tag:theconversation.com,2011:/africa/topics/reptiles-981/articlesReptiles – The Conversation2024-02-26T03:17:26Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2233572024-02-26T03:17:26Z2024-02-26T03:17:26ZOur native animals are easy prey after a fire. Could artificial refuges save them?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577816/original/file-20240226-24-d5noma.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=80%2C187%2C1816%2C1348&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A tawny-crowned honeyeater in an artificial refuge</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Australia is home to some of the most spectacular and enigmatic wildlife on Earth. Much of it, however, is being eaten by two incredibly damaging invasive predators: the feral cat and the red fox. </p>
<p>Each year in Australia, cats and foxes kill an estimated 697 million reptiles, 510 million birds, and 1.4 billion mammals, totalling a staggering <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/ddi.13497">2.6 billion</a> animals. Since the predators were introduced more than 150 years ago, they have contributed to the extinction of more than 25 species – and are pushing <a href="https://researchers.cdu.edu.au/en/publications/degrees-of-population-level-susceptibility-of-australian-terrestr">many more to the brink</a>.</p>
<p>Research suggests cats and foxes can be <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s42408-023-00183-6">more active in areas</a> recently burnt by fire. This is a real concern, especially as climate change increases the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-020-00065-8">frequency and severity of fire</a> in south-eastern Australia.</p>
<p>We urgently need new ways to protect wildlife after fires. Our <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2024.110501">study</a> trialled one such tool: building artificial refuges across burnt landscapes. The results are promising, but researchers need to find out more.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Video showing a buttonquail using an artificial refuge built by the researchers.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Triple threat: cats, foxes and fire</h2>
<p>Many native animals are <a href="https://theconversation.com/surprisingly-few-animals-die-in-wildfires-and-that-means-we-can-help-more-in-the-aftermath-174392">well-adapted to fire</a>. But the changing frequency and intensity of fire is posing a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.12905">considerable threat</a> to much of Australia’s wildlife.</p>
<p>Fire removes vegetation such as grass, leaf litter and shrubs. This leaves fewer places for native animals to shelter and hide, making it <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/srep22559">easier</a> for cats and foxes to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/brv.12853">catch them</a>. </p>
<p>We conducted <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2024.110501">our experiment</a> in three Australian ecosystems: the forests of the Otway Ranges (Victoria), the sand dunes of the Simpson Desert (Queensland) and the woodlands of Kangaroo Island (South Australia). Each had recently been burnt by fire. </p>
<p>We built 76 refuges across these study areas. They were 90cm wide and up to 50m long – and backbreaking to install! They were made from wire mesh, mostly covered by shade cloth. Spacing in the mesh of 50mm allowed small animals to enter and exit from any point, while completely excluding cats, foxes and other larger animals. The shade cloth obstructed the vision of predators.</p>
<p>We then placed <a href="https://nesplandscapes.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/5.2.4_a_guide_to_use_of_remote_cameras_for_wildlife_surveys_final_web.pdf">remote-sensing camera traps</a> both inside and away from each refuge, and monitored them for periods ranging from four months to four years.</p>
<p>The placement of the cameras meant we could compare the effect of the refuges with what occurred outside them.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-season-in-hell-bushfires-push-at-least-20-threatened-species-closer-to-extinction-129533">A season in hell: bushfires push at least 20 threatened species closer to extinction</a>
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<h2>What we found</h2>
<p>Across the three study areas, the artificial refuges were used by 56 species or species groups. This included the critically endangered Kangaroo Island dunnart, the threatened white-footed dunnart and the threatened southern emu-wren. </p>
<p>For around half the species, we detected more individuals inside the refuges than outside. As we predicted, the activity of small birds and reptiles, in particular, was much higher inside the refuges. </p>
<p>But surprisingly, reptile activity was also generally higher inside the refuges, particularly among skinks. We had not predicted that, because the shade cloth likely made conditions inside the refuges cooler than outside, and reptiles require warmth to regulate their body temperature.</p>
<p>Over time, the number of animals detected inside the refuges generally increased. This was also a surprise. We expected detections inside the refuges to decline through time as the vegetation recovered and the risk of being seen by predators fell.</p>
<p>But there were also a few complicating factors. For example, in the Otway Ranges and Simpson Desert, similar numbers of the mammals were detected inside and away from the refuges. This suggests the species didn’t consider the refuges as particularly safe places, which means the structures may not reduce the risk of these animals becoming prey.</p>
<p>So what’s the upshot of all this? Our findings suggest that establishing artificial refuges after fire may help some small vertebrates, especially small birds and skinks, avoid predators across a range of ecosystems. However, more research is required before this strategy is adopted as a widespread management tool.</p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/this-critically-endangered-marsupial-survived-a-bushfire-then-along-came-the-feral-cats-185133">This critically endangered marsupial survived a bushfire – then along came the feral cats</a>
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<h2>Important next steps</h2>
<p>Almost all evidence for an increase in cat and fox activity after fire comes from <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s42408-023-00183-6">Australia</a>, particularly the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/srep22559">tropical north</a>. But cats are an invasive species in more than <a href="https://www.gbif.org/species/2435035">120 countries and islands</a>.</p>
<p>That means there’s real potential for post-fire damage to wildlife to worsen globally, especially as <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43017-020-0085-3">fire risk increases</a> with climate change. </p>
<p>Our results suggest artificial refuges may be a way to help animals survive after fire. But there are still important questions to answer, such as:</p>
<ul>
<li>can artificial refuges improve the overall abundance and survival of individuals and species?</li>
<li>if so, how many refuges would be required to achieve this?</li>
<li>in the presence of natural refuges – such as rocks, logs, burrows, and unburnt patches – are artificial refuges needed?</li>
<li>does their effectiveness vary between low-severity planned burns and high-severity bushfires?</li>
</ul>
<p>These questions must be answered. Conservation budgets are tight. After fires, funds must be directed towards actions that we know will work. That evidence is not yet there for artificial refuges.</p>
<p>Our team is busy trying to find out more. We urge other ecologists and conservationists to do so as well. We also encourage collaboration with designers and technologists to improve on our refuge design. For example, can such large refuges be made <a href="https://www.australianwildlife.org/biodegradable-flat-pack-homes-to-help-wildlife-survive-after-bushfires/">biodegradable and easier to deploy</a>?</p>
<p>Solving these problems is important. It’s almost impossible to rid the entire Australian continent of cats and foxes. So land managers need all the help they can get to stop these predators from decimating Australia’s incredible wildlife. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">The impact of roaming pet cats on Australian wildlife.</span></figcaption>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Darcy Watchorn receives funding from the Hermon Slade Foundation, Parks Victoria, the Conservation and Wildlife Research Trust, the Ecological Society of Australia, the Victorian Environmental Assessment Council, and the Geelong Naturalists Field Club. He is a member of the Ecological Society of Australia and the Society for Conservation Biology Oceania.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Chris Dickman receives funding from the Australian Research Council. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Don Driscoll receives funding from the ARC, Melbourne Water and Parks Victoria. He is affiliated with the Ecological Society of Australia and the Society for Conservation Biology.</span></em></p>We need every tool at our disposal to stop feral cats and foxes from decimating Australia’s incredible wildlife after fires. Artificial refuges show promise.Darcy Watchorn, PhD Candidate, Deakin UniversityChris Dickman, Professor Emeritus in Terrestrial Ecology, University of SydneyDon Driscoll, Professor in Terrestrial Ecology, Deakin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2235012024-02-16T15:54:58Z2024-02-16T15:54:58ZModern palaeontology keeps unmasking fossil forgeries – and a new study has uncovered the latest fake<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575570/original/file-20240214-17-sfwnu2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C8%2C1478%2C814&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The Tridentinosaurus counterfeit </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Valentina Rossi</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Fake fossils are among us, passing almost undetected under the eye of experts all over the world. This is a serious problem – counterfeited specimens can mislead palaeontologists into studying an ancient past that never existed. </p>
<p>In <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/pala.12690">a new study</a>, my colleagues and I reveal a surprising truth about a fossil celebrated for decades as one of the best preserved fossils from the Alps. </p>
<p>The <em>Tridentinosaurus antiquus</em> was a small lizard-like reptile that lived during the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/Permian-Period">Permian period</a> (299-252 million years ago), where the Alps are today. Discovered in 1931, the specimen was prized for what scientists thought were carbonised traces of the skin visible on the surface of the rock. Generations of palaeontologists thought the fossil was genuine, perhaps the oldest animal mummy ever discovered. This is partly because the type of preservation was rare. </p>
<p>The fossil has been reported in books and <a href="https://www.app.pan.pl/article/item/app20100087.html">articles</a> but has never been studied in detail with modern techniques. Experts were unsure about which group of reptiles the fossil belonged to. Our study was hoping to resolve this and other long-running debates among scientists. </p>
<p>But our team discovered that the skin is actually fake. What was thought to be well-preserved carbonised skin was just a carved lizard-shaped body impression covered in black paint. </p>
<p>The fossil is not a complete fake, however. The bones of the hind limbs, in particular the femurs, seem genuine. We also found some tiny, bony scales (called osteoderms, like the scales of crocodiles) preserved on what perhaps was the back of the animal.</p>
<p>It was with our preliminary investigation using <a href="https://news.utexas.edu/2019/06/10/new-photography-technique-brings-hidden-history-of-fossils-to-light/">ultraviolet photography</a> that we revealed that the dark coloured body outline and all these bones and scales had been treated with some sort of coating material. Coating fossils with varnishes or lacquers used to be normal practice over the past couple of centuries – and is sometimes still necessary to <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/fossil-preparation.html">preserve fossil</a> specimens in museum cabinets and exhibits.</p>
<p>We were hoping that, beneath the coating layer, the original soft tissues would still be in good condition. But chemical techniques found the material actually matched a kind of <a href="https://www.webexhibits.org/pigments/indiv/overview/boneblack.html">black paint</a> made from animal bones, meaning the skin was indeed totally forged.</p>
<p>Sadly, this means we will never know what the original fossil really looked like. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575569/original/file-20240214-30-qoatq3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two side by side images of ancient reptile" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575569/original/file-20240214-30-qoatq3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575569/original/file-20240214-30-qoatq3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=563&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575569/original/file-20240214-30-qoatq3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=563&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575569/original/file-20240214-30-qoatq3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=563&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575569/original/file-20240214-30-qoatq3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=707&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575569/original/file-20240214-30-qoatq3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=707&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575569/original/file-20240214-30-qoatq3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=707&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">A photo of the specimen next to a UV image showing there isn’t soft tissue beneath the black covering layer.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Valentia Rossi</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
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<p>The circumstances behind this forgery are unknown, but we know that it took place before 1959 – the date of the official scientific description of the fossil. However, this discovery is a reminder of how important it is to report such specimens and combat fossil forgeries.</p>
<h2>The history of fossil forgeries</h2>
<p>The history of fossil forgery goes as far back as the dawn of palaeontology itself, with early reports dating back to the late <a href="https://www.rendicontisocietageologicaitaliana.it/297/article-4143/the-fossil-merchant-from-verona-the-first-written-testimony-of-paleontological-forgery-in-italy.html">18th and 19th centuries</a>. </p>
<p>This was mainly driven by the lucrative market of selling fossil specimens to private collectors and museums. For instance, an <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/dino-directory/archaeopteryx.html#:%7E:text=Archaeopteryx%20was%20a%20small%2C%20bird,it%20might%20be%20an%20angel">original specimen of _Archeopteryx</a>_ (an avian dinosaur) was <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-031-14084-6_5#DOI">sold</a> for the current equivalent of £85,000 back in the early 1860s. Some people forged fossils for scientific and <a href="https://theconversation.com/solving-the-piltdown-man-crime-how-we-worked-out-there-was-only-one-forger-63615">social recognition</a>, too. </p>
<p>Famous examples span a range of fossil types, from the <a href="https://theconversation.com/a-new-twist-to-whodunnit-in-sciences-famous-piltdown-man-hoax-64470">Piltdown man</a> (1912), an elaborate fraud involving the construction of a hominid from an amalgamation of human and ape bones, to <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/35069145">Archaeoraptor</a></em> (1990), a chimaera (a fossil reconstructed with elements coming from more than a single species or genus of animal) formed by different dinosaurs’ skeleton parts to form a new specimen that was initially <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.290.5500.2224a">reported</a> in National Geographic magazine as genuine in 1999. </p>
<p>Other examples include cases of partial skulls of extinct mammals that were completed with bones <a href="https://evolutionnews.org/2023/06/fossil-friday-the-oldest-cheetah-was-yet-another-fraud/">made of plastic</a>. Sometimes a mixture of cement, resins, rock fragments and dust is used for this kind of forgery. Forgers can also use dark brown or black paint to change the appearance of poorly preserved specimens that otherwise would not be of interest to researchers or collectors. </p>
<p>This happened in the case of <a href="https://www.mapress.com/pe/article/view/palaeoentomology.2.5.15"><em>Mongolarachne chaoyangensis</em></a>, a supposedly giant spider found in China. It turned out to be a poorly preserved crayfish after palaeontologists took a closer look the same year the first paper about it was published in 2019.</p>
<p>Scientists have discovered that natural history museums around the world have counterfeit specimens in their collections. While new technology is helping to study fossil <a href="https://www.amnh.org/research/paleontology/collections/fossil-invertebrate-collection/trilobite-website/the-trilobite-files/fake-trilobites"><em>trilobites</em></a>, a kind of ancient marine invertebrates in more detail, it is also showing that many specimens are fake.</p>
<p>The same is happening with animal and plant remains fossilised in amber
(fossil <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.2151-6952.1994.tb01023.x?casa_token=o7kmo8NJM5UAAAAA:F2aabeMdF0gT5SafKrpJxpoyGqfiNahJNGkBUFQHB7XjKZThJOeWlFVHpkMMVbF_QqS18U3u2ITjKFI">tree resin</a>), acquired in historical times and only <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2023.0059">recently analysed in detail</a> with modern techniques. </p>
<p>The market for fake fossils is a huge problem today. This is particularly the case in countries with less regulation. The fossil trade <a href="https://www.lyellcollection.org/doi/10.1144/SP485.1">in Morocco alone</a> is worth US$40 million (£32 million) a year and supplies fossil shows all over the world. </p>
<p>Meanwhile, colonialism stifled local expertise in <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.210898">South America</a> – and as a result a high number of studies on fossils from the region are based on specimens illegally transferred to collections in other countries, particularly in Germany and Japan. </p>
<p>We need governments around the world to introduce <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12371-021-00595-3">rigorous laws</a> to protect our world’s palaeontological and geological heritage.</p>
<p>The case of <em>Tridentinosaurus antiquus</em> is a cautionary tale. We believe our research can inform practices of conservation of fossils that are not appropriate any longer, such as painting over fossils, and in turn outline more ethical actions to take when a fossil is discovered. </p>
<p>For instance, the state of a fossil at the moment of discovery should be recorded in detail – along with information about when and where it was found and how it was prepared and conserved. Embellishments should be avoided. </p>
<p>We might not be able to put an end to the making of fake fossils, but we are here and ready to unmask them and protect our marvellous fossil heritage.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/223501/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Valentina Rossi is currently affiliated with the University College Cork. She receives funding from the Promotion of Educational
Policies, University and Research Department of the Autonomous Province of Bolzano — South Tyrol within the research project ‘Living with the supervolcano - How Athesian eruptions destroyed and preserved 15 million years of Permian life’ (nr. 11/34; CUP H32F20000010003) awarded to Prof. Evelyn Kustatscher (Museum of Nature South Tyrol, Bolzano, Italy).</span></em></p>A lizard fossil that was thought to be the best preserved ever has turned out to have fake skin.Valentina Rossi, Postdoctoral researcher, Palaeontology, University College CorkLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2194352023-12-20T16:05:40Z2023-12-20T16:05:40ZCould dinosaurs be the reason humans can’t live for 200 years?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565275/original/file-20231212-17-7baa92.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C23%2C4000%2C2640&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/human-hand-compare-real-dinosaur-footprint-1205774944">Rattana/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>All human beings age. It is part of our biology and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4010874/">limits our lifespan</a> to slightly over 120 years.</p>
<p>Not all animals <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0925443917302193">experience ageing</a> during their lives. Some animals’ bodies do not gradually degenerate as they get older the way our bodies do.</p>
