tag:theconversation.com,2011:/africa/topics/rail-2023/articlesRail – The Conversation2024-03-26T16:39:55Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2257992024-03-26T16:39:55Z2024-03-26T16:39:55ZAir quality at many train stations is alarmingly bad. Here’s how to improve it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583589/original/file-20240321-21-4sarpt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5991%2C3988&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/melbourne-australia-11-january-2020-southern-1616919649">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Recent <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2024-03-06/melbourne-southern-cross-station-air-pollution-data-revealed/103486852">revelations</a> about poor air quality at Melbourne’s Southern Cross Station probably came as no surprise for passengers who have experienced such conditions. </p>
<p>Train platforms, bus terminal and nearby areas have recorded alarmingly poor air quality. In some parts of the station, nitrogen dioxide levels were more than 90 times the World Health Organization’s (WHO) <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/feature-stories/detail/what-are-the-who-air-quality-guidelines">recommended limit</a>. At such levels, considered much <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2024-03-06/melbourne-southern-cross-station-air-pollution-data-revealed/103486852">higher than medically acceptable</a>, human <a href="https://www.who.int/news/item/04-04-2022-billions-of-people-still-breathe-unhealthy-air-new-who-data">health is at risk</a>. </p>
<p>Poor air quality in train stations is a concern in many major cities, including <a href="https://www.timeout.com/sydney/news/air-pollution-in-sydney-train-stations-is-at-dangerous-levels-but-you-can-do-these-things-to-reduce-harm-022124">Sydney</a>, <a href="https://www.nih.gov/news-events/nih-research-matters/poor-air-quality-across-northeastern-public-transit-systems">New York and Boston</a> in the US, and <a href="https://theconversation.com/london-underground-polluted-with-particles-small-enough-to-enter-the-human-bloodstream-new-research-196600">London</a> and <a href="https://www.pollutionsolutions-online.com/news/air-clean-up/16/breaking-news/are-train-stations-a-pollution-hotspot/49741">Edinburgh</a> in the UK. In some Sydney stations and tunnels, air pollution was <a href="https://rtbuexpress.com.au/inadequate-ventilation-in-stations-a-concern-for-workers-and-passengers/">up to five times worse</a> than the WHO’s recommended limit. </p>
<p>Poor air quality is a result of fumes from diesel engines, restricted airflow, station design and the wear of train components. These emissions include tiny airborne particles. This fine particulate matter can <a href="https://particleandfibretoxicology.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12989-019-0296-2">cause illness and disease</a>. Passengers, workers and nearby residents may all be affected.</p>
<p>Solutions already exist. Investing in technology, alternative fuels, electrification and better management of stations can improve air quality and reduce the health risks. As with COVID, people can also <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4311076/">reduce their exposure</a> by wearing <a href="https://www.health.nsw.gov.au/environment/factsheets/Pages/face-mask.aspx">suitable face masks</a>, such as <a href="https://www.health.nsw.gov.au/environment/factsheets/Pages/face-mask.aspx">P2 and N95</a> masks.</p>
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<a href="https://theconversation.com/london-underground-polluted-with-particles-small-enough-to-enter-the-human-bloodstream-new-research-196600">London Underground polluted with particles small enough to enter the human bloodstream – new research</a>
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<h2>It’s a worldwide problem</h2>
<p>International studies show poor air quality is common in enclosed train and bus stations. Data for most stations from many cities show levels of fine particulate matter exceeded <a href="https://www.youtube.com/shorts/rndxwsxrBJ0">WHO guidelines</a>.</p>
<p>In Sao Paolo, Brazil, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31831243/">a study found</a> “time spent inside a bus terminal can result in an intolerable health risk for commuters”. </p>
<p>A <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.8b06980">Danish study</a> identified much higherpollution levels of pollutants in and around diesel trains than for electric trains. Inside the diesel trains, levels of ultrafine particulate matter were 35 times higher, black carbon six times higher, nitrogen oxides (NOx) eight times higher, PM2.5 (particles with a diameter of 2.5 micrometres or less, so they can enter the bloodstream) twice as high and benzo(a)pyrene six times higher. </p>
<iframe title="PM2.5 levels in train stations around the world" aria-label="Bar Chart" id="datawrapper-chart-OBmQR" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/OBmQR/1/" scrolling="no" frameborder="0" style="border: none;" width="100%" height="708" data-external="1"></iframe>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/commuting-by-subway-what-you-need-to-know-about-air-quality-82859">Commuting by subway? What you need to know about air quality</a>
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<h2>But aren’t trains a more sustainable form of transport?</h2>
<p>In terms of sustainability and general urban <a href="https://www.iqair.com/world-air-quality-report">air quality</a>, trains help reduce emissions and air pollution when compared to <a href="https://theconversation.com/a-rapid-shift-to-electric-vehicles-can-save-24-000-lives-and-leave-us-148bn-better-off-over-the-next-2-decades-190243">cars and trucks</a> in Australia. Trains transport people more efficiently, with a much smaller land, energy and emissions <a href="https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/fb7dc9e4-d5ff-4a22-ac07-ef3ca73ac680/The_Future_of_Rail.pdf">footprint</a>. </p>
<p>The health impacts of air pollution are usually <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2468266716300214?via%3Dihub#ecomp10">lower</a> for train commuters than those who commute by car. However, the impacts on train commuters depend on <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/epdf/10.1021/acs.est.8b06980">location, the fuel used</a> (diesel or electric) and the extent of their exposure to highly polluted air in enclosed and underground stations.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/air-pollution-from-brake-dust-may-be-as-harmful-as-diesel-exhaust-on-immune-cells-new-study-129594">Air pollution from brake dust may be as harmful as diesel exhaust on immune cells – new study</a>
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<h2>What can be done to improve air quality?</h2>
<p>Rail operators can do many things to help passengers breath more easily. These involve both trains and station management.</p>
<p>Train-side interventions include the use of cleaner fuels, more efficient engines and filtering systems, and shifting from diesel to electric trains. </p>
<p>Station-side solutions include exhaust fans, station design and real-time monitoring of air quality. Optimising schedules and operations can reduce train engine idling time. Loading and unloading facilities can be relocated away from congested areas. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583612/original/file-20240322-28-j46w0d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An infographic showing the ways to improve air quality, including electrified trains, air filters and policy changes" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583612/original/file-20240322-28-j46w0d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583612/original/file-20240322-28-j46w0d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=806&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583612/original/file-20240322-28-j46w0d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=806&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583612/original/file-20240322-28-j46w0d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=806&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583612/original/file-20240322-28-j46w0d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1013&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583612/original/file-20240322-28-j46w0d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1013&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583612/original/file-20240322-28-j46w0d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1013&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Swinburne University of Technology (2024)</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
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<p><strong>Alternative fuels</strong></p>
<p>Train operators have <a href="https://www.up.com/customers/track-record/tr090622-biofuel-locomotive-fleet.htm">trialled the use of biofuels</a>, typically blended with mineral diesel. Biodiesel and renewable diesel are made from renewable resources and burn cleaner. Biofuels can cut greenhouse gas emissions <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.2c00289">by up to 86%</a>. </p>
<p>Biodiesel costs <a href="https://afdc.energy.gov/files/u/publication/alternative_fuel_price_report_january_2024.pdf">nearly the same</a> as mineral diesel, but renewable diesel costs more. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Biodiesel in the Outback.</span></figcaption>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-explained-could-biofuels-replace-all-fossil-fuels-in-new-zealand-162502">Climate explained: could biofuels replace all fossil fuels in New Zealand?</a>
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<p><strong>Technology fixes</strong></p>
<p>Exhaust after-treatment systems on diesel engines are a low-cost option. Filters can capture most soot particles. <a href="https://enginetechforum.org/selective-catalytic-reduction-scr">Selective catalytic reduction</a> technology uses a chemical reaction to reduce <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40825-015-0020-0">NOx emissions</a>. </p>
<p>Improving ventilation and air flow within stations can also help <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2020.114284">limit pollution</a>.</p>
<p>Another option is diesel-hybrid <a href="https://new.abb.com/news/detail/94295/department-for-infrastructure-and-transport-in-south-australia-selects-abb-for-australias-first-diesel-hybrid-train-fleet-conversion">train fleet conversion</a>. Electric traction modules and energy-storage systems recover energy when the train brakes and store it in a battery for later use. </p>
<p>These systems can operate the train when the diesel engines are shut down, for example during boarding. Energy savings can be <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352152X2202103X#ab0005">up to 6,000kWh/day</a>. </p>
<p>The South Australian government has <a href="https://www.dit.sa.gov.au/news/feed?a=1288902">retrofitted trains</a> with these systems. They can cut fuel use by up to 20% and carbon dioxide emissions by 2,400 tonnes a year on the Adelaide Metro. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">South Australia has retrofitted Adelaide trains with hybrid-diesel technology.</span></figcaption>
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<p><strong>Electrification</strong></p>
<p>Electric trains produce much less air pollution – around <a href="https://www.railway-technology.com/features/overhead-lines-vs-third-rail-how-does-rail-electrification-work/?cf-view">20-30% less greenhouse gas emissions</a> per passenger kilometre. </p>
<p>Being lighter and more efficient, electric trains are also cheaper to make, maintain and run than diesel trains (with average savings of <a href="https://www.railway-technology.com/features/overhead-lines-vs-third-rail-how-does-rail-electrification-work/">20%, 33% and 45%</a> respectively).</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australias-freight-used-to-go-by-train-not-truck-heres-how-we-can-bring-back-rail-and-cut-emissions-219332">Australia's freight used to go by train, not truck. Here's how we can bring back rail – and cut emissions</a>
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<h2>Cleaner air saves lives</h2>
<p>Estimating health impacts in Australia is difficult due to limited data, but international evidence provides guidance.</p>
<p>Compared to travel on roads, commuters on trains and metros typically have less exposure to air pollution, except for <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2468266716300214?via%3Dihub#ecomp10">black carbon</a>. Long-term exposure to black carbon <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2542519621002771">typically increases</a> mortality rates even at low levels of ambient air pollution.</p>
<p>At exposure levels close to what is <a href="https://www.atsjournals.org/doi/epdf/10.1164/rccm.201211-2004OC?role=tab">often found</a> in cities, excess lifetime lung cancer mortality is 0.3 per 1,000. For train staff, <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/epdf/10.1021/acs.est.8b06980">Danish research</a> estimates black-carbon exposure results in an extra 16 lung cancer deaths per 1,000 individuals over a lifetime (assuming an eight-hour working day). For working conditions over ten years, a six-fold increase in black carbon lifts this rate to 1.9 per 1,000. A ten-fold increase takes it to <a href="https://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/doi/epdf/10.1289/ehp.1306880">3.2 extra deaths per 1,000</a>. </p>
<p>Short-term exposure to high air pollution is also linked to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9875429/">deaths from kidney disease</a>. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Researchers discuss the link between air pollution and lung cancer.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Leadership is needed to protect people and the planet</h2>
<p>Some solutions are easy to apply immediately. Others require planning and foresight. </p>
<p>The impacts on rail costs and operations should be balanced against the importance of protecting the health of commuters and staff, as well as cutting emissions. </p>
<p>Active monitoring and transparent reporting of air quality promote public trust. They’re also needed to assess the effectiveness of solutions. </p>
<p>Shifting towards a cleaner rail system is an opportunity for operators and regulators to show vision and leadership by supporting trains as one of the best alternatives to cars and trucks.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225799/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Magnus Moglia receives funding from the iMOVE Australia Cooperative Research Centre, Transport for New South Wales, Queensland Department of Transport and Main Roads, Victorian Department of Transport and Planning, Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development, Communications and the Arts, Sydney Water, Sustainability Victoria, AHURI, and ACIAR. He is affiliated with Regen Melbourne.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Christian A. Nygaard receives funding from the iMOVE Australia Cooperative Research Centre, Transport for New South Wales, Queensland Department of Transport and Main Roads, Victorian Department of Transport and Planning, Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development, Communications and the Arts, Sustainability Victoria, Australian Housing and Urban Research Institute, and the Community Housing Industry Association</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hadi Ghaderi receives funding from the iMOVE Cooperative Research Centre, Transport for New South Wales, Queensland Department of Transport and Main Roads, Victorian Department of Transport and Planning, Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development, Communications and the Arts, IVECO Trucks Australia limited, Innovative Manufacturing Cooperative Research Centre, Victoria Department of Education and Training, Bondi Laboratories, Australian Meat Processor Corporation, MotorOne Group, 460degrees and Passel.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hussein Dia receives funding from the Australian Research Council, the iMOVE Australia Cooperative Research Centre, Transport for New South Wales, Queensland Department of Transport and Main Roads, Victorian Department of Transport and Planning, Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development, Communications and the Arts, and Beam Mobility Holdings.
For this article, Hussein acknowledges the input of Mr Ali Matin, PhD candidate from Swinburne University of Technology, for the work he completed in collating the data and development of diagrams and visuals.</span></em></p>Serious air pollution is a common problem in stations around Australia and the world. But solutions already exist, and some can be applied immediately to protect station staff and commuters.Magnus Moglia, Associate Professor in Systems Science and Sustainable Urbanism, Swinburne University of TechnologyChristian A. Nygaard, Professor in Social Economics and Urban Studies, Swinburne University of TechnologyHadi Ghaderi, Associate Professor in Logistics and Supply Chain Management, Swinburne University of TechnologyHussein Dia, Professor of Future Urban Mobility, Swinburne University of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2116622023-08-22T18:55:31Z2023-08-22T18:55:31ZSlow train coming: only a genuine shift to rail will put NZ on track to reduce emissions<p>Both the <a href="https://www.beehive.govt.nz/release/5-billion-boost-transport-funding-2024-27-208-billion">Labour government</a> and the opposition <a href="https://www.beehive.govt.nz/release/5-billion-boost-transport-funding-2024-27-208-billion">National Party</a> have now released major transport polices that put the emphasis on maintaining and expanding roads.</p>
<p>The cost and priority of various projects will clearly be an election issue. But at the heart of the debate lies an inconvenient truth about climate change: encouraging road transport while needing to reduce carbon emissions simply does not add up.</p>
<p>We can see this tension in transport agency Waka Kotahi’s own <a href="https://www.nzta.govt.nz/resources/annual-report-nzta/">policy statements</a>: road safety and better travel options on the one hand, addressing sustainability on the other. But transport is <a href="https://environment.govt.nz/publications/aotearoa-new-zealands-first-emissions-reduction-plan/transport/">responsible for 17%</a> of New Zealand’s total greenhouse gas emissions.</p>
<p>Furthermore, road vehicle use has been increasing, as has the popularity of larger cars and SUVs that create more emissions per kilometre. Road congestion has become worse, with the popular response being to expand road capacity. </p>
<p>Hence the present government’s recently announced plans for a <a href="https://www.beehive.govt.nz/release/phased-tunnels-second-harbour-crossing">second harbour crossing</a> in Auckland involving two road tunnels. And the main thrust of National’s Transport for the Future policy is on more urban and intercity roads. Both Labour and National favour a second Mount Victoria tunnel in Wellington.</p>
<p>In the background sits the government’s <a href="https://www.transport.govt.nz/area-of-interest/infrastructure-and-investment/future-of-rail/">Rail Plan</a>, which sets out the “vision and priorities for rail over the next decade and beyond”. But given the clear need for New Zealand’s transport policies to change, the planned improvements need to be on a fast track.</p>
<h2>Light rail right next door</h2>
<p>Cars and planes are convenient, but both have low energy efficiency compared to rail. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/317520/original/file-20200227-24701-1gktt92.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/317520/original/file-20200227-24701-1gktt92.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/317520/original/file-20200227-24701-1gktt92.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=205&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/317520/original/file-20200227-24701-1gktt92.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=205&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/317520/original/file-20200227-24701-1gktt92.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=205&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/317520/original/file-20200227-24701-1gktt92.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=258&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/317520/original/file-20200227-24701-1gktt92.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=258&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/317520/original/file-20200227-24701-1gktt92.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=258&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/greenhouse-gas-reporting-conversion-factors-2019">Data source: Greenhouse gas reporting: conversion factors 2019</a></span>
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<p>A car’s carbon emissions per passenger kilometre can be around four times that of domestic rail (as shown by the graph above, based on UK data).</p>
<p>The government’s transport plans for Auckland do <a href="https://www.newshub.co.nz/home/politics/2023/02/auckland-light-rail-survives-policy-purge-but-completed-plans-still-two-years-away.html">include light rail</a>, but National has <a href="https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/national-to-scrap-governments-146-billion-light-rail-project-in-auckland-and-spend-on-seven-roading-and-public-transport-projects/UVUSFZ2N7VH77BKM4LWVH6R5X4/">promised to scrap</a> the scheme if elected. Looking across the Tasman, however, there is good evidence that light rail should not be this contentious.</p>
<p>Few might have predicted that Queensland’s Gold Coast light rail network – <a href="https://ridetheg.com.au/">G:link</a>, which opened in July 2014 – would see six million riders in its first 12 months of operation. Work started on a second stage within 24 months, with construction of a third stage now under way.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/70-years-of-road-based-policies-created-todays-problems-does-nationals-transport-plan-add-up-210696">70 years of road-based policies created today's problems – does National’s transport plan add up?</a>
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<p>The system has now seen more than 73 million paid passenger trips since it opened, with upwards of <a href="https://translink.com.au/about-translink/reports-and-publications/performance">ten million trips likely</a> in the 2022-23 year.</p>
<p>In 2019, three other new light rail systems opened in Australia: a short section in Newcastle, another in Canberra (where post-COVID patronage is recovering), and Sydney’s <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/nsw/sydney-finally-embraces-cbd-light-rail-as-patronage-surges-20230404-p5cxx3.html">CBD and south-east line</a> (where patronage is also bouncing back). Adelaide’s single line was also extended during the 2010s. </p>
<p>However, the combined patronage of all of these new light rail systems is far exceeded by Melbourne’s trams, now building back to pre-COVID levels of <a href="https://www.ptv.vic.gov.au/footer/data-and-reporting/annual-report">205 million rides</a> in 2018-19.</p>
<p>This is all part of a remarkable renaissance of light rail around the world. New Zealand could be part of this – if the will was there.</p>
<h2>The freight factor</h2>
<p>New Zealand’s historical shift from rail to road as the primary mode of freight transport has seen an ever-increasing dependence on trucks. While road freight grew steadily in the first two decades of this century, <a href="https://www.kiwirail.co.nz/who-we-are/publications-and-resources/annual-reports">rail freight</a> in 2021-2022 was the same as it was in 1999-2000.</p>
<p>Road freight does have some advantages, including point-to-point delivery and flexibility. But for many freight movements, using trucks rather than rail <a href="https://www.railfutures.org.au/2017/07/submission-to-inquiry-into-national-freight-and-supply-chain-priorities/">increases emissions</a> by a factor of three. If reducing freight emissions is the goal, shifting some from road to rail is a logical solution.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/new-zealand-must-get-over-its-obsession-with-big-cars-and-go-smaller-or-electric-to-cut-emissions-183424">New Zealand must get over its obsession with big cars and go smaller or electric to cut emissions</a>
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<p>Rail will therefore have to increase its own energy efficiency, including through more electrification of rail routes such as the Auckland-Hamilton-Tauranga and Palmerston North-Waikanae links. </p>
<p>While this was hinted at in the government’s 2023 budget, it doesn’t appear in the recently released <a href="https://consult.transport.govt.nz/policy/government-policy-statement-on-land-transport-2024">draft government statement</a> on land transport.</p>
<p>Increasing the allowable axle loading for freight wagons across the rail network would also allow trains to carry heavier loads, improve efficiency and reduce emissions. </p>
<p>Finally, the North Island main trunk needs upgrading to make the track straighter and allow trains to go faster. In turn this will make rail more attractive and help reduce emissions. </p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/to-get-new-zealanders-out-of-their-cars-well-need-to-start-charging-the-true-cost-of-driving-166167">To get New Zealanders out of their cars we'll need to start charging the true cost of driving</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<h2>When’s the next train?</h2>
<p>Clearly, roads need to be maintained, and New Zealand’s road network has to be made more resilient to adverse weather impacts. But expanding road capacity at the expense of a more efficient rail system and improved public transport is a recipe for increasing emissions.</p>
<p>While road congestion in major cities is a problem, overseas experience tells us that more road capacity only increases vehicle use. The net result is more, not fewer, transport emissions.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-restoring-long-distance-passenger-rail-makes-sense-in-new-zealand-for-people-and-the-climate-199381">Why restoring long-distance passenger rail makes sense in New Zealand – for people and the climate</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<p>It would make more sense to upgrade the rail network to move more freight and transport more urban and intercity passengers. In fact, the Transport and Infrastructure Select Committee has <a href="https://selectcommittees.parliament.nz/v/2/571a0392-4dbf-4623-9953-7b06f3cf4aef">recently recommended</a> that the Ministry of Transport investigate how the Rail Plan could better incorporate inter-regional passenger rail.</p>
<p>But New Zealand needs to move beyond recommendations. As the International Energy Agency <a href="https://www.iea.org/reports/net-zero-by-2050">has noted</a>: “Rail transport is the most energy-efficient and least carbon-intensive way to move people and second only to shipping for carrying goods.”</p>
<p>Whichever parties form the next government have an opportunity to put New Zealand transport on the right track. On the evidence so far, however, it could be a slow train coming.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/211662/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Philip Laird owns shares in some transport companies. He is affiliated with the Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport, the Railway Technical Society of Australasia, and the Rail Futures Institute. The opinions expressed are those of the author.
