spaces-9781441193322/">research</a> that suggests, perhaps not surprisingly, how a poor school environment might contribute to a spiral of decline. This can involve declining student attitudes, increases in poor behaviour, reduced well-being and attendance, lowered staff morale and difficulties in staff retention. Overall, it is easier to find <a href="http://www.ncl.ac.uk/cflat/news/DCReport.pdf">evidence for the negative effects of a poor educational environment</a> than it is to demonstrate the positive effects of superior school premises.</p>
<h2>No one-size fits all solution</h2>
<p>Yet the danger of this way of thinking about the issue is that we find ourselves imagining we can all agree on what makes a suitable learning environment and build it, just by making good any obvious deficiencies. This is a trap; if we fall into it, we risk ignoring the human side of educational environments, and also over-simplifying the physical side.</p>
<p>The research that reveals the effects of specific problems does not provide priorities for fixing them, and sometimes the solutions may even be in conflict. For example, increasing ventilation to improve air quality, either mechanically or by opening the window, may well also increase noise. </p>
<p>The balance of cost and benefit will hinge on the particular circumstances of the school. For some schools, increasing learning space might be a cheap and relatively quick fix while for others, such as schools on restricted urban sites, this might be almost impossible. </p>
<p>As I pointed out in a <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03054980601094693?queryID=%24%7BresultBean.queryID%7D">review of this area</a> some years ago, there is no metric for comparing the benefits of improved physical infrastructure with other possible ways of spending the same money, such as on staff or resources.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/50500/original/6rxpzrqm-1402052213.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/50500/original/6rxpzrqm-1402052213.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/50500/original/6rxpzrqm-1402052213.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/50500/original/6rxpzrqm-1402052213.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/50500/original/6rxpzrqm-1402052213.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/50500/original/6rxpzrqm-1402052213.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/50500/original/6rxpzrqm-1402052213.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">School space adapted for curriculum innovation and to support enquiry learning.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">P. Woolner</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This awareness of the complexity of any educational environment makes sense of occasions when an apparently unexceptional school setting supports excellent education. Instead, it is often a matter of matching premises to needs. </p>
<p>Although no learner or teacher needs a leaky roof, the suitability of other aspects depend on what you want to do in your classroom. If the preferred teaching style is to teach the whole class at once, then the teacher needs to be visible and audible to all learners. Seating then in small groups may be counter-productive. Alternatively, a school that values speaking skills and learner discussion might be noisy at times.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/50498/original/yv8zxj9b-1402051410.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/50498/original/yv8zxj9b-1402051410.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/50498/original/yv8zxj9b-1402051410.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/50498/original/yv8zxj9b-1402051410.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/50498/original/yv8zxj9b-1402051410.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/50498/original/yv8zxj9b-1402051410.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/50498/original/yv8zxj9b-1402051410.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Classroom furniture arranged to maximise carpet space.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">P. Woolner</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Of course, one way to enhance the match between educational setting and proposed activities is to change the setting to make it more appropriate. This is something that <a href="http://imp.sagepub.com/content/15/1/45.abstract">individual teachers do on a small scale</a>: rearranging furniture for group work, organising resources to be accessible, maximising the carpet space to use for learning games and debates. </p>
<h2>Effective schools use space wisely</h2>
<p>Some <a href="http://www.emeraldinsight.com/journals.htm?articleid=1793202">studies of effective schools</a> suggest that a willingness to engage with the school environment can contribute to their “can-do” ethos. This goes beyond individual teachers organising their own classrooms and seems to involve the school community pulling together to make their premises work for them, enabling effective learning and social practices.</p>
<p>Such a dynamic was noticed nearly four decades ago in <a href="http://books.google.co.uk/books/about/Fifteen_Thousand_Hours.html?id=j_7FcLrSrEQC">a classic piece of British research</a>, but has been remarked upon in a much <a href="http://www.emeraldinsight.com/journals.htm?issn=0957-8234&volume=46&issue=1&articleid=1657805&show=html">more recent study</a> of school performance in the US state of Virginia. 80 schools were surveyed, revealing the expected associations between school quality and educational outcomes. Notably, the researchers found that aspects that were under the schools’ control, such as cleanliness, were as important as design elements. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.emeraldinsight.com/journals.htm?articleid=1793202">Case studies</a> of two surprisingly successful schools in economically deprived areas in Virginia showed how the members of these school communities had made good use of the premises to enhance teaching and learning. </p>
<h2>Getting involved</h2>
<figure class="align-left ">
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<span class="caption">Pupils taking part in school design.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">P. Woolner</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>This all implies a necessity of actively <a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10984-009-9067-6">involving school users </a>in any redesign or rebuilding. This is because there is no ideal school: the building must fit the users’ needs and they will need to think collaboratively about exactly what those needs are. Interestingly, the Building Schools for the Future programme explicitly included ideas about <a href="http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415840767/">participation</a> with attempts made to involve learners, school staff and the wider community in design processes. </p>
<p>Worryingly, this is being determinedly left out of the new funding arrangements. The <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/review-of-education-capital">James review </a> levelled specific criticism at the participation attempted during the Building Schools for the Future era, because the process could be lengthy and challenging. </p>
<p>So it’s difficult – but that does not negate the need to do it. Ironically, there is a growing awareness within architecture of the <a href="http://www.ribabookshops.com/item/architecture-and-participation/38389/">benefits of user participation</a> in design. Within the related discipline of planning, participatory processes have been a <a href="http://lithgow-schmidt.dk/sherry-arnstein/ladder-of-citizen-participation.html">valued and hotly pursued goal for decades </a>.</p>
<p>The current school funding arrangements may be just about sufficient to sort out dilapidated school buildings, which, as I have argued, is clearly important. But as it stands, the process is ill-equipped to tackle the complexity of designing for a productive dynamic between educational space and activities. Even a “cheap” school building requires significant investment – and it might actually be more wasteful to spend public money on mere containers for education that only aspire to be physically adequate provision for average needs.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/27357/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Pamela Woolner has received funding from schools, local authorities and charities, including Open Futures and Creative Partnerships, in connection with researching the physical school environment. </span></em></p>The government’s announcement of a second phase of its Priority School Building Project demonstrates a commitment to around £2 billion of capital investment in the UK’s school stock. But it also reveals…Pamela Woolner, Lecturer in education, Newcastle UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.