<p>But for humans once they reach about age 30 their <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/your-probability-of-dying-doubles-every-eight-years-180948228/">chance of dying</a> <a href="https://arxiv.org/PS_cache/q-bio/pdf/0411/0411019v3.pdf">doubles roughly</a> every eight years. So even if you are fortunate enough to become a centenarian, your chance of dying each year will be high. </p>
<p>This high mortality reflects numerous other health problems, such as <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2804956/#R4">loss of muscle mass</a> and general frailty, <a href="https://www.thieme-connect.de/products/ejournals/abstract/10.1055/s-0035-1555115">cognitive decline</a>, loss of vision and hearing and many other degenerative changes that characterise the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10041/#:%7E:text=Aging%20is%20the%20time%2Drelated,disease%20(which%20affect%20individuals).">human ageing process</a>. </p>
<p>And the reason humans age so markedly may be due to the fact our ancestors evolved during the <a href="https://www.embopress.org/doi/full/10.15252/embr.202051617">time of the dinosaurs</a>.</p>
<p>Compared to other mammals, humans have a long life. We have the longest lifespan of all land-based mammals, and of all mammals <a href="https://news.liverpool.ac.uk/2015/01/06/scientists-sequence-genome-longest-lived-mammal/">only whales probably</a> outlive us. I say “probably” because you need to keep animals in captivity to do a detailed study on lifespan, which for whales is virtually impossible due to their size and longevity. </p>
<p>We know that species of whales and dolphins <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1903844116">exhibit menopause</a>, and all mammals show some form of reproductive decline with age. In fact, all studied mammals show physiological ageing and increased mortality with age, even if some species – like mice and voles – age much faster than others – such as humans, whales, and elephants. </p>
<p>But many species of reptiles, amphibians and fish do not show signs of ageing. <a href="https://genomics.senescence.info/species/nonaging.php">Examples include</a> turtles and tortoises, salamanders and rockfishes. </p>
<p>One study of 77 species of reptiles and amphibians published in Science in 2022 showed that age-related increases in mortality <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abm0151">are not seen</a> in many species of reptiles and amphibians. It is as if these animals do not age at all. Some of these animals, such as turtles, probably live longer than humans.</p>
<p>Perhaps if we study these apparently non-ageing species for long enough they will show signs of ageing. But good luck studying animals such as the <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aaf1703">Greenland shark</a>, which has been estimated to live nearly 400 years. </p>
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<p>For now we can at least say that among reptiles, amphibians and fish, some species not only live longer than the longest living mammals, but they age substantially slower. Besides, some of these non-ageing species grow throughout their lives, which means that older females <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0531556500002424">lay more eggs</a>, again in stark contrast to what happens in mammals. </p>
<p>These animals die mainly from being eaten by predators and diseases. Indeed, most animals in the wild do not die of old age and, until the 20th century, of course, most people died of infectious diseases.</p>
<p>Some reptiles, amphibians and fish are also known for their <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2221-3759/9/3/36">ability to regenerate</a> tissue. </p>
<h2>Pressure on mammals</h2>
<p>Amphibians evolved from fish about 370 million years ago, and about 50 million years later reptiles evolved from amphibians. <a href="https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Introductory_Biology_(CK-12)/12%3A_Vertebrates/12.07%3A_Vertebrate_Evolution">Mammals then evolved</a> from reptiles about 250-300 million years ago. </p>
<p>We are all products of evolution, which we see in relics such as <a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2021.09.14.460388v1">our tailbone</a>. Our evolutionary history can have a profound influence in modern times. For example, humans maintain evolutionary traits from when our ancestors roamed the savannah that are no longer fit for the modern world, from <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-science-of-sugar-why-were-hardwired-to-love-it-and-what-eating-too-much-does-to-your-brain-podcast-175272">craving sugar</a> to <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-morbid-curiosity-can-lead-people-to-conspiracy-theories-214532">behaviour</a> that leads to prejudices. </p>
<p>About 200 million years ago, massive volcanic eruptions <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/end-Triassic-extinction">wiped out 76%</a> of marine and land species. Afterwards, the dinosaurs became the dominant predators in the land. To survive and avoid being hunted to extinction by dinosaurs, mammals became small, nocturnal and short-lived. </p>
<p>Our ancestors of this time were not like us at all. They were more like <a href="https://www.livescience.com/60888-rat-creatures-were-earliest-eutherian-mammal-ancestors.html">voles and mice</a>, small animals going out in the dark to catch insects. Under the pressure from the dinosaurs, ancestral mammals had to reproduce rapidly, just like mice and rats do now. And just like mice, rats and voles, our ancestors had short lifespans. </p>
<p>For 100 million years, during the time of the dinosaurs, mammals were at or near the bottom of the food chain. Mammals were more often prey than predators. During this time there was no reason for mammals to keep processes and genes related to long life, such as DNA repair and tissue regeneration systems. </p>
<p>My <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/bies.202300098">longevity bottleneck hypothesis</a> proposes that repair and regeneration systems were lost, mutated or inactivated by the evolution of early mammals. This imposed biological constraints that shape how mammals age to this day. </p>
<p>After the dinosaurs disappeared when an asteroid hit the Earth <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/how-an-asteroid-caused-extinction-of-dinosaurs.html">66 million years</a> ago, mammals conquered the world. An astonishing diversity of species evolved with a variety of lifespans. Some species, like humans, evolved a long lifespan, but they may have done it under constraints, remnants from the time of the dinosaurs.</p>
<h2>Why dinosaurs made a difference</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Lizard rests on the ground" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564332/original/file-20231207-15-xjtuw7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564332/original/file-20231207-15-xjtuw7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=362&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564332/original/file-20231207-15-xjtuw7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=362&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564332/original/file-20231207-15-xjtuw7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=362&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564332/original/file-20231207-15-xjtuw7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=455&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564332/original/file-20231207-15-xjtuw7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=455&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564332/original/file-20231207-15-xjtuw7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=455&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Tuatara lives for over a hundred years.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/tuatara-310936394">BeautifulBlossoms/Shutterstock</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>We can take a guess by looking at species that did not undergo the same evolutionary pressures as early mammals. For example, the tuatara, a reptile endemic to New Zealand, may look like a lizard but it diverged from snakes and lizards about 250 million years ago. It is sometimes referred to as a “living fossil”, due to its slow evolution. </p>
<p>Tuataras are thought to live for more than 100 years and age much slower than human beings, as a <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abm0151">2022 DNA analysis study showed</a>. Perhaps they have kept their anti-ageing genes, unlike even the longest lived mammals. </p>
<p>Our lifespan may be limited because of our evolutionary history.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/219435/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Joao Pedro de Magalhaes receives funding from the Wellcome Trust, Longevity Impetus Grants, LongeCity, and the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council.</span></em></p>Our mammal ancestors evolved to compete with dinosaurs but may have lost something in the process.Joao Pedro de Magalhaes, Chair of Molecular Biogerontology, University of BirminghamLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2171112023-11-08T13:53:13Z2023-11-08T13:53:13ZDo you like snakes, lizards and frogs? Why herpetology might be the career for you<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557734/original/file-20231106-23-lkg44h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The author handling a boomslang as part of her work with a conservation organisation.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Chris Cooke</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>We are so fortunate to share the world with a huge diversity of creatures. For me, some of the most fascinating are reptiles and amphibians. Collectively called <a href="https://www.dec.ny.gov/docs/administration_pdf/0220c4kherps.pdf">herpetofauna</a>, reptiles and amphibians are ectotherms; they rely on external sources to regulate their body temperature.</p>
<p>A person like me who works with these groups of animals is called a herpetologist. Among the reptiles and amphibians, my special interest is in snakes. I’ve always been interested in reptiles, from the days when I would chase common flat lizards in the Motobo Hills in Zimbabwe, where I grew up, and interact with snakes and other animals at our local rehabilitation centre. </p>
<p>Still, if somebody had told my teenage self that my job would entail working with snakes and encouraging other people to appreciate them, I never would have believed them. I didn’t even know you could make a career out of working with reptiles. Today, I’m studying towards my PhD in herpetology (which is technically a degree in ecology and conservation) while also working with a snake conservation organisation in South Africa.</p>
<h2>Learning about snakes</h2>
<p>Most people will be familiar with zoology, the branch of biology that focuses on the study of all animals. Some animals have their own speciality within the discipline of zoology. Herps (a slang term for herpetofauna) are one example.</p>
<p>There are <a href="http://www.reptile-database.org/db-info/SpeciesStat.html">over 4,000 species</a> of snakes around the world. Each species has a unique adaptation to its own environment. Some snakes, like <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-ultimate-in-stealth-puff-adders-employ-camouflage-at-every-level-53316">puff adders</a>, are scentless as a way to camouflage themselves from predators. Others, like southern African pythons, <a href="https://theconversation.com/new-insights-into-how-southern-african-pythons-look-after-their-babies-91276">show maternal care</a>, which is very unusual for snakes and much more common in mammals and birds. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-ultimate-in-stealth-puff-adders-employ-camouflage-at-every-level-53316">The ultimate in stealth, puff adders employ camouflage at every level</a>
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<p>These unique adaptations have allowed snakes to thrive in different environments. This makes them a great model in science: herpetologists can ask questions about their physiology, evolution, ecology and biology.</p>
<p>For anyone looking to become a herpetologist, a basic zoology degree will get you started. Most universities will have someone who specialises in teaching herpetology or someone who can point you in the right direction. Volunteering at institutions that have reptiles, like zoos, is also a great way to get some experience working with them. Once you get to postgraduate level, you can specialise in one of many different topics in herpetology and apply different techniques to answer questions that you are curious about. </p>
<p>As a specialist in reptiles and amphibians, you can merge that interest with other disciplines like photography, law or conservation, and this can open up many job opportunities. You can also pursue further research at a university, become a lecturer or school teacher, work at a zoo or become a museum curator. There are many options to explore. </p>
<h2>My research</h2>
<p>I completed my MSc in 2017 and my research focused on the evolution of diet in a group of snakes called <a href="https://wiredspace.wits.ac.za/items/2d772155-77f6-4f7c-94db-b3e59fb0b22a">lamprophiids</a>. I loved learning about how diverse snakes are in the food they eat. For my PhD, I wanted my research to have a real-world application, so I waited until 2021 to start after getting some work experience in conservation. </p>
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<p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/new-insights-into-how-southern-african-pythons-look-after-their-babies-91276">New insights into how southern African pythons look after their babies</a>
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<p><a href="https://hiralnaik.wordpress.com/contact-info/publications/">My current research</a> focuses on the way that snakes behave (behavioural ecology) to answer some of the bigger question of what leads snakes to bite people. Another year and I will have some answers for you on this. </p>
<p>Snakebite is a <a href="https://www.who.int/health-topics/snakebite">neglected tropical disease</a> according to the World Health Organization and affects millions of people around the world. When natural spaces are transformed and destroyed, many animals, like snakes, go looking for food and shelter – often in people’s homes. Many people are afraid of snakes, so encounters often lead to conflict as people try to kill the animals and get bitten in the process. </p>
<p>I am also fortunate to work for a non-profit organisation, <a href="https://savethesnakes.org/">Save The Snakes</a>, which allows me to educate people about snakes and do my part to conserve them by applying my research. My job includes researching information on snakes that live in different parts of South Africa and assessing threats to them, like habitat transformation, learning more about the relationship between humans and snakes, conducting fieldwork and running experiments to understand more about the behaviour and ecology of snakes.</p>
<h2>The circle of life</h2>
<p>I’m also passionate about education.</p>
<p>Learning about the world of snakes has allowed me to appreciate the natural world in a unique way. <a href="https://youtu.be/ltQcE0gapIo">As predators and prey</a>, snakes are an emblem of the circle of life. One of my favourite activities is going out at night looking for them (called “herping”) and watching them display different behaviours. After the summer rains, frogs and insects come out and the snake predators follow. When I take these moments to observe the world around me I feel fortunate to appreciate these animals in a way most people don’t. This is the feeling I like to share in my education efforts.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/_nuY_uyIeVY?wmode=transparent&start=5" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">A southern African python being returned to the wild by Save the Snakes.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Some of my favourite moments in my current job have involved seeing the change in people’s perceptions about snakes. Snakes have been feared for many generations because of misinformation. Most snakes are harmless. They don’t chase people, and they stay hidden much of the time. By sharing the correct information about snakes, we show that fear can be changed to curiosity and that creates more motivation to learn about them.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/217111/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hiral Naik has received funding from the National Research Foundation. She is affiliated with Save The Snakes.</span></em></p>Learning about snakes offers unique insights into the natural world.Hiral Naik, PhD candidate: School of Animal, Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of the WitwatersrandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2123082023-10-17T15:29:28Z2023-10-17T15:29:28ZHow animal traits have shaped the journey of species across the globe<p>The devastating <a href="https://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/hazel/view/hazards/tsunami/event-more-info/5413">tsunami</a> that hit Japan in March 2011 set off a series of events which have long fascinated scientists like me. It was so powerful that it caused 5 million tonnes of debris to <a href="https://marinedebris.noaa.gov/japan-tsunami-marine-debris/monitoring-tsunami-debris-north-american-shorelines">wash</a> into the Pacific – 1.5 million tonnes remained afloat and started drifting with the currents. </p>
<p>One year later, and half a world away, debris began washing ashore on the west coast of North America. More than 280 Japanese coastal species such as mussels, barnacles and even some species of fish, had <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/science.aao1498?casa_token=YwHfCNElf14AAAAA:zJj4eY3uUm2_m4ZH5YzIO6ecvSWdVa_53yZk0ycnxm1Ga3bPLTl5Z6hCbUhvsmA4d0KSPHFPKz84nQ">hitched a ride</a> on the debris and made an incredible journey across the ocean. These species were still alive and had the potential to establish new populations. </p>
<p>How animals cross major barriers, such as oceans and mountain ranges, to shape Earth’s biodiversity is an intriguing topic. And a new <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-023-02150-5">study</a> by my collaborators and I has shed light on this process, revealing how animal characteristics such as body size and life history can influence their spread across the globe.</p>
<p>We know that such dispersal events occur in terrestrial species as well. For instance, at least 15 green iguanas <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/26886">journeyed</a> more than 200km (124 miles) from Guadeloupe to Anguilla in the Caribbean in 1995. They arrived on a mat of logs and trees (likely uprooted through a hurricane), some of which were more than 9 metres (20 feet) long. </p>
<h2>The role of animal characteristics in dispersal</h2>
<p>When animals move across major barriers it can have a big impact on both the new and old locations. For example, an invasive species can arrive in a new area and compete with native species for resources. However, those consequences can be even greater over longer periods of time.</p>
<p>The movement of monkeys from Africa to South America around 35 million years ago led to the evolution of more than 90 species of <a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev-anthro-102116-041510?casa_token=CZtEoQ5Z9bMAAAAA%3AX9JrgVyGxxegDXgVTUPNHZboMldBec1egagn5S4pLwx4yudreF4L6Q6zG4jUeB9tMxJEIy4q67iX&journalCode=anthro">New World monkeys</a>, including tamarins, capuchins and spider monkeys. And a few chameleons rafting on vegetation from Africa to Madagascar is why we find half of all living <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2013.0184">chameleon</a> species there today.</p>
<p>These events were long thought to be determined by chance – the coincidence of some chameleons sitting on the right tree at the right time. However, <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24529638.pdf?casa_token=NyxiUsFXod0AAAAA:9aBvrCPO0om98AjWOfs482QWf5eQxRUwKt95p4S3trPy1CQ2CM4K0AJeMBtsNKwKST8ILswcwdjQBRq8ZpdR5-3KL3gOn9uYZHOjzDdPyTm4R3Dom1o">some scientists</a> have suggested there might be more to it. They hypothesised there could be more general patterns in the animals that reach their destination successfully, related to certain characteristics.</p>
<p>Could body size affect how far a species can travel? Animals with more fat reserves may be able to travel longer distances. Or could it be how a species reproduces and survives? For example, animals that lay many eggs or mature early may be more likely to establish a new population in a new place.</p>
<p>But despite a vigorous theoretical debate, the options to test these hypotheses were limited because such dispersal events are rare. Also, the right statistical tools were not available until recently.</p>
<p>Thanks to the recent development of new <a href="https://academic.oup.com/sysbio/article/69/1/61/5490843">biogeographical models</a> and the great availability of data, we can now try to answer questions about how tetrapod species (amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals) have moved around the globe over the past 300 million years and whether successful species share any common characteristics.</p>
<p>These models allow us to estimate the movements of species’ ancestors while also considering their characteristics. We used these models to study 7,009 species belonging to 56 groups of tetrapods.</p>
<h2>What we found</h2>