</span></em></p>Both major parties are promising major road projects this election. Meanwhile, the potential for passenger and freight rail to help meet the country’s climate goals seems stuck at the station.Philip Laird, Honorary Principal Fellow, University of WollongongLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2071692023-06-08T20:37:01Z2023-06-08T20:37:01ZOvercrowded trains serve as metaphor for India in Western eyes – but they are a relic of colonialism and capitalism<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531013/original/file-20230608-21-vya0qq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=6%2C573%2C4532%2C3010&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">By the end of the 19th century, railways were being used by millions across India.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/en-gare-des-hommes-montent-jusque-sur-le-toit-des-wagons-news-photo/947835870?adppopup=true">Keystone-France/Gamma-Rapho via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>A devastating <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/jun/04/what-caused-the-india-train-crash-a-visual-guide-to-what-we-know">rail crash</a> that left <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/jun/08/brothers-breadwinners-fathers-the-lives-lost-in-indias-train-disaster">almost 300 people dead</a> has refocused international attention on the importance of railways in the lives of Indians.</p>
<p>Indeed, to many Western observers, images of men and women crammed into overcrowded cars serve as a metaphor for modern India.</p>
<p>Take, for example, a report by German newspaper Der Spiegel on India’s population surpassing China’s. Published just weeks before the accident in Odisha province on June 2, the now <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/asia/india/india-der-spiegel-racist-cartoon-population-b2327147.html">much-criticized cartoon</a> depicted a shabby Indian train <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-65395860">crammed with passengers</a> rushing past a streamlined Chinese train with only two people in it.</p>
<p>Where does this enduring image in the West of Indian railways – and of India – come from? </p>
<p>As a scholar of Indian history and author of 2015 book “<a href="http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/history/south-asian-history/tracks-change-railways-and-everyday-life-colonial-india?format=HB">Tracks of Change: Railways and Everyday Life in Colonial India</a>,” I believe the answers lie in the gigantic infrastructure projects of the 19th century – forged at the intersection of colonial dictates and capitalist demands.</p>
<h2>A carrier of freight, not people</h2>
<p>Railways remain the backbone of passenger traffic in India, transporting some <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/gallery/2020/3/25/in-pictures-railways-indias-lifeline-come-to-a-halt">23 million people daily</a>. In the pre-pandemic 2018-19 financial year, <a href="https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/transportation/railways/three-years-on-indian-railways-passenger-traffic-remains-below-pre-pandemic-numbers/articleshow/99458137.cms?utm_source=contentofinterest&utm_medium=text&utm_campaign=cppst">7.7 billion passenger</a> journeys in India. In comparison, even after a dramatic post-pandemic increase, airline passenger traffic was <a href="https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/transportation/airlines-/-aviation/domestic-airlines-flew-123m-passengers-in-2022-dgca/articleshow/97148274.cms?from=mdr">123.2 million in 2022</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="People are seen on a platform and hanging out of doorways on a train car." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531016/original/file-20230608-19-suqccx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531016/original/file-20230608-19-suqccx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531016/original/file-20230608-19-suqccx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531016/original/file-20230608-19-suqccx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531016/original/file-20230608-19-suqccx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531016/original/file-20230608-19-suqccx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531016/original/file-20230608-19-suqccx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">People board an overcrowded train at a railway station on the outskirts of New Delhi, India.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/people-board-an-overcrowded-train-at-a-railway-station-in-news-photo/1252255086?adppopup=true">Kabir Jhangiani/NurPhoto via Getty Images</a></span>
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<p>Yet, when first planned in the 1840s, India’s railways were intended to primarily transport freight and livestock, not people.</p>
<p>Indians were thought <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/tracks-of-change/2393A3B1B77CF7F2B23C8C00DDA18442#:%7E:text=Tracks%20of%20Change%20explores%20how,process%20has%20shaped%20India's%20history.">unlikely</a> to become railway passengers by directors of the English East India Co., a merchant monopoly that gradually annexed and administered large parts of India under U.K. crown control.</p>
<p>Many people at the time disagreed that Indians were immobile people, however, pointing out that the country had a long history of <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/india-in-the-world-economy/9079E07A2697FB6A122BEBFE3CC6FA13">global trade</a> across vast oceanic networks.</p>
<p>However, early colonial railway policy was driven by pervasive <a href="https://theconversation.com/orientalism-edward-saids-groundbreaking-book-explained-197429">Orientalist</a> imaginings of a people rendered immobile by poverty, living in isolated villages and constrained by religious restrictions prohibiting travel.</p>
<p>The trope <a href="https://marxists.architexturez.net/archive/marx/works/1853/07/22.htm">interlocked with colonial thinking</a> that railways would foster greater industrialization which in turn would further a capitalist economy.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A modern high-speed train is seen in a station." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531017/original/file-20230608-19-5m7lin.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531017/original/file-20230608-19-5m7lin.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531017/original/file-20230608-19-5m7lin.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531017/original/file-20230608-19-5m7lin.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531017/original/file-20230608-19-5m7lin.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531017/original/file-20230608-19-5m7lin.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531017/original/file-20230608-19-5m7lin.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Vande Bharat Express train as seen in Kolkata, India.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/vande-bharat-express-train-as-seen-at-howrah-station-in-news-photo/1245840303?adppopup=true">Debarchan Chatterjee/NurPhoto via Getty Images</a></span>
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<p>They also aligned with the practical needs of a colonial trading monopoly which needed raw materials for English industries, such as cotton, to be moved swiftly and efficiently from India’s interiors to port towns, from where they could be shipped.</p>
<h2>Relegated to cheap seats</h2>
<p>To <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/tracks-of-change/2393A3B1B77CF7F2B23C8C00DDA18442#:%7E:text=Tracks%20of%20Change%20explores%20how,process%20has%20shaped%20India's%20history.">induce the “natives</a>,” as the British often referred to their colonial subjects, to use railways, the colonial government pitched low fares, especially in third-class cars – the lowest and cheapest category of rail travel.</p>
<p>The decision to introduce lower fares seems at odds with the profit-driven aims of a capitalist venture, with money raised by <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2113695">private companies</a> incorporated in the United Kingdom.</p>
<p>However, British capitalists and shareholders in these private ventures did not have to fear for their profits, which were underwritten by the Indian taxpayer. The colonial government of India guaranteed these companies a 5% annual return on their investment whether or not the venture turned a profit. </p>
<p>Despite the doubters, the new Indian <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/tracks-of-change/2393A3B1B77CF7F2B23C8C00DDA18442#:%7E:text=Tracks%20of%20Change%20explores%20how,process%20has%20shaped%20India's%20history.">railways attracted an increasing number of passengers</a>.</p>
<p>The <a href="http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/history/south-asian-history/tracks-change-railways-and-everyday-life-colonial-india?format=HB">half-million passengers recorded</a> in 1854 when tracks became operational increased to 26 million in 1875. By 1900, annual passenger figures stood at 175 million and then almost trebled to 520 million by 1919-20. By the time of the partition of India in 1947 it had risen to more than 1 billion passenger journeys annually. Indeed, images of overcrowded trains came to epitomize the upheaval of partition, with the rail system used to carry swaths of uprooted peoples across the soon-to-be Pakistan-India border.</p>
<p>Third-class passengers, overwhelmingly Indians, comprised almost 90% of this traffic.</p>
<p>These escalating figures did not, however, generate a lowering of fares. Nor did they result in any substantial improvements in the conditions of overcrowded, unsanitary third-class travel.</p>
<p>Instead, railway companies sought “the greatest economy of space and load,” as <a href="http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/history/south-asian-history/tracks-change-railways-and-everyday-life-colonial-india?format=HB">one rail manager put it</a>. Inadequate rolling stock, much of it imported, exacerbated matters.</p>
<h2>A tool for ‘self-composure’</h2>
<p>The generally British railway managers seemed disinclined to remedy systematic overcrowding, which included transporting passengers in wagons meant for livestock. Rather, they insisted that such overcrowding was caused by the peculiar habits and inclinations of Indian passengers: their alleged abhorrence of empty carriages and their inclination to follow one another “like sheep” into crowded carriages.</p>
<p>These attributes were soon rendered into a more public narrative, especially among Western mindsets. Journalist H. Sutherland Stark, writing for the industry publication <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/tracks-of-change/2393A3B1B77CF7F2B23C8C00DDA18442#:%7E:text=Tracks%20of%20Change%20explores%20how,process%20has%20shaped%20India's%20history.">Indian State Railways Magazine</a> in 1929, stated that though “unversed” in railway administration and traffic control, he knew railway facilities were not the problem. Rather, Indian passengers lacked the mental preparedness, “self-possession” and “method” necessary to travel like “sane human beings.”</p>
<p>Stark suggested passenger education as a solution to the perceived problem, making railway travel a tool for “self-composure and mass orderliness.” He was not the only one to suggest a congruence between rational railway travel and reasonable public behavior. In the 1910s, though condemning railway management for perpetuating the indignities that third-class passengers faced, the nationalist leader <a href="https://www.gandhimedia.org/read_more/writings/books/books_by_gandhi/english/WRBOMGEN0510_rs.pdf">Mahatma Gandhi</a> also suggested educating railway passengers as a means to create a civic body of citizens.</p>
<h2>A continuing metaphor</h2>
<p>More than a century later, this depiction endures, though, ironically, it now serves as a foil to understanding contemporary India. In a piece published in <a href="https://www.proquest.com/docview/318482381/DBAA8BBEEC8045B3PQ/1?accountid=14605&forcedol=true">The New York Times</a> on March 12, 2005, the author lauded the then-new Delhi metro, emphasizing that it had “none of the chaotic squalor of hawkers and beggars that characterizes mainline railroads in India, nor do desperate travelers hang from the sides of the trains.”</p>
<p>As the debate rages on whether safety has taken a back seat to “<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/jun/03/modi-has-spent-billions-modernising-indias-trains-but-safety-is-biggest-need">glossy modernization projects</a>” in India – early analyses suggest <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-65801807">signaling failure</a> might have caused June 2, 2023, accident – railways continue to represent India’s history.</p>
<p>In the heyday of empire, they were deemed the technology through which Britain would drag India into capitalist modernity. In 1947, they became a leitmotif for the trauma of the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/book/32195/chapter-abstract/268346962?redirectedFrom=fulltext">partition</a> that accompanied the independence of India and Pakistan. As the coverage of Odisha accident reminds us, it continues to be a metaphor in the West for evaluating contemporary India.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/207169/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ritika Prasad does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A deadly crash in India that claimed the lives of around 300 people has refocused international attention on the importance of railways in the country.Ritika Prasad, Associate Professor of History, University of North Carolina – CharlotteLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1990522023-03-02T13:25:16Z2023-03-02T13:25:16ZWhy the humble city bus is the key to improving US public transit<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512930/original/file-20230301-18-707tmn.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=27%2C10%2C3629%2C2730&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Indianapolis debuted a bus rapid transit system with 60-foot articulated electric buses in 2019.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/IndyGo_Red_Line_BRT.jpg">Momoneymoproblemz/Wikipedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Public transit in the U.S. is in a sorry state – <a href="https://infrastructurereportcard.org/cat-item/transit-infrastructure/">aging, underfunded and losing riders</a>, especially since the COVID-19 pandemic. Many proposed solutions focus on new technologies, like <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2022/05/21/why-the-first-autonomous-vehicles-winners-wont-be-in-your-driveway.html">self-driving cars</a> and <a href="https://www.thezebra.com/resources/driving/future-transportation/">flying taxis</a>. But as a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=1I-ZPh8AAAAJ&hl=en">researcher in urban policy and planning</a>, I see more near-term promise in a mode that’s been around for a century: the city bus. </p>
<p>Today, buses in many parts of the U.S. are old and don’t run often enough or serve all the places where people need to go. But this doesn’t reflect the bus’s true capability. Instead, as I see it, it’s the result of cities, states and federal leaders failing to subsidize a quality public service. </p>
<p>As I show in <a href="https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/G/bo191431990.html#anchor-awards">my new book</a>, “The Great American Transit Disaster: A Century of Austerity, Auto-Centric Planning, and White Flight,” few U.S. politicians have focused on bus riders’ experiences over the past half-century. And many executives have lavished precious federal capital dollars on building new <a href="https://www.metrostlouis.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/OP220484-MetroLink-System-Map.pdf">light</a>, <a href="https://www.metrostlouis.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/OP220484-MetroLink-System-Map.pdf">rapid</a> and commuter rail lines, in hope of attracting suburban riders back to city centers and mass transit. </p>
<p>This was never a great strategy to begin with, and the pandemic-era flight of knowledge workers to home offices and hybrid schedules has left little to show for decades of rail-centric efforts. Meanwhile, countries in Europe and Latin America have out-innovated the U.S. in providing quality bus service. </p>
<p>But it doesn’t have to be this way. Many U.S. cities are coming around to the idea that buses are the future of public transit and are working to make that vision real. And the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law enacted in 2021 is providing <a href="https://www.transportation.gov/briefing-room/president-biden-and-us-department-transportation-announce-409-million-70">billions of dollars</a> for new buses and related facilities.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/-ZDZtBRTyeI?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The car-centered U.S. transportation system has impoverished public transit and left many people’s transit needs unmet.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Buses as disruptors</h2>
<p>A century ago, motorized buses were the technological wonder of their day. Rolling fast on tires over newly paved streets, buses upended urban rail transit by freeing riders from aging, crowded, screeching streetcars. In 1922, American buses carried 404 million passengers; by 1930, they were carrying 2.5 billion yearly. </p>
<p>At that time, transit lines were mostly privately owned. But this model was failing as riders became car drivers, new zoning laws prioritized car-friendly single-family housing and government regulators battled transit companies over fares and taxes. </p>
<p>Transit executives trying to eke out a profit saw buses as a way to reduce spending on track maintenance and labor costs for “two man” operated streetcars. City leaders and planners also embraced buses, which helped them justify removing streetcar tracks to make streets more navigable for cars. From the 1920s through the 1960s, nearly all U.S. streetcar lines were replaced with buses powered by either internal combustion engines or electric overhead wires. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512943/original/file-20230301-1565-c5g4xm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two red double-decker buses pass each other along Whitehall in central London." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512943/original/file-20230301-1565-c5g4xm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512943/original/file-20230301-1565-c5g4xm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512943/original/file-20230301-1565-c5g4xm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512943/original/file-20230301-1565-c5g4xm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512943/original/file-20230301-1565-c5g4xm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512943/original/file-20230301-1565-c5g4xm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512943/original/file-20230301-1565-c5g4xm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">London’s signature red buses cover the entire city, with 24-hour service on many lines.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/red-double-decker-buses-pass-along-whitehall-on-11th-july-news-photo/1241871118">Mark Kerrison/In Pictures via Getty Images</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>This wasn’t just a U.S. trend. Toronto massively extended bus service across a vast metropolitan area between <a href="https://transittoronto.ca/archives/maps/guide1954f.gif">1954</a> and <a href="https://transittoronto.ca/archives/maps/ttc-system-map-19740330.png">1974</a>, using buses to feed suburban riders to a new subway system and a few remaining streetcar lines. By 1952, London’s managers had replaced streetcars with the city’s signature fleet of double-decker buses, which complemented its legendary Underground service. </p>
<p>Across Europe, cities relied on buses to support and complement their modernizing tram or subway networks. Political leaders provided deep subsidies to deliver better bus and rail service. </p>
<h2>The auto-centric US path</h2>
<p>In the U.S., however, federal investments in the same time frame focused on building a national highway system to serve private automobiles. Lacking tax subsidies, bus networks could not compete with cheap cars and government-funded highways. Aging buses and infrequent service became the default postwar reality – and those buses had to travel on local streets crowded with private cars. </p>
<p>Between 1945 and 1960, U.S. transit companies and agencies typically lost half or more of their riders as white Americans moved to urban fringes or suburbs and became car commuters. Bus service remained concentrated in older, central-city neighborhoods, serving a disproportionately nonwhite, low-income ridership. </p>
<p>Many public systems had to cut bus service year after year to balance their books. Only a few cities that were willing to provide significant operating subsidies, including <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=35ea36ZfMPE">San Francisco</a> and Boston, were able to maintain better bus networks and some trolleybuses. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/AwKv3_WwD4o?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Los Angeles once had a high-quality public transit system, centered on streetcars.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>New, better buses</h2>
<p>Today, there’s renewed interest in improving bus service in the U.S., inspired by innovations around the globe. The Brazilian <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vJR9uCSyGKM">city of Curitiba</a>, which is well known for its innovations in urban planning, set a model in the 1970s when it adopted <a href="https://www.transit.dot.gov/research-innovation/bus-rapid-transit">bus rapid transit</a> – buses that run in dedicated lanes, with streamlined boarding systems and priority at traffic signals. </p>
<p>Curitiba helped popularize <a href="https://www.busworldlatinamerica.org/en/news/30-years-have-passed-appearance-bi-articulated-buses">bi-articulated buses</a>, which are extra-long with flexible connectors that let the buses bend around corners. These buses, which can carry large numbers of passengers, now are in wide use in Europe, Latin America and Asia. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512960/original/file-20230301-26-bbgohx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A green bus with several segments connected by flexible panels." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512960/original/file-20230301-26-bbgohx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512960/original/file-20230301-26-bbgohx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512960/original/file-20230301-26-bbgohx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512960/original/file-20230301-26-bbgohx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512960/original/file-20230301-26-bbgohx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512960/original/file-20230301-26-bbgohx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512960/original/file-20230301-26-bbgohx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A bi-articulated bus in Metz, France.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bi-articulated_bus#/media/File:Van_Hool_ExquiCity_24_METTIS_n%C2%B01315_P+R_Woippy.jpg">Florian Fèvre/Wikipedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Cities across the globe, led by London, have also aggressively expanded contactless payment systems, which speed up the boarding process. Advanced bus systems and new technologies like these flourish in regions where politicians strongly support transit as a public service. </p>
<p>In my view, buses are the most likely option for substantially expanding public transit ridership in the U.S. Millions of Americans need affordable public mobility for work, study, recreation and shopping. Car ownership is a <a href="https://www.planetizen.com/blogs/111535-automobile-dependency-unequal-burden">financial burden </a> that can be as serious for low-income families as the shortage of affordable housing. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://newsroom.aaa.com/2022/08/annual-cost-of-new-car-ownership-crosses-10k-mark/">average yearly cost</a> for U.S. households to own and operate a new car reached US$10,728 in 2022. Nor are used cars the bargain they once were. <a href="https://www.jpmorgan.com/insights/research/when-will-car-prices-drop">Used car prices are high</a>, financing is often subprime and older vehicles require expensive maintenance. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1630948021495119872"}"></div></p>
<p>Rapidly extending bus networks would be the speediest and most economical way to serve these families and grow transit ridership in the sprawling landscape of American metros. U.S. roads and highways are already maintained by the government, eliminating the need to build and maintain expensive rail lines. </p>
<p>There are promising domestic models even amid the pandemic ridership crisis. In the past two decades, Seattle’s <a href="https://mass.streetsblog.org/2019/11/25/five-lessons-from-seattles-successful-crusade-against-driving/">Sound Transit</a> has upgraded its bus network, aligning these improvements with increased residential density, low fares and a carefully considered light rail expansion. <a href="https://www.sfchronicle.com/sf/article/S-F-s-Van-Ness-BRT-created-a-ridership-boom-17556984.php">San Francisco</a> and <a href="https://www.nyc.gov/html/brt/html/routes/14th-street.shtml">New York</a> have developed exclusive bus lanes that move riders along popular routes at higher speeds. <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/feed/update/urn:li:activity:7031287651110379521/">Indianapolis</a> is expanding an effective bus rapid transit system. Many cities, including <a href="https://www.cpr.org/2022/07/26/rtd-new-bus-network/">Denver</a> and <a href="https://www.mbta.com/projects/better-bus-project">Boston</a>, are investing in “better bus” upgrades that emphasize frequent service, easy transfers and better geographic coverage.</p>
<p>Innovations like these will only succeed long term with sufficient subsidies to maintain innovative services at reliable levels. The history of bus transit is littered with pilot programs that were abandoned on cost grounds just as they were gaining popularity. As I see it, buses don’t need to be faster or more convenient than cars to attract and retain riders – but they need to be, and can be, much better transit options than they are today.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/199052/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nicholas Dagen Bloom does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>High-quality bus service is the fastest route to rapid, comprehensive public transit in the United States. This country was once a leader in bus transit, and with adequate funding, it could be again.Nicholas Dagen Bloom, Professor of Urban Policy and Planning, Hunter CollegeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2005062023-02-26T15:05:31Z2023-02-26T15:05:31ZRail accidents: Public safety and accountability suffer because of deregulation<p>The ongoing environmental tragedy in Ohio caused by the <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/ohio-train-derailment-cleanup-ordered-1.6755181">derailment of a Norfolk Southern train</a> carrying hazardous materials — which sent toxic chemicals into the air and local waterways — will take a long time to clean up. And if a similar rail tragedy in Canada is an example, it could take even longer for residents to get answers about the cause and true damage of the accident.</p>
<p>Almost a decade has passed since a runaway train hauling 72 tank cars laden with highly volatile Bakken shale oil <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-42548824">derailed and exploded in Lac-Mégantic</a> — a small Québec town near the border with Maine — killing 47 people, orphaning 26 children, spilling six million litres of toxic material and destroying the town centre. </p>
<p>The accident on July 6, 2013, was the worst industrial disaster on Canadian soil in over a century. A decade later, it has left the community with a legacy of economic, health and environmental effects. </p>
<h2>Prolonged trauma</h2>
<p><a href="https://tc.canada.ca/en/rail-transportation/lac-megantic-rail-bypass">A rail bypass project</a>, originally conceived as means of healing, has prolonged the trauma that has plagued the Lac-Mégantic community since that catastrophic night.</p>
<p>Construction of the bypass still has not begun. The route preferred by Canadian Pacific Railway Ltd., which will own the bypass upon completion, and supported by the federal government, has created deep divisions within the surrounding towns. </p>
<p>Citizens of the neighbouring town of Frontenac <a href="https://nationalpost.com/pmn/news-pmn/canada-news-pmn/quebec-town-votes-no-to-lac-megantic-rail-bypass-project-as-expropriations-loom">recently voted overwhelmingly against the proposed route</a>. Voters expressed concern about potential negative environmental and property damage not properly addressed by Transport Canada.</p>
<p>The dispute over the bypass is just one of the ongoing issues for the citizens of Lac-Mégantic. Their latest quest for justice through the courts came to a disheartening end on Dec. 14, 2022. </p>
<p>Justice Martin Bureau of the Superior Court of Québec found that Canadian Pacific Railway <a href="https://www.canlii.org/fr/qc/qccs/doc/2022/2022qccs4643/2022qccs4643.html?resultIndex=1">could not be held liable for damages suffered by the victims of the Lac-Mégantic disaster</a>. The plaintiffs have appealed the decision.</p>
<h2>Raises questions about accountability</h2>
<p>This case raises serious questions about who should be accountable for complex events that result in catastrophic harm. It’s also a reminder that private litigation is an imperfect means of understanding how disasters happen and what should be done to better protect public interest in the future. Only a public inquiry can do that.</p>
<p>The class action lawsuit was brought against Montreal Maine & Atlantic Canada Co. and 25 other defendants. MM&A subsequently went bankrupt. </p>
<p>In 2016, 24 of the defendants settled the claims against them by contributing $460 million to a compensation fund. Among those who settled were Transport Canada, which paid <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/montreal/lac-megantic-federal-government-settlement-1.3561924">$75 million into the fund</a>, Irving Oil ($75 million) and World Fuel Services Corp., the U.S. owner of the oil on the train ($135 million). This was not an altruistic gesture, but rather a way to end their legal exposure <a href="https://www.canlii.org/fr/qc/qccs/doc/2016/2016qccs6977/2016qccs6977.html?resultIndex=2">because the settlement released them from the class action</a>.</p>
<h2>CP claimed no wrongdoing</h2>
<p>Canadian Pacific did not join the settlement. From the outset, CP maintained it had engaged in no wrongdoing. It refused to acknowledge any responsibility in connection with the Lac-Mégantic disaster because the derailing occurred after the train was handed off to Montreal Maine & Atlantic in Montréal for the final leg of the journey. </p>
<p>After considering the extensive evidence presented at trial, the court concluded that CP was not liable for what happened at Lac-Mégantic.</p>
<p>The judge ruled that not only did CP have no duty to intervene, it was also not negligent because it followed industry practice. Moreover, even if there was negligent conduct on the part of CP, <a href="https://globalnews.ca/news/9351376/quebec-canadian-pacific-railway-lac-megantic-ruling/">the judgment found there was no evidence</a> the company was “the direct, immediate and logical cause of the prejudice suffered by the victims” because of the derailment.</p>
<p>In finding that CP was not at fault, the judge relied on existing industry practice when determining whether CP had fulfilled its duty to act as a reasonably prudent person according to <a href="https://www.legisquebec.gouv.qc.ca/fr/version/lc/CCQ-1991?code=se:1457&historique=20230220#20230220">section 1457 of the Civil Code of Québec</a>.</p>
<p>In reaching this conclusion, the court was heavily influenced by the absence of legally binding duties in applicable railway regulations requiring CP to do the things the plaintiffs alleged CP ought to have done.</p>
<h2>No duty to monitor risks</h2>
<p>The judge agreed with CP that it was only required to do a risk assessment on its own track. The court held that since it is the government’s job to ensure that cargo was properly classified and that Montreal Maine & Atlantic met the required safety standards on its portion of the route, CP had no duty to monitor the risks to the public posed by the companies with which it collaborated.</p>
<p>The court found that nothing obligated CP to investigate whether the shale oil in the tank cars was misclassified or more volatile than typical crude oil. Nor was CP negligent in choosing Montreal Maine & Atlantic to transport the fateful cargo through Lac-Mégantic, despite CP’s knowledge of <a href="https://www.thestar.com/news/canada/2013/07/10/lac_megantic_disaster_mma_railway_had_poor_safety_record_in_us.html">Montreal Maine & Atlantic’s practices</a> and the increased risks they created for transport of this oil over MM&A’s line.</p>
<p>The court’s conclusions are based on a view of the regulatory framework that ignores the reality of the power relationship between industry and regulator.</p>
<p>Two railways, Canadian National and Canadian Pacific, effectively determine the laws, rules and regulations — together with complicit bureaucrats and legislators — to serve their interests and protect themselves from liability in the event of a disaster. </p>
<p>The vastly diminished independent oversight capacity of Transport Canada is the product of a decades-long process of deregulation and reduced resources, where the regulator oversees written safety plans prepared by railways rather than inspecting actual safety practices on the ground. </p>
<p>In other words, the railways themselves define “existing industry practice” against which the reasonableness of their conduct is measured.</p>
<h2>A narrow view of causation</h2>
<p>In addition to finding that CP was not negligent, the Québec court assigned legal blame solely to the last link in the causation chain — Tom Harding, the locomotive engineer. </p>
<p>This is worrying because it blames Harding for his role in a complex event when he had little control over his working conditions and corporate policy. In focusing on Harding’s decision about how many hand brakes to set, the court ignores all the other conditions that helped to set the derailment in motion — including parking the train on the main line uphill from a town with mislabeled cargo of volatile explosive crude oil.</p>
<p>Harding was <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/montreal/tom-harding-megantic-trial-statement-1.4498223">acquitted of criminal wrongdoing</a> in 2018.</p>
<p>This case underscores how difficult it is under current legal rules for plaintiffs to prove fault and causation in complex events — particularly when multiple parties are involved, each of which is motivated to limit their legal exposure to liability. </p>
<p>Not only do private parties lack the power to compel evidence, even if they did, the costs of assembling evidence of the factors that contributed to an event on the scale of the Lac-Mégantic derailment is prohibitive.</p>