<p>For 91% of the animal groups we studied, models that included species characteristics were better supported than models that didn’t. This means that body size and life history are closely linked to how successful a species is at moving to and establishing itself in a new location.</p>
<p>Animals with large bodies and fast life histories (breeding early and often, like water voles) generally dispersed more successfully, as expected. However, there were some exceptions to this rule. In some groups, smaller animals or animals with average traits had higher dispersal rates.</p>
<p>For example, small hummingbirds dispersed better than larger ones, and poison dart frogs with intermediate life histories dispersed better than those with very fast or very slow life histories.</p>
<p>We investigated this variation further and found that the relationship between body size and movement depended on the average size and life history of the group. Our results show that the links between characteristics and dispersal success depend on both body size and life history, and that these cannot be considered separately. </p>
<p>Groups in which small size was an advantage were often already made up of small species (making the dispersal-prone species even smaller), and these species also had fast life histories. We found this to be true for the rodent families <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/Muridae"><em>Muridae</em></a> and <a href="https://nhpbs.org/wild/cricetidae.asp"><em>Cricetidae</em></a>. </p>
<p>But groups in which dispersers had intermediate body sizes generally had slow life histories (meaning they had low reproductive output but long lifespans). This means the combination of small body size and slow life history is very unlikely to be an advantage for dispersal across major barriers such as oceans.</p>
<h2>It’s not just chance</h2>
<p>It is amazing to think that rare dispersal events, which can lead to the rise of many new species, are not completely random. Instead, the intrinsic characteristics of species can shape the histories of entire groups of animals, even though chance still may play an important role.</p>
<p>At the same time, two of the most important <a href="https://zenodo.org/record/3553579">environmental challenges</a> of our time are related to movement across major barriers: biological invasions and species’ responses to climate change. On a planet facing rapid changes, understanding how animals move across barriers is therefore crucial.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/212308/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>While working on this study, Sarah-Sophie Weil was affiliated with Université Grenoble Alpes (France) and Swansea University (Wales, UK) who supported her through Initiative d’excellence (IDEX) International Strategic Partnership and Swansea University Strategic Partner Research (SUSPR) scholarships.</span></em></p>New research looks at how different species have managed to cross geographic barriers throughout history and whether their individual traits played a crucial role in these journeys.Sarah-Sophie Weil, PhD candidate, Swansea UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2140692023-10-17T00:46:43Z2023-10-17T00:46:43ZSaltwater crocodiles are slowly returning to Bali and Java. Can we learn to live alongside them?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554133/original/file-20231016-29-woipe3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=20%2C20%2C6689%2C4446&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>On January 4 this year, a three-metre saltwater crocodile heaved itself out of the water and up the beach. Nothing unusual about that – except this <a href="https://denpasar.suara.com/read/2023/01/04/173710/heboh-buaya-29-meter-ditangkap-di-pantai-legian-bali-dari-mana-asalnya">croc was on Legian Beach</a>, one of Bali’s most popular spots. The emaciated reptile <a href="https://www.9news.com.au/world/bali-crocodile-rescuer-reveals-fate-of-reptile-who-washed-ashore-popular-beach/3738e466-a700-442d-aa5f-47ecc3c3d8c8">later died</a>. </p>
<p>Only four months later, a <a href="https://regional.kompas.com/read/2023/04/30/152218878/pria-ini-tewas-dimakan-buaya-saat-cari-ikan-di-pantai-lombok-tengah">large crocodile killed a man</a> who was spearfishing with friends in Lombok’s Awang Bay, about 100 kilometres east of Bali. Authorities caught it and transferred it to captivity. </p>
<p>You might not associate crocodiles with Bali. But the saltwater crocodile once roamed most of Indonesia’s waters, and attacks are still common in some regions. I have been collecting records of crocodilian attacks since 2010, as the creator of the worldwide database CrocAttack. What’s new is that they’re beginning to return to areas where they were wiped out. </p>
<p>Does this mean tourists and residents should be wary? It’s unlikely these islands can host anywhere near the same population densities as the wide, fish-filled rivers of Australia’s tropical north. And in Bali, it’s unlikely we’ll see any crocodile recovery because of the importance of beaches to tourism and a high human population.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550525/original/file-20230927-29-eo085s.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A large saltwater crocodile tied to a boat with rope" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550525/original/file-20230927-29-eo085s.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550525/original/file-20230927-29-eo085s.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=284&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550525/original/file-20230927-29-eo085s.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=284&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550525/original/file-20230927-29-eo085s.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=284&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550525/original/file-20230927-29-eo085s.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=357&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550525/original/file-20230927-29-eo085s.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=357&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550525/original/file-20230927-29-eo085s.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=357&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This 4.6-metre saltwater crocodile was captured in Lombok after the fatal attack in May.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Bali Reptile Rescue</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What happened to Indonesia’s crocodiles?</h2>
<p>Saltwater crocodiles (<em>Crocodylus porosus</em>) are also known as estuarine crocodiles, as they prefer to live in mangrove-lined rivers. They’re the largest living reptile, reaching up to seven metres in length – far larger than Indonesia’s famous Komodo dragon, which tops out at three metres. </p>
<p>Historically, crocodiles lived throughout the Indonesian archipelago. We have records of attacks on humans in <a href="https://resolver.kb.nl/resolve?urn=ddd:011071456:mpeg21:a0021">Bali from the early 20th century</a> and across <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/279806685_RECENT_REPORTS_OF_SALTWATER_CROCODILES_WITHIN_EAST_JAVA_AND_BALI_PROVINCES_IN_INDONESIA">much of Java until the 1950s</a>. Even Indonesia’s capital, Jakarta, <a href="https://voi.id/en/memori/20438">had crocodiles resident in many rivers</a> running through the city.</p>
<p>Crocodiles in Bali and Lombok were <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/279806685_RECENT_REPORTS_OF_SALTWATER_CROCODILES_WITHIN_EAST_JAVA_AND_BALI_PROVINCES_IN_INDONESIA">killed off by the mid-20th century</a>, and later across Java. But they survived in more remote parts of the island nation. </p>
<p>Salties are now being regularly sighted in Indonesia’s densely populated island of Java, including in <a href="https://news.detik.com/berita/d-4069902/misteri-buaya-25-meter-yang-muncul-di-tanjung-priok">seas off Jakarta</a>. At least 70 people are <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2023/may/02/crocodile-catch-conservationists-warn-against-proposed-queensland-cull">killed by crocs every year</a> across the archipelago, with the highest numbers of attacks being reported from the Bangka-Belitung islands off Sumatra and the provinces of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Kalimantan">East Kalimantan</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Nusa_Tenggara">East Nusa Tenggara</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riau">Riau</a>. </p>
<h2>Are crocodiles returning in numbers?</h2>
<p>These incidents means numbers are increasing. But recovery may not be as significant as it seems. </p>
<p>On many Indonesian islands, there’s very limited <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0264837716302009">mangrove habitat suitable for crocodiles</a>, and many creeks and rivers may be naturally too small for more than a small number of them. Even a small population recovery could quickly fill up the croc capacity of estuaries and creeks. These crocodiles are the <a href="https://environment.des.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0028/88273/crocodile-monitoring-plan.pdf">most territorial of all crocodilians</a>. Dominant males push out smaller male crocodiles, who set out <a href="https://wildlife.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/jwmg.767">in search of new habitat</a>. </p>
<p>To date, Indonesia’s crocodile surveys reveal mostly <a href="https://jurnalbiologi.perbiol.or.id/home/article/9e75989e-d8e2-41f0-9b8a-c9a2992c9cbe">small</a> and <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/345977330_A_preliminary_study_on_the_population_and_habitat_of_saltwater_crocodile_Crocodylus_porosus_in_Timor_Island_East_Nusa_Tenggara">low-density populations</a>. But even the arrival of a single crocodile into human territory can spark conflict – and threaten the conservation of the species. </p>
<p>Worldwide, saltwater crocodiles are listed as a species of least concern on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, thanks to their <a href="https://www.iucncsg.org/365_docs/attachments/protarea/18%20--8088e67a.pdf">full population recovery in parts of northern Australia</a> after hunting was banned in the early 1970s. But in Cambodia, Thailand, and Vietnam the species is extinct. </p>
<p>Even in sparsely populated northern Australia, there’s <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2023/may/02/crocodile-catch-conservationists-warn-against-proposed-queensland-cull">still conflict between humans and crocs</a>, though this conflict is comparatively rare. In Indonesia, the problem is compounded by a massive human population which <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0264837716302009">puts pressure on crocodile habitat</a>.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/friday-essay-reckoning-with-an-animal-that-sees-us-as-prey-living-and-working-in-crocodile-country-160260">Friday essay: reckoning with an animal that sees us as prey — living and working in crocodile country</a>
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<h2>Where are Bali’s crocs coming from?</h2>
<p>You might look at a map and think crocodiles moving back into Bali are coming from Australia. But there is currently no evidence of <a href="https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/australianz/killer-crocodiles-why-are-more-humans-being-attacked-in-east-timor#:%7E:text=East%20Timor%20sits%20between%20Indonesia,and%20collecting%20water%20to%20drink.">significant crocodile movement between Australia and Indonesia</a>. It would be a brave crocodile to swim more than 1,000 kilometres from Australia to Bali. </p>
<p>What we are likely witnessing is a crocodile exodus from nearby areas, though we would need to do genetic analysis to prove it. That’s because the surviving croc population centres are much closer than Australia. For Bali and Lombok, crocodiles are likely migrating from the islands to the east, such as <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/349111616_Saltwater_crocodile_Crocodylus_porosus_attacks_in_East_Nusa_Tenggara_Indonesia">Flores, Lembata, Sumba and Timor</a>. </p>
<p>The most likely source of Java’s crocodile arrivals is southern Sumatra, which is less than 30km from Java at its nearest. This area has long been prone to crocodile attacks. </p>
<h2>What does this mean for residents and tourists?</h2>
<p>Earlier this month, a relatively large crocodile was photographed <a href="https://www.detik.com/sumut/berita/d-6948883/buaya-nyantai-berjemur-di-keramba-nelayan-tak-berani-beraktivitas">basking on a large fish trap in West Lombok</a>, less than 50km from the tourist hotspot of the Gili Islands. </p>
<p>The spike in sightings and attacks suggests we’re going to have to find ways of living alongside these reptiles. The coastal waters and estuaries of Lombok and western Java are now likely home to a small resident population. </p>
<p>What can be done to prevent attacks? First, people have to know that crocs are back. Increasing crocodile awareness and caution is vital to save lives. </p>
<p>Some researchers believe attacks on us and our livestock get more likely if <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/352055695_MAPPING_THE_DISTRIBUTION_OF_SALTWATER_CROCODILE_Crocodylus_porosus_AND_RISKS_OF_HUMAN-CROCODILE_CONFLICTS_IN_SETTLEMENTS_AROUND_KUTAI_NATIONAL_PARK_EAST_KALIMANTAN">mangroves have been destroyed or fishing grounds fished out</a>. Protecting crocodile habitat and prey species can both secure the future of the species and cut the risk of attacks. </p>
<p>Does it mean you should cancel your next Bali trip? No. While restoration efforts have <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1755-1315/123/1/012022/pdf">brought back tracts of mangroves</a> along some coastlines in Bali, the sheer popularity of the island means it’s unlikely any crocodile population will ever be reestablished there.</p>
<p>But we could well see crocodiles slowly return to less populated parts of Java and Lombok. While that may fill us with anxiety, they’re a vital part of the ecosystem. Crocodiles are meant to be there. </p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-northern-territory-does-not-have-a-crocodile-problem-and-salties-do-not-need-culling-209863">The Northern Territory does not have a crocodile problem – and 'salties' do not need culling</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/214069/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Brandon Michael Sideleau is affiliated with IUCN Crocodile Specialist Group. </span></em></p>After decades of absence, crocodiles are now being seen off Bali, Lombok and Java. That’s good for the species – but what about us?Brandon Michael Sideleau, PhD student studying human-saltwater crocodile conflict, Charles Darwin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2056262023-10-02T12:28:48Z2023-10-02T12:28:48ZThere’s a thriving global market in turtles, and much of that trade is illegal<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549993/original/file-20230925-24-nz5ob8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=11%2C3%2C2422%2C1912&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Smuggled rare Mexican box turtles intercepted by U.S. officials at the Port of Memphis.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.fws.gov/story/2021-05/us-fish-and-wildlife-service-works-partners-rescue-rare-turtles-memphis-port-entry">USFWS</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Hatchling turtles are cute, small and inexpensive. Handled improperly, they also can make you sick. </p>
<p>Turtles are well-known carriers of <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/salmonella/symptoms-causes/syc-20355329">salmonella, a common bacterial disease</a> that causes fever, stomach cramps and dehydration and can lead to severe illness, especially in young children and elderly people. In August 2023, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/salmonella/turtles-08-23/index.html">released an advisory</a> about an 11-state outbreak of salmonella bacteria linked to pet turtles.</p>
<p>“Don’t kiss or snuggle your turtle, and don’t eat or drink around it. This can spread Salmonella germs to your mouth and make you sick,” the agency warned.</p>
<p>Global trade in turtles is big business, and the U.S. is a leading <a href="https://doi.org/10.1641/0006-3568(2005)055%5B0256:CIETIO%5D2.0.CO;2">source, destination and transit country</a>. Some of this commerce is legal, some is not. For example, it has been illegal in the U.S. since 1975 to sell turtles with shells less than 4 inches (10 centimeters) in diameter because young children often contract salmonella from them. But it’s easy to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0278443">find them for sale</a> nonetheless. </p>
<p>However, humans are a much bigger threat to turtles than vice versa. Over half of the world’s turtle species are <a href="https://iucn-tftsg.org/checklist/">classified as threatened or endangered</a>, and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2020.04.088">overharvesting of wild turtles</a> is a major cause. Turtles also face other threats, including habitat loss, climate change, pollution, diseases, invasive species and death or injury while <a href="https://theconversation.com/by-helping-wild-animals-you-could-end-their-freedom-or-even-their-lives-heres-why-you-should-keep-your-distance-207188">trying to cross roads</a>.</p>
<p>As a <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/jennifer-sevin-a38b4b89/">conservation biologist</a>, I work with colleagues from academia, nonprofit organizations and state and federal agencies to protect threatened species and combat wildlife trafficking. I also use the global wildlife trade to teach important ecological concepts and research skills. Here’s what we know about trade in turtles and how it threatens their survival.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/fdnQ7Kd8czk?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">U.S. zoos and aquariums are working with government agencies to detect and reduce illegal trade in turtles.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Life in the slow lane</h2>
<p>It’s <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0229689">hard to harvest turtles sustainably</a> because they are so long-lived. Individual turtles of some species can survive for more than 100 years. Most turtles reach reproductive maturity late in life and have relatively few eggs, not all of which produce successful offspring.</p>
<p>To put this in context, compare a common female snapping turtle from the northern U.S. with a female white-tailed deer. Begin at the start of their lives and fast-forward 17 years. At this point, the snapping turtle will just be ready to reproduce for the first time; the deer will already be dead, but it may have produced <a href="https://www.fws.gov/story/2022-11/turtles-face-unique-challenges-cites-can-help">over 600 descendants</a>. It can take a female turtle her entire life to generate one or two offspring that in turn reach adulthood and replace her in the population.</p>
<p>Turtles are valuable because they play diverse roles in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/biosci/biy095">land, freshwater and ocean ecosystems</a>. For example, tortoise burrows provide refuge for hundreds of other species, including <a href="https://myfwc.com/wildlifehabitats/profiles/reptiles/gopher-tortoise">birds, mice, snakes and rabbits</a>. Box turtles – the type you may encounter in your garden – consume practically any kind of plant material and excrete the seeds as they move around, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.6487">helping plants spread</a>. Some seeds even germinate more readily <a href="https://www.bbg.org/article/box_turtles">after passing through a box turtle’s gut</a>.</p>
<p>In lakes and ponds, freshwater turtles serve as both predator and prey, and they help maintain good water quality by consuming decaying organisms. Terrapins reside in brackish water zones, where rivers flow into oceans and bays, and feed heavily on snails. Without terrapins present, the snails would quickly consume all underwater seagrasses, which would harm fish, shellfish, sea urchins and other organisms that <a href="https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/plants-algae/seagrass-and-seagrass-beds">rely on seagrasses for their survival</a>.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/CCUOnx7ggav/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link\u0026igshid=MzRlODBiNWFlZA==","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<h2>In global demand</h2>
<p>Humans have long been fascinated with turtles. Revered in many cultures, turtles have <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kurma">symbolized strength</a> and <a href="https://blog.nativehope.org/native-american-animals-turtle-k%C3%A9ya">longevity</a> for centuries. Today, people use turtles as pets; sources of food, <a href="https://flic.kr/p/Rwc4mu">jewelry and other curios</a>; and in traditional medicines and <a href="https://news.mongabay.com/2017/05/balinese-rituals-fuel-spike-in-trafficking-of-endangered-sea-turtles/">religious and cultural practices</a>.</p>
<p>International trade in turtles takes place on a massive scale. According to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, nearly 127 million turtles were exported just from the U.S. between 2002 and 2012. About one-fifth (24 million) <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0086478">came from the wild</a>.</p>
<p>More recent data indicates that exports declined between 2013 and 2018, but <a href="https://www.fishwildlife.org/application/files/7815/9352/0162/Case_Study_U.S._Freshwater_Turtles_and_Tortoises_CITES_2020_FINAL.pdf">trade in particular species increased</a>. Commercial freshwater turtle farming is still a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0139053">multimillion-dollar industry</a> in the southeastern U.S.; a small number of native turtle species, <a href="https://www.nass.usda.gov/Publications/AgCensus/2017/Online_Resources/Aquaculture/aqua_1_0020_0020.pdf">largely bred on turtle farms</a>, now make up the bulk of legal U.S. exports, for use as both pets and food.</p>
<p>There’s no good way to quantify how many native turtles are harvested from the wild. But history shows what happens when they are hunted without limits. Historic demand for <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/sea-turtles-are-surviving-despite-threats-from-humans-feature">sea turtles</a>, <a href="https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2019/07/18/742326830/our-taste-for-turtle-soup-nearly-wiped-out-terrapins-then-prohibition-saved-them">diamondback terrapins</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnc.2016.11.003">snapping turtles</a> as food led to such crashes in populations that management agencies had to regulate their harvesting.</p>
<p>Turtles also are gaining popularity as pets, <a href="https://www.forbes.com/advisor/pet-insurance/pet-ownership-statistics/">particularly for younger adults</a>. Surveys indicate that <a href="https://www.americanpetproducts.org/press_releasedetail.asp?v=ALL&id=1229">more than 2 million Americans own turtles</a>. To curb pressure on wild populations, state agencies are <a href="https://biologicaldiversity.org/w/news/press-releases/south-carolina-governor-signs-bill-protect-wild-turtles-poaching-trade-2020-10-22/">prohibiting or limiting</a> personal collection and possession of native turtles. </p>
<h2>Black market turtles</h2>
<p>Despite existing regulations, demand for some native North American turtle species is so strong that people collect, smuggle and sell the animals illegally. For example, in 2019 a Pennsylvania man was sentenced to six months in prison and fined $250,000 for trafficking <a href="https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/pennsylvania-man-sentenced-trafficking-protected-turtles">thousands of protected diamondback terrapins</a>. </p>
<p>Rare species such as wood turtles and Blanding’s turtles, as well as uniquely patterned individual turtles, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12797">command top value on the black market</a>. Internet commerce, social media apps and online payment mechanisms make it easy for illegal buyers and sellers to connect.</p>
<p>Between 1998 and 2021, U.S. enforcement agencies intercepted at least 24,000 protected freshwater turtles and tortoises <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/pan3.10448">from 34 native species</a> that were being illegally traded across the U.S. These animals may be held without food and water and in crowded spaces, sometimes wrapped in tape and stuffed in socks.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549998/original/file-20230925-25-zzb9mu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A turtle roughly 10 inches in diameter, wrapped in duct tape." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549998/original/file-20230925-25-zzb9mu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549998/original/file-20230925-25-zzb9mu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549998/original/file-20230925-25-zzb9mu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549998/original/file-20230925-25-zzb9mu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549998/original/file-20230925-25-zzb9mu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549998/original/file-20230925-25-zzb9mu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549998/original/file-20230925-25-zzb9mu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">A live smuggled Mexican box turtle intercepted by U.S. officials at the Port of Memphis in 2021.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/2kZn2Af">USFWS</a></span>
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<h2>How to help</h2>
<p>To curtail the illegal turtle trade, regulators are working to <a href="https://www.fws.gov/story/joining-forces-combat-turtle-trafficking">strengthen regulations and increase enforcement</a>. Private citizens can also help reduce the demand and protect wild turtles. Here are some simple steps:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Before you purchase any live animal or wildlife-related product, review relevant local, state, national and international regulations. Just because something is for sale doesn’t mean it’s legal.</p></li>
<li><p>Make an informed decision about owning a turtle. Consider the size it will reach as an adult, its care requirements and its life span. Prioritize adopting one from a reputable rescue organization, and seek out a captive-bred turtle instead of a wild one.</p></li>
</ul>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550000/original/file-20230925-27-u1z8wx.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A small terrapin with a red streak on the side of its head." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550000/original/file-20230925-27-u1z8wx.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550000/original/file-20230925-27-u1z8wx.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550000/original/file-20230925-27-u1z8wx.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550000/original/file-20230925-27-u1z8wx.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550000/original/file-20230925-27-u1z8wx.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550000/original/file-20230925-27-u1z8wx.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550000/original/file-20230925-27-u1z8wx.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The red-eared slider (<em>Trachemys scripta elegans</em>) is a terrapin that has become highly invasive in the U.S., outcompeting native species.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red-eared_slider#/media/File:Tortue_floride_france.JPG">Galano~commonswiki/Wikimedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<ul>
<li><p>Don’t release an animal that you no longer want or can’t care for into the wild. This is illegal and can have serious ecological impacts. The <a href="https://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/factsheet.aspx?SpeciesID=1261">red-eared slider</a> (<em>Trachemys scripta elegans</em>), a freshwater turtle that’s native to the Mississippi River basin, was sold by the millions in recent decades and released by many pet owners. Now it is considered one of the <a href="https://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/aquatic/fish-and-other-vertebrates/red-eared-slider">world’s most invasive species</a> because it <a href="https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/2000-126.pdf">outcompetes native turtles for food and space</a>.</p></li>
<li><p>If you encounter illegal wildlife collection, smuggling or sales, report them to your state fish and wildlife agency or the <a href="https://www.fws.gov/form/refuge-law-enforcement">U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service</a> for investigation.</p></li>
<li><p>Support efforts to conserve and restore turtle habitat and minimize other threats, such as pollution and <a href="https://daily.jstor.org/road-density-threatens-turtle-populations/">road traffic</a>.</p></li>
</ul><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/205626/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jennifer Sevin is a co-founder and serves on the steering committee of the Collaborative to Combat the Illegal Trade in Turtles.</span></em></p>More than half of the world’s turtle species are endangered or threatened, and overhunting of wild species is a major cause.Jennifer Sevin, Director of Biological Instruction, University of RichmondLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2099192023-07-30T11:15:37Z2023-07-30T11:15:37ZMeet the gigantic extinct reptile that weighed as much as an adult black rhino<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539200/original/file-20230725-29-xonj5i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Three 3D views of _Bradysaurus baini_ specimen (FMNH UC 1533). Scale bar equals 50 cm. [Published in Van den Brandt et al. 2023](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08912963.2023.2175211?journalCode=ghbi20)</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Credit: Fabio Manucci and Marco Romano</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Around 262 million years ago, during the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14772019.2022.2035440">middle Permian Period</a>, a new family of reptiles emerged. Pareiasaurs – meaning “cheek lizards”, a reference to the flat flanges of bone that make up their cheeks – had skulls covered in bony growths and bumps, and bony plates on their bodies.</p>
<p>They were among the first large terrestrial animals to evolve and did so rapidly, quickly becoming some of the most abundant plant-eating animals worldwide. At least <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fevo.2021.758802/full">21 separate species evolved</a> before all pareiasaurs were wiped out about 252 million years ago during the <a href="https://doi.org/10.25131/sajg.123.0009">Permian-Triassic extinction event</a>.</p>
<p>From the 1830s onward, pareiasaur fossils began to be found in various parts of the world. One large, abundant species, <em>Bradysaurus</em>, from the middle Permian Period, was found in South Africa and <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.1892.0008">scientifically described</a> in 1892. <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fevo.2021.692035/full"><em>Scutosaurus</em></a>, from the late Permian Period of Russia, was described in 1922.</p>
<p>Thanks to more than 150 years of research, we know that several pareiasaurs were big animals, reaching lengths of up to 3 metres. Their bones reveal that they were thick and stocky. They stood low to the ground, with a primitive sprawling posture. But no accurate studies of their likely body mass exist. </p>
<p>Body mass plays a central role in understanding an organism’s general physiology, ecology, metabolism, diet and movement.</p>
<p>In our <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08912963.2023.2175211?journalCode=ghbi20">new study</a>, we set out to fill this knowledge gap for <em>Bradysaurus</em>, having done so for <em>Scutosaurus</em> in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fevo.2021.692035/full">another piece of work</a>. We used a new method for calculating body mass that allowed us to calculate the <em>Bradysaurus</em> had a likely overall average body mass of 1,022kg. </p>
<p>For the Russian <em>Scutosaurus</em>, <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fevo.2021.692035/full">we found</a> an average body mass of 1,160kg. That means both of these pareiasaurs, from different hemispheres and living in different times, weighed in at about the mass of a large adult black rhino or a large domestic bull.</p>
<p><em>Bradysaurus</em> is the oldest pareiasaur that has been reliably dated. It was one of the earliest huge plant-eating tetrapods (four-legged creatures) to appear in the development of life on Earth, along with other large pareiasaur species like <em>Scutosaurus</em>. By obtaining accurate body mass estimates for these animals, we can better understand the evolution of the said body mass, which was built around a long intestinal track inside a huge fermentation chamber – just what the animals needed to break down high volumes of poor quality vegetation.</p>
<h2>A new method</h2>
<p>Typically, the body masses of extinct tetrapods are estimated using mathematical formulas that relate the circumferences of the thigh bone (the femur) and the upper arm bone (the humerus) to body mass. </p>
<p>These formulas were derived from large sets of measurements of the limb bones of modern animals whose masses can be measured directly. </p>
<p>But, as palaeontologist Marco Romano has <a href="https://www.idunn.no/doi/full/10.1111/let.12207">detailed</a> in <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08912963.2019.1640219">several studies</a>, using these <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fevo.2021.692035/full">formulas</a> tends to <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08912963.2023.2175211?journalCode=ghbi20">result</a> in hugely inflated overestimates of body mass when they are applied to extinct reptiles. These animals often had a sprawling posture and, as a result, thickened bones. Modern mammals have upright postures and relatively slender limb bones. </p>
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<p>We used a new volumetric method to determine a more realistic mass estimate. First, 3D models of skeletons were made using photogrammetry. Nearly 200 photographs were taken around each skeleton, then digitally combined in specialist software to create accurate 3D models of the bones. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539201/original/file-20230725-25-kjdcs1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539201/original/file-20230725-25-kjdcs1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=646&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539201/original/file-20230725-25-kjdcs1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=646&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539201/original/file-20230725-25-kjdcs1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=646&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539201/original/file-20230725-25-kjdcs1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=811&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539201/original/file-20230725-25-kjdcs1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=811&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539201/original/file-20230725-25-kjdcs1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=811&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Artistic <em>in vivo</em> reconstruction of <em>Bradysaurus baini</em> specimen (FMNH UC 1533) based on the 3D ‘average’ model sculpted around the specimen, in five views. Scale bar equals 50 cm. Published in Van den Brandt et al. 2023.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Credit: Fabio Manucci and Marco Romano</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Next, palaeoartist Fabio Manucci used other specialist software to model soft tissue, muscles and guts around the bones, creating three reconstructions of possible volumes (“slim”, “average”, “fat”) for each skeleton by adding three different amounts of soft tissue.</p>
<p>The average density of both extinct and living vertebrate animals is very close to the density of water (1kg per litre). The denser bones and tissues are balanced out by empty spaces such as <a href="https://anatomypubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/ar.24574">air in the lungs and guts</a>. Extinct pareiasaurs were probably a bit more dense because of their very thick bones and plated, bony body armour.</p>
<p>To determine a range of masses, we applied three different densities for living tissues (0.99kg, 1kg and 1.15kg/litre) to each of our slim, average and fat volumes to calculate possible body masses.</p>
<p>The estimates we obtained differed from those obtained using two popular existing formulas based on modern mammals and non-avian reptiles’ limb bone measurements. For <em>Bradysaurus</em>, the two formulas exceeded our volumetric estimates by up to 375%, suggesting a mass of close to 4 tonnes. For <em>Scutosaurus</em>, the figure was up to 235% higher than our results. </p>
<p>These high mass estimates seem highly unlikely. If they were accurate, the density of the animal’s tissues would have been greater than sandstone or concrete.</p>
<h2>Body size in herbivores</h2>
<p>Now that we have what we believe is an accurate estimate of two pareiasaur species’ body mass, what does it tell us?</p>
<p>The fossil record suggests a rapid increase in body size between the time when their (likely small) ancestors diverged from other early reptiles and the first appearance of <em>Bradysaurus</em> in the fossil record about 262 million years ago.</p>
<p><em>Bradysaurus’s</em> large size is best explained by a negative relationship between food digestibility and body mass. In ecology, this is known as the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/biolinnean/article/115/1/173/2440439?login=false">Jarman-Bell</a> principle. It predicts the evolution of large body size in herbivores that ingest copious, low-quality plant material. Plants are hard to digest, and a plant-based diet typically results in a large body size – herbivores are typically substantially heavier than other dietary groups in living animals. </p>
<p>Alternatively, or maybe in conjunction with the evolution of herbivory, the large body size of <em>Bradysaurus</em> may also have evolved as protection from co-existing predators. Pareiasaurian body armour and their large cheek flanges also suggest adaptations developed as protection from common predators, which would be especially useful for these slow moving, stocky herbivores.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/209919/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Marc Johan Van den Brandt receives funding from the University of the Witwatersrand, GENUS (DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence in Palaeosciences, UID 86073), and the Millenium Trust.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kenneth D. Angielczyk receives funding from the U.S. National Science Foundation and the Field Museum of Natural History. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Marco Romano does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Large pareiasaurs are among the earliest huge plant-eating tetrapods to appear in the history of the development of life on Earth.Marc Johan Van den Brandt, Postdoctoral Research Fellow at the Evolutionary Studies Institute (ESI), University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg., University of the WitwatersrandKenneth D. Angielczyk, Lecturer, University of ChicagoMarco Romano, Professor of Paleontology, Sapienza University of RomeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2098632023-07-19T20:00:25Z2023-07-19T20:00:25ZThe Northern Territory does not have a crocodile problem – and ‘salties’ do not need culling<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538192/original/file-20230719-27-ek02my.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4260%2C2831&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Last week, a 67-year-old man was bitten on the arm by a saltwater crocodile at a waterhole in the Northern Territory’s Top End. Predictably, the incident has prompted debate over whether a crocodile cull is needed. </p>
<p>The incident occurred in Litchfield National Park at Wangi Falls, a popular tourist spot. The man was hospitalised with non-life threatening injuries. Authorities later removed and killed the 2.4 metre crocodile responsible for the attack.</p>
<p>Fatal crocodile attacks in the NT <a href="https://www.ntnews.com.au/news/northern-territory/record-year-for-fatal-crocodile-attacks-in-northern-territory/news-story/e71d7ee8dd4b30641447d9b114cb1039">peaked in 2014</a> when four people died. The last fatal incident in the territory occurred in 2018 when an Indigenous ranger <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2018/oct/12/indigenous-ranger-attacked-and-taken-by-crocodile-in-northern-territory">was killed</a> while fishing with her family.</p>
<p>Despite the low number of fatal attacks in recent years, NT Chief Minister Natasha Fyles said last week the territory’s crocodile population had risen dramatically in recent decades and “it’s time for us to consider” if culling should be reintroduced.</p>
<p>This is an over-reaction to a fairly isolated incident. Data suggest the saltwater crocodile population in the NT does not need to be culled and their management does not need changing. </p>
<h2>Getting to grips with ‘salties’</h2>
<p>Saltwater crocodiles, fondly known in Australia as “salties”, are the <a href="http://www.iucncsg.org/365_docs/attachments/protarea/18%20--8088e67a.pdf">largest</a> in the crocodilian order of reptiles and can grow to six metres.</p>
<p>Hundreds of saltwater crocodile attacks on humans are reported globally each year. This, as well as demand for <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-07-12/should-crocodile-culling-be-reintroduced-in-the-nt/102588160">crocodile skins</a>, has resulted in the species being eradicated from much of its former range. </p>