<p>In light of the failure of a flawed legal system to provide justice for the citizens of Lac-Mégantic, an <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/privy-council/services/commissions-inquiry.html">independent commission of inquiry</a> remains the only means of getting to the bottom of what happened, why it happened, who should be held accountable and what policies should be implemented to prevent future disasters. Yet such an inquiry has been rejected by successive governments. </p>
<p>Ten years after Lac-Mégantic, corporate negligence and regulatory failure remain predominant systemic features of the transportation of dangerous goods by rail in North America, evident most recently in the derailment and toxic chemicals spill in East Palestine, Ohio. The status quo cannot be tolerated. Public safety must supersede shareholder value.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/200506/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bruce Campbell is affiliated with several nonprofit organizations: The Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives, the Group of 78, the Rideau Institute for international affairs</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jennifer Quaid holds research grants from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. She is a Senior Fellow at the Centre for International Governance Innovation. She is the Chair of the Legal Committee of Transparency International Canada. </span></em></p>The recent rail accident in Ohio is raising questions about who should be responsible for the aftermath of derailments. Residents impacted by a 10-year-old rail tragedy in Canada still want answers.Bruce Campbell, Adjunct Professor, Faculty of Environmental and Urban Change, York University, CanadaJennifer Quaid, Associate Professor & Vice-Dean Research, Civil Law Section, Faculty of Law, L’Université d’Ottawa/University of OttawaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2001612023-02-21T13:24:49Z2023-02-21T13:24:49ZTrain derailments get more headlines, but truck crashes involving hazardous chemicals are more frequent and deadly in US<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511236/original/file-20230220-28-clm4kl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C19%2C4256%2C2803&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A trooper checks the tire of a truck carrying flammable contents during a random hazmat checkpoint in Colorado.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/colorado-state-patrolman-trooper-john-huck-checks-a-tire-on-news-photo/161075839">Andy Cross/The Denver Post via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Less than two weeks after train cars filled with hazardous chemicals <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-dangerous-was-the-ohio-chemical-train-derailment-an-environmental-engineer-assesses-the-long-term-risks-199993">derailed in Ohio</a> and caught fire, a truck carrying nitric acid crashed on a major highway outside Tucson, Arizona, killing the driver and releasing toxic chemicals into the air. </p>
<p>The Arizona hazmat disaster <a href="https://www.azdps.gov/news/ims/92">shut down Interstate 10</a>, a major cross-country highway, and forced evacuations in surrounding neighborhoods.</p>
<p>But the highway crash didn’t draw national attention the way the train derailment did, or trigger a flood of calls for more trucking regulation <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/transportation/2023/02/21/buttigieg-ohio-rail-safety-derailment/">like the U.S. is seeing</a> for <a href="https://thehill.com/policy/energy-environment/3863723-environmental-groups-call-on-buttigieg-to-restore-obama-era-train-brake-rule/">train regulation</a>. Truck crashes tend to be local and less dramatic than a pile of derailed train cars on fire, even if they’re deadlier.</p>
<p>In fact, federal data shows that rail has had <a href="https://railroads.dot.gov/program-areas/hazmat-transportation/hazardous-materials-transportation">far fewer incidents, deaths and damage</a> when moving hazardous materials in the U.S. than trucks.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511001/original/file-20230220-4346-zjhxz7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Cranes work to move burned train cars off the rails." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511001/original/file-20230220-4346-zjhxz7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511001/original/file-20230220-4346-zjhxz7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511001/original/file-20230220-4346-zjhxz7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511001/original/file-20230220-4346-zjhxz7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511001/original/file-20230220-4346-zjhxz7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511001/original/file-20230220-4346-zjhxz7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511001/original/file-20230220-4346-zjhxz7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">After the train derailment and fire in East Palestine, Ohio, on Feb. 3, 2023, the U.S. EPA tested over 500 homes. It reported none exceeded air quality standards for chemicals tested.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://response.epa.gov/site/site_profile.aspx?site_id=15933">U.S. Environmental Protection Agency</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Trucks carry more hazmat and more risk</h2>
<p>At one time, rail and water were the only options for transporting chemicals and other potentially dangerous materials. The emergence of the automobile and subsequent construction of the interstate highway system changed that, and hazardous materials shipments by road steadily increased.</p>
<p>Today, trucks carry the largest percentage of hazardous materials shipped in the U.S. – about <a href="https://www.bts.gov/content/us-hazardous-materials-shipments-transportation-mode-2007">twice as much</a> as trains when measured in ton-miles, according to the Department of Transportation’s Bureau of Transportation Statistics’ latest data, for 2017. A ton-mile is one ton shipped for one mile.</p>
<p>While truck incidents involving hazardous materials don’t look as dramatic as train derailments and are not as widely covered by news media, federal data shows they represent more fatalities and property damage, and there are <a href="https://www.bts.gov/content/hazardous-materials-fatalities-injuries-accidents-and-property-damage-data">thousands more of them</a> every year.</p>
<p><iframe id="bbKJQ" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/bbKJQ/6/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>Truck-related hazardous materials incidents <a href="https://www.bts.gov/content/hazardous-materials-fatalities-injuries-accidents-and-property-damage-data">caused over 16 times more fatalities</a> from 1975 to 2021 – 380 for truck, compared with 23 for rail, according to the Bureau of Transportation Statistics. The difference is more pronounced in the last decade, when U.S. rail transportation of hazardous materials caused zero fatalities and truck incidents were responsible for 83.</p>
<p>Trucks have also caused <a href="https://www.bts.gov/content/hazardous-materials-fatalities-injuries-accidents-and-property-damage-data">nearly three times as much property damage</a> as rail incidents since 2000. That might seem surprising since derailments can involve several cars with hazardous materials. But most rail events take place in remote areas, limiting their human impact, while trucks travel on highways with other drivers around and often <a href="https://www.freightwaves.com/news/state-lawmakers-seek-to-tighten-hazmat-trucker-standards">in busy urban areas</a>.</p>
<p><iframe id="1hSG7" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/1hSG7/6/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<h2>Where do we go from here?</h2>
<p>Shipping hazardous materials in the U.S. has been regulated for over 150 years. A <a href="http://cprr.org/Museum/Newspapers/Nitroglycerine.html#Newspaper">deadly explosion</a> in San Francisco in 1866 involving a just-arrived cargo of nitroglycerin, used for blasting rock, led to the first <a href="https://www.princeton.edu/%7Eota/disk2/1986/8636/863606.PDF">federal laws regulating shipping explosives</a> and flammable materials. </p>
<p>The Sept. 11, 2001, terrorist attacks spurred a <a href="https://anthc.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/IEH_HowToUse_Hazardous_Materials_Regulations.pdf">vast expansion of regulation</a> over movement of hazardous materials. Many cities now have hazardous materials routes for trucks that circumvent city centers to reduce the potential risk to high-population areas.</p>
<p>With the Ohio train derailment now making national news, lawmakers are focusing on regulations specifically for rail.</p>
<p>Ohio’s governor wants rail companies to be required to notify states of <a href="https://www.wcpo.com/news/local-news/hamilton-county/cincinnati/lawmakers-want-to-see-more-reporting-requirements-for-trains-carrying-hazardous-materials">all hazardous shipments</a>. This knee-jerk reaction to a major event would appear to be a responsible demand with relatively low costs, but it would have no impact whatsoever on prevention of hazmat events.</p>
<p>Activists are calling for more expensive investments, including <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/miles-before-ohio-derailment-train-axle-was-on-fire-video-shows-7e221f0e">requirements for heat sensors</a> on train bearings, which appeared to have been involved in the Ohio derailment, and the <a href="https://thehill.com/policy/energy-environment/3863723-environmental-groups-call-on-buttigieg-to-restore-obama-era-train-brake-rule/">restoration of a rule</a> requiring advanced braking systems for trains carrying hazardous materials. Both would raise the cost of rail shipping and could wind up putting more hazardous materials shipments on U.S. roads. The Trump administration repealed the braking system requirement in 2017, arguing that the <a href="https://www.phmsa.dot.gov/news/usdot-announces-intent-repeal-electronically-controlled-pneumatic-brake-mandate">costs outweighed the benefits</a>. </p>
<p>U.S. Transportation Secretary <a href="https://www.npr.org/2023/02/21/1158453029/buttigieg-railroad-safety-east-palestine-derailment-hazardous-chemicals">Pete Buttigieg, speaking with reporters, also discussed</a> looking into new rules for advanced braking systems, as well as higher fines and encouraging rail companies to speed up their phase-in of <a href="https://www.bts.gov/newsroom/more-rail-tank-cars-meet-dot-117-safety-standards-2020">more puncture-resistant tank cars</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Firefighters stand on a highway as a orange smoke rises in the distance." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511011/original/file-20230220-2192-5smbjs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C248%2C1730%2C1248&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511011/original/file-20230220-2192-5smbjs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511011/original/file-20230220-2192-5smbjs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511011/original/file-20230220-2192-5smbjs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511011/original/file-20230220-2192-5smbjs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511011/original/file-20230220-2192-5smbjs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511011/original/file-20230220-2192-5smbjs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">On Feb. 14, 2023, a truck carrying hazardous materials crashed on busy Interstate 10 outside Tucson, Ariz., killing the driver and forcing an interstate shutdown and evacuations.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/HazardousMaterialSpillArizona/61ced1f7e384497f999aa0b546e2a675/photo">Arizona Department of Public Safety via AP</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>I <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=JkrkNVQAAAAJ&view_op=list_works&sortby=pubdate">study rail systems and regulation</a>, and I have followed the increasing costs to the industry to comply with tightening regulatory rules.</p>
<p>Rail is still more <a href="https://www.aar.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/AAR-Sustainability-Fact-Sheet.pdf">economical and better for the environment</a> than trucks for longer distances, but with ever-increasing regulations, rail transport can be economically and logistically discouraged – chasing more traffic to far more dangerous roadways.</p>
<p>If the concern is the public’s exposure to hazardous materials, <a href="https://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/regulations/hazardous-materials/how-comply-federal-hazardous-materials-regulations">regulation on road-based</a> hazardous materials transportation should expand as well.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/200161/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>As an expert in rail policy, Michael Gorman has consulted with railroad companies over the past 20 years. He worked for BNSF in the 1990s.</span></em></p>Transportation Secretary Pete Buttigieg is looking into new rules for trains. Trucks, however, are involved in thousands more hazmat incidents every year in the US.Michael F. Gorman, Professor of Business Analytics and Operations Management, University of DaytonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1927892022-10-25T13:36:30Z2022-10-25T13:36:30ZKenya’s big railway project makes life even harder for the poor by ignoring their reality<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490647/original/file-20221019-18-dmirc9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Truck drivers, clearing agents and activists protest over job losses in Mombasa, Kenya. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Stringer/AFP via Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>People’s responses to large infrastructure projects – railways, bridges, highways – are rarely neutral. To some, these projects represent powerful social and political promises of <a href="https://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Generic-Documents/PIDA%20brief%20closing%20gap.pdf">transformative change</a> and a brighter future. To others, they mean <a href="https://africasacountry.com/2022/03/nairobis-incendiary-displacements">evictions and the disruption</a> of livelihoods. </p>
<p>The reaction of Kenyans to the country’s Standard Gauge Railway, dubbed the Madaraka Express, is no different. </p>
<p>In 2017, Kenya finished the <a href="https://www.railway-technology.com/projects/mombasa-nairobi-standard-gauge-railway-project/#:%7E:text=Main%20construction%20works%20on%20the,of%20operation%20in%20February%202020">railway’s first phase</a>, which connects the Port of Mombasa to the country’s interior. Its <a href="https://www.railway-technology.com/news/kenya-nairobi-naivasha-rail-line/">second phase</a> stops abruptly in Naivasha, a town 120km northwest of the capital, Nairobi. Ultimately, the railway is <a href="https://www.eac.int/infrastructure/railways-transport-sub-sector/92-sector/infrastructure/railways">planned</a> to reach Kenya’s border with Uganda at Malaba, helping to further connect East Africa’s regional transport and trade. </p>
<p>Alongside other large projects, such as a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/area.12601">transport corridor</a> from the Lamu Port to South Sudan and Ethiopia, the Standard Gauge Railway is central to Kenya’s current national development policy, <a href="https://vision2030.go.ke/">Vision 2030</a>. </p>
<p>The policy frames these mega-projects as key to attracting the private sector interest needed to fuel economic growth, increase exports and alleviate poverty. From this perspective, the new railway is a powerful symbol of development, change and <a href="https://www.railway-technology.com/news/newskenya-inaugurates-mombasa-nairobi-standard-gauge-railway-5832160/">national pride</a>. </p>
<p>But there’s a flip side. In <a href="https://rgs-ibg.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/tran.12474">my earlier research</a> on the impact of the railway project, I looked at evictions, displacement and the interruption of livelihoods. In my <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/02637758221125475">new study</a>, I set out to examine how people cope with these disruptions in their lives. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/kenyas-mega-railway-project-leaves-society-more-unequal-than-before-170969">Kenya’s mega-railway project leaves society more unequal than before</a>
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</em>
</p>
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<p>The resounding response? This mega-project has failed to bring the promised positive changes. My latest research builds on my earlier work, which showed that the project <a href="https://theconversation.com/kenyas-mega-railway-project-leaves-society-more-unequal-than-before-170969">increased socio-economic inequalities across Kenya</a>. I demonstrated that mega-projects tend to represent only <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2021.102459">the interests of state and business elites</a>. </p>
<p>In this study, I further explore how those most disadvantaged experience the changes brought by mega-projects. </p>
<h2>Villages cut in two</h2>
<p>I undertook more than five months of fieldwork during several periods between November 2018 and January 2020 in different urban, peri-urban and rural locations between Mombasa and Narok in the south-west of the country. I interviewed more than 200 people to better understand whether and how the new railway had affected their lives.</p>
<p>Makueni County is located in the south-eastern part of Kenya. Some of the county’s small villages, such as Kima, home to over 400 people, were cut into two when the railway was built. An embankment and fence runs right through what was once a single village. Previously, residents could visit their neighbours and relatives in less than 15 minutes. Today, it takes one hour to reach the closest underpass that connects Kima. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491017/original/file-20221021-21-9vme03.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A narrow tunnel under a railway line." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491017/original/file-20221021-21-9vme03.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491017/original/file-20221021-21-9vme03.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491017/original/file-20221021-21-9vme03.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491017/original/file-20221021-21-9vme03.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491017/original/file-20221021-21-9vme03.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491017/original/file-20221021-21-9vme03.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491017/original/file-20221021-21-9vme03.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An underpass in Kima village.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Gediminas Lesutis</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As a group of men in the village told me:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>(The government is) imagining that they are creating development for the people, but this is not the case, this railway brings serious problems (here) – the road to development is paved on the pain and suffering of poor people like us. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>According to community leaders, this disruption of local mobility patterns occurred due to a blatant disregard for their lives from both the national government and the project contractor, China Road and Bridge Corporation. </p>
<p>In other parts of Kenya, similar views were expressed by several community liaison officers. They were contracted by Kenya Railways to mediate community relations before and during the railway’s construction. These officers explained how the railway design was developed without prior community consultation and, therefore, ignored existing mobility routes. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/projects-like-kenyas-standard-gauge-railway-can-unlock-development-177464">Projects like Kenya's Standard Gauge Railway can unlock development</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The Standard Gauge Railway has in fact disrupted livelihoods that depend on local transport systems. </p>
<p>This particularly includes the Nairobi-Mombasa Road A109, <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-58357186">infamous for traffic congestion</a> caused by long-distance trucks transporting cargo to and from the Mombasa Port to inland destinations in Kenya and beyond. </p>
<p>In Taita Taveta, for instance, over a range of 47 kilometres of the A109 between Voi and Miaseni, local livelihoods fundamentally <a href="https://doi.org/10.14506/ca35.3.05">depend on traffic movement</a>. Alongside this road, there are convenience shops, eateries, guesthouses and brothels. </p>
<p>Outside these facilities, young men wash cars or provide mechanical services for passing truckers. For a small fee of a few hundred Kenyan shillings, older men watch these trucks overnight when drivers stop to rest. Women provide laundry and other services. </p>
<p>Although trucks congest the road, resulting in air and noise pollution, a busy road means economic activity for those in nearby communities. </p>
<p>This reality, however, was ignored by the Kenyan government. In 2018, it passed a <a href="https://www.tralac.org/news/article/12696-kenyan-government-defends-forced-use-of-sgr.html">national decree</a> obliging all containerised cargo entering the Mombasa port to be transported on the Standard Gauge Railway. According to the <a href="http://www.kta.co.ke/">Kenya Transporters Association</a>, this led to about 12,000 trucks carrying container cargo being put out of business. As a result, a similar number of drivers and truck loaders lost their jobs. </p>
<p>At the time of my research, this had noticeable effects. Alongside the A109 road, guesthouses accommodating long-distance drivers were empty on most days, car washing spots had closed down and drinking houses were mostly frequented by local men. Residents of these areas had been economically dependent on the long-distance truck industry for 30 years. They expressed their discontentment and despair. As one shop owner noted:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>This SGR, it has taken our lives from us, it has left us here with no customers, no movement, no nothing. People are very poor here, so they don’t buy the things I sell here. I need movement to survive. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>The railway project’s impact on livelihoods was turned into a <a href="https://www.businessdailyafrica.com/bd/economy/ruto-to-reverse-sgr-port-order-3811140">campaign issue</a> ahead of Kenya’s August 2022 elections. A month after being voted in, President William Ruto made good his campaign promise and <a href="https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/tea/business/kenya-sgr-cargo-transport-3962084">lifted the order</a> on mandatory use of the railway for containerised cargo. Different groups, including transporters and Mombasa port stakeholders, <a href="https://nation.africa/kenya/news/ruto-reverses-uhuru-directive-as-cargo-clearance-reverts-to-mombasa-port-3947560">have praised</a> this move as likely to revive the coastal economy and restore lost jobs.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/t8qmi08d1Ts?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<h2>What’s needed</h2>
<p>As demonstrated in <a href="https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/29477">other contexts</a>, the key to avoiding mega-projects having a dramatic effect on vulnerable groups is to rigorously assess the social and environment impacts before, during and after project construction. </p>
<p>These <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-59559-1.00018-9">legal mechanisms</a> exist in Kenya. But there’s not enough political will to use them. </p>
<p>Unless local people’s needs and livelihoods are taken into account when mega infrastructure is planned and implemented, these projects are unlikely to bring the promised development.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/192789/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gediminas Lesutis receives funding from Horizon 2020 Marie Skłodowska-Curie Actions Individual Fellowship
(Project ID: 101023118).</span></em></p>Mega-projects tend to represent the interests of state and business elites.Gediminas Lesutis, Marie Curie Fellow, University of AmsterdamLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1873112022-07-22T11:17:41Z2022-07-22T11:17:41ZWhy UK railways can’t deal with heatwaves – and what might help<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/475121/original/file-20220720-12-hcdqdy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=18%2C18%2C2477%2C1646&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">UK rail lines don't do well in the heat</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/way-forward-railway-213564934">hxdyl/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The UK’s rail service has been hit with widespread train delays and high levels of <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2022/07/18/met-office-weather-heatwave-warning-uk-schools-work/">cancellations</a> during the heatwave. The whole of the <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-cambridgeshire-62209907">east coast line</a> between Edinburgh and London was closed for hours on July 20 because of the heat. </p>
<p>So why is the heatwave causing so much havoc on the train lines? Like most construction materials, steel, which rails are made from, expands when air temperature increases. When this movement is restrained by the anchorage, which holds the rail and the sleeper (the rectangular supports for the rails) in place, internal stresses build up, and compression buckles or kinks the rail. </p>
<p><a href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/11039079.pdf">This buckling</a> can cause a long piece of steel, such as a steel rail, to <a href="https://www.climatecentral.org/news/climate-change-warp-railroad-tracks-sun-kinks-17470">bend slightly or kink</a>. Trains cannot travel over rail lines with kinks. In the US, kinks caused by the sun caused over <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/sun-kinks-in-railways-join-the-list-of-climate-change-s-toll/#:%7E:text=Sun%20kinks%20have%20already%20caused,derailments%20a%20year%2C%20on%20average.">2,100 train derailments</a> in the past 40 years, equivalent to around 50 derailments per year.</p>
<p>When air temperature reaches 30°C, rails in the sun can reach 50°C. In the UK a <a href="https://www.networkrail.co.uk/running-the-railway/looking-after-the-railway/delays-explained/speed-restrictions/">temporary speed restriction</a> is imposed when rails reach this temperature because trains apply less pressure on the rails when they slow down. Some railway maintenance teams <a href="https://www.networkrail.co.uk/stories/how-we-prevent-tracks-from-getting-too-hot/">paint rails white</a> to cool them down in summer. According to Network Rail, this can reduce the rail temperature by 5°C, to 10°C. Network Rail workers started <a href="https://twitter.com/i/web/status/1547986150723244032">painting the train</a> lines several days ahead of the July heatwave.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/britain-isnt-built-to-withstand-40-c-here-is-where-infrastructure-is-most-likely-to-fail-187229">Britain isn't built to withstand 40°C – here is where infrastructure is most likely to fail</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Modern rail systems are getting better at holding rails in place. Most tracks are made up of long pieces of rail that are stretched and welded together, which helps hold them in place. This reduces the chance of buckling. When a track is made up of short rails bolted together, Network Rail leaves small gaps between each one to allow for expansion in hot weather. </p>
<p>Electric trains are often powered by overhead wires which can also be damaged by hot weather. Heat can make wires expand and sag. Too much sag will break the overhead line equipment. A pulley system keeps overhead wires tense and can compensate for sag. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/475122/original/file-20220720-16-sfwb1k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/475122/original/file-20220720-16-sfwb1k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475122/original/file-20220720-16-sfwb1k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475122/original/file-20220720-16-sfwb1k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475122/original/file-20220720-16-sfwb1k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475122/original/file-20220720-16-sfwb1k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475122/original/file-20220720-16-sfwb1k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Rail workers will be working overtime during the heatwave.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/engineer-under-discussion-inspection-checking-construction-1812749569">APChanel/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>How other nations cope</h2>
<p>As temperatures rise to unprecedented levels, even <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S235214652030106X">Spanish train lines</a>, which typically cope well in the heat, are buckling and <a href="https://www.railtech.com/infrastructure/2022/07/19/fires-near-tracks-and-heat-complaints-hot-spell-shakes-up-european-railways/?gdpr=accept">services are being cancelled</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://railroads.dot.gov/divisions/rail-integrity/continuous-welded-rail-cwr">Continuous weld rails</a>, which are <a href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/287123018.pdf">used as standard worldwide</a> including in the UK, are optimised to work around a given “stress-free temperature” (SFT). The higher this temperature, the hotter the rails can get without buckling. </p>
<p>In the UK, <a href="https://www.networkrail.co.uk/stories/why-rails-buckle-in-britain/">the SFT is 27°C</a>, the traditional mean summer rail temperature. In <a href="https://www.volpe.dot.gov/infrastructure-systems-and-technology/structures-and-dynamics/track-buckling-research">the US</a>, standard values vary between 35°C and 43°C. </p>
<p>If the UK SFT was higher, then the railways could operate in hotter weather because the rails wouldn’t expand so much at higher temperatures. But if the rails are made for too high an SFT then they won’t be able to cope with the colder temperatures they experience in winter. This would create tremendous stresses and the rails could shear off their anchorage. </p>
<p>Some countries’ railways are able to cope with such high temperature variation by using solid concrete slabs to contain the higher forces created. But slab tracks costs approximately four times as much to install as standard ballasted track.</p>
<p>Climate change means many countries’ railways will <a href="https://research.birmingham.ac.uk/en/publications/a-data-model-for-heat-related-rail-buckling-implications-for-oper">more often</a> reach temperatures they were not designed to cope with, threatening public transport on a scale never seen before. We just saw the <a href="https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/about-us/press-office/news/weather-and-climate/2022/red-extreme-heat-warning-ud">highest temperature ever recorded</a> in the UK at 40.3°C, well above the previous daily high of 38.7°C in 2019.</p>
<p>During the construction of HS2, the new highspeed railway being built between London, Manchester and Leeds, bridges and overhead wires have been fitted with sensors to collect data about weather including the air temperature. This data will be used to create the <a href="https://www.railtech.com/infrastructure/2022/02/01/hs2-engineers-working-on-digital-twin-for-new-high-speed-rail-network/?gdpr=accept">digital twins</a> of HS2, allowing for a new type of maintenance that can predict high temperatures and other types of disruptive weather. </p>
<p>A <a href="https://www.cdbb.cam.ac.uk/news/digital-twin-journeys-understanding-information-need-bridge-better-information-management">digital twin</a> is a digital representation of the railway network. This would allow engineers to simulate future scenarios for the UK rail network and predict what might happen if high temperatures are forecast, and be able to take preventative action in advance. This could be one way to prevent some of the huge cancellations seen in the recent UK heatwave.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/187311/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kangkang Tang does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The UK rail industry struggles to create tracks that can cope with both high and low temperatures.Kangkang Tang, Senior Lecturer in Civil and Environmental Engineering, Brunel University LondonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1721002021-11-19T15:13:22Z2021-11-19T15:13:22ZLorry-driver shortages: how retailers are starting to move more goods by train<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/432841/original/file-20211119-15-460med.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/felixstowe-suffolk-uk-june-30-2012-1094523371">Kev Gregory/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The UK economy has been reliant on carrying goods by <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/815839/domestic-road-freight-statistics-2018.pdf">road for decades</a>. In recent months a lack of HGV drivers has been one of the main reasons for food shortages on <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-58519997">supermarket shelves</a>. Estimates suggest the UK needs <a href="https://www.rha.uk.net/News/News-Blogs-and-Press-Releases/press-releases/detail/driver-shortage-rha-and-freight-industry-write-to-prime-minister-boris-johnson">100,000 more drivers</a>, with 53,000 fewer people doing the job than in 2017, according to the Office for <a href="https://www.ons.gov.uk/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/employmentandemployeetypes/articles/fallinhgvdriverslargestamongmiddleagedworkers/2021-10-19">National Statistics</a>.</p>
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<p>There are now some signs of a shift to carrying goods by rail, after a period of declining use of trains for freight. The UK government <a href="https://dft-newsroom.prgloo.com/news/freight-train-capacity-doubles-to-port-of-liverpool-thanks-to-gbp-8-3-million-line-upgrade">has just announced</a> a doubling of freight train capacity at the port of Liverpool, while a GB Railfreight service between Liverpool and the East Midlands launched in late 2020 expects to take 20,000 lorry journeys off the roads.</p>
<p>Lorries are generally regarded as <a href="https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2015/540338/IPOL_STU(2015)540338_EN.pdf">cost effective</a> compared to rail, particularly for moving items over short distances, such as from regional distribution centres to retail stores. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0965856417300186?via%3Dihub#b0015">UK roads</a> offer more direct access to customers as many delivery points are located on the road network but not on a railway line. </p>
<p>But trains offer environmental advantages: research suggests that each freight train <a href="https://www.raildeliverygroup.com/about-us/publications/12853-2021-10-catalysing-a-green-recovery/file.html">removes around 76 lorries</a> from the road. Per tonne of goods moved by rail, there are <a href="https://www.cer.be/sites/default/files/publication/Facts%20and%20figures%202014.pdf">around eight times</a> fewer emissions produced than from road transport. Around 91% of <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/final-uk-greenhouse-gas-emissions-national-statistics-1990-2019">UK emissions</a> originate from road transport, making it the highest contributor to the UK’s <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0966692306001207">greenhouse-gas emissions</a>. </p>