<p>The saltwater crocodile was once found <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/372405960_Sideleau_and_Nguyen_2021">widely</a> across the Indo-Pacific region. Now, there are no saltwater crocodiles in <a href="http://www.iucncsg.org/365_docs/attachments/protarea/18%20--8088e67a.pdf">several countries</a> including Cambodia, China, Seychelles, Thailand and Vietnam.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537799/original/file-20230717-184356-pfat4r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537799/original/file-20230717-184356-pfat4r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=359&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537799/original/file-20230717-184356-pfat4r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=359&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537799/original/file-20230717-184356-pfat4r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=359&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537799/original/file-20230717-184356-pfat4r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537799/original/file-20230717-184356-pfat4r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537799/original/file-20230717-184356-pfat4r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Current and historical distribution of the saltwater crocodile. Green = present, yellow = possibly present, orange = extinct.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">CrocAttack: The Worldwide Crocodilian Attack Database</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Elsewhere, saltwater crocodile populations declined dramatically last century. In the Northern Territory, crocodile numbers dropped to <a href="https://nt.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/443581/crocodile-management-program.pdf">about 5,000</a> before a culling ban was introduced in 1971. The species’ numbers have since rebounded to <a href="https://nt.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/202579/crocodile-populations.pdf">more than 100,000</a>.</p>
<p>In some areas, recovering crocodile populations come into conflict with humans. This can occur when, for example, humans destroy the species’ habitat or their prey becomes scarce due human activity such as overfishing and poaching. This can force the species to relocate, bringing them closer to people.</p>
<p>Saltwater crocodiles have long been known to enter Wangi Falls during the wet season, when the location is closed to the public. In fact, a 3.4 metre crocodile <a href="https://7news.com.au/news/crocodile/massive-croc-caught-at-popular-swimming-spot-c-9622519">was captured</a> there in January this year. </p>
<p>It’s never 100% safe to swim at locations within the natural range of saltwater crocodiles. However, Wangi Falls is considered reasonably <a href="https://becrocwise.nt.gov.au/crocodiles-and-me/stay-safe-while-swimming">safe</a> for swimming during the dry season (May to October) because park officials survey and remove crocodiles before it opens to the public each year. </p>
<p>So what went wrong in this case? We don’t know for sure. The crocodile in question was relatively small: perhaps it wasn’t spotted during surveys. Or it could have just arrived after surveys were conducted.</p>
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Read more:
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<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="a saltwater crocodile" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537798/original/file-20230717-219717-qhspp8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537798/original/file-20230717-219717-qhspp8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537798/original/file-20230717-219717-qhspp8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537798/original/file-20230717-219717-qhspp8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537798/original/file-20230717-219717-qhspp8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537798/original/file-20230717-219717-qhspp8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537798/original/file-20230717-219717-qhspp8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A saltwater crocodile incident last week has reignited the debate about culling.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Brandon Sideleau</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The current approach works</h2>
<p>Following last week’s crocodile attack, Fyles said culling may be needed, <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-07-11/natasha-fyles-saltwater-crocodile-culling/102585956">telling the media</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I think it’s time for us to consider: do we need to go back to culling considering the significant increase in the crocodile population, and the impact it’s happening, not just on our tourists and visitors, but also locals?</p>
</blockquote>
<p>These comments are surprising. Recent data for the Top End <a href="https://depws.nt.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/437639/SW-Crocodile-Monitoring-Report-2014.pdf">suggests</a> crocodile populations are stabilising. And the rarity of fatal attacks on humans indicates the territory’s <a href="https://becrocwise.nt.gov.au/crocodile-management/crocodile-management-program#:%7E:text=The%20NT%20Government%20uses%20a,techniques%20appropriate%20to%20the%20location">crocodile management plan</a> is effective.</p>
<p>The plan involves, among other measures, removing problem crocodiles, raising public awareness around safely co-existing with the animals, and monitoring their impact. </p>
<p>Since 2018, the NT has experienced one fatal saltwater crocodile attack while <a href="https://environment.des.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0022/227434/crocodile-attacks-queensland.pdf">Queensland</a> has experienced <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2023/may/03/human-remains-found-in-euthanised-crocodile-believed-to-be-missing-queensland-fisher">two</a>. That’s despite an average saltwater crocodile density in the territory <a href="https://environment.des.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0020/244613/qld-estuarine-croc-monitoring-program-2016-19-report.pdf">of 5.3 individuals per kilometre</a> – three times more than in Queensland. </p>
<p>This, coupled with data from outside Australia, suggests the frequency of crocodile attacks depends more on human behaviour and population density than how many crocodiles are in a given area.</p>
<p>In Indonesia, crocodiles <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2023/may/02/crocodile-catch-conservationists-warn-against-proposed-queensland-cull">killed at least 71 people</a> last year alone. Yet the crocodile population there is likely small and recovering, based on the limited number of surveys conducted.</p>
<p>In the Indonesian province of East Nusa Tenggara, for example, crocodiles killed <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/mf/MF20237">at least 60 people</a> between 2009 and 2018. Yet surveys suggest their average density is <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1755-1315/591/1/012044">only 0.4 per kilometre</a>. The situation is similar on <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320990083_Impacts_of_anthropogenic_pressures_on_the_contemporary_biogeography_of_threatened_crocodilians_in_Indonesia">the island of Sumatra</a>, as well as <a href="https://www.thestar.com.my/news/environment/2023/07/15/culling-sabah039s-crocodiles-will-not-reduce-croc-attacks?fbclid=IwAR0Jn_Dn-wOc9X5CXDsI7ucgZi_ost8WJ5WNCSaPeH2bNP9D1fBURfK9Y2Q">parts</a> of <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/358152489_Human-Crocodile_Conflicts_in_Sarawak_Malaysian_Borneo_An_analysis_of_crocodile_attacks_from_2000_until_2020">Malaysia</a>.</p>
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<p>
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Read more:
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<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="saltwater crocodile swimming underwater" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538197/original/file-20230719-23-su836y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538197/original/file-20230719-23-su836y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538197/original/file-20230719-23-su836y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538197/original/file-20230719-23-su836y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538197/original/file-20230719-23-su836y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538197/original/file-20230719-23-su836y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538197/original/file-20230719-23-su836y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">NT Chief Minister Natasha Fyles said crocodile culling may be needed.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The downsides of culling crocs</h2>
<p>Culling saltwater crocodiles isn’t just bad for the species. It can also have negative consequences for humans.</p>
<p>The public could be <a href="https://theconversation.com/crocodile-culls-wont-solve-crocodile-attacks-11203">lulled into a false sense of security</a> and think a location is safe for swimming, even though crocodiles remain. </p>
<p>And seeing saltwater crocodiles in the wild is <a href="https://www.kindnessproject.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/Crocodile-Transition-Plan-final.pdf">important to the NT’s economy</a>. Culling them could damage the NT’s reputation as an ecotourism destination.</p>
<p>Lastly, culling dominant male crocodiles can be dangerous. Saltwater crocodiles are the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Cm-Gienger-2/publication/319502789_Patterns_of_human-crocodile_conflict_in_Queensland_A_review_of_historical_estuarine_crocodile_Crocodylus_porosus_management/links/5c4a0b87a6fdccd6b5c59d4a/Patterns-of-human-crocodile-conflict-in-Queensland-A-review-of-historical-estuarine-crocodile-Crocodylus-porosus-management.pdf">most territorial</a> of all crocodilians. When one is removed, other large crocodiles <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/file?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0126778&type=printable">begin to compete</a> for the newly available territory. This can present a threat to public safety. </p>
<p>The crocodile population in the NT does not need to be culled. Indeed, the territory’s current crocodile management plan is an example of large predator conservation done right.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-living-alongside-crocodiles-can-teach-us-about-coexisting-with-wildlife-139144">What living alongside crocodiles can teach us about coexisting with wildlife</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/209863/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Brandon Michael Sideleau is a member of the IUCN Crocodile Specialist Group</span></em></p>A non-fatal crocodile attack on a tourist last week made headlines. But talk of culling is an over-reaction to a fairly isolated incident.Brandon Michael Sideleau, PhD student studying human-saltwater crocodile conflict, Charles Darwin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2071882023-06-30T12:38:40Z2023-06-30T12:38:40ZBy ‘helping’ wild animals, you could end their freedom or even their lives – here’s why you should keep your distance<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534688/original/file-20230628-19-sk482o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=6%2C0%2C4019%2C3017&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">An eastern box turtle crossing a rural Pennsylvania road.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.instagram.com/p/CA0XxGAgnPg/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link&igshid=MzRlODBiNWFlZA==">Julian Avery</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>For anyone who enjoys nature, summer is a fascinating time to be outside. Animals are on the move: Turtles are nesting, baby birds are testing their wings, snakes are foraging and young mammals are emerging.</p>
<p>In central Pennsylvania, where I live, last year’s hatchling painted turtles have overwintered in their nests and emerged looking like tiny helpless snacks for raccoons and ravens. I’ve already rescued a <a href="https://www.instagram.com/p/CtIJe_eADFt/">baby killdeer</a> – a shorebird that nests in parking lots – that ran off the road and got stuck in a grate. And I’ve watched an eastern chipmunk prey on a nest of <a href="https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Eastern_Towhee/overview">towhee chicks</a>. </p>
<p>I moved the killdeer to safety because it had fallen into what we call an “ecological trap.” Humans create these traps when we degrade habitat that looks suitable to animals. For killdeer, parking pads and roofs give off all the vibes of a great nesting site – except for the drains – and they have less natural habitat available these days. </p>
<p>But I didn’t intervene with the towhees. Their exposed nest site may have been a bad parental decision, or perhaps the chicks’ begging called too much attention. Either way, natural selection helped ensure that these birds and their genes were unlikely to survive. Ultimately, that may be better for the population and species than if I had intervened.</p>
<p>As a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=uYWmAHMAAAAJ&hl=en">wildlife biologist</a>, I know that relocating animals can be bad from a scientific perspective. It also can easily <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.12246">harm the creature you want to help</a>.</p>
<p>Based on my experience as a scientist and university teacher, I’ve developed guidelines for when to get involved in the lives of animals I encounter outside. When I do intervene, it is after carefully considering the potential reasons for the animal’s situation, the species’ population status and the potential harm my actions might inflict upon the whole population – not just on one adorable creature.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/uv-fN4bO0Zc?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">A Humane Society wildlife expert explains what to know about backyard wildlife.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Reasons for caution</h2>
<p>Wild animals have genetic associations with specific habitats that have evolved over many generations. Relocating them can disrupt those connections.</p>
<p>Moving animals means they can’t contribute their offspring and genes to the local population through breeding. That could be catastrophic for species with slow population growth, like many reptiles, who may take years to mature and might only manage a few successful broods in their lifetime. </p>
<p>For species like these, mature females are critical to keeping population sizes high. When populations are small, they lose genetic diversity that <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/frym.2021.656168">helps them resist environmental change</a>. </p>
<p>Moving wildlife also may introduce new genes elsewhere, leading to genetic shifts over time that <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2014.00015">didn’t evolve through natural selection</a>. Animals that are successful in a region tend to leave more offspring, and the heritable genetic variation tied to that success becomes more common and associated with the local environment. These are important relationships to safeguard.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534907/original/file-20230629-25-u5utdu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A juvenile raccoon on a lawn, looking startled." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534907/original/file-20230629-25-u5utdu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534907/original/file-20230629-25-u5utdu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534907/original/file-20230629-25-u5utdu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534907/original/file-20230629-25-u5utdu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534907/original/file-20230629-25-u5utdu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534907/original/file-20230629-25-u5utdu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534907/original/file-20230629-25-u5utdu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A young raccoon that appeared abandoned was soon retrieved by its mother. Raccoons spend many months with their parent after leaving the nest.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Julian Avery</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Moving animals also can cause immediate harm. Transported animals often can’t survive in a territory other animals have already claimed, or the new arrivals may do damage – for example, by preying on vulnerable local species. Wildlife managers may have to move them into captivity <a href="https://www.npr.org/2023/05/24/1177857710/bison-calf-yellowstone-man">or even euthanize them</a>. </p>
<p>Some species can spread pathogens to other wildlife or humans. At a minimum, moving animals can <a href="https://www.humanesociety.org/resources/scrap-trap-when-evicting-wildlife">disorient them</a> and make it hard for them to settle, find food and water or avoid predators. </p>
<h2>It’s usually best to keep your distance</h2>
<p>In general, your default choice should be not to interfere or interact with wildlife. Knowing that humans are nearby <a href="https://theconversation.com/dont-hike-so-close-to-me-how-the-presence-of-humans-can-disturb-wildlife-up-to-half-a-mile-away-162223">stresses animals</a>. It makes them move away or forage and behave differently, and it can harm their body condition by <a href="https://now.tufts.edu/2016/07/12/stress-wild">triggering stress responses</a> that ultimately reduce their fertility.</p>
<p>It’s especially common for people to see baby animals or birds, seemingly alone, and feel compelled to help. In fact, the parents may have secured their young and be actively caring for them, or the young animals may already be independent. </p>
<p>The amount of parental care that different species provide ranges from zero to a lot. For example, once a female turtle chooses a nest site with warm temperatures and the right amount of soil moisture, she lays her eggs and moves on. Hatchling turtles don’t need help unless they’re near <a href="https://www.instagram.com/reel/Ctmu3kEg7-2/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link&igshid=MzRlODBiNWFlZA==">pets or roads</a>. </p>
<p>Rattlesnakes will bask in the sun to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1670/18-073">help their embryos be born live and healthy</a>. Many mammals <a href="https://www.instagram.com/reel/CB1M0QVgtuP/">hide their young during the day</a> and care for them for months. </p>
<p>Bluebirds and tree swallows work tirelessly to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/jzo.12997">feed their young, even after fledging</a>. In contrast, other birds kick their young out at an early stage so they can start the next clutch. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534931/original/file-20230629-25340-7yoje7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534931/original/file-20230629-25340-7yoje7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534931/original/file-20230629-25340-7yoje7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534931/original/file-20230629-25340-7yoje7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534931/original/file-20230629-25340-7yoje7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534931/original/file-20230629-25340-7yoje7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534931/original/file-20230629-25340-7yoje7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Golden-crowned kinglets, like this male, work together to raise 1-2 large broods a season. The male may even take over feeding fledglings as the female prepares the next clutch of 3-11 eggs.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Julian Avery</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Whatever the species, young and inexperienced animals without parents nearby may either be learning how to navigate or have been left hidden by their parents on purpose.</p>
<p>Parents do occasionally abandon their young. They may do it on purpose because their offspring are unfit, or because the parents aren’t fit enough to raise them. Or perhaps the parents have gotten lost. Whatever the reason, natural selection likely means these individuals and their gene complexes will not continue forward – and that benefits the species overall.</p>
<h2>Put the animal’s needs before your own</h2>
<p>It’s well established that getting close to nature is <a href="https://www.healthline.com/health/health-benefits-of-being-outdoors">good for people’s mental health</a>. I believe it’s very important to <a href="https://theconversation.com/its-ok-to-feed-wild-birds-here-are-some-tips-for-doing-it-the-right-way-131371">foster human connections to nature</a> and facilitate these connections for people who have little exposure to the outdoors. </p>
<p>I advocate a <a href="https://www.instagram.com/p/CdvOZYOgDma/">mindful and hands-on approach</a> to being outside. For example, I don’t touch animals that are rare unless it’s part of my research or covered by permits. If I handle an aquatic animal, I make sure my hands are wet and free of chemicals. </p>
<p>However, animals’ needs should come first. Whenever humans are active in an animal’s habitat, they can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/ornithapp/duaa066">degrade it</a> and lead the animals to seek other space. </p>
<p>Some wild animals may be abandoned or alone acting strangely because they are sick or generally unfit. People who handle these animals risk contracting <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2020.582743">zoonotic diseases</a>, such as <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2019/s0506-zoonotic-diseases-shared.html">rabies, plague and avian influenza</a>. Sometimes an unhealthy animal needs to be left alone to avoid spreading infection. </p>