<p>One obstacle to expanding rail freight is the investment needed in additional equipment to lift containers on and off the rail network. However, as rail freight increases and infrastructure is in place these costs will come down. Generally <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/552492/rail-freight-strategy.pdf">economies of scale</a> should mean rail freight costs overall will reduce as more companies make the switch.</p>
<p>However, some of the biggest UK retailers are already increasing their use of trains, <a href="https://teesvalley-ca.gov.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Logistics-Brochure.pdf">with ASDA</a> moving clothing from Teesport in North Yorkshire by rail to four clothing distribution centres, with onward journeys from there to stores by road. <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/business/2021/oct/06/tesco-profits-double-as-shelves-stay-stocked-despite-supply-chain-problems">Tesco is</a> using temperature-controlled rail containers to move fresh produce from Spain to Scotland, and plans to increase use of trains, moving from 65,000 to <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/business/2021/oct/06/tesco-profits-double-as-shelves-stay-stocked-despite-supply-chain-problems">90,000 40ft containers</a> by the end of 2021. </p>
<h2>The final mile</h2>
<p>Perhaps rail’s greatest weakness is delivering the final mile of the journey from stations to warehouses or shops. But larger zero-emission electric trucks are becoming more widely available. Bikes can help to cut both <a href="https://www.westminster.ac.uk/news/using-cargo-bikes-for-deliveries-cuts-congestion-and-pollution-in-cities-study-finds">congestion and pollution</a>. DHL is already operating cargo bikes for final mile deliveries in The Netherlands, Austria, Belgium, Finland, Germany and Ireland. <a href="https://www.dhl.com/global-en/spotlight/sustainability/urban-logistics-river-boat.html">In London</a>, DHL is using cargo bikes and a Thames river boat service for parcel delivery. </p>
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<img alt="Trucks and cars on a major road." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/432844/original/file-20211119-25-1szufag.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/432844/original/file-20211119-25-1szufag.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432844/original/file-20211119-25-1szufag.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432844/original/file-20211119-25-1szufag.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432844/original/file-20211119-25-1szufag.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=474&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432844/original/file-20211119-25-1szufag.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=474&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432844/original/file-20211119-25-1szufag.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=474&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">The HGV driver crisis could be eased by moving more freight on to trains, an expert argues.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/highway-transportation-cars-truck-316733366">TT Studio/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>The UK government’s plans for the north of England via the <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/12/4/1662/htm">Northern Powerhouse Partnership</a> included plans to grow freight transport. But a recent announcement that a <a href="https://theconversation.com/hs2-leeds-branch-cancelled-what-will-this-mean-for-the-north-of-england-expert-qanda-172177">high speed rail</a> link to Leeds (HS2) is being scrapped may reduce possibilities to grow regional rail freight by <a href="https://transportforthenorth.com/wp-content/uploads/TfN-final-strategic-transport-plan-2019.pdf">more than 50%</a>. </p>
<p>One of the main problems facing the UK rail freight industry today is the congested network has few gaps in the passenger train schedules for non-stop freight services – a problem that increased capacity created by the fast HS2 rail link would have relieved.</p>
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<p>In the short term, more carriages and longer platforms are being considered to increase rail network capacity. More passengers using fewer, longer trains would free up space in the schedule and on the track for more freight trains. </p>
<p>Since 2013 the UK government has also been quietly encouraging a shift to moving goods <a href="https://canalrivertrust.org.uk/news-and-views/news/why-yorkshires-industrial-age-canal-can-help-tackle-the-climate-crisis">by water</a> as a way to achieve its environmental objectives towards net zero. It even offers <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/mode-shift-revenue-support-msrs-grant-scheme">grant funding</a> to cover the additional operating costs that might be incurred as a result. </p>
<p>For example, <a href="https://www.kelloggs.co.uk/en_GB/our-story/kelloggs-in-the-uk.html">Kellogg’s</a> has moved 2,500 containers a year to the port of Merseyside on the Manchester Ship Canal. This helps remove around 5,000 HGV trips from the road each year.</p>
<p>Both rail and water offer opportunities to reduce the reliance on lorries and to make moving freight in the UK more environmentally friendly, helping the UK to reach net-zero emission targets.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/172100/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Erica EF Ballantyne receives funding from EPSRC, ESRC, and EU Commission Horizon 2020. She is affiliated with the Chartered Institute of Logistics & Transport (UK) and committee member of the South Yorkshire Group and Logistics Research Network. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Graeme Heron receives funding from Defra, EU Commission Horizon 2020 He is affiliated with The Chartered Institute of Logistics.& Transport as a Fellow</span></em></p>Increased use of freight trains can ease the HGV driver crisis and improve the air quality, research shows.Erica E.F. Ballantyne, Lecturer in Operations and Supply Chain Management, University of SheffieldGraeme Heron, Senior University Teacher in Operations Management and Continuous Improvement, University of SheffieldLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1709692021-11-08T15:10:20Z2021-11-08T15:10:20ZKenya’s mega-railway project leaves society more unequal than before<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/429909/original/file-20211103-25-cuwbsu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A young man watches a Standard Gauge Railway passenger train zoom over his home in Taita Taveta county, south-eastern Kenya.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>In 2014, Kenya started to construct a <a href="https://www.railway-technology.com/projects/mombasa-nairobi-standard-gauge-railway-project/#:%7E:text=Main%20construction%20works%20on%20the,of%20operation%20in%20February%202020.">new railway</a> to connect the Mombasa Port with the interior and on to landlocked Uganda and Rwanda. Today the Standard Gauge Railway stops abruptly at <a href="https://www.railway-technology.com/news/kenya-nairobi-naivasha-rail-line/">Naivasha</a>, 120km northwest of Nairobi. Ultimately it is planned to reach the border with Uganda at Malaba, helping to connect East Africa’s regional transport and trade. </p>
<p>Costing <a href="https://www.railway-technology.com/projects/mombasa-nairobi-standard-gauge-railway-project/">US$3.8 billion</a>, 90% of which has been provided by a bilateral loan from the Exim Bank of China to the Government of Kenya, this new passenger and freight railway is the biggest infrastructure project in the history of independent Kenya.</p>
<p>Alongside other large projects such as the Lamu Port-South Sudan-Ethiopia Transport (Lapsset) Corridor, the Standard Gauge Railway is central to Kenya’s current national development policy, <a href="https://vision2030.go.ke">“Vision 2030”</a>. The policy frames these mega-projects as key in attracting the sort of private sector interest needed to fuel economic growth, increase exports and alleviate poverty. </p>
<p><a href="https://news.cgtn.com/news/2019-08-02/China-s-standard-gauge-railway-makes-strong-impact-on-Kenya-s-economy-IPds2CE4zm/index.html">According to China’s state authorities</a>, the construction of the Standard Gauge Railway has driven Kenya’s economic growth by 1.5%, creating 46,000 jobs for local residents.</p>
<p>The reality, however, is far more complicated than such official narratives acknowledge. </p>
<p>In my <a href="https://rgs-ibg.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/tran.12474">study</a>, I analyse the uneven sociopolitical effects of Kenya’s Standard Gauge Railway. In five months of fieldwork research, undertaken during several periods between November 2018 and January 2020 in different urban, peri-urban, and rural locations between Mombasa and Narok, I interviewed over 200 people to understand their experiences of the new railway project. </p>
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<p>I found that, contrary to the government’s promises of prosperity, Kenya’s mega-railway is heading down the wrong track of development. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2021.102459">My research</a> shows that privileged groups, with sufficient access to economic resources, are experiencing several benefits. However, disadvantaged groups, particularly those in remote or historically marginalised regions, have found it more challenging to sustain themselves as a result of large-scale infrastructure development. The railway-related economic growth is not likely to remedy this, as the project planners expect.</p>
<p>In fact, I concluded that, instead of bringing prosperity to people, the railway project is further advancing inequalities in the country. </p>
<h2>The railway and inequalities</h2>
<p>With less than 0.1% (8,300 people) of the population owning more than the bottom 99.9% (more than 44 million people), Kenya is a highly <a href="https://www.oxfam.org/en/kenya-extreme-inequality-numbers">unequal country</a>. This is as a direct result of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/03056240600671258">British colonialism</a> and <a href="https://nation.africa/kenya/news/nepotism-a-deadly-cancer-that-s-slowly-killing-the-kenyan-dream-3349218">rampant nepotism and corruption</a> since independence.</p>
<p>In rural Kenya, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/17531055.2020.1743068">access to natural resources, like land,</a> is one of the main determining factors of social mobility. Therefore, land acquisitions for the new railway was a significant development. The National Government paid <a href="https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/business/sci-tech/article/2001292767/taxpayers-to-pay-more-for-sgr-land">US$29 million</a> to acquire over <a href="https://www.capitalfm.co.ke/business/2016/03/kenya-railways-uses-sh30bn-in-land-compensation-in-sgr-phase-i/">4,500 hectares of land</a> for the first phase of the new railway.</p>
<p>However, this land acquisition primarily benefited large-scale landowners who have received sizeable financial compensation. As my research shows, many of these individuals have been able to reinvest the money in real estate or diversify their livelihoods by starting businesses. </p>
<p>Smallholders and squatters with no official land titles had to vacate the land they had occupied without any financial compensation. </p>
<p>As in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/gec3.12484">other contexts</a> across the Global South, large-scale transport infrastructures like the Standard Gauge Railway also advance the mobility of urban middle classes. With the new railway development in Kenya, this is particularly so for those who regularly travel between Mombasa and Nairobi for work, business or leisure. As the new railway is more efficient than long and exhausting bus trips or expensive flights, these groups are directly benefiting from the new railway line. </p>
<p>Rural populations still prefer to use bus and minibus services that offer more flexibility. To them, the railway also presents a number of direct challenges. In many cases, it blocks the existing travel and access routes, sometimes even dividing family land and splitting villages. Many people I interviewed see the Standard Gauge Railway as a government-controlled project that is only useful to people in Nairobi with no relevance to the rural poor. </p>
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<p>The railway developments have also triggered an investment boom in central Kenya. Areas close to Nairobi have witnessed significant changes in real estate. Since 2016, in Maai Mahiu or Suswa, for instance, where new facilities like stations and depots are located, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2021.102459">land value has increased three-fold</a>. Here the construction of hotels, budget accommodation for truck drivers, and housing for other workers has increased to cash in on the emerging transportation economy. </p>
<p>Other regions of the country, such as Mombasa, <a href="https://www.crisisgroup.org/africa/horn-africa/kenya/kenya-s-coast-devolution-disappointed">historically neglected</a> by the central government, are experiencing <a href="https://www.aborne.net/afrigos-african-governance-and-space/2018/12/17/killing-mombasa">a decline</a> in business opportunities. The old port’s customs clearing facilities are being shipped to the new Inland Container Depot close to Nairobi. With it, smaller scale business operations, whether in freight handling services, commerce, or hospitality, are also <a href="https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/news/article/2001341988/mombasa-loses-sh17b-in-revenue-after-sgr-order">leaving Mombasa</a>.</p>
<p>As a result, many local business people in my study describe Mombasa as a “dying city that will soon be <a href="https://www.the-star.co.ke/opinion/2019-08-23-mombasa-dying-a-slow-and-painful-death/">a ghost town</a>”. According to them, Mombasa was busy before the railway construction. It was common to get stuck in traffic for hours when large ships arrived. Now “it is emptier by the day, leaving young men idle, roaming the streets looking for work”.</p>
<h2>The role of China</h2>
<p>Besides funding the new railway, China also has a strong influence in the development of the project. China Road and Bridge Corporation, a Chinese state-owned company, was the main contractor.</p>
<p>To get quicker access to the areas allocated for the development, the corporation directly compensated individual households to vacate land. According to several company managers that I interviewed, the corporation paid US$10 million to meet the project delivery targets on time.</p>
<p>This directly undermines the work of Kenya’s National Land Commission that is mandated to regulate land compensation. Without direct supervision of an official state authority, some people have been able to negotiate better financial deals than others. As my interviews show, some lost out in the process. </p>
<p>Kenya’s government has been criticised by <a href="http://www.okoamombasa.org/show-us-the-contracts/">local civil society</a> for ignoring regulations on project development and instead prioritising short-term stimulus effects over long-term social impacts.</p>
<h2>Uncertain future</h2>
<p>The plan to extend the line from Naivasha to Malaba was <a href="https://www.capitalfm.co.ke/news/2019/04/govt-halts-plan-to-extend-sgr-to-kisumu-over-funding-hitch/">put on hold</a> in April 2019. The Exim Bank reversed its funding, <a href="http://www.chinagoabroad.com/en/article/china-exim-bank-cuts-322-million-standard-gauge-railway-funds">citing the high number of court cases against the project</a>. Other rail projects in the region, such as Tanzania’s, provide alternative options to connect East Africa’s interior with the Indian Ocean. </p>
<p>There is no indication when funding might be made available to extend Kenya railway farther inland. In the meantime, Kenya is <a href="https://www.businessdailyafrica.com/bd/economy/payments-for-sgr-loans-than-double-to-sh97bn-3390740">paying through the teeth</a> for the infrastructure project it once promoted as a <a href="https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/zfhzlt2018/eng/zfgx_4/jmhz/t1727335.htm">“game changer”</a>. It remains to be seen whether it will ever live up to the lofty promises.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/170969/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gediminas Lesutis receives funding from the UK Research and Innovation’s Global Challenges Research Fund (Grant Number: ES/P011500/1), The Development Corridors Partnership.</span></em></p>Contrary to the government’s promises of prosperity, Kenya’s mega-railway is heading down the wrong track of development.Gediminas Lesutis, Marie Curie Fellow, University of AmsterdamLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1598132021-06-28T15:04:32Z2021-06-28T15:04:32ZKenya’s huge railway project is causing environmental damage. Here’s how<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/407868/original/file-20210623-17-1yheh3p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Impalas walk near the elevated Standard Gauge Railway (SGR) in Nairobi National Park, Kenya.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">YASUYOSHI CHIBA/AFP via Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Kenya is constructing a railway line that connects the coastal port of Mombasa and the interior of the country. It is expected to terminate at Malaba, a town on the border with Uganda, and link up with other railways that are being built in East Africa. It’s locally known as the Standard Gauge Railway (SGR).</p>
<p>The passenger and freight railway line is <a href="https://www.railway-technology.com/projects/mombasa-nairobi-standard-gauge-railway-project/">one of the biggest</a> infrastructure investments in Kenya’s history. Construction began in 2014 at an estimated cost of <a href="https://ecdpm.org/great-insights/regional-integration-dynamics-africa/railway-rivalry-east-african-community/">US$3.8 billion</a>, 90% of which is supplied by a loan from the Export-Import (Exim) Bank of China and 10% from the Kenyan government. </p>
<p>Although the actual land area affected by the railway itself is small, parts of it are raised and it cuts through a wide range of the country’s ecologically fragile and important ecosystems. For instance, the railway cuts across Tsavo Conservation Area (which supports <a href="https://tsavotrust.org/super-tusker-elephants-saving-the-last-of-africas-great-megafauna/">about 40%</a> of Kenya’s elephant population) and the Nairobi National Park. It also traverses range lands in southern Kenya that support pastoral communities and are vulnerable to the impacts of climate and changes in land use.</p>
<p>My colleagues and I <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0246248">carried out a study</a> to gain insights into all the impacts the railway was having on the environment. </p>
<p>The construction of the railway is being done in three phases. The first two phases (now completed) cover 610km. The third phase is still under construction. Our study focused along the entire stretch of the first two phases, covering eight counties from Mombasa to Narok. </p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/408117/original/file-20210624-23-qlsg5o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/408117/original/file-20210624-23-qlsg5o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408117/original/file-20210624-23-qlsg5o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408117/original/file-20210624-23-qlsg5o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408117/original/file-20210624-23-qlsg5o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=522&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408117/original/file-20210624-23-qlsg5o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=522&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408117/original/file-20210624-23-qlsg5o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=522&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Map of the railway corridor.</span>
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<p>The project involves many stakeholders including various levels of government (such as the National Environment Management Authority and Kenya Wildlife Service), local communities, civil society organisations and the private sector. For our study, we hosted group interviews and meetings with 54 key informants from all these sectors. </p>
<p>We found that the construction and operation of the railways has degraded, fragmented and destroyed key ecosystems. It increased soil erosion, land degradation, flooding and habitat destruction. It also affected water bodies and wildlife movement.</p>
<p>Environmental impact assessments for the railway were conducted, and these are of an <a href="https://www.iaia.org/">international standard</a>. The final reports, which included recommendations, were written to facilitate licensing by the National Environment Management Authority, the government regulator.</p>
<p>However, it’s become clear that the recommendations weren’t fully implemented. Several observers identified a lack of funding, technical capacity and political interference as some of the barriers.</p>
<p>Project proponents must develop measures that properly mitigate the key ecosystem challenges and ensure they’re enforced.</p>
<h2>Impact on land</h2>
<p>Participants in our study identified that the railway line had an impact on soil, water and air contamination, during construction and operation of the line.</p>
<p>During construction, soil was compacted and excavated. It was also moved from one location to another to erect embankments. This has many effects on the environment. For instance, Community Forest Association officials (around the coastal mangrove forests in Mombasa) observed that sediment, eroded from the rail embankments, affected streams and plants. They said that:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>not only did it affect mangroves seed development and self-germination but also blocked streams and reduced the stream size…</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Another challenge was that underpasses were built to allow for movement under the railway. This is because the railway is raised. But these underpasses redirected surface water and rainfall courses. Respondents from Narok county observed that this led to erosion, leading to the siltation of water sources, including Lake Magadi – a unique saline, alkaline lake which is surrounded by wildlife and a major source of <a href="https://www.saltworkconsultants.com/lake-magadi-kenya/">trona</a>. This is a sodium carbonate compound that is processed into soda ash or bicarbonate of soda.</p>
<p>Another impact was the blasting of land for construction material. Communities around Nairobi said that this caused tremors, sometimes causing buildings to crack. </p>
<h2>Flooding</h2>
<p>Floods have been a major challenge. To avoid cutting through the railway embankments, contractors rerouted natural surface water flows (such as streams) to the underpasses. </p>
<p>But this led to increases in the volume and speed of the water flow which caused flooding and soil erosion. This was compounded by the clearing of surrounding vegetation, which would usually slow water down. </p>
<p>In Voi, county officials explained how storm water flooded low lying homesteads and farms during heavy rains. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/407872/original/file-20210623-21-e9s7f2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/407872/original/file-20210623-21-e9s7f2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=267&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407872/original/file-20210623-21-e9s7f2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=267&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407872/original/file-20210623-21-e9s7f2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=267&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407872/original/file-20210623-21-e9s7f2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407872/original/file-20210623-21-e9s7f2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407872/original/file-20210623-21-e9s7f2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A blocked river in Kitengela.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In addition, silt from construction led to the blockage or drying up of rivers, notably the Empakashe and Mbagathi rivers around Nairobi. Most communities in these areas rely on the rivers for domestic consumption, watering their livestock and irrigation agriculture.</p>
<h2>Pollution</h2>
<p>Another concern was oil spills. These occurred due to fuel transport accidents and because of train and railway maintenance activities. </p>
<p>For instance, local officials in Kibwezi County said that an oil spill polluted the <a href="https://www.the-star.co.ke/counties/eastern/2019-11-29-thange-river-environs-still-tainted-by-oil-spill/">Thange River</a>. Now the river can’t be used for irrigation or domestic purposes. The land in the affected area is still unsafe for cultivation.</p>
<p>Noise pollution was also reported during construction and operation of the railway, particularly in the areas around Nairobi and Voi. Some communities were unable to sleep and school classes were disrupted due to the noise levels.</p>
<p>Dust pollution was an additional challenge. There were reports of coughs and chest pain.</p>
<p>Communities relying on wetlands and rivers in Voi, Kibwezi, Tuala and Narok areas lost access to some of these critical resources, and the long-term prospects are unclear. </p>
<p>An additional impact of the railway was the emergence of illegal activities, such as grazing in protected areas. </p>
<p>Officials of the Kenya Wildlife Service observed that:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>local communities {were} using the underpasses to pass their livestock through to Tsavo National Park particularly around Buchuma gate.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The livestock incursions resulted in serious soil degradation in the southern part of Tsavo East.</p>
<p>Wildlife was also affected. <a href="https://www.railway-technology.com/projects/mombasa-nairobi-standard-gauge-railway-project/">About 120km</a> of the line traverses through a key wildlife area, Kenya’s Tsavo National Park.</p>
<p>We learnt that elephants displayed early signs of behavioural modification. This included aggression and avoidance of the railway area.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"969496232929517568"}"></div></p>
<p>These are consistent with behavioural adaptations observed among other species which <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307/3801107">shift their home ranges</a> or <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307/2403836">alter their movement patterns</a> due to infrastructure.</p>
<h2>What next</h2>
<p>Linear infrastructure projects like the railway must develop sustainable and ecologically sensitive measures to mitigate these impacts. </p>
<p>For example, underpasses must be at the right density and of the right size. At present, the underpasses are few and are located in areas not used regularly by wildlife. </p>
<p>In addition, water courses should be channelled and redirected to avoid flooding.</p>
<p>Furthermore another full assessment, involving all stakeholders, is needed of the environmental impacts of the railway. This is key to designing a sustainable railway. It must ensure that development gains are maximised while the ecosystem impacts are minimised.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/159813/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tobias Nyumba receives funding from the UK Research and Innovation’s Global Challenges Research Fund (GCRF) under the Development Corridors Partnership (DCP) project. </span></em></p>Oil spills, cracked buildings and pollution. Just some of the environmental effects of Kenya’s massive railway project.Tobias Nyumba, Post Doctoral Research Fellow, University of NairobiLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1617062021-06-10T14:44:53Z2021-06-10T14:44:53ZClimate change is a threat to Africa’s transport systems: what must be done<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/403990/original/file-20210602-19-17ds1lb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Railway bridge over the river on the border with Tanzania. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">vladimirat/Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Transportation infrastructure, such as roads and railway systems, is one of the sectors most threatened by climate change. Extreme weather events – such as flooding, sea level rises and storm surges – <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/ipcc_wg3_ar5_chapter8.pdf">repeatedly</a> wreak havoc on transport networks. </p>
<p>In Africa, extreme weather is a threat that can cause extensive structural damage. It can also accelerate the ageing of infrastructure components. This can lead to considerable <a href="https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/transport/publication/enhancing-the-climate-resilience-of-africas-infrastructure-the-roads-and-bridges-sector">financial losses</a>. </p>
<p>For instance, a <a href="https://www.itrc.org.uk/casestudies/transport-risk-analysis-for-the-united-republic-of-tanzania-systemic-vulnerability-assessment-of-multi-modal-transport-networks/">recent report</a> on Tanzania uncovered the vulnerability of the country’s transportation systems. Long stretches of road and rail networks are exposed to extreme flooding events, with growing exposure in the future. </p>
<p>The report estimated that worst-case disruptions to Tanzania’s multi-modal transport networks could cause losses of up to US$1.4 million per day. In addition, damage to these networks can disrupt the flow of goods and people, thereby lowering economic productivity.</p>
<p>This suggests that governments must ensure that transport infrastructure is developed with the ability to cope with current and future climatic shifts. </p>
<p>Fortunately an effective way to “climate-proof” transport infrastructure already exists within the planning machinery of governments. In our <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17565529.2021.1911774?journalCode=tcld20">recent work</a>, which investigated the Standard Gauge Rail project in Tanzania, we show how climate change and adaptation capabilities can be incorporated in environmental impact assessment procedures. </p>
<p>Environmental impact assessment is a widespread environmental safeguard. It’s used by governments, donors and lending agencies when approving new development projects or major expansions to existing ones. The process can be used to identify climate risks and ensure that they are minimised through environmentally sound project design. </p>
<p>Transport infrastructure is vital to developing countries because efficient and reliable transport networks are critical for local and international trade. We hope that, with a changing climate, our findings offer useful lessons for policymakers, planners and developers. </p>
<h2>Checking for risks</h2>
<p>Environmental impact assessment is the essential process of identifying, predicting and evaluating the likely environmental impacts of a proposed development action, both positive and negative. These are risks to the project, and risks to the natural environment from the project. </p>
<p>The assessment is meant to happen before major decisions are taken and commitments made. Developers, both private and public, often commission registered environmental experts to carry out the study.</p>
<p>Virtually every country has some form of legislation that requires an environmental impact assessment. These are carried out on certain development projects, particularly those likely to have significant effects on the environment. This often includes major transport infrastructure. </p>
<p>The study culminates in a set of observations and recommendations, which regulators and developers are meant to take on board. Legislation usually provides for followups on whether they were. In countries with strong institutional frameworks, violators often face fines, suspension of operations or even jail time. </p>
<p>Because the assessment has to be carried out for major projects, it offers an efficient and direct way to include adaptation measures. </p>
<h2>Tanzania’s railway</h2>
<p>This is <a href="https://www.jica.go.jp/english/our_work/social_environmental/id/africa/tanzania/c8h0vm000090rkh9-att/c8h0vm0000a2nptn.pdf">what happened</a> for Tanzania’s Standard Gauge Railway.</p>
<p>The railway, a US$14.2 billion investment by the Tanzanian government, is currently under construction. It’s part of the <a href="https://developmentcorridors.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/Tanzania-Scoping-Study.pdf">“central corridor”</a> connecting Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda, and the Democratic Republic of Congo. It will also provide access to the Indian ocean. The government contracted a Turkish firm, Yapi Merkezi, to design and build the project’s first phase, traversing about 541km. Work started in 2017. </p>
<p>Because it is vulnerable to climate change – <a href="https://www.jica.go.jp/english/our_work/social_environmental/id/africa/tanzania/c8h0vm000090rkh9-att/c8h0vm0000a2nptn.pdf">there are particular concerns over</a> heavy floods and landslides – the environmental impact assessment has tried to prepare the project for potential climate risks. </p>
<p>The assessment was conducted by a multidisciplinary team under an international consulting firm, <a href="https://www.erm.com/">Environmental Resources Management</a>. They carried out climate projections along the proposed route and outlined adaptation measures for the projected risks.</p>
<p>Recommendations included using heat-resistant asphalt, installing flood defence walls and using reinforced steel. They also proposed a monitoring plan which outlined key monitoring aspects, indicators, responsible parties and timing.</p>
<p>Climate change issues are not explicitly prescribed by Tanzanian environmental impact assessment law and regulations. The drive to carry out the assessment was a result of pressure from climate-sensitive international lenders. It remains to be seen if the recommendations are implemented throughout construction and following project phases. </p>
<p>Our study demonstrates the huge potential of environmental impact assessments to foster adaptation in transport projects. It makes sense. Most African countries <a href="https://climatepolicyinitiative.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/A-Snapshot-of-Global-Adaptation-Investment-and-Tracking-Methods-April-2020.pdf">lack the necessary resources</a> to invest in stand-alone adaptation projects. </p>
<h2>Roadblocks to remove</h2>
<p>Even though integrating climate change adaptation into an environmental impact assessment is a simple step, it’s not being done.</p>
<p>This is due to several challenges including a lack of knowledge, awareness, technical and financial resources, and legislative support. Tanzania’s laws and regulations, for instance, do not specifically mandate the practice.</p>
<p>Moreover, developers seldom go beyond what the law requires. Because of factors such as costs or time constraints, they would naturally view such requirements as unwelcome. Additional project approval processes could lead to delays and increased costs for the developer. </p>
<h2>Climate-proofing projects</h2>
<p>To ensure projects are “climate-proofed” in future, several steps must be taken.</p>
<p>First, laws and regulations must be formalised so that climate change is included in the assessment process. These must be supported by technical guidelines and strategic planning. </p>
<p>Second, there’s a need to make substantial investments in building capacity and raising awareness at the institutional level. In addition, climate data must be available and communication between climate scientists and assessment practitioners should be strengthened.</p>
<p>Finally, our paper calls for adaptation aid providers, development partners and international lenders – such as the World Bank, Africa Development Bank and the IMF – to leverage their influence, for instance through funding procedures. This would add pressure to include climate change scenarios in the planning process.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/161706/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Governments must ensure that transport infrastructure is developed with the ability to cope with current and future climatic shifts.Amani George Rweyendela, Assistant Lecturer, Department of Environmental Engineering and Management, University of DodomaWilliam John Mwegoha, Associate Professor, Department of Environmental Engineering and Management, University of DodomaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1590102021-04-28T14:15:21Z2021-04-28T14:15:21ZShort-haul flight ban is a good start – now we need to reimagine the modern airport<p>If your journey takes two and a half hours or less by train, then <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/business/2021/apr/12/france-ban-some-domestic-flights-train-available-macron-climate-convention-mps">no flights are allowed</a>. That’s the idea recently approved by the French national assembly as a strategy for reining in the aviation sector’s greenhouse gas emissions.</p>
<p>Now the fine print. Connecting flights are exempt and, in practice, only five routes within France are likely to be affected, mainly from the secondary airport of Paris-Orly (ORY). About <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2021/apr/13/france-ban-short-domestic-flights-britain-air-travel">12% of France’s domestic flights</a> will be curtailed, but most of the network will remain intact.</p>
<p>Flights <a href="https://www.eurocontrol.int/publication/eurocontrol-data-snapshot-co2-emissions-flight-distance">shorter than 500 km</a> contributed less than 4% of the EU’s total emissions from aviation in 2019, despite making up one-quarter of all European flights. Meanwhile, 6% of EU flights travelled 4,000 km or further in 2020 but produced more than half of EU-wide emissions from flying. Short-haul flights are far less efficient than long-haul ones because a large portion of an aircraft’s fuel is burned during take-off. So cutting them where possible <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652619310455">makes sense</a>, even if the overall effect on emissions is small. </p>
<p>But banning short-haul flights is important for another reason: it marks one of the first times that politicians in a wealthy country have endorsed something that most, if not all, have been reluctant even to consider. That high-carbon conveniences aren’t always necessary, or even desirable, and that curbs on the most polluting aspects of consumption are necessary to tackle climate change.</p>
<h2>Slower but greener</h2>
<p>Until now, most of the initiatives for making air transport sustainable have focused on making aeroplanes <a href="https://www.eurocontrol.int/sites/default/files/2021-04/eurocontrol-think-paper-10-perfect-green-flight.pdf">more energy efficient</a> or <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/mar/23/sweden-to-increase-airport-fees-for-high-polluting-planes">penalising high-polluting flights</a>. </p>
<p>These approaches, along with the <a href="https://www.iata.org/en/programs/environment/sustainable-aviation-fuels/">use of sustainable fuels</a>, might gradually lower emissions on long-haul routes with no possible substitution. But for shorter journeys with multiple travel options, <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Sara-Mingorria/publication/340931513_Degrowth_of_aviation/links/5ea577e5299bf1125610463f/Degrowth-of-aviation.pdf">some academics argue</a> that a cultural change is necessary. One that promotes lower consumption and greater sufficiency over speed and convenience and raises the question of whether alternative ways of travel that leave a lighter footprint could suffice.</p>
<p>Research suggests that encouraging such a transformation in attitudes might be effective. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1361920916302371">An Australian study</a> showed that scrapping air journeys in favour of high-speed rail travel between Sydney and Melbourne would reduce CO₂ emissions by 18% over three decades – and that includes emissions from developing and maintaining the entire rail infrastructure.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/plane-train-or-automobile-the-climate-impact-of-transport-is-surprisingly-complicated-117350">Plane, train, or automobile? The climate impact of transport is surprisingly complicated</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<p>In Finland, a recent <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2213624X20300663">analysis</a> suggested that replacing all national short-haul flights with train travel could reduce CO₂ emissions in these trips by 95%. Even travelling by car or bus for similar distances is <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652619310455">better for the planet</a> than hopping on a plane. </p>
<h2>Connecting flights</h2>
<p>Convincing people to ditch short-distance travel by air might be a tough sell though. As the French proposals highlight, most short-haul flights carry connecting passengers between airline <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0966692394900477">hubs</a>, which opens up more options for worldwide travel, particularly for people living in more remote places.</p>
<p>As passengers, we know that even if we <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0361198106195100104">miss our connecting flight</a>, the airline is obliged to book us a seat on the next plane. If we decide to make the connection by rail, that burden falls on us. People often buy flexi-tickets or consider long times between connections, meaning more waiting and higher costs, which overall make rail alternatives less appealing. A solution could be integrated ticketing across all modes of transport, ensuring connections are automatically rebooked, whether by land or sky.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A cartoon of a man sat with a suitcase under an airport departures board." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/397589/original/file-20210428-21-r9pdy3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/397589/original/file-20210428-21-r9pdy3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=339&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397589/original/file-20210428-21-r9pdy3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=339&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397589/original/file-20210428-21-r9pdy3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=339&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397589/original/file-20210428-21-r9pdy3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397589/original/file-20210428-21-r9pdy3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397589/original/file-20210428-21-r9pdy3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">People can spend hours, and even days, waiting in airports for connecting flights.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/passenger-waiting-plane-boarding-delays-strikes-1011713659">Naeblys/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This idea is already taking off. Some airlines, including <a href="https://www.airfrance.us/US/en/common/resainfovol/avion_train/reservation_avion_train_bruxelles_airfrance.htm">AirFrance</a>, offer passengers combined air and rail tickets. <a href="https://www.railtech.com/infrastructure/2021/03/10/deutsche-bahn-and-lufthansa-launch-new-joint-offers/">Lufthansa is working with Deutsche Bahn</a> to replace flights with trains for national connections. <a href="https://elpais.com/tecnologia/digitalizacion/2021-04-16/la-aplicacion-que-unira-y-simplificara-nuestros-viajes.html">Renfe</a>, the national rail provider in Spain, is also working towards an integrated service which could include short air segments alongside longer train journeys. In the UK, <a href="https://www.businesstraveller.com/features/connecting-low-cost-airlines-gatwick/">Gatwick Connects</a> - rolled out at London Gatwick airport in 2015 - simplified connections between low-cost airlines, automatically rebooking passengers if needed. A similar concept could be used with ground connections to the airport.</p>
<p>If the goal is to eliminate short-haul flights altogether, simply having a rail station next to the airport is not good enough. It’s time to <a href="https://www-sciencedirect-com.uow.idm.oclc.org/science/article/pii/S0967070X06000187">reimagine airports</a> as fully connected hubs seamlessly linking ground and air travel – providing integrated tickets, smooth (but longer) ground-based connections, and a coordinated air-ground transport system.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/159010/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Luis Delgado receives funding from H2020-SESAR-2019-2 project Modus - grant agreement n° 891166.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Enrica Papa does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Banning short-haul flights should be just the first step on the path to greener transport systems.Enrica Papa, Reader in Transport Planning, University of WestminsterLuis Delgado, Senior Research Fellow on Air Transport, University of WestminsterLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1479622020-10-19T14:56:28Z2020-10-19T14:56:28ZFive innovations that could shape the future of rail travel<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/364243/original/file-20201019-21-ijrt3o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/high-speed-fast-train-passenger-locomotive-1189478818">aapsky/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>What will the future of public transport look like? The major projects being planned today, such as the UK’s HS2 high-speed rail network, <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-future-of-rail-travel-and-why-it-doesnt-look-like-hyperloop-45354">aren’t fundamentally different</a> to what’s been built over the last 30 years. Maglev trains are largely confined to niche projects in China. Hyperloop remains an unproven glimmer in Elon Musk and Richard Branson’s eyes.</p>
<p>The likes of HS2 can deliver considerable improvements in network capacity but through incremental changes in conventional designs, from tracks to train bogies. Yet while the rail sector is warily slow at introducing new technologies due to the long time it takes to plan and build new lines and vehicles, there are a number of technical innovations in development that, if adopted, could make the trains of tomorrow both faster and safer.</p>
<h2>1. Mechatronic switches</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Diagram of a railway junction." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/364083/original/file-20201018-21-109qtk7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/364083/original/file-20201018-21-109qtk7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=119&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364083/original/file-20201018-21-109qtk7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=119&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364083/original/file-20201018-21-109qtk7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=119&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364083/original/file-20201018-21-109qtk7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=149&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364083/original/file-20201018-21-109qtk7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=149&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364083/original/file-20201018-21-109qtk7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=149&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Switch and crossing system.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Saikat Dutta</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Switch or points failure is responsible for nearly <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0954409717727879">20% of the total delay</a> experienced by passengers on UK railways. This occurs when there’s a problem with the mechanism that enables trains to move from one track to another at a junction. Despite the frequency of the problem, the technology used in these mechanisms has hardly changed since the first design nearly 200 years ago.</p>
<p>But a collaborative <a href="http://www.s-code.info/">research project</a> has explored radical alternative technologies. For example, one innovative design <a href="https://www.lboro.ac.uk/news-events/news/2019/march/repoint-track-switch/">called Repoint</a> has three independent motors that can lift and shift the rails, relying on gravity to lock them back into place and providing redundancy in case one or two of the motors fail. </p>
<p>This contrasts with existing switches that slide the rails sideways and can get stuck midway, so have costly additional layers of sensors and protocols to mitigate the risk. The next-generation “mechatronic” switches aim to work faster, improve <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/stoken/default+domain/10.1177%252F0954409719868129/full">ease of maintenance</a> and reduce the risk of failure through their backup motors.</p>
<h2>2. Active suspension</h2>
<p>Conventional suspension systems restrict a train’s speed as it travels on curved track, limiting how many trains you can run on a route. These suspension systems essentially work like large springs, automatically changing the distance between the wheels and the carriage as the train travels over uneven ground to make the ride feel smoother.</p>
<p>Active suspension systems are now being developed which introduce new sensors, actuators and controllers to more precisely alter the distance between wheels and carriage. This offers improved <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1155/2014/298382">ride comfort</a> and enables the train to travel round curves with <a href="https://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2719&context=eispapers">greater speed</a> and <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0020294018819539">stability</a>. This can be combined with systems to actively tilt the train as it rounds the corner, offering increased benefits.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Diagram of two trains from front" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/364228/original/file-20201019-13-et6l9s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/364228/original/file-20201019-13-et6l9s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=288&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364228/original/file-20201019-13-et6l9s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=288&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364228/original/file-20201019-13-et6l9s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=288&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364228/original/file-20201019-13-et6l9s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=362&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364228/original/file-20201019-13-et6l9s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=362&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364228/original/file-20201019-13-et6l9s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=362&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Active tilting, steering and suspension compared to traditional tilting train.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Saikat Dutta</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>3. Actively steering</h2>
<p>In a conventional wheelset, both wheels are interlocked and connected with a fixed axle, preventing any relative rotation between them. When a train enters a curve or a divergent route at a junction, it must slow down to ensure the wheels are guided over the track and to prevent unwanted vibration of the wheels. </p>
<p>Railway researchers are now developing <a href="https://assets.new.siemens.com/siemens/assets/api/uuid:2dbbe04aeb88674e9b6c332c43d452456b59019e/wheel-sets-independent-en.pdf">independently rotating wheels</a> to include a separate <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00423114.2020.1780455?casa_token=6d8b5kskcqQAAAAA:sNyxfpE00K9L-z32ZrkTvwC1_e5v8f-7EIuiToyKUsTn-6S078cBBPYagenvbhPw4ZWKl3vW6w">actuation</a> mechanism that can help steer the wheelsets on the curved route.</p>
<h2>4. Active pantograph</h2>
<p>High-speed electric trains need to maintain good contact with the overhead powerlines via the pantograph that sits on top of the vehicle. On the UK mainline, pantograph height usually varies by <a href="http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/103249/1/Overheadline_paper_ICE_accepted_version.pdf">about 2m</a> to secure the connection in different areas such as in tunnels, level crossings and bridges. </p>
<p>Researchers are starting to develop <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0954409717707399">active pantographs</a> that have their height and the induced vibration involved in power transfer controlled by an actuator. These active pantographs can improve the contact force and eliminate contact loss problems due to rapid changes in the overhead line height and other environmental disturbances (such as wind).</p>
<h2>5. Virtual coupling</h2>
<p>The number of trains that can run on a route (and so the capacity of the line) depends in part on the signalling system. Most railways use a fixed-block system, which divides the tracks into sections. Only one train at a time can be in each section so there has to be a significant gap between the trains. </p>
<p>But some railways are now starting to use a <a href="https://blog.bham.ac.uk/bcrre/2020/07/27/the-railway-is-full-how-can-we-increase-its-capacity/">moving-block signalling</a> system, which determines the necessary gap between trains based on the distance it takes for them to come to a stop in an emergency. But this gap could be reduced further if it’s based on real time information about what the train in front is doing and where it will stop if it hits the brakes.</p>
<p>This is known as “<a href="https://movingrail.eu/images/Deliverables/D4.1-MOVINGRAIL_Market-Potential-and-Operational-Scenarios-for-VC-20200707.pdf">virtual coupling</a>” and involves the two trains communicating information about their changing speed and brake activity so that they can decrease or increase the gap between them to the minimum necessary. With <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2210970619300848?via%253Dihub">shorter gaps between them</a>, more trains could run safely on a route, increasing overall network capacity.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Two diagrams of train on a track." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/364233/original/file-20201019-21-191otov.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/364233/original/file-20201019-21-191otov.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=460&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364233/original/file-20201019-21-191otov.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=460&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364233/original/file-20201019-21-191otov.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=460&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364233/original/file-20201019-21-191otov.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=577&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364233/original/file-20201019-21-191otov.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=577&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364233/original/file-20201019-21-191otov.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=577&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Virtual coupling system compared to moving block system.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Saikat Dutta</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>With such innovations, we could introduce trains that are able to adapt to the changing characteristics of the line in order to maintain high speeds throughout most of the journey and avoid those annoying stop-start periods of travel. Widening and disrupting the boundaries of current railway designs in this way would enable us to create a next-generation network with a step-change in performance that is fit for the 21st century – without any need for expensive levitating trains or vaccum tubes.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/147962/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Saikat Dutta is affiliated with Institution of Mechanical Engineers. </span></em></p>Hyperloop might still be a dream but new technologies promise to make trains faster and safer.Saikat Dutta, Research Fellow in Railway Mechatronics Systems, University of BirminghamLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1395632020-07-16T20:01:46Z2020-07-16T20:01:46ZDon’t abandon plans for high-speed rail in Australia – just look at all the benefits<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/347045/original/file-20200713-38-ykqvc3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=179%2C291%2C2085%2C1250&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Thomas Nord/Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The Grattan Institute’s call to “<a href="https://grattan.edu.au/report/fast-train-fever/" title="Fast train fever: Why renovated rail might work but bullet trains won’t">abandon</a>” plans for any high-speed rail network in Australia fails to look at the wider benefits such a project can bring by way of more productive economies and more sustainable towns and cities.</p>
<p>The study authors argue the development of any bullet train network linking Brisbane to Melbourne via Sydney and Canberra is “unsuitable for Australia”.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/look-beyond-a-silver-bullet-train-for-stimulus-136834">Look beyond a silver bullet train for stimulus</a>
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<p>But what their argument neglects is that a project like high-speed rail has a unique capacity to reshape cities and population settlement patterns in positive ways.</p>
<h2>A question of cost</h2>
<p>The institute’s study says the idea of high-speed rail is an unwanted distraction in policy-making for the nation’s transport future. Its case relies on a review of the high-speed rail experience in Europe, Japan and China.</p>
<p>All of these nations, it says, have vastly different distributions of towns and major cities to that in Australia, which has extremely long distances between a few large cities.</p>
<p>The study also critiques a 2013 Commonwealth <a href="https://www.infrastructure.gov.au/rail/publications/high-speed-rail-study-reports/index.aspx">analysis</a> that found a A$130 billion high-speed rail project linking Brisbane, Sydney and Melbourne would generate a benefit-cost ratio of 2.3 to 1.
So every A$1 invested in a high-speed rail network would generate A$2.30 in benefits such as travel time savings, avoided vehicle operating costs and reduced road congestion. </p>
<p>But the Grattan study authors say that figure is based on a “cherry-picked” discount rate of 4%. This is economics jargon for the minimum return that the community would expect from the investment of its collective resources in any project. </p>
<p>The Grattan study also says the 2013 cost-benefit analysis did not allow for cost over-runs. Nor did it consider the greenhouse gas emissions associated with the enormous quantities of concrete and steel needed to build the infrastructure.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/high-speed-rail-on-australias-east-coast-would-increase-emissions-for-up-to-36-years-138655">High-speed rail on Australia's east coast would increase emissions for up to 36 years</a>
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<p>So why are some people, including <a href="https://infrastructuremagazine.com.au/2019/05/13/labor-commits-to-high-speed-rail-from-melbourne-to-brisbane/">the federal Labor Party</a>, still so enamoured with the idea of high-speed rail when others would have it binned?</p>
<h2>Some projects reshape cities</h2>
<p>Not all transport infrastructure projects are equal when it comes to cost-benefit analysis. Some investments have a transformative effect on population settlement patterns – they shape cities and regions.</p>
<p>The Sydney Harbour Bridge and the Melbourne Underground Rail Loop are classic examples of city-shaping projects. Each altered travel times between different parts of the metropolis, which then shifted the location preferences of households and businesses. This led to a substantially different city structure compared to what might otherwise have developed.</p>
<p>Other projects, the vast majority of government transport outlays, merely follow or service the pattern of settlement established by the city-shaping investments. These “follower” projects include the local arterial roads and tramways that circulate people and goods within cities. </p>
<p>The Commonwealth’s official <a href="https://www.atap.gov.au/framework/integrated-transport-land-use-planning/6-Strategic-or-city-shaping-infrastructure">guidelines for major project evaluation</a> recognise this distinction.</p>
<p>New ways of living, learning, working and playing become possible with city-shaping projects. By comparison, the procession of follower projects simply perpetuates settlement patterns and economic structures.</p>
<p>This is the claim and appeal of high-speed rail. Advocates <a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au/business/news-and-events/news/2019/10/03/fast-rail-answer-to-urban-sprawl.html">argue</a> such an investment would divert a significant proportion of urban growth from the far-flung suburbs of metropolitan areas to new regional locations. That’s because these regions will then have similar travel times into core city labour markets.</p>
<p>In these regional locations, households would enjoy greater housing choice and affordability, more walkability and better access to open space. They could even have better access to a range of community facilities than their metro suburban counterparts.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-can-halve-train-travel-times-between-our-cities-by-moving-to-faster-rail-116512">We can halve train travel times between our cities by moving to faster rail</a>
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<p>Advocates also <a href="http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/67664/1/dp1435.pdf">argue</a> businesses in the big cities and intervening regional areas will be able to connect with each other at lower cost and source the skills they need more efficiently. This would boost productivity.</p>
<h2>Consider all the benefits</h2>
<p>The 2013 analysis took into account issues such as congestion, emissions (from travel) and transport accidents. But it did not attempt to quantify and monetise the effects of high-speed rail shaping cities and regions. </p>
<p>Arguably, the most important set of benefits from this investment were left out of the economic evaluation, simply because they are difficult to measure. </p>
<p>Modelling how the supply chains of businesses might change under the influence of city-shaping projects, or how the housing preferences of people might shift, is undoubtedly challenging. But being difficult to measure makes these impacts no less real.</p>
<p>Despite this limitation on the scope of benefits, the <a href="https://www.infrastructure.gov.au/rail/publications/high-speed-rail-study-reports/files/HSR_Phase_2_Keyfindings_ES_Booklet.pdf">2013 study said</a> the high-speed rail project would return a benefit-cost ratio of 1.1 at a 7% discount rate, which the Grattan study says is the usual test applied to transport projects.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/smart-money-a-better-way-for-australia-to-select-big-transport-infrastructure-projects-92265">Smart money: a better way for Australia to select big transport infrastructure projects</a>
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<p>Grattan says the project barely scrapes in at this higher discount rate and implies many other projects would offer ratios greater than 1:1 and should be preferred. These would typically be smaller, follower projects that address local congestion problems.</p>
<p>But a project achieving a 1.1 benefit-cost ratio means Australia would still be better off undertaking the project compared to a business-as-usual case.</p>
<p>If the transformative effects of high-speed rail include more compact and walkable cities with less car dependency and greater productivity, then such a network has good reason to keep its grip on the Australian imagination.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/139563/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Marcus Luigi Spiller is a principal and partner at SGS Economics & Planning Pty Ltd.</span></em></p>A high-speed rail network in Australia would create many benefits by reshaping cities and regional communities along its route.Marcus Luigi Spiller, Associate Professor of Urban Planning (honorary), The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1398852020-06-03T13:59:56Z2020-06-03T13:59:56ZCars: transition from lockdown is a fork in the road – here are two possible outcomes for future travel<p>As more and more countries, including the UK, are eased out of lockdown, people are returning to their workplaces and taking children to school. How they choose to make those journeys could determine the future of travel after the pandemic, with consequences for society and the planet. </p>
<p>With fears of exposure to SARS-CoV-2 running high, many people are avoiding public transport. In the UK, as elsewhere in the world, the <a href="https://www.gstatic.com/covid19/mobility/2020-05-25_GB_Mobility_Report_en.pdf">number of trips plummeted</a> from the start of lockdown on March 23, with public transport being hit particularly hard. Passenger numbers on buses and national rail dropped to around 10% and 8% of their pre-pandemic levels, respectively.</p>
<p>But car travel didn’t tumble as dramatically. In the UK, after a steep fall in the week of March 23, car trips have risen steadily and are now only <a href="https://www.apple.com/covid19/mobility">22% lower than they were before COVID-19</a>, as those who do need to make journeys are disproportionately making them by car. </p>
<p>And it’s not just in the UK. What we are seeing around the world is a <a href="https://www.apple.com/covid19/mobility">significant shift</a> away from public transport and towards car travel.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/339509/original/file-20200603-130969-1eodhy0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/339509/original/file-20200603-130969-1eodhy0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/339509/original/file-20200603-130969-1eodhy0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=288&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339509/original/file-20200603-130969-1eodhy0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=288&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339509/original/file-20200603-130969-1eodhy0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=288&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339509/original/file-20200603-130969-1eodhy0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=362&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339509/original/file-20200603-130969-1eodhy0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=362&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339509/original/file-20200603-130969-1eodhy0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=362&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">All travel fell at the onset of lockdown, but car travel has proven the most resilient.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/881294/2020-04-26_COVID-19_Press_Conference_Slides.pdf">Department for Transport</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The rise in car travel</h2>
<p>Public transport capacity will remain low in the coming months, to ensure everyone can socially distance on buses and trains. Meanwhile, cars offer a mobile cocoon, allowing drivers to isolate themselves while on the move. This could reinforce the trend towards car travel, changing travel behaviour for long after the pandemic.</p>
<p>An <a href="https://www.ipsos.com/en/impact-coronavirus-new-car-purchase-china">Ipsos survey in China at the end of February</a> revealed that people who hadn’t owned a car before the pandemic were more likely to buy one now. By the middle of April, congestion in major Chinese cities was back to 90% of pre-lockdown levels, while subway use <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/488d5886-c6af-4e80-a479-36aca26edd1d">lingered at just 50%</a>. In Germany, car travel is now <a href="https://www.apple.com/covid19/mobility">34% greater than</a> it was before COVID-19.</p>
<p>Younger consumers were <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/young-peoples-travel-whats-changed-and-why">turning away from car ownership</a>, but the pandemic could reverse this. Drive-in movies, for decades regarded as a nostalgic and very American novelty, are making <a href="https://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/lifestyle/things-to-do/edinburgh-zoo-host-drive-movies-22115840">a global comeback</a> as coronavirus brings a halt to traditional cinema visits. The world’s first <a href="https://www.nme.com/news/music/german-club-holds-drive-in-rave-to-circumvent-coronavirus-restrictions-2658551">drive-in raves</a> were held at the beginning of May in the German town of Schüttorf, with a full sound system for 250 cars, each with a maximum of two people per vehicle.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/339510/original/file-20200603-130923-epx9p5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/339510/original/file-20200603-130923-epx9p5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339510/original/file-20200603-130923-epx9p5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339510/original/file-20200603-130923-epx9p5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339510/original/file-20200603-130923-epx9p5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=521&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339510/original/file-20200603-130923-epx9p5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=521&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339510/original/file-20200603-130923-epx9p5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=521&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">The number of journeys made by car, foot and public transport in the UK from January 13 to June 3 2020.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.apple.com/covid19/mobility">Apple Maps</a></span>