<p>There also are animals that pretend to be injured or dead as a defense strategy. A casual observer may think a rescue is necessary, but don’t make assumptions. For example, Virginia opossums play dead in an involuntary fixed response to fear called <a href="https://asknature.org/strategy/opossums-feign-death-to-evade-predators/">defensive thanatosis</a>. They can’t control it, but within minutes to hours, they’re up and back to normal.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/reel/CpQ_X6FALVq/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link\u0026igshid=MzRlODBiNWFlZA==","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<h2>When and how to help</h2>
<p>Here are some guidelines for when and how to intervene in ways that minimize harm to wildlife.</p>
<p>First, don’t relocate animals over significant distances. An animal that accidentally hitches a ride over long distances, such as a treefrog under your bumper, shouldn’t be released in a new host area. </p>
<p>Helping an animal cross a busy road is OK if you move it in the direction in which it is already headed. This is particularly true for animals that live a long time and reproduce slowly, like <a href="http://northeastparc.org/box-turtle-educational-info/">box turtles</a>, which are declining across North America. Ensuring the survival of a single adult female box turtle can be very important to the success of a local population. </p>
<p>Second, respect the rules at national, state and local parks. Parks often protect at-risk species that can’t safely interact with humans. For example, <a href="https://www.nps.gov/moja/learn/nature/desert-tortoise.htm">desert tortoises</a> may urinate as a defense when picked up, which reduces their internal water supply. </p>
<p>Learn to identify common species that can handle human curiosity and make good ambassadors for biodiversity. Many state agencies have a website or atlas for major wildlife groups that will help you learn which species are widespread or more rare. Most ponds have a common frog that’s sure to catch your eye. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/CeQ7Ka4Ow0d/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link\u0026igshid=MzRlODBiNWFlZA==","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<p>Third, if you think an animal is truly in danger, call a local game warden, wildlife officer, rehab professional or park ranger for advice. If the animal is immediately at risk from a pet or approaching car, and you can reach it safely, put on some gloves and help it – but leave it traveling in the same direction it was moving, or near its local area, so that it doesn’t become disoriented and try to disperse into dangerous habitat.</p>
<p>Fourth, get out and explore. But remember that you’re a guest in the animals’ habitat – tread softly and respectfully. A fallen log can <a href="https://extension.psu.edu/dead-wood-for-wildlife">shelter all kinds of creatures</a>. Look underneath, and then place it back as it was so that it continues to be a home for them.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/207188/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Julian Avery does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A newborn bison calf in Yellowstone National Park had to be euthanized after a visitor handled it in May 2023 – a recent example of how trying to help wild animals often harms them.Julian Avery, Associate Research Professor of Wildlife Conservation, Penn StateLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2080972023-06-25T05:55:02Z2023-06-25T05:55:02ZVictoria has rediscovered a dragon – how do we secure its future?<p>The Victorian grassland earless dragon (<em><a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.190233">Tympanocryptis pinguicolla</a></em>), not seen <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-were-not-giving-up-the-search-for-mainland-australias-first-extinct-lizard-117831">since 1969</a>, has been <a href="https://www.premier.vic.gov.au/reptile-thought-be-extinct-rediscovered-victoria">found in grasslands</a> west of Melbourne. No need to fear this dragon, though; these lizards are just 15cm long fully grown. </p>
<p>The dragon is Australia’s most imperilled scaled reptile. This is an extraordinary second chance. The <a href="https://theconversation.com/still-here-night-parrot-rediscovery-in-wa-raises-questions-for-mining-75384">rediscovery of a species</a> thought to be extinct inspires hope of finding other <a href="https://theconversation.com/extinct-but-not-gone-the-thylacine-continues-to-fascinate-us-201865">lost treasures</a> like the Tassie tiger. </p>
<p>But rediscovery only happens because a species has become so scarce it has eluded even the experts who know best where to look. To save it from extinction, three things must happen quickly: </p>
<ol>
<li><p>intensive care – create a conservation breeding population, manage its remaining genetic diversity, and breed enough individuals to return to the wild</p></li>
<li><p>within the species’ range, protect habitats of the size, quality and quantity needed to support self-sustaining populations</p></li>
<li><p>restore and manage these habitats, reduce threats, reintroduce the dragons and monitor outcomes to ensure the species’ long-term viability.</p></li>
</ol>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1161412944854507520"}"></div></p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-were-not-giving-up-the-search-for-mainland-australias-first-extinct-lizard-117831">Why we're not giving up the search for mainland Australia's 'first extinct lizard'</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Intensive care</h2>
<p>This first step is to set up a climate-controlled, disease-free conservation breeding facility, run by the ICU doctors and nurses of conservation. It’s a tragedy that the only option is to take the last few individuals of a species from the wild to secure its future. With that decision made, it is essential they receive the best possible care. </p>
<p>Fortunately, Melbourne has experts who know how to build and run such facilities, reintroduce species to the wild and monitor their recovery. In this way, Zoos Victoria and collaborators have over the past decade averted the extinction of the mountain pygmy possum, lowland Leadbeater’s possum, helmeted honeyeaters, Baw Baw frog, southern corroboree frog and spotted tree frog. </p>
<p>This work involves setting up, maintaining and staffing such a facility, as well as surveys to locate and move individuals into captive breeding. Based on experience with <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/environment/conservation/a-beacon-of-hope-frog-saving-push-spawns-zoo-s-500k-breeding-centre-20220930-p5bm7m.html">endangered frogs</a>, plus the extra costs of outdoor enclosures, the cost will be around A$2 million over the next five years.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533597/original/file-20230622-19-btp646.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="biological drawings of the grassland earless dragon" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533597/original/file-20230622-19-btp646.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533597/original/file-20230622-19-btp646.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=370&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533597/original/file-20230622-19-btp646.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=370&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533597/original/file-20230622-19-btp646.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=370&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533597/original/file-20230622-19-btp646.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=465&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533597/original/file-20230622-19-btp646.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=465&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533597/original/file-20230622-19-btp646.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=465&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The grassland earless dragon was feared extinct, with only museum specimens, photos and drawings remaining.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://collections.museumsvictoria.com.au/articles/16665">John James Wild/Museums Victoria</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/hundreds-of-australian-lizard-species-are-barely-known-to-science-many-may-face-extinction-161572">Hundreds of Australian lizard species are barely known to science. Many may face extinction</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Securing habitat</h2>
<p>Merely keeping a species alive in zoos <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10806-015-9537-z">is not conservation</a>. Self-sustaining wild populations must be established to recover a species. This is where complexity, uncertainty and economics really bite. </p>
<p>The dragon has only ever been found in the critically endangered ecosystem known as the <a href="https://theconversation.com/ecocheck-victorias-flower-strewn-western-plains-could-be-swamped-by-development-57127">basalt plains grasslands</a>. Agriculture and housing development have reduced these grasslands to <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/book/7219/">less than 3%</a> of their pre-European extent. Most of what remains is on private land. </p>
<p>The dragon’s long-term fate depends on managing the site where it was found and any areas nearby where dragons are living. We also need substantial new areas of suitable plains grasslands as conservation reserves where captive-bred animals can be released. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/npre.2009.3387.1.pdf">Research</a> tells us we need at least six independent, self-sustaining populations for the dragon to stand a chance of persisting for at least the next 50 years. Even if well-managed, some populations will occasionally be lost to disease, predation, hot fires, or other chance events. </p>
<p>Individuals will have to be released back into those areas once the areas recover and can support the species again. In pre-European times, animals could naturally migrate back into such places. Today, habitats are too fragmented for that to happen. </p>
<p>Unfortunately, basalt plains grasslands continue to be lost to <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-08-11/melbourne-grassland-destroyed-developer-conservation-tension/101275526">legal and illegal clearing</a>, the use of fertilisers that favour exotic grasses, weed invasion, rock removal, intensive grazing and the loss of regular low-intensity “cool” fires historically <a href="https://theconversation.com/before-the-colonists-came-we-burned-small-and-burned-often-to-avoid-big-fires-its-time-to-relearn-cultural-burning-201475">used by Traditional Owners</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/before-the-colonists-came-we-burned-small-and-burned-often-to-avoid-big-fires-its-time-to-relearn-cultural-burning-201475">Before the colonists came, we burned small and burned often to avoid big fires. It's time to relearn cultural burning</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>To make matters worse, the Victorian government has over the past decade <a href="https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/broken-promises-turn-fragile-grasslands-into-unprotected-basketcase-20200617-p553p4.html">broken its promise</a> to <a href="https://www.audit.vic.gov.au/sites/default/files/2020-06/20200617-Endangered-Grasslands-report.pdf">set aside large areas</a> of western plains grasslands as conservation reserves. </p>
<p>Securing new conservation areas will be expensive given the competing demands for this land. However, the government has received offset payments from developers when they (legally) destroy grasslands to build houses. It’s time to use those funds to create the reserves the dragon and other endangered grassland species need to survive. </p>
<p>We estimate securing six high-quality grasslands of at least 100 hectares each will cost at least $30 million.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="grassy, rock-strewn hillside with a tree on the horizon" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533622/original/file-20230623-5432-ozzzks.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533622/original/file-20230623-5432-ozzzks.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533622/original/file-20230623-5432-ozzzks.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533622/original/file-20230623-5432-ozzzks.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533622/original/file-20230623-5432-ozzzks.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533622/original/file-20230623-5432-ozzzks.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533622/original/file-20230623-5432-ozzzks.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The biggest cost of ensuring the survival of the dragon and other endangered species will be securing enough of their grassland habitat.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/elizabeth_donoghue/2851275651/">Elizabeth O'Donoghue/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-vast-majority-of-melburnians-want-more-nature-in-their-city-despite-a-puzzling-north-south-divide-206938">The vast majority of Melburnians want more nature in their city, despite a puzzling north-south divide</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Managing threats and restoring habitats</h2>
<p>These reserves will need careful and active management. In the absence of frequent cool fires, and in the presence of invasive weeds and animal pests, these areas will lose the plant species that make them special and beautiful. Weeds, cats, foxes, dogs and rabbits all create unsuitable habitat for dragons. </p>
<p>Many of these grasslands are so degraded they need a lot of restoration work, almost starting from bare soil. </p>
<p>Weed control and fire management to maintain six 100-hectare reserves as suitable habitat for dragons will cost around $2.4 million a year. These reserves would of course be home to many more grassland animals and plants, including <a href="https://theconversation.com/ecocheck-victorias-flower-strewn-western-plains-could-be-swamped-by-development-57127">other endangered species</a> such as the <a href="https://theconversation.com/i-realised-the-fat-tailed-dunnart-was-under-threat-heres-how-i-got-the-species-officially-listed-200632">fat-tailed dunnart</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/ecocheck-victorias-flower-strewn-western-plains-could-be-swamped-by-development-57127">EcoCheck: Victoria's flower-strewn western plains could be swamped by development</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533592/original/file-20230622-23-4p9jiq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="map showing range of grasslands earless dragon to the west of Melbourne" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533592/original/file-20230622-23-4p9jiq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533592/original/file-20230622-23-4p9jiq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=449&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533592/original/file-20230622-23-4p9jiq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=449&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533592/original/file-20230622-23-4p9jiq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=449&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533592/original/file-20230622-23-4p9jiq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533592/original/file-20230622-23-4p9jiq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533592/original/file-20230622-23-4p9jiq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Development has destroyed most of the grassland habitat across the dragon’s former range.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.environment.gov.au/cgi-bin/sprat/public/publicspecies.pl?taxon_id=66727">Commonwealth DCCEEW</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We can’t be sure of the exact costs of buying, restoring and managing grasslands. Our estimates assume, for example, the sites contain most grassland plant species. If areas were being restored from bare soil, ten-year restoration and management costs would more than double. </p>
<p>Other uncertainties include land prices, the costs of weed and pest control and fire management, and the possible need to help insect populations establish as a sustainable source of dragon food.</p>
<h2>We can afford to save the dragon</h2>
<p>The whole program is likely to cost around $56 million over ten years. More than half the cost involves buying highly sought-after properties. </p>
<p>If this sounds like a lot of money, consider that Australians spend over <a href="https://www.petfoodindustry.com/news-newsletters/pet-food-news/article/15469415/national-survey-reveals-australians-spending-on-pets">$30 billion</a> a year on pet care. Just the GST on that spending ($3 billion) would cover the annual <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/conl.12682">cost of conserving</a> most of our <a href="https://www.environment.gov.au/cgi-bin/sprat/public/publicthreatenedlist.pl">1,900 or so endangered species</a> (most don’t have the dragon’s expensive taste in real estate). As a nation, we can afford to save the dragon and <a href="https://theconversation.com/if-the-budget-ditched-the-stage-3-tax-cuts-australia-could-save-every-threatened-species-and-lots-more-205305">most of its endangered friends</a>, as <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/C2021C00182">the law requires</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/208097/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Brendan Wintle has received funding from the Australian Research Council, the Victorian, NSW and Queensland governments, the Commonwealth National Environmental Science Program, the Ian Potter Foundation, the Hermon Slade Foundation, and the Australian Conservation Foundation. He is a board director of Zoos Victoria and a lead councillor of the Biodiversity Council.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sarah Bekessy receives funding from the Australian Research Council, the National Health and Medical Research Council, the Ian Potter Foundation and the European Commission. She is a lead councillor of the Biodiversity Council, a board member of Bush Heritage Australia, a member of WWF's Eminent Scientists Group and a member of the Advisory Group for Wood for Good.</span></em></p>The successful quest to find a species last seen more than 50 years ago has added to the urgency of protecting the vanishing grassland habitat of a lizard that had been feared extinct.Brendan Wintle, Professor in Conservation Science, School of Ecosystem and Forest Science, The University of MelbourneSarah Bekessy, Professor in Sustainability and Urban Planning, Leader, Interdisciplinary Conservation Science Research Group (ICON Science), RMIT UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2065012023-05-30T14:02:40Z2023-05-30T14:02:40ZThese magnificent 107-million-year-old pterosaur bones are the oldest ever found in Australia<p>New research on old bones has shed light on pterosaur fossils from the early Cretaceous period of Australia, which took place roughly 107 million years ago.</p>
<p>The bones were discovered in Victoria in the late 1980s at a fossil site called <a href="https://museumsvictoria.com.au/article/the-700/">Dinosaur Cove</a>, a few hours’ drive west of Melbourne.</p>
<p>Our paper describing the bones is <a href="https://tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08912963.2023.2201827">published today in Historical Biology</a>.</p>
<h2>The oldest pterosaur bones we have</h2>
<p>The Dinosaur Cove fossils are the geologically oldest pterosaur remains we have from the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/Cretaceous-Period/Major-subdivisions-of-the-Cretaceous-System">Lower Cretaceous</a> of Australia. </p>
<p>These bones belonged to two separate individuals, because there’s a relative size difference between the two.</p>
<p>One specimen is a partial sacrum (the fused vertebrae from between the pelvic bones), a relative rarity in the pterosaur fossil record. The other is a comparatively small fourth metacarpal (part of the wing finger) – it is the first evidence of a juvenile pterosaur found in Australia.</p>
<p>Although we couldn’t pinpoint exactly which species in the pterosaur family these bones came from, the partial sacrum belonged to an individual with a wingspan estimated to exceed two metres. By contrast, the juvenile pterosaur had a wingspan just over one metre. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Silhouettes of a woman compared with Australian Cretaceous pterosaurs" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528526/original/file-20230526-21-5fzgqw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528526/original/file-20230526-21-5fzgqw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=299&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528526/original/file-20230526-21-5fzgqw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=299&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528526/original/file-20230526-21-5fzgqw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=299&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528526/original/file-20230526-21-5fzgqw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528526/original/file-20230526-21-5fzgqw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528526/original/file-20230526-21-5fzgqw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Wingspan estimates of Australian pterosaurs, including <em>Ferrodraco lentoni</em>, an adult from the Upper Cretaceous of Queensland, compared with the newly described Victorian pterosaurs from the Lower Cretaceous.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In the early Cretaceous, approximately 110–107 million years ago, Victoria was virtually unrecognisable. The Bass Strait was a narrow valley occupied by fast-flowing rivers. Conifers and ginkgoes grew here instead of eucalypts and grasses, and dinosaurs reigned.</p>
<p>On the ground, the dominant herbivore animals were <a href="https://theconversation.com/meet-the-diverse-group-of-plant-eating-dinosaurs-that-roamed-victoria-110-million-years-ago-166343">small-bodied, beaked ornithopods</a>, perpetually wary of the <a href="https://www.swinburne.edu.au/news/2019/10/huge-clawed-predatory-dinosaur-discovery-in-victoria/">rapacious megaraptoran theropods</a>.</p>
<p>For more than 30 years, it has been clear to scientists that flying reptiles called pterosaurs soared through the Victorian Cretaceous skies, above the heads of the dinosaurs. Until recently, however, they have remained a mystery.</p>
<h2>Treasure at Dinosaur Cove</h2>
<p>Large-scale excavations at <a href="https://depositsmag.com/2020/07/02/hell-and-high-water-the-digs-of-dinosaur-cove/">Dinosaur Cove</a> began in 1984, and for more than 40 years, a team of volunteers called <a href="http://dinosaurdreaming.monash.edu/">Dinosaur Dreaming</a> have excavated fossil sites along several other sites scattered across the Victorian coast.</p>
<p><a href="https://museumsvictoria.com.au/about-us/staff/dr-thomas-rich/">Tom Rich</a> and <a href="https://research.monash.edu/en/persons/patricia-rich">Pat Vickers-Rich</a>, co-authors of our newly published paper, led the excavations that yielded not just the newly described pterosaurs, but myriad other discoveries as well. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Two palaeontologists holding pterosaur bones" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528532/original/file-20230526-27-8vpr49.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528532/original/file-20230526-27-8vpr49.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528532/original/file-20230526-27-8vpr49.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528532/original/file-20230526-27-8vpr49.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528532/original/file-20230526-27-8vpr49.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528532/original/file-20230526-27-8vpr49.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528532/original/file-20230526-27-8vpr49.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Co-authors Pat Vickers-Rich and Tom Rich holding the pterosaur specimens we described.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Tim Ziegler, Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The work at this rich fossil site has resulted in thousands of dinosaur bones and other fossils. These include fossil fish (bony fish and lungfish), skeletal remains from ornithopods, megaraptoran theropods, aquatic plesiosaurs and prehistoric mammals. There was also <a href="https://ecoevocommunity.nature.com/posts/a-tiny-dinosaur-bone-with-a-big-story-to-tell-australia-s-first-elaphrosaur">Australia’s only elaphrosaurine theropod</a>: a lightly-built dinosaur with a small head, long neck, relatively short front limbs, long hind limbs and a long tail.</p>
<p>But among the rarest vertebrate fossils from Dinosaur Cove are those from pterosaurs.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/meet-the-diverse-group-of-plant-eating-dinosaurs-that-roamed-victoria-110-million-years-ago-166343">Meet the diverse group of plant-eating dinosaurs that roamed Victoria 110 million years ago</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Australia’s pterosaur record</h2>
<p>The majority of Australia’s pterosaur fossils have been found in central-western Queensland. Indeed, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/288361a0">the first pterosaurs reported from the continent</a> were isolated remains from the Eromanga Basin, described in 1980.</p>
<p>Since then, more pterosaur material has come to light, with four Australian pterosaur species currently recognised: <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195667118302775"><em>Mythunga camara</em></a>, <a href="https://www.scielo.br/j/aabc/a/cbd3DSy74yzYnnrTvfqw73M/?format=pdf&lang=en"><em>Aussiedraco molnari</em></a>, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-49789-4"><em>Ferrodraco lentoni</em></a> and <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02724634.2021.1946068"><em>Thapunngaka shawi</em></a>.</p>
<p><em>Ferrodraco</em> is the most complete Australian pterosaur to date, and is represented by <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02724634.2021.2038182">an adult individual with a wingspan of approximately four metres</a>, which we named as a new species in 2019.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/4-metre-flying-reptile-unearthed-in-queensland-is-our-best-pterosaur-fossil-yet-124581">4-metre flying reptile unearthed in Queensland is our best pterosaur fossil yet</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Other pterosaur fossils from Australia include isolated remains from the Cretaceous of Western Australia, and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5419211/">opalised pterosaur teeth</a> from the mid-Cretaceous of Lightning Ridge in New South Wales.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Three pterosaur wing bones" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528531/original/file-20230526-17-nzdm20.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528531/original/file-20230526-17-nzdm20.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528531/original/file-20230526-17-nzdm20.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528531/original/file-20230526-17-nzdm20.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528531/original/file-20230526-17-nzdm20.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528531/original/file-20230526-17-nzdm20.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528531/original/file-20230526-17-nzdm20.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Three pterosaur wing bones from three individuals. Left: right metacarpal from the Toolebuc Formation was discovered at Slashers Creek Station, east of Boulia, Queensland. Middle: Left metacarpal from <em>Ferrodraco lentoni</em> from the Winton Formation, discovered northeast of Winton, Queensland. Right: a left metacarpal from a juvenile pterosaur from Dinosaur Cove, Victoria.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We don’t know which species the Victorian pterosaurs belong to. However, the comparatively small fourth metacarpal – a bone from the wing – is the first unequivocal evidence of a juvenile pterosaur from Australia. </p>
<h2>Pterosaurs at high latitudes</h2>
<p>Few pterosaur remains have been reported from fossil sites that were at high latitudes during the Age of Reptiles – the Mesozoic Era.</p>
<p>Antarctica, which was at high latitudes throughout, <a href="https://www.scielo.br/j/aabc/a/CcYBLYkgDhfJfvQDNdRxK4m/?lang=en">has produced three pterosaur fossils</a>. One of these awaits formal description, and another was <a href="https://theconversation.com/lesson-from-brazil-museums-are-not-forever-102692">recovered from the charred remains of the National Museum of Brazil</a>.</p>
<p>The only reports of high-latitude pterosaurs in the northern hemisphere are of <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/let.12006?casa_token=zOdjm4--NfkAAAAA%3A8_IIW_UhaReQVG1aohnc24Sl5BFtEqdWlYm4jEN_b-OTM5Ghdd_umZyigE1Y8gaxkMwwKnie0eSML8pt">isolated footprints</a>.</p>
<p>During the Cretaceous, <a href="https://www.geologypage.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/CretaceousPeriod.jpg">Australia was farther south than it is today</a>. In fact, Victoria was within the polar circle during much of the Cretaceous. Southeast Australia was not frozen over at this time, but there were weeks or months of continuous darkness during the winter. Despite these <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Dinosaurs-Darkness-Second-Search-Polar/dp/0253029406">harsh polar conditions</a>, life found a way to survive and thrive. </p>
<p>This prompts a few questions: were pterosaurs permanent residents in southeast Australia? Or did they migrate south during summer and head north for the winter?</p>
<p><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-92499-z">From a young age, pterosaurs were adept fliers</a>, their bones already able to withstand the stresses of both launch and flight. However, subtle variations in the shape of the bones imply that hatchlings differed from their adult counterparts in terms of speed and manoeuvrability. </p>
<p>Until we discover pterosaur eggs or embryonic individuals at sites that were at high latitudes at the time, we won’t be able to confirm if pterosaurs were year-round residents or migratory.</p>
<p>Despite the rarity of pterosaurs in the fossil record, it is only a matter of time before we find more complete pterosaur material from Dinosaur Cove and other Cretaceous sites from coastal Victoria. Then, we can finally uncover the identity of these ancient, enigmatic winged reptiles.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/206501/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Adele Pentland receives funding from the Australian Government Research Training Program Stipend.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stephen Poropat does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>In the dinosaur era, flying reptiles soared in the skies of what is now Australia – but we have barely any fossil records of them.Adele Pentland, PhD candidate, Curtin UniversityStephen Poropat, Research associate, Curtin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2012902023-03-08T03:35:37Z2023-03-08T03:35:37ZCrocodiles are uniquely protected against fungal infections. This might one day help human medicine too<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/514088/original/file-20230308-14-j29qn9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4920%2C2921&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Anthony D. Williams</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Over the millions of years crocodiles and their relatives have roamed our planet, they have evolved robust immune systems to help combat the potentially harmful microbes in the swamps and waterways they call home. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-023-36280-y">Our study</a>, recently published in Nature Communications, takes a closer look at antimicrobial proteins called defensins, found in saltwater crocodiles. These proteins play a key role in the reptiles’ first line of defence against infectious disease.</p>
<p>As the threat of antibiotic-resistant microbes grows, so does our need for new and effective treatments. Could the defensins of these beasts hold the answers to help create a new wave of life-saving therapeutics?</p>
<h2>What are defensins?</h2>
<p>Defensins are small proteins produced by all plants and animals. In plants, defensins are usually made in the flowers and leaves, whereas animal defensins are made by white blood cells and in mucous membranes (for example in the lungs and intestines). Their role is to protect the host by killing infectious organisms.</p>
<p>Research into the <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00018-016-2344-5">defensins of different plant and animal species</a> has found they can target a broad range of disease-causing pathogens. These include <a href="https://apsjournals.apsnet.org/doi/10.1094/MPMI-08-18-0229-CR?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%20%200pubmed">bacteria</a>, <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/sciadv.aat0979?rfr_dat=cr_pub++0pubmed&url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori%3Arid%3Acrossref.org">fungi</a>, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022283613006220?via%3Dihub">viruses</a> and even <a href="https://faseb.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1096/fj.201802540R">cancer cells</a>.</p>
<p>The most common way defensins kill these pathogens is by attaching themselves to the outer membrane – the layer that holds the cell together. Once there, defensins create holes in the membrane, causing the cell contents to leak out, killing the cell in the process. </p>
<h2>What’s special about crocodile defensins?</h2>
<p>Despite living in dirty water, crocodiles rarely develop infections even though they often get wounded while hunting and fighting for territory. This suggests crocodiles have a potent immune system. We wanted to better understand how their defensins have adapted over time to protect them in these harsh environments. </p>
<p>By searching through the genome of the saltwater crocodile, we found that one particular defensin, named CpoBD13, was effective at killing the fungus <em><a href="https://www.cdc.gov/fungal/diseases/candidiasis/index.html">Candida albicans</a></em> – the leading cause of human fungal infections worldwide. Although some plant and animal defensins have previously been shown to target <em>Candida albicans</em>, the mechanism behind CpoBD13’s antifungal activity is what makes it unique.</p>
<p>That’s because CpoBD13 can self-regulate its activity based on the pH of the surrounding environment. At neutral pH (for example, in the blood) the defensin is inactive. However, when it reaches a site of infection which has a lower, acidic pH, the defensin is activated and can help clear the infection. This is the first time this mechanism has been observed in a defensin.</p>
<p>Our team discovered this mechanism by revealing the structure of CpoBD13 using a process called X-ray crystallography. This involves “shooting” lab-grown protein crystals with high-powered X-rays, which we were able to do at <a href="https://www.ansto.gov.au/facilities/australian-synchrotron">the Australian Synchrotron</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/514129/original/file-20230308-14-db6qwm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A green-yellow crocodile swimming past some green lilypads in dark water" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/514129/original/file-20230308-14-db6qwm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/514129/original/file-20230308-14-db6qwm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=347&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514129/original/file-20230308-14-db6qwm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=347&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514129/original/file-20230308-14-db6qwm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=347&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514129/original/file-20230308-14-db6qwm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514129/original/file-20230308-14-db6qwm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514129/original/file-20230308-14-db6qwm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Saltwater crocodiles can live in pretty murky waters.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Atosan/Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Are fungi really a threat to human health?</h2>
<p>In comparison to bacterial and viral infections, fungal infections are often not seen as serious. After all, <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/apm.13098">pandemics throughout human history</a> have only ever been caused by the former. Indeed, fungi are most commonly known in the general public for causing athlete’s foot and toenail infections – hardly life-threating conditions.</p>
<p>But fungi can pose severe problems to human health, particularly in people with impaired immune systems. Globally, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1369527422000820#bib2">approximately 1.5 million deaths per year</a> are attributed to fungal infections. </p>
<p>Our current arsenal of antifungals is <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nrd.2017.46/">limited to only a handful of drugs</a>. Furthermore, we haven’t had a new class of antifungal treatments since the early 2000s. To make matters even worse, overuse of the antifungal medicines we do have has led to some <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8519031/">drug-resistant fungal strains</a>.</p>
<p>Rising global temperatures have also made once cooler regions more hospitable to pathogenic fungi. <a href="https://microbiologysociety.org/publication/past-issues/life-on-a-changing-planet/article/impact-of-climate-change-on-fungi.html">Climate change</a> has even been linked with the emergence of new drug-resistant species, such as <em>Candida auris</em>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-what-is-candida-auris-and-who-is-at-risk-115293">Explainer: what is Candida auris and who is at risk?</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>A long way from crocs to the clinic</h2>
<p>In the hunt for new medicines, our study and those like it are important for finding potential future antibiotics. By characterising the defensins of crocodiles, we have provided the groundwork needed to develop CpoBD13 into an effective antifungal. However, undertaking clinic trials is a long and costly process. From the initial discovery, it can take between <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41573-021-00190-9">five and 20 years to get a new drug approved</a>. </p>
<p>Currently, protein-based treatments can sometimes unintentionally <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6684887/">harm a person’s healthy cells</a>. By using our knowledge of the crocodile’s defensins, we could potentially engineer other proteins to take on CpoBD13’s pH-sensing mechanism. Thus, they would only “turn on” upon reaching the infection.</p>
<p>Although there is much work to do before we see crocodile defensins in the clinic, we hope to one day harness the unique primal power of the crocodile’s immune system to aid in the global fight against infectious disease.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/201290/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mark Hulett receives funding from the Australian Research Council, National Health and Medical Research Council, Medical Research Future Fund.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Scott Williams does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Despite the filthy waters they often reside in, saltwater crocodiles don’t get sick that often. Perhaps we could one day harness the special proteins that help them.Scott Williams, PhD Candidate in Biochemistry, La Trobe UniversityMark Hulett, Professor and Head of Department, La Trobe UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1999582023-02-15T05:47:20Z2023-02-15T05:47:20ZSnakes can hear you scream, new research reveals<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510229/original/file-20230215-1870-tn2i1.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=15%2C10%2C3340%2C2218&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Christina Zdenek</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Experts have long understood that snakes can feel sound vibrations through the ground – what we call “tactile” sensing – but we’ve puzzled over whether they can also hear airborne sound vibrations, and particularly over how they <em>react</em> to sounds.</p>
<p>In a new paper <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0281285">published</a> in PLOS ONE, we conclude snakes use hearing to help them interpret the world, and finally dispel the myth that snakes are deaf to airborne sound. </p>
<p>Our research, which included 19 different snakes from seven species, reveals that not only do snakes have airborne hearing, but that different species react differently to what they hear. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/7-reasons-australia-is-the-lucky-country-when-it-comes-to-snakes-175188">7 reasons Australia is the lucky country when it comes to snakes</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>How snakes respond to airborne and ground-borne sounds</h2>
<p>Although seeing and tasting (the air) are the main ways snakes sense their environment, our study highlights that hearing still plays an important role in snakes’ sensory repertoire. </p>
<p>This makes sense from an evolutionary perspective. Snakes are susceptible to predators including monitor lizards, cats, dogs and other snakes. Hearing is an important sense for both predator avoidance and injury avoidance (such as being trodden on).</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510230/original/file-20230215-26-xn6zpb.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A coastal taipan sits at the centre of a large black and white grid on the ground." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510230/original/file-20230215-26-xn6zpb.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510230/original/file-20230215-26-xn6zpb.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510230/original/file-20230215-26-xn6zpb.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510230/original/file-20230215-26-xn6zpb.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510230/original/file-20230215-26-xn6zpb.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510230/original/file-20230215-26-xn6zpb.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510230/original/file-20230215-26-xn6zpb.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The coastal taipan was one of 19 snake species used in our research.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Christina Zdenek</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For our experiments, we collaborated with the Queensland University of Technology’s <a href="https://www.qut.edu.au/about/our-university/organisational-structure/faculty-of-creative-industries,-education-and-social-justice-old/school-of-creative-practice">School of Creative Practice</a> to fit-out a soundproof room and test one snake at a time.</p>