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<p>Still, a permanent turn towards private mobility isn’t a foregone conclusion. The pandemic has hit car manufacturers hard, forcing them to <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-52838363">shut down operations</a> on the vast majority of their production plants.</p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/how-major-cities-are-trying-to-keep-people-walking-and-cycling-137909">Walking and cycling</a> has replaced the bus and train for many former users of public transport. Cycle-to-work schemes in the UK have reported <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-52564351">a 200% increase</a> in bicycle orders.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-major-cities-are-trying-to-keep-people-walking-and-cycling-137909">How major cities are trying to keep people walking and cycling</a>
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<p>Councils and local authorities across Europe are also <a href="https://www.polisnetwork.eu/document/covid-19-keeping-things-moving/">promoting travel alternatives</a> that could stop the drift towards car travel. Major cities have reclaimed road space for cyclists and pedestrians with <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-major-cities-are-trying-to-keep-people-walking-and-cycling-137909">“pop-up” car-free lanes</a>. The UK government is providing £250 million to local government to pay for new cycling and walking infrastructure, especially around schools and in city centres.</p>
<p>Whether active travel and public mobility schemes can overcome competition with the car in such a short time is uncertain. But even the increasing popularity of private transport options doesn’t necessitate a return to cars with combustion engines. Green private mobility – think electric cars, electric bicycles and electric scooters – may play an important role, particularly in cities.</p>
<h2>Long-term scenarios</h2>
<p>Volkswagen global sales chief, Christian Dahlheim, has argued that the recent push towards cars is “<a href="https://www.ft.com/content/488d5886-c6af-4e80-a479-36aca26edd1d">probably not</a>” part of a long-term shift, saying that, “it’s unthinkable that we replace public transport by individual transport in all major cities.”</p>
<p>Optimists believe that the temporary transformations seen in cities are likely to inspire more permanent changes. Road closures and other short-term measures such as pop-up cycle lanes are serving as <a href="https://theconversation.com/coronavirus-were-in-a-real-time-laboratory-of-a-more-sustainable-urban-future-135712">testing grounds</a> for <a href="https://www.citylab.com/transportation/2020/04/coronavirus-city-street-public-transit-bike-lanes-covid-19/609190/">the future of travel</a>. </p>
<p>In cities that were entirely locked down, residents noticed major improvements in noise and air pollution, and even <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/photo-essays/2020-04-08/with-humans-in-hiding-animals-take-back-the-pandemic-world">the return of wildlife</a>. The weeks and months indoors allowed residents to re-imagine their city as a place where you can breathe more easily, that smells better, is more peaceful and allows better sleep. </p>
<p>In the worst-case scenario, road closures will be reversed, public transit systems will go bankrupt and their failure will starve them of public funds for the near future. More bus and rail services will be privatised, and car use will be the only reliable option left to many. Parking and congestion charges will be scrapped and driving promoted as the only safe mode of travel, while the newfound space for walking and cycling is withdrawn. The result will be more private vehicle traffic, more congestion, more air pollution and more social division.</p>
<p>The other outcome mobilises the public appetite for more space and cleaner air and makes permanent the lockdown measures for urban walking and cycling. While social distancing limits public transport capacity, most former users – and many former drivers – take to making local journeys by foot or bike, encouraged by new paths and lanes and increased investment in cycle-to-work schemes. New charging infrastructure for electric bikes and scooters allow residents to go further while leaving the car at home and new car sales are predominantly electric, as new owners can rely on plentiful charging points and subsidised sales.</p>
<p>It’s a bit too early to say which outcome will win out, but it’s not too early to experiment and try to shape the future. The pandemic has given us the unique opportunity to rebuild cities for the long term, based on a new approach to urban spaces.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/139885/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nicole Badstuber has received funding from Sustainable Cities, the Toyota Mobility Foundation, the Centre for Digital Built Britain and the UK Economic and Social Research Council. She has produced research consultancy work for the Campaign for Better Transport and the Urban Transport Group. Nicole is also a member of the Labour party.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Enrica Papa does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The pandemic has forced many people to shift from public transport to car travel. But is this likely to be permanent?Enrica Papa, Reader in Transport Planning, University of WestminsterNicole Badstuber, Researcher in Transport Policy and Governance, UCLLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1368362020-05-18T20:03:09Z2020-05-18T20:03:09ZIs another huge and costly road project really Sydney’s best option right now?<p>The New South Wales government has focused on delivering more motorways and rail links for Sydney, along with main roads in regional NSW, since the Coalition won office in 2011. The biggest of these, WestConnex, is still being built. Plans for yet another major motorway, the <a href="https://www.rms.nsw.gov.au/projects/western-harbour-tunnel-beaches-link/index.html">Western Harbour Tunnel and Beaches Link</a>, are well advanced. </p>
<p>A hefty environmental impact statement (EIS), but incredibly no business case for a project costing about <a href="https://www.afr.com/street-talk/big-balance-sheets-tested-for-nsw-s-next-15b-roads-project-20190717-p527xx">A$15 billion</a>, was recently put on public exhibition. When submissions closed at the end of March, the vast majority of <a href="https://www.planningportal.nsw.gov.au/major-projects/project/10451">1,455 submissions</a> from public agencies, individuals and organisations were objections to the Western Harbour Tunnel project.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335297/original/file-20200515-138615-kjng4a.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335297/original/file-20200515-138615-kjng4a.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335297/original/file-20200515-138615-kjng4a.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=285&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335297/original/file-20200515-138615-kjng4a.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=285&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335297/original/file-20200515-138615-kjng4a.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=285&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335297/original/file-20200515-138615-kjng4a.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=358&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335297/original/file-20200515-138615-kjng4a.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=358&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335297/original/file-20200515-138615-kjng4a.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=358&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">The NSW government has promoted the Western Harbour Tunnel since announcing it in 2014, but hasn’t convinced the many objectors.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-G8fYlAP-M4">YouTube/NSW government</a></span>
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<p>The proposal follows three stages of WestConnex and the F6 Extension south of Sydney. Thousands of objections in the planning process did not stop the government going ahead with each stage. </p>
<p>This led to a state parliamentary <a href="https://www.parliament.nsw.gov.au/lcdocs/inquiries/2497/Final%20report%20-%20Impact%20of%20the%20WestConnex%20Project%20-%20FINAL%20-%2014%20December%202018.pdf">inquiry</a> in 2018. Its first finding was: “That the WestConnex project is, notwithstanding issues of implementation raised in this report, a vital and long-overdue addition to the road infrastructure of New South Wales.” </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/health-impacts-and-murky-decision-making-feed-public-distrust-of-projects-like-westconnex-106996">Health impacts and murky decision-making feed public distrust of projects like WestConnex</a>
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<p>However, the committee also found “the NSW Government failed to adequately consider alternative options at the commencement of the WestConnex project” and that “the transparency arrangements pertaining to the WestConnex business case have been unsatisfactory”.</p>
<p>These two findings apply to the Western Harbour Tunnel process too.</p>
<p>In the run-up to the 2019 state election, the government promoted the project and placed on public exhibition an environmental impact statement for the <a href="https://www.facebook.com/abcillawarra/photos/a.170201826359012/1799373796775132/?type=3&eid=ARCxMdhfJzTCWlRd2sIUTVqLc7P-hfGmJAX00uY3WgnhS5zmMSeB-eYCCDmKAu9AjkfW_xUj3_IrdxXM">A$2.6 billion F6 extension</a> between Arncliffe and Kogarah.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335296/original/file-20200515-138615-1z0hr26.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335296/original/file-20200515-138615-1z0hr26.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335296/original/file-20200515-138615-1z0hr26.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=853&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335296/original/file-20200515-138615-1z0hr26.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=853&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335296/original/file-20200515-138615-1z0hr26.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=853&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335296/original/file-20200515-138615-1z0hr26.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1072&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335296/original/file-20200515-138615-1z0hr26.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1072&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335296/original/file-20200515-138615-1z0hr26.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1072&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">The proposed Western Harbour Tunnel and Beaches Link.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.rms.nsw.gov.au/projects/western-harbour-tunnel-beaches-link/index.html">Transport for NSW</a></span>
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<p>The state opposition promised to scrap the Western Harbour Tunnel and F6 projects. Instead, it would give priority to rail and public transport upgrades. </p>
<p>Some have <a href="https://theconversation.com/infrastructure-splurge-ignores-smarter-ways-to-keep-growing-cities-moving-105051">suggested time-of-day road congestion charges</a> as a much better option than more motorways.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-the-nsw-election-promises-on-transport-add-up-112531">How the NSW election promises on transport add up</a>
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<h2>Local government objections</h2>
<p>Four councils made detailed objections to the Western Harbour Tunnel proposal. </p>
<p>The City of Sydney, noting “it has been a long-time critic of WestConnex”, said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>This is primarily because this costly motorway project will fail in its primary objective of easing congestion. Urban motorways do not solve congestion; they <a href="https://www.citylab.com/transportation/2018/09/citylab-university-induced-demand/569455/">induce demand</a> for motor vehicle trips and any additional capacity created is quickly filled. This phenomenon applies equally to the Western Harbour Tunnel and Warringah Freeway Project, a component of the WestConnex expansion.</p>
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<p>The City of Sydney recommended the government provide alternative public transport options.</p>
<p>The Inner West Council, whose suburb of Rozelle will be adversely impacted by the project, has also long opposed inner-urban motorways. It prefers “traffic-reduction solutions to addressing congestion, including public and active transport, travel demand management and transit-oriented development, with some modest/targeted road improvement”.</p>
<p>North Sydney Council noted significant concerns with the EIS, including “inadequate justification and need, loss of open space, construction and operational road network impacts, air quality and human health concerns, environmental, visual, social, amenity and heritage impacts, as well as numerous strategic projects having the potential to be compromised”.</p>
<p>Willoughby City Council noted the limited time given for considering a very large EIS, made worse by the COVID-19 pandemic. It questioned why a public transport alternative was not assessed. “Known alternative solutions with lower climate impacts need to be considered to be consistent with action on climate change and improved resilience.”</p>
<h2>Ignoring the alternatives</h2>
<p>In 2017, it was <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/nsw/f6-planners-told-to-ignore-public-transport-build-roads-documents-show-20170407-gvgbon.html">revealed</a> the NSW government was instructing transport officials to ignore public transport alternatives to motorways such as the F6 extension and Western Harbour Tunnel. Wollongong-Sydney train travel times could be cut by half an hour for A$10 billion less, according to a Transport for NSW internal memo. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-can-halve-train-travel-times-between-our-cities-by-moving-to-faster-rail-116512">We can halve train travel times between our cities by moving to faster rail</a>
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<p>This is at a time when Sydney train ridership has been <a href="https://www.bitre.gov.au/publications/2019/yearbook_2019">increasing faster than the distance driven by Sydney motorists</a>. Rail showed 39% growth over ten years to 2018-19 and road just 12% in a time of rapid population growth.</p>
<p>Over many objections, the F6 extension is proceeding. Many aspects of the Western Harbour Tunnel need further attention. The NSW Ports Authority is concerned about the amount of highly <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/nsw/warning-about-amount-of-toxic-sludge-to-be-dug-up-for-harbour-tunnel-20200416-p54kd3.html">contaminated sludge that will be dredged up</a> from the harbour. The shadow minister for roads, John Graham, <a href="https://twitter.com/JohnGrahamALP/status/1251415324324319234">notes</a> dredging will be close to residential areas.</p>
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<p>Heritage NSW has noted the project will have direct impacts on six sites, including the approaches to Sydney Harbour Bridge.</p>
<p>The Action for Public Transport (NSW) group questions the influence of the Transurban company on transport planning at a time when NSW’s long-term integrated transport and land use plans aim for net zero emissions by 2050. Its submission says:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>The funding for the project should be reallocated to more worthwhile projects such as filling in missing links in urban public transport systems, disentangling the passenger rail network from the rail freight network, and providing faster rail links to regional centres.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/infrastructure-splurge-ignores-smarter-ways-to-keep-growing-cities-moving-105051">Infrastructure splurge ignores smarter ways to keep growing cities moving</a>
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<h2>What are these other priorities?</h2>
<p>NSW has a shortage of “fit for purpose” rail infrastructure to serve a growing population. This includes the Sydney Metro West (an <a href="https://www.planningportal.nsw.gov.au/major-projects/project/25631">EIS is on exhibition</a>) and ensuring the new Western Sydney Airport has a rail service. More funding is also needed to upgrade the existing rail system and to cover a <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/nsw/4-3-billion-cost-blowout-in-sydney-s-metro-rail-project">A$4.3 billion cost blowout</a> on the Sydney City and Southwest Metro project. </p>
<p>The government has <a href="https://www.transport.nsw.gov.au/news-and-events/media-releases/fast-rail-network-to-transform-australia">acknowledged</a> a need for better rail services to the South Coast, Newcastle, Canberra and Orange. In 2018, it <a href="https://www.nsw.gov.au/projects/a-fast-rail-future-for-nsw">commissioned</a> an independent report on <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-12-04/fast-rail-given-green-light-by-berejiklian-without-commonwealth/10580658">fast rail options for NSW</a> by British fast rail expert <a href="https://static.nsw.gov.au/Fast-rail/1543351718/Expert-advice-on-fast-rail.pdf">Andrew McNaughton</a>. The completed report <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/nsw/faster-journeys-on-sydney-canberra-trains-among-priorities-20200225-p5444m.html">is yet to be released</a>. </p>
<p>The question now is should the Western Harbour Tunnel be abandoned or, at the very least, deferred until major rail projects have been completed.</p>
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<p><em>A reference to Western Highway Tunnel (which is of course the Western Harbour Tunnel) has been corrected in the last paragraph.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/136836/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>
Philip Laird owns shares in some transport companies and has received funding from the two rail-related CRCs as well as the ARC and made a submission to the WHT proposal. He is affiliated, inter alia, Action for Public Transport (NSW) along with the Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport, the Rail Futures Institute and Engineers Australia. The opinions expressed are those of the author.
</span></em></p>Once again, the state looks intent on pressing ahead with a huge road project without releasing a business case. Among the many concerns is the failure to look at lower-emission alternatives.Philip Laird, Honorary Principal Fellow, University of WollongongLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1368342020-04-28T02:09:14Z2020-04-28T02:09:14ZLook beyond a silver bullet train for stimulus<p>Amidst a global pandemic, some people are starting to dream big about infrastructure projects to help get Australia moving again. The decades-old dream of an Australian fast train is <a href="https://amp.smh.com.au/politics/federal/labor-backs-economic-game-changer-high-speed-rail-as-part-of-pandemic-recovery-20200418-p54l24.html">back in the headlines</a>. But, as alluring as it sounds, the federal opposition’s idea for a bullet train from Melbourne to Brisbane is not a good use of a generation’s worth of infrastructure spending.</p>
<p>After the coronavirus crisis, there may be good reasons to fast-track infrastructure to create jobs and stimulate the economy. But it remains as important as ever that funding go only to worthy projects. A bullet train does not fit the bill.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-the-focus-of-stimulus-plans-has-to-be-construction-that-puts-social-housing-first-136519">Why the focus of stimulus plans has to be construction that puts social housing first</a>
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<h2>No silver bullet</h2>
<p>Federal Labor <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/politics/federal/labor-backs-economic-game-changer-high-speed-rail-as-part-of-pandemic-recovery-20200418-p54l24.html">claims</a> the train would be an “economic game-changer” for the regions in its path. But a <a href="https://www.infrastructure.gov.au/rail/publications/high-speed-rail-study-reports/files/HSR_Phase_2-Main_Report_Low_Res.pdf">study</a> into the train, commissioned by Labor itself in government in 2010, found no evidence for this.</p>
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<p>Any regional development was too uncertain, the authors concluded, to be considered in their cost-benefit analysis. In fact, they found the project could damage towns along the route:</p>
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<p>The history of the impact of transport improvement in Australian towns is that they concentrate activity in the larger centres and create commuter towns lacking in higher level services. Without concerted efforts to the contrary, this is also a likely outcome of the introduction of HSR [high-speed rail].</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/regional-cities-beware-fast-rail-might-lead-to-disadvantaged-dormitories-not-booming-economies-119090">Regional cities beware – fast rail might lead to disadvantaged dormitories, not booming economies</a>
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<p>Of course, as advocates will be quick to point out, the study did conclude total benefits would outweigh costs by a considerable margin: $2.30 in benefit for every $1 of cost. But this rosy calculation was based on a series of assumptions that are either outdated or inappropriate. As our upcoming report on fast rail will explain in more detail, it’s unlikely the train’s benefits would exceed its costs if a rigorous independent assessment were carried out today.</p>
<p>The benefits are also narrowly concentrated. The biggest winners would be business travellers between Melbourne, Sydney and Brisbane. Wider benefits to society accounted for only 3% of the total, and the effect on economic growth was expected to be minimal.</p>
<p>That’s because the train would take a very long time to build. According to the study, the project would only be “shovel ready” 15 years after funding was committed. This makes it completely ineffective as a timely stimulus during a downturn.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-can-halve-train-travel-times-between-our-cities-by-moving-to-faster-rail-116512">We can halve train travel times between our cities by moving to faster rail</a>
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<p>Advocates also argue the train would reduce emissions by taking high-emitting planes out of the sky. But a net reduction won’t be achieved for many years – maybe decades – because constructing the line would create so many emissions.</p>
<p>If built, this train would be the most expensive infrastructure project in Australian history. The study estimated the price tag at A$114 billion – A$130 billion in today’s dollars. As our chart shows, this is enough to pay for an entire generation’s worth of infrastructure.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/330286/original/file-20200424-126800-jhqvr2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/330286/original/file-20200424-126800-jhqvr2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/330286/original/file-20200424-126800-jhqvr2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=305&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/330286/original/file-20200424-126800-jhqvr2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=305&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/330286/original/file-20200424-126800-jhqvr2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=305&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/330286/original/file-20200424-126800-jhqvr2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=383&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/330286/original/file-20200424-126800-jhqvr2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=383&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/330286/original/file-20200424-126800-jhqvr2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=383&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Projects are not presented as an alternative to the train but provide a point of reference for the scale of spending required for the high-speed rail project. Projects in yellow have active government funding commitments. Figures indicate total project funding costs, including private contributions. Figure for the fast train is in 2019 dollars.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Source: Based on most recent figures from Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development and Communications, Infrastructure Australia, NSW, Victorian and Queensland governments, Brisbane City Council, AECOM, ABS</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/330891/original/file-20200427-28119-1gi471o.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/330891/original/file-20200427-28119-1gi471o.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/330891/original/file-20200427-28119-1gi471o.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=626&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/330891/original/file-20200427-28119-1gi471o.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=626&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/330891/original/file-20200427-28119-1gi471o.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=626&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/330891/original/file-20200427-28119-1gi471o.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=787&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/330891/original/file-20200427-28119-1gi471o.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=787&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/330891/original/file-20200427-28119-1gi471o.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=787&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>So what should be done?</h2>
<p>It is true current low interest rates would make borrowing to pay for such a large project cheaper than ever before, and fast-tracking infrastructure may be justified to aid economic recovery. But that doesn’t give governments a blank cheque to spend on whatever they like. The crisis does not absolve government of its responsibility to scrutinise projects to decide whether they are worthwhile.</p>
<p>A good place to start is by identifying the problem you want to solve.</p>
<p>If regional development is the goal, other options are available to governments that are more likely to be effective than a bullet train. <a href="https://www.infrastructurevictoria.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/IV_30_Year_Strategy_WEB_V2.pdf">Infrastructure Victoria</a> and <a href="https://insw-sis.visualise.today/documents/INSW_2018SIS_BuildingMomentum_Summary.pdf">Infrastructure NSW</a> both identify better digital connectivity as a pressing need for regional and rural areas. The <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/politics/federal/nbn-urged-to-intervene-as-pandemic-tests-broadband-connections-20200316-p54ain.html">current strain</a> on the national broadband network as many of us try to work from home is a good reminder of the link between connectivity and productivity.</p>
<p>If governments do want to focus on transport, “smaller picture” projects, though not as glamorous, tend to deliver more bang for buck, as <a href="https://grattan.edu.au/report/remarkably-adaptive/">previous Grattan work</a> has argued.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/our-fast-growing-cities-and-their-people-are-proving-to-be-remarkably-adaptable-103992">Our fast-growing cities and their people are proving to be remarkably adaptable</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Projects that can be fast-tracked to start construction soon are also more likely to support economic recovery. Infrastructure Australia’s <a href="https://www.infrastructureaustralia.gov.au/sites/default/files/2020-02/current_priority_list_%20february_2020.pdf">priority list</a> suggests a range of transport projects and initiatives that are much further developed, including improving the Sydney-Canberra rail link. And the priority list includes projects that benefit all states and territories, not just the big three on the east coast.</p>
<p>The coronavirus crisis has upended many of our assumptions about “normal operating procedure” for governments. But it doesn’t mean we throw the old rule book out the window. Governments should only spend public money on projects that have clear and tangible benefits to society – not on grand “nation-building” projects that are big on style but low on substance.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/136834/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Grattan Institute began with contributions to its endowment of $15 million from each of the Federal and Victorian Governments, $4 million from BHP Billiton, and $1 million from NAB. In order to safeguard its independence, Grattan Institute’s board controls this endowment. The funds are invested and Grattan uses the income to pursue its activities.</span></em></p>The federal opposition’s idea for a bullet train from Melbourne to Brisbane is not a good use of a generation’s worth of infrastructure spending. It won’t even work as an economic stimulus.Marion Terrill, Transport and Cities Program Director, Grattan InstituteTom Crowley, Associate, Grattan InstituteLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1310192020-03-03T14:33:14Z2020-03-03T14:33:14ZBombardier woes reflect Canada’s failed infrastructure policy<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/318049/original/file-20200302-18308-1de8l6p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=34%2C244%2C3888%2C2328&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A Bombardier sign welcomes travellers to Berlin Central Station, where Bombardier's rail division headquarters are located. Canada's failure to invest in rail infrastructure has hurt Bombardier.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Wikimedia)</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Canada needs modern transportation infrastructure to enable sustainable mobility. This infrastructure has to meet new demands for energy efficiency and emission standards while serving denser urban populations. </p>
<p>Ideally, Canadian businesses ought to play a leading role in designing, building and operating such infrastructure, both in Canada and around the world. </p>
<p>However, Canada isn’t doing well on this front. <a href="http://canadianinfrastructure.ca/downloads/canadian-infrastructure-report-card-2019.pdf">Sustainable infrastructure investments have been neglected</a>, rail transport export surpluses have turned to deficits and Canada’s leading transport company, Bombardier, is expected to <a href="https://montrealgazette.com/business/local-business/aerospace/end-of-line-draws-near-for-bombardier-trains-as-alstom-confirms-talks">sell the country’s largest rail business</a> to French firm Alstom.</p>
<p>To turn this negative trend around, Canada needs to promote transport technology businesses, supported by a stable, predictable policy framework for sustainable infrastructure. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/316277/original/file-20200219-11040-1msots5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4480%2C2984&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/316277/original/file-20200219-11040-1msots5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/316277/original/file-20200219-11040-1msots5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/316277/original/file-20200219-11040-1msots5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/316277/original/file-20200219-11040-1msots5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/316277/original/file-20200219-11040-1msots5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/316277/original/file-20200219-11040-1msots5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Bombardier Transport offices are seen in St-Bruno-de-Montarville, Que. Bombardier Inc. says it’s reached a US$8.2-billion deal to sell its rail business to French train giant Alstom.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Ryan Remiorz</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Growing deficit</h2>
<p>Canada had a solid trade surplus in rail transport in the 1990s. But this has turned into a continuously growing deficit over the past 20 years, reaching <a href="https://www.ic.gc.ca/app/scr/tdst/tdo/crtr.html?grouped=GROUPED&searchType=BL&naArea=9999&countryList=ALL&toFromCountry=CDN&reportType=TB&timePeriod=10%7CComplete+Years&currency=CDN&productType=HS6&hSelectedCodes=%7C86&runReport=true">$2.4 billion in 2019</a> (see Figure 1 in the graphic below).</p>
<p>The only major market for Canadian rail equipment is the United States, but even in that bilateral relationship, Canadian exports of $228 million are swamped by <a href="https://www.ic.gc.ca/app/scr/tdst/tdo/crtr.html?grouped=GROUPED&searchType=BL&naArea=9999&countryList=ALL&toFromCountry=CDN&reportType=TB&timePeriod=10%7CComplete+Years&currency=CDN&productType=HS6&hSelectedCodes=%7C86&runReport=true">imports of $1.5 billion</a> (Figure 2).</p>
<p>Canada has literally transformed from a rail transport leader to a laggard in two decades.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/317220/original/file-20200225-24659-9gp8rv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/317220/original/file-20200225-24659-9gp8rv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/317220/original/file-20200225-24659-9gp8rv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=341&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/317220/original/file-20200225-24659-9gp8rv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=341&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/317220/original/file-20200225-24659-9gp8rv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=341&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/317220/original/file-20200225-24659-9gp8rv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/317220/original/file-20200225-24659-9gp8rv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/317220/original/file-20200225-24659-9gp8rv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Canada: Trade balance for rail transportation.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Created by the author using data from Statistics Canada</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This trend is closely associated with Bombardier. The Québec company has, since the 1970s, become <a href="https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/bombardier-inc">one of the biggest players worldwide in rail transport</a>. However, this growth was achieved by acquisitions around the world, not by growing businesses in Canada. Consequently, the international hub for its transport unit is now in Europe, with <a href="https://www.bombardier.com/en/media/newsList/details.bt_20170703_grp_bombardier-transportation-relocates-global-headq.bombardiercom.html">global headquarters in Berlin</a>.</p>
<p>At the same time, Bombardier’s technology failed to stay cutting edge. Recently, the company has been in the news due to complaints about major quality-control problems from subway operators <a href="https://torontolife.com/city/transportation/timeline-bombardiers-excuses-not-building-torontos-new-transit-fleet/">in Toronto</a>, <a href="https://montrealgazette.com/business/local-business/thanks-to-bombardier-and-its-delays-some-londoners-will-ride-for-free">London</a> and <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-01-08/about-300-nyc-subway-cars-pulled-from-service-for-door-glitches">New York</a> as well as from the <a href="https://www.sueddeutsche.de/wirtschaft/deutsche-bahn-ic-1.4773380">the German national rail operator</a>. </p>
<h2>Toward carbon-neutral transit</h2>
<p>As <a href="https://dashboards.sdgindex.org/#/CAN">climate change challenges Canada</a> to become more energy-efficient and carbon-neutral, transportation has to make its contribution. That means infrastructure investments need to address not only today’s needs, but the needs of society in 10 years as investments tend to create lock-in effects for several decades. </p>
<p>In other words, today’s investments need to cater to tomorrow’s needs, when society has a higher urban density and is no longer able to ignore the environmental impact of its mobility choices.</p>
<p>For urban mobility, <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-40726868">any choice is better than single-occupancy commuter cars</a>. <a href="https://theconversation.com/cities-need-to-innovate-to-improve-transportation-and-reduce-emissions-125778">Cities of the future require different types of urban transport systems</a> such as subways, trams and bike paths.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/build-it-and-they-will-ride-bicycle-geography-lessons-for-toronto-106503">Build it and they will ride: Bicycle geography lessons for Toronto</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>For medium distances, air travel also needs to be replaced by more energy-efficient models, such as high-speed rail. </p>
<p>With increasing urbanization, especially along the Windsor–Toronto–Montréal-Québec City corridor, <a href="https://theconversation.com/modelling-for-major-road-projects-is-at-odds-with-driver-behaviour-63603">the suitability of alternative modes of transport is changing</a>. Cars may be appropriate for isolated rural communities, but less so for metropolitan areas with hundreds of thousands of people. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/316276/original/file-20200219-11005-bmtt3w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=46%2C0%2C5184%2C3251&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/316276/original/file-20200219-11005-bmtt3w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/316276/original/file-20200219-11005-bmtt3w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/316276/original/file-20200219-11005-bmtt3w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/316276/original/file-20200219-11005-bmtt3w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/316276/original/file-20200219-11005-bmtt3w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/316276/original/file-20200219-11005-bmtt3w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In this May 2018 photo, a high-speed train is seen at the Saint-Charles train station, in Marseille, France. Canada needs to embrace high-speed rail.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">AP Photo/Claude Paris</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In recent decades, Canadian infrastructure dollars have poured into roads and airports, neglecting passenger rail travel within and between urban centres. Canada is consequently facing an <a href="https://www.ic.gc.ca/eic/site/098.nsf/eng/00027.html">infrastructure gap compared to other industrialized economies</a>. </p>
<h2>Progress is slow</h2>
<p>On the one hand, municipalities like <a href="https://ottawacitizen.com/news/local-news/while-ottawa-waits-kitchener-waterloo-welcomes-light-rail-transit">Kitchener-Waterloo</a>, <a href="https://torontosun.com/news/local-news/toronto-council-green-lights-subway-expansion">Toronto</a> and <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/ottawa/sto-tramway-lrt-gatineau-ottawa-1.5446921">Gatineau</a> are moving forward with urban transit schemes, although they’re modest at best compared to developments in Europe and Asia. Other cities like <a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/opinion/editorials/article-get-it-done-why-ottawa-bc-and-vancouver-should-come-together-to/">Vancouver</a> are struggling to raise funds. </p>
<p>On the other hand, the <a href="https://files.ontario.ca/connecting-the-southwest-english.pdf">2020 transport plan by the Ontario government</a> prioritizes road transport, discontinues <a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/politics/article-infrastructure-bank-to-support-vias-rails-expansion-plans-through/">already advanced plans</a> for <a href="https://www.igi-global.com/chapter/high-speed-rail-in-canada/197169">high-speed rail</a> and offers only <a href="https://lfpress.com/news/local-news/queens-park-outlines-southwestern-ontario-transit-plan-after-axing-high-speed-rail">token projects for sustainable urban transit</a>. </p>
<p>In 2019, Sweden and Germany saw a <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/01/german-swedish-flight-shame-train-environment/">decline in domestic flights and an increase in long-distance train travel</a>, a consequence at least in part of raised climate awareness. In Canada, most people lack such choices because mid-range rail transport is slow, infrequent and requires advance booking. </p>
<p>At the same time, Canadian industry needs <a href="https://www.international.gc.ca/gac-amc/publications/economist-economiste/state_of_trade-commerce_international-2019.aspx?lang=eng">domestic infrastructure to move products for export</a>. That’s a high priority in view of Canada’s policy objectives to diversify exports away from the United States, which <a href="https://oec.world/en/profile/country/can/%5D">currently accounts for 73 per cent of exports</a>.</p>
<h2>Investing in infrastructure and technology</h2>
<p>What would it take for Canada to become a leader in sustainable mobility? </p>
<p>Canada is promoting an image of itself to the world as environmentally responsible and concerned about climate change. At the same time, Canada has a highly educated workforce with capabilities to develop cutting-edge technologies. That means Canada should have a strong foundation to develop sustainable mobility systems. </p>
<p>So what’s missing?</p>
<p>First, Canada needs to invest in skills and technologies. Developing mass transport is technology intensive, requires systems management knowledge and software that ensures that trains run frequently, speedily and on time. A well-managed system, for example, doesn’t grind to a halt when there’s a disruption hundreds of kilometres away, <a href="https://lfpress.com/news/local-news/southwestern-ontario-loses-all-via-service-amid-anti-pipeline-blockades">as happened recently in southwest Ontario</a>. </p>
<p>The private sector has to lead. With its focus now on business jets, <a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/business/article-bombardiers-risky-plan-selling-green-trains-and-keeping-black-planes/">Bombardier is unlikely to play a role in sustainable mobility</a>. This creates both opportunity and need for Canadian technology entrepreneurs to fill the void.</p>
<h2>A predictable policy framework</h2>
<p>Second, the industry needs predictable domestic demand for for high-quality transport products and services. </p>
<p>For infrastructure businesses, demand is tied to government regulations and public sector investments, both nationally and locally. Governments investing in infrastructure must insist upon the highest quality, not only to deliver value for money for Canada’s travelling and commuting public, but also to induce businesses to develop products that can succeed internationally.</p>
<p>And governments must make long-term commitments, because infrastructure projects take years if not decades to complete. For businesses to invest in new capabilities, they need predictable demand. No one will commit to projects that may be cancelled after the next election. </p>
<p>Building infrastructure takes time. Sustainable mobility systems require persistent investment in high-quality infrastructure that will enable Canadians to make environmentally friendly travel choices in the future.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/131019/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Klaus Meyer does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Building infrastructure takes time. To develop sustainable transportation, Canada needs to invest in high-quality infrastructure that will enable us to make environmentally friendly travel choices.Klaus Meyer, Professor of International Business, Western UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1173502020-02-14T16:01:45Z2020-02-14T16:01:45ZPlane, train, or automobile? The climate impact of transport is surprisingly complicated<p>The 2020s will have to involve some very big decisions about transport – <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/environment/air-pollution-uk-transport-most-polluting-sector-greenhouse-gas-emissions-drop-carbon-dioxide-a8196866.html">the UK’s most polluting sector</a>. The UK government’s response so far has been erratic, choosing to <a href="https://news.sky.com/story/flybe-set-for-crunch-whitehall-talks-over-bailout-terms-11932524">intervene to prevent the collapse of Flybe</a> (Europe’s biggest regional airline) and give the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2020/feb/11/hs2-to-go-ahead-boris-johnson-tells-mps">green light for the high-speed rail project, HS2</a>.</p>
<p>Decarbonising transport would eliminate <a href="https://theconversation.com/decarbonising-britains-railways-demands-urgent-action-heres-how-it-could-be-done-124905">26% of UK CO₂ emissions</a> that come from how people get around. But Prime Minister Boris Johnson recently said that doing this poses “<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2020/feb/11/hs2-to-go-ahead-boris-johnson-tells-mps">difficult and complicated</a>” questions. On this, Johnson is almost certainly right.</p>
<p>The <em><a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/gilets-jaunes-62467">gilets jaunes</a></em> protests against fuel duty rises in France show <a href="https://theconversation.com/emmanuel-macrons-carbon-tax-sparked-gilets-jaunes-protests-but-popular-climate-policy-is-possible-108437">the delicate balancing act</a> between decisive climate action and continued economic growth and convenience. But shouldn’t the government allow a regional flight operator to fail and invest in high-speed rail instead? The answer is not so simple.</p>
<h2>Carbon footprints can be misleading</h2>
<p>Aviation is one of the <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/grl.50161">fastest growing fossil fuel consumers</a>, with airlines contributing about <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1352231009004956#tbl1">3.5% of all man-made greenhouse gas emissions</a>. This might seem small, but a single transatlantic flight from London to New York can grow your personal <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/transport/aviation_en">carbon footprint</a> by as much as the entire heating budget of the average European.</p>
<p>At high altitudes, contrails – the white lines we see in the sky – are formed in the wake of aircraft. These high altitude clouds are too thin to reflect much sunlight, but the ice crystals inside them can trap heat. Unlike low-level cloud, which has a net-cooling effect, contrails contribute significantly to global warming, effectively boosting the aviation industry’s share of greenhouse gas emissions to around <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1352231009004956#tbl1">4.9%</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/315513/original/file-20200214-11011-8hr434.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/315513/original/file-20200214-11011-8hr434.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/315513/original/file-20200214-11011-8hr434.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/315513/original/file-20200214-11011-8hr434.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/315513/original/file-20200214-11011-8hr434.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/315513/original/file-20200214-11011-8hr434.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/315513/original/file-20200214-11011-8hr434.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Flights warm the atmosphere by more than the contribution of their CO₂ emissions alone.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/airplane-big-four-engines-aviation-airport-597813428">Aapsky/Shutterstock</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>For the most part, the environmental benefit of high-speed rail is taken for granted. Most, but not all, research suggests that <a href="https://theconversation.com/with-planning-high-speed-rail-could-reduce-flight-demand-21687">high-speed rail can offset emissions from aviation</a> if it can attract enough passengers from alternative air routes. But the relative climate impacts of aviation to other modes of transport depend on more than just engines and altitude.</p>
<p>We can compare the emissions of different forms of transport by calculating the emissions produced by each one when moving <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Glossary:Passenger-kilometre">one passenger one kilometre</a>. This effectively compares how much CO₂ leaves each vehicle’s exhaust, but it ignores greenhouse gas emissions from the building and maintenance of the vehicles, the infrastructure – such as tracks, runways and airports – and the production of fuel.</p>
<p>The warming effects of different greenhouse gases <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1021/es9039693">happen over different time periods</a>, from a few days of short intensive warming to centuries of gentle influence. In order to provide a common unit to measure the impact of different gases, warming effects are standardised over a given time period. The time period normally used is <a href="https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/understanding-global-warming-potentials">100 years</a>. </p>
<p>But if it were five years, the effect of contrails would account for more global warming than all the cars in the world. They raise the temperature of the atmosphere in short, intense bursts. On longer timescales, like 20 years, the short term effects are less important and make aviation look considerably better – with flying looking potentially less damaging than some cars over the same distance.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/315510/original/file-20200214-10995-1vqbls4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/315510/original/file-20200214-10995-1vqbls4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/315510/original/file-20200214-10995-1vqbls4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/315510/original/file-20200214-10995-1vqbls4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/315510/original/file-20200214-10995-1vqbls4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/315510/original/file-20200214-10995-1vqbls4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/315510/original/file-20200214-10995-1vqbls4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Most comparisons only consider the emissions that come from vehicles while they’re in use.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/close-car-exhaust-pipe-1144696811">Khunkorn/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This is still not the whole story though. The energy inputs for different modes of travel vary. The direct burning of fossil fuels in engines, for example jet kerosene in aircraft, emits greenhouse gases. In electrically powered high-speed rail, operating the train produces no emissions, except from the fossil fuels used to generate that electricity elsewhere. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/electric-cars-wont-save-the-planet-without-a-clean-energy-overhaul-they-could-increase-pollution-118012">Electric cars won't save the planet without a clean energy overhaul – they could increase pollution</a>
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<p>Developing HS2 will mean deploying stations, tracks and centres of communication, and they’ll need ongoing maintenance. These all need energy and material investments, which will create further greenhouse gas emissions through manufacture, transport, and use. That could <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/4/2/024008/pdf">increase the carbon footprint of rail by between 1.8 and 2.5 times</a>, over just accounting for the operation of the trains. For aviation, the same infrastructure requirements are relatively small, and are responsible for a 1.2–1.3 increase, with road transport showing a 1.4–1.6 increase.</p>
<h2>Comparing life cycles</h2>
<p>A life cycle approach gives a better understanding of where emissions are occurring and compares transport modes on a much more level playing field. This helps us understand that most greenhouse gas emissions in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/4/2/024008/pdf">air and road travel come from flying and driving</a>, whereas in rail travel, the climate effects are dominated by those emissions produced building the infrastructure itself. Emissions from operating trains are generally lower because of the heavy reliance on electricity. But there are still emissions from the manufacture and maintenance of <a href="http://www.world-nuclear.org/uploadedFiles/org/WNA/Publications/Working_Group_Reports/comparison_of_lifecycle.pdf">renewable energy technologies</a> to consider.</p>
<p>All modes of high-speed travel come with a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1361920911001155#b0075">cost to the environment</a>. Being able to accurately compare the energy requirements and emissions of different transport options is the first step towards addressing their climate impact.</p>
<p>Governments often try to encourage people to change their behaviour and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652610003549">reduce the number of flights they take</a>. But in the case of HS2, the continued availability of regional flights means that only <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/365065/S_A_1_Economic_case_0.pdf">4% of drivers and only 1% of aeroplane passengers</a> are likely to change their behaviour. </p>
<p>It’s easy to point the finger at aviation and view rail as a low carbon alternative. But governments need to consider and carefully balance the true climate impacts of a transport project, in every phase of its development.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/117350/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Laurie Wright is affiliated with the American Center for Life Cycle Assessment (ACLCA) and the Forum for Sustainability through Life Cycle Innovation (FSLCI) . He receives funding from the EU Interreg program.</span></em></p>All modes of high-speed travel come with a cost to the environment.Laurie Wright, Senior Lecturer, Warsash School of Maritime Science and Engineering, Solent UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1309252020-02-04T11:13:14Z2020-02-04T11:13:14ZNorthern rail: economies of scale show steady nationalisation makes sense<p>The question of whether or not the government should renationalise the UK’s railways has been raised again after the troubled rail company Northern had its <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-51298820">franchise cancelled</a>. In March, the franchise will revert to government control through the Department for Transport’s aptly named “operator of last resort”. Nationalisation has always been instinctively viewed with suspicion by those on the right but there are sound economic reasons to believe a renationalised railway would operate more efficiently. </p>
<p>Northern was operated by the failing German transport giant Arriva, which had another five years left on its franchise agreement before it was asked to hand in the keys. Northern had already been given a yellow card for its persistent problems of punctuality and unacceptable record of cancellations. <a href="http://dataportal.orr.gov.uk/">Statistics</a> from the Office of Rail and Road make grim reading. They show that only 52.5% of services arrived at their destination on time between April 2018 and March 2019 – a fall of 12.8% on the previous period. The figures also show that 3.8% of trains were cancelled – double the industry average.</p>
<p>To be fair to Northern, many of the delays were caused by <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/business/2020/jan/21/network-rail-investigated-poor-performance-northern-transpennine-express">Network Rail’s failings</a> and the knock-on effects from delays caused by other train operating companies. What is not acceptable is that many delays were caused by driver shortages, <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-51302755">strikes</a>, rolling stock problems and the introduction of a new timetable. All of these could and should have been avoided.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1222518649677910016"}"></div></p>
<p>So Northern will be nationalised in all but name. Its new incarnation, Northern Trains Ltd, will operate on the same basis as London North Eastern Railway (LNER), which took over when Virgin Trains pulled out of the East Coast Main Line franchise <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-44590366">in May 2018</a>.</p>
<p>The privatisation of the UK’s railways has been fraught with problems. In the mid-1980s, Margaret Thatcher and her arch-privatiser, Nicholas Ridley, said it couldn’t be done. They called it “<a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/business/city-rail-sell-off-could-still-be-on-track-1464142.html">a privatisation too far</a>”. The John Major government adopted the model proposed by the <a href="https://www.adamsmith.org/news/rail-privatization-under-john-major">Adam Smith Institute</a>, separating ownership of the track from operating passenger services. This model is being <a href="https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/insights/the-williams-review-the-future-of-rail/">increasingly criticised</a>.</p>
<p>These are some of the issues that are currently being investigated by the <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/the-williams-rail-review">Williams Rail Review</a>. I doubt this report will call for wholesale renationalisation (as favoured by the trade unions and many academics). This is too much to expect and will not be acceptable to a Conservative government. But the return to public ownership is not impossible. When the short existing franchises finish, the government could take them back into public ownership at little or no cost to tax payers. </p>
<h2>Economies of scale</h2>
<p>As an economist, I keep reminding myself, and my students, that a rail system is what we call a “natural monopoly”. This is the powerful case for having a single operator for the track and all services. It is based on the assumption that there are benefits from <a href="http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/2158/">economies of scale</a> – the term used in economics to explain how average costs fall in the long run as the scale of what is being produced increases. </p>
<p>For railways, it could mean good deals on new rolling stock, especially where this can be standardised (as low cost airlines have pursued with their use of Boeing 737s). Substantial discounts could also be made when purchasing fuel and the thousands of other things needed to run a well managed railway system. </p>
<p>In principle, suppliers could ill-afford to not offer discounts. The economies of scale therefore are so great that having just one operator is more “natural”. With falling long-run average costs and more services operating on a given network due to growing passenger numbers, the minimum efficient size is so large that it makes eminent sense to have just one company running trains and providing infrastructure. Any competition, involving the duplication of services and investment would be an inefficient use of resources, as <a href="https://www.amazon.co.uk/Transport-Economics-4th-Studies-Business/dp/0435332341">my own research has shown</a>.</p>
<p>This is what the <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/8beb8b54-d7a4-11e4-94b1-00144feab7de">transport unions crave</a>. But, in the current political climate, they are not going to get it. What is more realistic is to gradually reduce the number of train operating companies from the 28 of today to say three or four, each having a regional franchise. Network Rail would be retained as the track authority although there is support for the regional companies also managing the infrastructure.</p>
<p>Handing over Northern’s services to the operator of last resort is of course different – more a case of renationalisation through the back door. So, what can passengers expect? Train crews, station staff and most managers will remain but they will be employed by Northern Trains Ltd (in LNER’s case <a href="https://www.itv.com/news/2018-06-25/rail-boss-david-horne-insists-his-appointment-at-lner-is-right-thing-to-do/">even the MD remained</a>). The brand will remain and staff will wear the same uniforms. Unlike LNER, the fleet is not expected to get a respray (no point in giving those old remaining Pacers a lick of paint).</p>
<p>But will passengers benefit? After all, this has been the driving force for change. The new trains will be rolled out and hopefully there will be fewer delays and cancellations. It won’t be a quick fix but hopefully it will be better for the millions “up north” who will continue to rely on Northern’s services. Let’s face it, it cannot get any worse.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/130925/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Colin Bamford does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The privatisation of the UK’s railways has been fraught with problems but it can’t get any worse for Northern’s passengers.Colin Bamford, Emeritus professor in transport logistics, University of HuddersfieldLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1227942019-12-12T13:23:41Z2019-12-12T13:23:41ZTransport emissions have doubled in 40 years – expand railways to get them on track<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/306344/original/file-20191211-95138-1vymelx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=8%2C17%2C5982%2C3970&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Investing in rail can put transport emissions on the right track.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/vYAqrQ8t5Jw">Cory Woodward/Unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In the quest to cut carbon out of civilisation, the future of transport is key. Emissions from the sector have <a href="https://www.wri.org/blog/2019/10/everything-you-need-know-about-fastest-growing-source-global-emissions-transport">doubled in the past 40 years</a> and continue to rise. Our travel habits are now responsible for one in four of the planet-warming molecules of carbon dioxide in our atmosphere.</p>
<p>While the transition to electric vehicles <a href="https://theconversation.com/electric-cars-might-not-yet-be-green-but-we-should-buy-them-anyway-127932">will kickstart progress</a>, even a rapid shift will <a href="https://www.transportforqualityoflife.com/u/files/1%20More%20than%20electric%20cars%20briefing.pdf">not on its own</a> bring the sector close enough to carbon neutrality to limit warming below dangerous levels. <a href="https://www.creds.ac.uk/wp-content/pdfs/CREDS-Shifting-the-focus-July2019.pdf#page=47">We’ll also need</a> radical and rapid reductions in road traffic – facilitated by a shift to walking, cycling and public transport.</p>
<p>After decades of <a href="https://www.theccc.org.uk/publication/reducing-uk-emissions-2019-progress-report-to-parliament/#key-findings">stalled progress</a>, <a href="https://www.creds.ac.uk/rearranging-elephants-on-the-titanic-jillian-anables-keynote-presentation-from-utsg-annual-conference/">researchers and policymakers</a> are grappling with how to make that happen – and railways could be an important part of the answer.</p>
<p>They are highly efficient users of both land and energy – a train can carry several hundred people without having to lift a heavy machine into the air, and moves with much less friction than faced by tyres on roads. Electric trains are <a href="https://www.riagb.org.uk/RIA/Newsroom/Stories/Electrification_Cost_Challenge_Report.aspxas">particularly energy efficient</a>, as they don’t have to carry diesel fuel or diesel engines, so are lighter and require less maintenance. </p>
<p>Because of this, electrified rail travel uses <a href="https://www.eea.europa.eu/media/infographics/carbon-dioxide-emissions-from-passenger-transport/image/image_view_fullscreen">seven times less</a> CO₂ than road travel and 20 times less than air travel. Investment in high-speed rail lines in Europe, for example, has transferred significant traffic from roads and flight paths, resulting in a <a href="https://uic.org/IMG/pdf/study_on_modal_shift_final-2.pdf">60% reduction</a> in carbon emissions on the affected routes.</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/306347/original/file-20191211-95130-8g8ezn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/306347/original/file-20191211-95130-8g8ezn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/306347/original/file-20191211-95130-8g8ezn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/306347/original/file-20191211-95130-8g8ezn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/306347/original/file-20191211-95130-8g8ezn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/306347/original/file-20191211-95130-8g8ezn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/306347/original/file-20191211-95130-8g8ezn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Electrified trains have the potential to become carbon-neutral.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/PM5a_R83-YQ">Johannes Hofmann/Unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
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<p>The carbon-saving potential of rail is even greater for freight. Heavy goods vehicles <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/transport/vehicles/heavy_en">contribute substantially</a> to transport emissions – but because of their weight, battery technology is not yet an option to reduce this burden. Rail freight produces <a href="http://www.freightonrail.org.uk/FactsFigures-environmental.htm">76% less</a> carbon emissions than an equivalent journey by heavy goods vehicle.</p>
<p>And as the <a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-crisis-six-steps-to-making-fossil-fuels-history-127941">electricity grid</a> and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/business/2019/aug/22/rail-line-in-hampshire-is-worlds-first-to-be-powered-by-solar-farm">train infrastructure</a> transition further to renewable power, carbon savings for both passenger and freight rail services have the potential to get even bigger.</p>
<h2>Ramping up rail</h2>
<p>Of course, a big switch to rail means a great deal of new and costly infrastructure. Capacity on existing lines would need to be boosted, and new lines, stations, and logistics terminals added. But these efforts don’t have to all be from scratch. Many disused lines could be reopened – there are proposals for <a href="https://bettertransport.org.uk/sites/default/files/research-files/case-for-expanding-rail-network.pdf">224 line reopenings</a> in the UK alone.</p>
<p>Some increases in rail capacity do not require new lines at all, so are less expensive. For example, making trains longer, upgrading signalling, adding passing loops, or upgrading junctions can all <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40534-015-0069-z">boost capacity on existing lines</a>.</p>
<p>But even new lines and terminals can be a <a href="https://www.rail-leaders.com/wp-content/uploads/HSRIL-HS2-Towards-a-Zero-Carbon-Future-Report-Nov-19.pdf">cost-effective way of reducing carbon emissions</a>, so long as they are planned carefully. For example, emissions savings from the UK’s controversial HS2 project <a href="http://www.greengauge21.net/the-carbon-impacts-of-hs2/">could vary hugely</a> depending on the energy sources used for rail and road, how the capacity released on parallel existing lines is used and, perhaps most importantly, the siting of and development around stations.</p>
<p>It’s particularly important to promote <a href="https://bettertransport.org.uk/sites/default/files/pdfs/Tracks-Development-Around-Stations.pdf">housing developments</a> around railway stations that decrease dependence on cars. Railway stations should also have good transport interchanges, with high-quality connecting local public transport services and good cycling and walking routes that enable travellers to get from their starting point or to their destination without having to drive. <a href="https://www.transportforqualityoflife.com/u/files/190607_A_Nationwide_Public_Transport_Timetable.pdf">Integrated timetabling</a> is crucial to make this a success, so that railways are part of seamless door-to-door travel.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/306357/original/file-20191211-95159-xjiaux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/306357/original/file-20191211-95159-xjiaux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/306357/original/file-20191211-95159-xjiaux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/306357/original/file-20191211-95159-xjiaux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/306357/original/file-20191211-95159-xjiaux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/306357/original/file-20191211-95159-xjiaux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/306357/original/file-20191211-95159-xjiaux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Restoring disused lines can help expand railways at lower cost.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/abandoned-railroad-tracks-overgrown-weeds-1575558523">Zoran Milosavljevic/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Properly planned development like this not only reduces emissions, but also <a href="https://smartgrowthamerica.org/new-national-academies-study-affirms-findings-on-development-patterns-transportation-emissions-and-energy/">limits the conversion</a> of environmentally fragile land to low-density housing development and creates <a href="https://bettertransport.org.uk/sites/default/files/research-files/case-for-expanding-rail-network.pdf">healthier and less isolated communities</a>.</p>
<h2>Laying the tracks</h2>
<p>Pricing, taxation and subsidy policies also need to support rail growth. There is good evidence that rail freight <a href="http://www.rfg.org.uk/level-ambition-achievable-worthwhile-rail-freight/">is more widely used</a> in countries where heavy goods vehicles pay road tolls. Aviation ticket taxes can also <a href="https://www.transportenvironment.org/sites/te/files/publications/2018_12_CE_Delft_7L14_A_study_on_aviation_ticket_taxes_DEF.pdf">drive more people to travel by rail</a>. In contrast, campaigners have argued that the UK governmnent’s freeze on fuel taxation, combined with a policy of increasing rail fares over time by inflation or above, has <a href="https://bettertransport.org.uk/sites/default/files/research-files/transport-budget-oct-2017.pdf">had the opposite effect</a>, driving increased car use.</p>
<p>At a more local level, the availability and cost of car parking also influences demand for car travel over rail travel. For example, reduced car parking and increased charges in the city centre of Birmingham, England, coupled with improved rail services, have helped <a href="http://www.urbantransportgroup.org/system/files/general-docs/Number%20crunch%202019%20%E2%80%93%20Urban%20transport%20trends%20in%20changing%20times.pdf">rail overtake car</a> as the preferred way to commute into the city.</p>
<p>The city is now considering following nearby Nottingham’s introduction of a levy on private non-residential parking spaces at workplaces. In Nottingham this levy contributed to the cost of two new light rail lines and new bus services and as a result the city has <a href="https://takeclimateaction.uk/stories/nottingham-workplace-parking-levy-success-improving-public-transport">the highest public transport mode share</a> in the UK outside of London.</p>
<p>Of course, above all, governments need to put their money where their mouth is for rail use to grow. Some countries already are – the German transport minister recently announced a US$86 billion investment in its rail network to <a href="https://www.railwaygazette.com/news/infrastructure/single-view/view/government-plans-EUR86bn-spend-to-renew-german-network.html">double the number of passengers by 2030</a>, while Ireland has <a href="https://www.thejournal.ie/irish-rail-1-billion-investment-4914250-Dec2019/">increased rail investment by 40%</a>. If other countries follow suit, the coming decades could finally put the trajectory of the transport sector back on track.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=176&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=176&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=176&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/imagine-newsletter-researchers-think-of-a-world-with-climate-action-113443?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=Imagineheader1122794127941">Click here to subscribe to our climate action newsletter. Climate change is inevitable. Our response to it isn’t.</a></em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/122794/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stephen Joseph was CEO of the Campaign for Better Transport 1988-2018, which did receive some funding from rail/public transport companies. In his current consultancy role as Stephen Joseph Associates, he has conducted work for the Rail Freight Group and for city region transport authorities. </span></em></p>Electric trains use seven times less carbon dioxide than cars. With careful planning, railways could drastically cut emissions from a sector that now accounts for a quarter of the carbon in our air.Stephen Joseph, Visiting Professor, Smart Mobility Research Unit, University of HertfordshireLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1249052019-10-30T14:02:33Z2019-10-30T14:02:33ZDecarbonising Britain’s railways demands urgent action – here’s how it could be done<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/299000/original/file-20191028-113958-cm98ma.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C6016%2C4016&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/day-view-uk-railroad-england-railway-568226977?src=2SDZQSc1SdRru_I3dJdjNw-1-0">Jevanto Productions/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The race is on to <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/green-new-deal-40625">reach net-zero carbon emissions</a> within the next few decades – and the road to a zero-carbon UK runs through its railways. Transport currently accounts for <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/environment/air-pollution-uk-transport-most-polluting-sector-greenhouse-gas-emissions-drop-carbon-dioxide-a8196866.html">26% of all carbon emissions</a> in the UK, and only <a href="https://friendsoftheearth.uk/sites/default/files/downloads/travelling_rail_better.pdf">1%</a> of this comes from trains. </p>
<p>Trains are one of the most environmentally friendly forms of mass transport available, releasing 0.046kg of carbon dioxide (CO₂) per kilometre each passenger travels. A diesel car is more than double that at <a href="https://www.energysavingtrust.org.uk/blog/planes-trains-and-automobiles-%E2%80%93-carbon-emissions-compared-between-london-and-edinburgh">0.117kg</a>. </p>
<p>That’s probably why road transport and aviation are the <a href="https://www.theccc.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/CCC-2018-Progress-Report-to-Parliament.pdf">most popular</a> sources for emissions cuts. You may have heard about plans to <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2017/jul/25/britain-to-ban-sale-of-all-diesel-and-petrol-cars-and-vans-from-2040">completely phase out petrol and diesel vehicles by 2040</a>, for example. But the big decisions about how to power Britain’s trains are actually the most urgent. </p>
<p>Cars are typically only in service for 10 years or so, while trains carry on for 40 or even 50 years. Trains built today will only be in “mid-life” by 2050, when the <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-48596775">UK’s targets</a> demand greenhouse gas emissions must be reduced to zero.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/299013/original/file-20191028-114005-1nr3ote.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/299013/original/file-20191028-114005-1nr3ote.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/299013/original/file-20191028-114005-1nr3ote.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/299013/original/file-20191028-114005-1nr3ote.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/299013/original/file-20191028-114005-1nr3ote.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/299013/original/file-20191028-114005-1nr3ote.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/299013/original/file-20191028-114005-1nr3ote.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cars and the road network receive much of the attention for decarbonisation.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/b-AlhwJYtlM">Ross Sneddon/Unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This means that zero-carbon trains need to be <a href="https://www.railmagazine.com/news/network/rolling-stock-panel-dismisses-idea-of-shorter-lifespan-trains">ordered and delivered from 2025 onwards</a> to stay on track with this timeline of decarbonisation. Currently the only trains that could meet this criteria are electric, but only <a href="https://www.railway-technology.com/features/will-uk-ever-get-electrification-back-track/">42% of track in the UK is electrified</a> and 29% of Britain’s current fleet is <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/026e3bc6-0f4e-11e8-940e-08320fc2a277">run solely on diesel fuel</a>. These trains will need to be <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/780895/decarbonising_road_freight.pdf">re-engineered or scrapped</a> before they get to the end of their useful life to meet government targets.</p>
<p>So what needs to be done to turn Britain’s ageing and polluting rail fleet into the zero-carbon mass transit of the future?</p>
<h2>Getting on track for 2040</h2>
<p>The UK has already <a href="http://orr.gov.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/39417/rail-infrastructure-assets-environmental-2017-18.pdf">electrified about two-fifths</a> of the rail network, meaning some of these trains run exclusively off electric current and release no local carbon emissions. But they are only as green as the electricity grid that powers them – and though the UK has made encouraging progress away from fossil fuels, they still account for <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/business/2019/jun/21/zero-carbon-energy-overtakes-fossil-fuels-as-the-uks-largest-electricity-source">roughly half of all energy generated</a>.</p>
<p>Diesel trains are more versatile as they can work on the almost 60% of lines that aren’t electrified and the portion that is. Diesel power can also transport exceptionally heavy loads and so is often used in the freight sector. But the UK has been unable to order new diesel freight locomotives since 2008, because none of the current rolling stock <a href="https://www.railmagazine.com/news/rail-features/from-the-archives">comply with the set emission standards</a>. This has effectively forced the freight sector to use rather elderly locomotives – some from as early as the 1950s – that are more polluting.</p>
<p>The rail industry will need to eliminate diesel power before 2040 as the fuel becomes increasingly expensive and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2017/apr/13/death-of-diesel-wonder-fuel-new-asbestos">unacceptable to the public</a>, especially given stations trap train emissions, <a href="https://www.socotec.co.uk/news/blog/archive/diesel-train-exhaust-keeping-emissions-on-course-for-legislative-compliance/">threatening the health</a> of passengers and staff. Given how widespread electric power is on the rails, could diesel-electric hybrid engines work?</p>
<h2>Electric-diesel hybrids</h2>
<p>These hybrid engines use electricity where electrified third rails or overhead line are available and diesel elsewhere. New hybrids have been <a href="https://www.railmagazine.com/news/rail-features/does-great-western-railway-s-class-800-iet-pass-the-test">ordered for routes</a> in and out of Paddington, one of London’s busiest train stations. Some older passenger trains have been <a href="http://vivarail.co.uk/">converted to hybrid</a>, but with little take-up from the rail industry. </p>
<p>This could reduce diesel use in the short-term, but it isn’t a long-term solution for removing diesel by 2040.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/299017/original/file-20191028-113991-1fbcyle.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/299017/original/file-20191028-113991-1fbcyle.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/299017/original/file-20191028-113991-1fbcyle.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/299017/original/file-20191028-113991-1fbcyle.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/299017/original/file-20191028-113991-1fbcyle.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/299017/original/file-20191028-113991-1fbcyle.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/299017/original/file-20191028-113991-1fbcyle.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">British Rail Class 73 trains are primarily electric locomotives with small diesel engines.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=760233">Phil Scott/Wikipedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Batteries</h2>
<p>Using batteries as a train’s power source has been tested in Germany at low speed and with light loads, using <a href="https://www.railway-technology.com/features/featurepowering-the-trains-of-tomorrow-5723499/">traditional lead acid batteries</a>. It’s a tried and tested technology, so it’s cheap and reliable, but the batteries have a limited life and are made with corrosive liquids and precious materials. </p>
<p>Lithium-ion batteries have been tried in the UK by providing an <a href="https://anonw.com/2018/06/26/network-rails-independently-powered-electric-multiple-unit-ipemu-trial-report/">additional power source</a> for the electric motor on a train. Unfortunately, these could only travel up to <a href="https://anonw.com/2018/06/26/network-rails-independently-powered-electric-multiple-unit-ipemu-trial-report/">50km once separated from overhead wires</a>. Battery trains can only work on specific routes and aren’t easily replaced when they fail, causing disruption and delays.</p>
<h2>Hydrogen fuel</h2>
<p><a href="https://www2.mmu.ac.uk/news-and-events/news/story/8485/">Hydrogen fuel cells</a> can <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/research/spotlights/hydrogen-powered-train.aspx#targetText=The%2520HydroFLEX%2520project%2520is%2520a,alternative%2520to%2520current%2520diesel%2520trains">generate sustainable electricity</a> through a chemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen. This can power homes, offices, factories, cars and public transport – making them carbon free and independent from the main power grid. Instead of a tank of diesel and an engine, the train has a tank of hydrogen and a fuel cell that combines the hydrogen with oxygen from the air, without combustion. With the only emission being water, the fuel cells provide power and have zero emissions.</p>
<p>Sounds good but, as a power source, hydrogen has low energy density, meaning trains would need a very large space to store the fuel. <a href="https://nh3fuelassociation.org/comparisons/">To compare</a>, a litre of diesel contains 36 megajoules of energy but a litre of hydrogen has only 1.81 megajoules. This isn’t a problem for a nice light car, but a major issue when one massive locomotive has to pull 40 wagons – and each wagon weighs perhaps as much as 80 tonnes.</p>
<p>It also doesn’t help that no facilities exist in the UK to make or deploy large quantities of <a href="https://static1.squarespace.com/static/594ce2fab11be14d41a2c960/t/5a856bc0652deaeccffe879e/1518693322709/Study+for+the+proposed+NW+Hydrogen+Hub.pdf">hydrogen</a>. Still, it’s reasonable to expect that this could be <a href="https://www.g20karuizawa.go.jp">resolved over the next ten years</a> as the government and businesses race to produce the fuels of the future.</p>
<h2>The future</h2>
<p>So, there are a number of options, and not one of them is a perfect solution on its own. Each can be used where they’re most appropriate, and gradually move British rail away from fossil fuels. The freight industry is unlikely to come up with viable solutions on its own, so the government should mandate businesses to transform their operations. Investment in <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/competition-guidance-for-sbri-first-of-a-kind-round-3-resilience-freight-noise-and-environment">zero emissions technology</a> and <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/competition-guidance-for-sbri-first-of-a-kind-round-3-resilience-freight-noise-and-environment">innovation</a> could encourage this.</p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-cant-expand-airports-after-declaring-a-climate-emergency-lets-shift-to-low-carbon-transport-instead-120740">We can't expand airports after declaring a climate emergency – let's shift to low-carbon transport instead</a>
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<p>To get things moving, there’s much to change in how things currently work. Train operators should lose their right to use polluting diesel engines and these should be replaced in ten-year intervals. Cities could be given the right to fine train operators for polluting in a similar way to the <a href="https://urbanaccessregulations.eu/low-emission-zones-main">low emission zones</a> that exist in several cities around the world. One policy that is long overdue would be scrapping the <a href="https://www.lloydsloadinglist.com/freight-directory/news/UK-logistics-sector-concerned-over-review-of-fuel-tax-on-rail-freight/71952.htm#.XZ8ejlVKi9I">duty-free diesel</a> that train operators currently enjoy.</p>
<p>Overhauling the most polluting aspects of the UK’s rail system won’t happen overnight, but to get on track for 2040 and beyond, the big decisions about Britain’s railways need to be made right now. </p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=176&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=176&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=176&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/imagine-newsletter-researchers-think-of-a-world-with-climate-action-113443?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=Imagineheader1126000">Click here to subscribe to our climate action newsletter. Climate change is inevitable. Our response to it isn’t.</a></em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/124905/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Marcus Mayers receives funding from InnovateUK and is working on a battery locomotive project with HNRC Ltd.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Bamford does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The future of zero-carbon transport starts today. First stop, Britain’s railways.Marcus Mayers, Visiting Research Fellow, Manchester Metropolitan UniversityDavid Bamford, Professor of Operations Management, Manchester Metropolitan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1251342019-10-22T18:56:56Z2019-10-22T18:56:56ZTrackless trams v light rail? It’s not a contest – both can improve our cities<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/297614/original/file-20191018-156314-8tirid.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Yibin is the latest Chinese city to get the Autonomous Rail Rapid Transit (ART) system, or trackless trams.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Yibin_Tram#/media/File:Yibin_ART_System_10_12_45_035000.jpeg">来斤小仓鼠吧/Wikimedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>A Greenpeace <a href="https://www.facebook.com/watch/?v=357699401718122">video</a> of me plugging a trackless tram that went viral with 4 million hits has caused a few eyebrows to be raised over whether I think light rail is dead. So let me be clear: light rail remains the gold-standard technology for providing high-quality, rapid, zero-emissions public transport along a street corridor. </p>
<p>There is a strong case for using light rail in many cities with sustained all-day ridership. This includes Sydney, where <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/nsw/a-fantastic-milestone-as-first-tram-in-60-years-rolls-along-george-street-20190625-p52192.html">trials of a newly built light rail system</a> have begun. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Trials of Sydney’s light rail network began in June.</span></figcaption>
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<p>Light rail also has a clear ability to attract quality urban development.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-gold-coast-light-rail-was-worth-it-its-about-more-than-patronage-78190">Why Gold Coast light rail was worth it (it's about more than patronage)</a>
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<p>So why am I <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-trackless-trams-are-ready-to-replace-light-rail-103690">promoting trackless trams</a>? My interest is in cities and places that lack the population density or capital funding necessary for light rail (or heavy rail). Just because you live in Hobart, Liverpool or Fremantle doesn’t mean you aren’t entitled to something that is “more than a bus” for your daily commute. </p>
<p>How can we provide those communities with the same quality of public transport as light rail provides? Trackless trams may be an option that can help urbanism flourish around stations along corridors limited until now to cars or buses.</p>
<h2>What sets trackless trams apart?</h2>
<p>This research interest took me to the world’s largest manufacturer of railway stock, <a href="https://asia.nikkei.com/Companies/CRRC-Corp.-Ltd">CRRC</a>, in Zhuzhou, China. CRRC has produced Autonomous Rail Rapid Transit (ART), or what <a href="https://m.scirp.org/papers/89661">I call the trackless tram</a>.</p>
<p>The trackless tram seeks to replicate the light rail experience. The differences are that optical guidance systems replace rails, with rubber tyres on railway-type bogeys replacing steel wheels. Many of the track-laying and utility relocation costs of light rail construction can be avoided. </p>
<p>The capital cost of Sydney’s light rail has risen to <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/nsw/sydney-light-rail-cost-blows-out-to-at-least-2-7b-after-settlement-20190603-p51tvc.html">around A$210 million per kilometre</a>. For a <a href="https://sbenrc.com.au/app/uploads/2018/10/TRACKLESS-TRAMS-MANUAL-GUIDE_email.pdf">fraction of that cost</a>, as little as A$4m/km, trackless trams can be introduced very quickly on a road of acceptable quality. Traffic engineers advise us good-quality road base is sufficient. </p>
<p>Optical guidance delivers very precise ride quality, without the sway of buses. Multiple carriages offer greater capacity – <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomous_Rail_Rapid_Transit">up to 500 passengers</a> – than buses.</p>
<p>The first, four-stop trial <a href="http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201805/09/WS5af2687fa3105cdcf651ce27.html">began in Zhuzhou</a> in 2017. Trackless trams have since been launched in <a href="http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2019-07/17/c_138234419.htm">Yongxiu and Yibin</a>. </p>
<h2>Cities around the world are interested</h2>
<p>The trackless tram is <a href="http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2019-07/17/c_138234419.htm">attracting interest</a> from cities <a href="https://www.lovemoney.com/gallerylist/74915/30-jawdropping-innovations-that-show-why-chinas-leading-the-world">worldwide</a>. <a href="http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201907/16/WS5d2d4057a3105895c2e7dab7.html">Trials have begun in Qatar</a> in advance of the 2022 FIFA World Cup. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Qatar is the latest site of trackless tram trials.</span></figcaption>
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<p>I am leading a <a href="https://sbenrc.com.au/research-programs/1-62/%5D">team at Curtin University</a> to investigate how various levels of government in Australia (and New Zealand) can support trialling and testing of this technology and, if appropriate, introduce it in a controlled way. We have been approached to help cities in Africa, Europe, Asia, the US, Australia and New Zealand.</p>
<p>Among other things we need to be sure the technology is reliable, provides the promised level of service, doesn’t damage road surfaces and complies with regulations required for safety and sustainability.</p>
<p>We also need to be certain construction and long-term operations can produce the promised cost savings. Not all public transport innovations, such as <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327709647_Why_Do_Some_BRT_Systems_in_the_Global_South_Fail_to_Perform_or_Expand">bus rapid transit</a>, have lived up to their promise. </p>
<h2>Complementing light rail</h2>
<p>Some people are concerned the trackless tram might be a stalking horse for ideological opponents of light rail who wish to reduce investment in public transport. </p>
<p>In my case, I would point to my record in attracting rail investment in Perth. I started the <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-02-03/fremantle-train-protests-turkey-sweat-russian-war-and-angry-mob/10767962">Friends of the Railways 40 years ago</a> to save our train. We now have a system where at the last Western Australian state election money was <a href="https://www.afr.com/politics/wa-election-labor-win-stops-roe-8-in-its-tracks-20170313-gux6da">taken from the Roe 8 freeway proposal and put into the MetroNet heavy rail package</a>.</p>
<p>People are also concerned that we risk being left with a poorer public transport service if we replace a proven technology such as light rail with a less proven technology such as the trackless tram. These concerns are fair, which is why I see continued advocacy for light rail as a critical part of the trackless tram story. But the trackless tram might enable us to build the same quality service and a lot more of it. </p>
<p>Both technologies are likely to play complementary roles. In Sydney, for example, light rail makes sense for Parramatta into the city. The trackless tram may stack up for lower-density areas such as connecting Liverpool to the new Western Sydney International Airport. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Parramatta City Council has expressed interest in a local trackless tram system.</span></figcaption>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/western-sydney-aerotropolis-wont-build-itself-a-lot-is-riding-on-what-governments-do-97462">Western Sydney Aerotropolis won't build itself – a lot is riding on what governments do</a>
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<p>In Perth, we certainly need such a service in many inner and middle suburbs, or for connecting major outer suburban centres to the new MetroNet lines.</p>
<p>Smaller and less well-off communities as well as outer suburbs are now in focus for the trackless tram. A lack of public transport means these areas have a reliance on private car use which is now not acceptable. </p>
<p>To avoid <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1525/cmr.2011.54.1.64">greenwashing</a>, and ensure we remain on a pathway to sustainability, we need a strategy underpinned by a thorough understanding of the technology. The aim is to achieve high-quality, zero-emissions, reliable and affordable public transport that can help reshape our cities.</p>
<p>The tram once ruled our cities as the preferred public transport mode from the 1890s to the 1940s. Through a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_streetcar_conspiracy">calculated campaign</a> trams were denigrated in favour of the bus and car. Cities around the world tore up their tram tracks. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/kyoto-has-many-things-to-celebrate-but-losing-its-trams-isnt-one-of-them-95052">Kyoto has many things to celebrate, but losing its trams isn't one of them</a>
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<p>Not every old tram route can have a new light rail. The trackless tram presents an opportunity to rebuild high-quality public transport along major road corridors and connect suburbs with poor linkages. I would hope for a more sophisticated approach to planning transport networks, recognising that both light rail and trackless trams could play important roles.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/125134/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Peter Newman receives funding from the Sustainable Built Environment National Research Centre (SBEnrc). </span></em></p>Installing light rail is costly, as Sydney has found, but it’s the gold standard for public transport along road corridors. What trackless trams can do is rapidly expand such services at low cost.Peter Newman, Professor of Sustainability, Curtin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1237572019-10-14T19:08:41Z2019-10-14T19:08:41ZRail works lift property prices, pointing to value capture’s potential to fund city infrastructure<p><a href="http://www.rtbu.org.au/innovative_funding_models">Value capture</a> has been <a href="https://theconversation.com/paying-for-infrastructure-means-using-land-value-capture-but-does-it-also-mean-more-tax-58731">advocated</a> as an innovative way to fund infrastructure, including <a href="https://www.afr.com/property/malcolm-turnbulls-value-capture-plan-for-infrastructure-splits-developers-20160429-goic5m">by the Australian government</a>. However, its <a href="https://theconversation.com/value-capture-a-good-idea-to-fund-infrastructure-but-not-easy-in-practice-74545">effectiveness in Australia has been questioned</a>. Our research, based on railway <a href="https://levelcrossings.vic.gov.au/">level crossing removals in Victoria</a>, suggests infrastructure projects do lead to higher property values, which could be captured to contribute towards project funding. </p>
<p>At sites close to where level crossings were removed, property values increased by as much as a quarter. This highlights the opportunity to use a value capture model. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-what-is-value-capture-and-what-does-it-mean-for-cities-58776">Explainer: what is ‘value capture’ and what does it mean for cities?</a>
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<h2>What’s the idea of value capture?</h2>
<p>Infrastructure investment improves connectivity, leading to higher land or property values in areas that benefit from this. Value capture taps into this increased value – usually using some form of taxation – to help finance the infrastructure responsible for the increase.</p>
<p>Value capture has been widely used overseas. In the <a href="https://www.infrastructure.gov.au/cities/smart-cities/plan/files/Smart_Cities_Plan.pdf">United Kingdom and Hong Kong</a>, it has proved to be an effective way to fund major infrastructure. </p>
<p>This approach is <a href="https://www.prosper.org.au/land-value-capture/value-capture-a-historical-perspective/">not common in Australia</a>, where most infrastructure projects are government-funded. Gold Coast Light Rail was <a href="https://theconversation.com/gold-coast-light-rail-study-helps-put-a-figure-on-value-captures-funding-potential-65084">developed with the aid of a levy on ratepayers</a>. </p>
<p>However, a lack of funding means many large-scale infrastructure projects are <a href="https://www.infrastructure.gov.au/cities/smart-cities/plan/files/Smart_Cities_Plan.pdf">not being funded at the same time</a>. This highlights the need to find innovative ways to fund infrastructure, which includes exploring the potential benefits of value capture. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-gold-coast-light-rail-was-worth-it-its-about-more-than-patronage-78190">Why Gold Coast light rail was worth it (it's about more than patronage)</a>
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<p>Financing infrastructure by value capture has been <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/House/ITC/TransportConnectivity/Report_1/section?id=committees%2Freportrep%2F024018%2F24073">widely discussed</a> and was <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/House/ITC/TransportConnectivity/Report_1/section?id=committees%2freportrep%2f024018%2f24073">considered by a parliamentary inquiry</a>. The concept features prominently in the federal government’s <a href="https://www.infrastructure.gov.au/cities/smart-cities/plan/files/Smart_Cities_Plan.pdf">Smart Cities Plan</a> and would <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/House/ITC/TransportConnectivity/Report_1/section?id=committees%2freportrep%2f024018%2f24073">complement the Smart Cities vision for 30-minute cities</a>. </p>
<h2>Would it work in our low-density cities?</h2>
<p>But there is a debate over how well this model would work in Australia. It’s argued the low-density nature of Australian cities would result in a lower level of value creation to be captured. Nevertheless, little empirical evidence is available on value creation in Australia. </p>
<p>Despite clear policy interest in how much land values increase following a new rail investment, and to what extent this can be attributed to the investment, much remains to be explained. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/value-capture-a-good-idea-to-fund-infrastructure-but-not-easy-in-practice-74545">Value capture: a good idea to fund infrastructure but not easy in practice</a>
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<p>Our research based on the <a href="https://levelcrossings.vic.gov.au/">level-crossing removal project</a> in Victoria found property values near each site could be enhanced significantly. The state government began the project in 2015. It aims to eliminate 75 dangerous and congested level crossings to improve traffic flows across metropolitan Melbourne. Our yet-to-be-published research is to be presented at the <a href="http://www.prres.net/index.htm?http://www.prres.net/Conference.htm">Pacific Rim Real Estate Society annual conference</a>.</p>
<p>Importantly, this is one of the largest rail infrastructure projects in the state’s history. As of December 2017, the estimated budget for removing 50 level crossing sites was <a href="https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/level-crossing-removal-program-poor-value-for-money-auditorgeneral-andrew-greaves-20171214-h04ed0.html">A$8.3 billion</a>. The ultimate cost is likely to be greater as another 25 sites were added to the project in 2018 and 2019. </p>
<p>The work has caused inconvenience to local residents during construction and has limited capacity to ease traffic congestion. The pace of progress and budget blowouts “present risks to achieving value for money”, the state auditor-general <a href="https://www.audit.vic.gov.au/sites/default/files/2017-12/20171213-Level-Crossings.pdf">reported</a>. </p>
<p>Despite the temporary inconvenience during the construction phase, transport connectivity will be enhanced once the project is complete. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-sky-rail-saga-can-big-new-transport-projects-ever-run-smoothly-54383">The 'sky rail' saga: can big new transport projects ever run smoothly?</a>
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<h2>House values have risen, but variably</h2>
<p>To offer some empirical evidence on the benefits created by level crossing removal projects enhancing housing value, we considered four sites in Bayswater, Mitcham, Glen Iris and St Albans. </p>
<p>We found the completion of a level crossing removal leads to an increase of 9% in house value, on average, within the area surrounding the site. This positive impact diminishes as the distance from the site increases. It vanishes beyond 1,400 metres. </p>
<p>We also found the impact of level crossing removals varies from site to site. House values in surrounding affected areas increased by 8.81% in Bayswater, 28.6% in Glen Iris, and 10.5% in St Albans, but by only 2.1% in Mitcham. </p>
<p>Comparable evidence is found for units in these areas: prices increased by 2.35% in Bayswater, 7.3% in Glen Iris and 6.53% in St Albans, but there was no significant increase for Mitcham.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/295933/original/file-20191008-128652-18nnxo5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/295933/original/file-20191008-128652-18nnxo5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/295933/original/file-20191008-128652-18nnxo5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295933/original/file-20191008-128652-18nnxo5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295933/original/file-20191008-128652-18nnxo5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295933/original/file-20191008-128652-18nnxo5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295933/original/file-20191008-128652-18nnxo5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295933/original/file-20191008-128652-18nnxo5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Locations of the four level crossing study sites in Melbourne.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/paying-for-infrastructure-means-using-land-value-capture-but-does-it-also-mean-more-tax-58731">Paying for infrastructure means using 'land value capture', but does it also mean more tax?</a>
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<h2>Key takeouts</h2>
<p>There are three takeouts from our research.</p>
<p>1) The level crossing removal project in Victoria did lead, in general, to higher property values. This highlights the need for a comprehensive plan aimed at maximising value capture opportunities. </p>
<p>2) Value capture is potentially a feasible model despite the low-density nature of Australian cities. However, its likely effectiveness varies considerably with location. This reinforces the importance of a comprehensive plan. </p>
<p>3) Given infrastructure is critical for urban development, governments should consider using value capture to fund infrastructure in a way that helps meet urban development needs and reduces the shortfall of dwellings in Australia.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/123757/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Value capture depends on infrastructure increasing the value of affected areas in the first place. Victoria’s level crossing removal project shows the impact on property values can be significant.Chyi Lin Lee, Associate Professor of Property, UNSW SydneyJerry Liang, Lecturer in Property and Real Estate, Deakin UniversityKang Koo, Lecturer in Property and Real Estate, Deakin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.