<p>Using silence as our control, we played one of three sounds, each including a range of frequencies: 1–150Hz, 150–300Hz and 300–450Hz. For comparison, the human voice range is about 100–250Hz, and birds chirp at about 8,000Hz.</p>
<p>In one <a href="https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/205/19/3087/9027/Response-of-western-diamondback-rattlesnakes">previous study</a>, researchers hung western diamondback rattlesnakes (<em>Crotalus atrox</em>) in a steel mesh basket and observed their restricted behaviours in response to sound frequencies between 200Hz and 400Hz. In another, <a href="https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/222/14/jeb198184/20779/Underwater-hearing-in-sea-snakes-Hydrophiinae">researchers</a> surgically implanted electrodes into the brains of partially anaesthetised snakes, detecting electrical potentials in response to sound up to 600Hz. </p>
<p>But our research is the first to investigate how multiple snake species respond to sounds in a space where they can move freely. We also used an accelerometer to detect whether the sounds produced ground vibrations. In this way we confirmed the snakes were indeed registering airborne sounds, and not just feeling ground vibrations.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510261/original/file-20230215-24-7w43c2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510261/original/file-20230215-24-7w43c2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510261/original/file-20230215-24-7w43c2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510261/original/file-20230215-24-7w43c2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510261/original/file-20230215-24-7w43c2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510261/original/file-20230215-24-7w43c2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510261/original/file-20230215-24-7w43c2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510261/original/file-20230215-24-7w43c2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A coastal taipan near a sugarcane farm in Queensland.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Chris Hay</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Do snakes move toward or away from sound?</h2>
<p>Most of the snakes exhibited very different types of behaviours in sound trials compared to the control.</p>
<p>Woma pythons (<em>Aspidites ramsayi</em>) – a non-venomous snake found throughout Australia’s arid interior – significantly increased their movement in response to sound and actually approached it. They exhibited an interesting behaviour called “periscoping”, in which snakes raise the front third of their body in a manner that suggests curiosity. </p>
<p>In contrast, three other genera – <em>Acanthophis</em> (death adders), <em>Oxyuranus</em> (taipans) and <em>Pseudonaja</em> (brown snakes) – were more likely to move away from sound, signalling potential avoidance behaviour. </p>
<p>Death adders are ambush predators. They wait for their prey to come to them <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2435.2008.01466.x">using the lure on their tail</a> (which they wiggle to look like a worm), and they can’t travel quickly. So it makes sense they trended away from the sound. For them, survival means avoiding being trodden on by large vertebrates such as kangaroos, wombats or humans. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510263/original/file-20230215-3672-ie0u3v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510263/original/file-20230215-3672-ie0u3v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510263/original/file-20230215-3672-ie0u3v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510263/original/file-20230215-3672-ie0u3v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510263/original/file-20230215-3672-ie0u3v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=539&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510263/original/file-20230215-3672-ie0u3v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=539&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510263/original/file-20230215-3672-ie0u3v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=539&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A common death adder (<em>Acanthophis antarcticus</em>) in an ambush position at Mount Glorious, Queensland.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Christina N. Zdenek</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Brown snakes and taipans are active foragers that rapidly pursue their prey during the day. This means they may be vulnerable to daytime predators such as raptors. In our experiments, both of these snakes appeared to have acute senses. Taipans in particular were likely to display defensive and cautious behaviours in response to sound.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/CY26uRzqsS4?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Coastal taipans displayed cautious behaviours in response to sound.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Can snakes hear us?</h2>
<p>Our study further debunks the myth that snakes are deaf. They can hear – just not as well as you or I. Snakes can only hear low frequencies, roughly below the 600Hz mark, whereas most of us can hear a <a href="https://hypertextbook.com/facts/2003/ChrisDAmbrose.shtml">much wider range</a>. Snakes probably hear muffled versions of what we do. </p>
<p>So, can snakes hear us? The frequency of the human voice is about 100–250Hz, depending on sex. The sounds we played in our trials included these frequencies, and were played at a distance of 1.2m from the snakes at 85 decibels. This is about the amplitude of a loud voice.</p>
<p>The snakes in our study responded to this sound, and many significantly so. So it’s probably safe to say snakes can hear people speaking loudly or screaming. That doesn’t mean they can’t hear someone talking (a normal conversation is about 60 decibels) – we just didn’t test sound at this noise level.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/heres-how-we-track-down-and-very-carefully-photograph-australias-elusive-snakes-176971">Here's how we track down and very carefully photograph Australia's elusive snakes</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/199958/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Christina N. Zdenek receives funding from the Australian Research Council and works for the Australian Reptile Academy.</span></em></p>It had long been thought snakes can only feel vibrations through the ground. New research shows they can not only sense airborne sound, but can likely detect human voices.Christina N. Zdenek, Post-doctoral Research Fellow, Venom Evolution Lab, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1807942023-01-25T20:22:30Z2023-01-25T20:22:30ZOne of these underrated animals should be Australia’s 2032 Olympic mascot. Which would you choose?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/506293/original/file-20230125-14-95y6eq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=89%2C11%2C3778%2C1982&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wes Mountain/The Conversation/Shutterstockl</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em><strong>Am I not pretty enough?</strong> This article is part of <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/am-i-not-pretty-enough-106740">The Conversation’s series</a> introducing you to unloved Australian animals that need our help.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>Australia is set to host the 2032 Olympic games in Queensland’s capital Brisbane, captivating an audience of billions. With so many eyes on Australia, the burning question is, of course, what animal(s) should be the official mascot(s) of the games, and why? </p>
<p><a href="https://olympics.com/en/olympic-games/olympic-mascots">Summer Olympics past</a> have featured recognisable animal mascots such as Waldi the daschund (Munich, 1972), Amik the beaver (Montreal, 1976), Misha the bear (Moscow, 1980), Sam the eagle (Los Angeles, 1984) and Hodori the tiger (Seoul, 1988).</p>
<p>Iconic and familiar mammals and birds dominate the list. The trend continued at Sydney’s 2000 games which featured Syd (playtpus), Olly (kookaburra) and Millie (echidna).</p>
<p>But the Brisbane Olympics is a great opportunity to showcase lesser known species, including those with uncertain futures. </p>
<p>Sadly Australia is a world leader in extinctions. Highlighting species many are unfamiliar with, the <a href="https://theconversation.com/labors-plan-to-save-threatened-species-is-an-improvement-but-its-still-well-short-of-what-we-need-191845">threats to them</a> and their respective <a href="https://theconversation.com/existential-threat-to-our-survival-see-the-19-australian-ecosystems-already-collapsing-154077">habitats and ecosystems</a>, could help to stimulate increased conservation efforts. </p>
<p>From a “worm” that shoots deadly slime from its head, to a blind marsupial mole that “swims” underground, let’s take a look at three leading candidates (plus 13 special mentions). What makes them so special, and what physical and athletic talents do they possess?</p>
<h2>Onychophorans, or velvet worms</h2>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Cartoon of a velvet worm riding an olympic velodrome bicycle" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/506288/original/file-20230125-20-95y6eq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/506288/original/file-20230125-20-95y6eq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506288/original/file-20230125-20-95y6eq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506288/original/file-20230125-20-95y6eq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506288/original/file-20230125-20-95y6eq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506288/original/file-20230125-20-95y6eq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506288/original/file-20230125-20-95y6eq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A potential mascot design.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wes Mountain/The Conversation</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://www.wettropics.gov.au/the-velvet-worm">Velvet worms</a> are extraordinary forest and woodland denizens thought to have changed little in roughly 500 million years. Australian velvet worms are often smaller than 5 centimetres and look a bit like a worm-caterpillar mash up. They’re found across Australia and <a href="https://australian.museum/learn/animals/worms/velvet-worm/">other locations globally</a>.</p>
<p>Their waterproof, velvet-like skin is covered in tiny protusions called papillae, which have tactile and smell-sensitive <a href="https://australian.museum/learn/animals/worms/velvet-worm/">bristles on the end</a>. Velvet worms possess antennae and Australian species have 14-16 pairs of stumpy “legs”, each with a claw that helps them move across uneven surfaces such as logs and rocks. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505765/original/file-20230123-8209-5v38zg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505765/original/file-20230123-8209-5v38zg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505765/original/file-20230123-8209-5v38zg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=285&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505765/original/file-20230123-8209-5v38zg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=285&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505765/original/file-20230123-8209-5v38zg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=285&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505765/original/file-20230123-8209-5v38zg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=358&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505765/original/file-20230123-8209-5v38zg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=358&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505765/original/file-20230123-8209-5v38zg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=358&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A velvet worm from Mt Elliot, North Queensland.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Alexander Dudley/Faunaverse</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Their colour varies between species, often blue, grey, purple or brown. Many display exquisite, detailed and showy patterns that can include diamonds and stripes – clear X-factor for a potential mascot.</p>
<p>Although velvet worms may be relatively small and, dare I say it, adorable, don’t be fooled. These animals are voracious predators.</p>
<p>They capture unsuspecting prey – other invertebrates – at night by <a href="https://www.wired.com/2014/03/the-creature-feature-10-fun-facts-about-velvet-worms/">firing sticky slime</a> from glands on their heads. Once the victim is subdued, velvet worms bite their prey and inject saliva that breaks down tissues and liquefies them, ready to be easily sucked out. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505763/original/file-20230123-35082-x09gac.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505763/original/file-20230123-35082-x09gac.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505763/original/file-20230123-35082-x09gac.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505763/original/file-20230123-35082-x09gac.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505763/original/file-20230123-35082-x09gac.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=526&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505763/original/file-20230123-35082-x09gac.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=526&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505763/original/file-20230123-35082-x09gac.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=526&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A velvetine cuddle. A group of adult and juvenile Euperipatoides rowelii.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Tanya Latty</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>If this isn’t intimidating enough, one species (<a href="https://www.australiangeographic.com.au/blogs/creatura-blog/2014/02/velvet-worm-euperipatoides-rowelli/"><em>Euperipatoides rowelli</em></a>) lives and hunts in groups, with a social hierarchy under the control of a dominant female who feeds first following a kill. </p>
<p>Despite their formidable abilities, velvet worms are vulnerable to habitat destruction and fragmentation, and a changing climate. </p>
<h2>Jalbil (Boyd’s forest dragon)</h2>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Cartoon of a jalbil as an Olympic rock climber" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/506289/original/file-20230125-18-45ompr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/506289/original/file-20230125-18-45ompr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506289/original/file-20230125-18-45ompr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506289/original/file-20230125-18-45ompr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506289/original/file-20230125-18-45ompr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506289/original/file-20230125-18-45ompr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506289/original/file-20230125-18-45ompr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A potential mascot design.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wes Mountain/The Conversation</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://arod.com.au/arod/reptilia/Squamata/Agamidae/Hypsilurus/boydii?q=boyd">Jalbil</a> is found in the rainforests of tropical North Queensland. They are a truly striking lizard – bearing a prominent pointy crest and a line of spikes down the back, distinct conical cheek scales and a resplendent yellow throat (dewlap) which can be erected to signal to each other. </p>
<p>Despite their colourful and ornate appearance, Jalbil can be very hard to spot as they’re perfectly camouflaged with their surroundings. They spend much of their time clinging vertically to tree trunks often at or below human head-height. Some have favourite trees they use more frequently.</p>
<p>If they detect movement, they simply move around the tree trunk to be out of direct view. </p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505773/original/file-20230123-51865-egupay.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505773/original/file-20230123-51865-egupay.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505773/original/file-20230123-51865-egupay.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505773/original/file-20230123-51865-egupay.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505773/original/file-20230123-51865-egupay.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505773/original/file-20230123-51865-egupay.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505773/original/file-20230123-51865-egupay.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505773/original/file-20230123-51865-egupay.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Jalbil (Boyd’s forest dragon) is found in the rainforests of North Queensland’s Wet Tropics.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Chris Jolly</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Reaching lengths of around 50cm, Jalbil mostly eat invertebrates, including ants, beetles, grasshoppers and worms. Males may have access to multiple female mates, and breeding is stimulated by storms at the beginning of the wet season.</p>
<p>While Jalbil are under no immediate threat, <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/abs/10.1126/science.aai9214">their future is uncertain</a>. Jalbil are ectothermic, so unlike mammals and birds (endothermic), they can’t regulate their internal body heat through metabolism. Sunlight is often very patchy and limited below the rainforest canopy, restricting opportunities for basking to warm up.</p>
<p>Instead, Jalbil simply allow their body temperature to conform with the ambient conditions of their environment (thermo-conforming). This means if climate change leads to <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/abs/10.1098/rspb.2003.2464">increased temperatures in the rainforests of Australia’s Wet Tropics</a>, Jalbil may no longer be able to maintain a safe body temperature and large areas of habitat may also become unsuitable. </p>
<h2>Itjaritjari and kakarratul (southern and northern marsupial moles)</h2>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="Cartoon of a marsupial mole swimming in an olympic event." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/506290/original/file-20230125-24-3jz1on.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/506290/original/file-20230125-24-3jz1on.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=441&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506290/original/file-20230125-24-3jz1on.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=441&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506290/original/file-20230125-24-3jz1on.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=441&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506290/original/file-20230125-24-3jz1on.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=554&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506290/original/file-20230125-24-3jz1on.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=554&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506290/original/file-20230125-24-3jz1on.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=554&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A potential mascot design.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wes Mountain/The Conversation</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These remarkable <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/nature/amoty/marsupial-moles-better-underground/">subterranean-dwelling marsupials</a> really are in a league of their own. Both moles can fit in the palm of your hand, measuring up to about 150 millimetres and weighing about as much as a lemon (40-70 grams). </p>
<p>What these diminutive mammals lack in size they make up for in digging power – if only digging were an official Olympic sport. In central dunefields, they can dig <a href="https://www.australiangeographic.com.au/topics/wildlife/2010/09/the-marsupial-mole-an-enduring-enigma">up to 60 kilometres</a> of tunnel per hectare.</p>
<p>Marsupial moles are covered in fine, silky, creamy-gold fur. They have powerful short arms with long claws, shovels for furious digging. Their back legs also help them push. Instead of creating and living in permanent burrows, they “swim” underground across Australia’s deserts for most of their lives. </p>
<p>The impressive adaptations don’t end there either. They also have ridiculously short but strong, tough-skinned tails that serve as anchors while digging. Females also have a backwards-facing pouch and all have nose shields that protect their nostrils, ensuring sand doesn’t end up where it’s not supposed to.</p>
<p>Due to living underground for most of their lives, <a href="https://www.australiangeographic.com.au/topics/wildlife/2010/09/the-marsupial-mole-an-enduring-enigma/">many mole mysteries remain regarding their day-to-day lives</a>. Scientists do know they eat a wide range of invertebrates including termites, beetles and ants, and small reptiles such as geckoes. </p>
<p>But while neither species is thought to be in danger of extinction, there are no reliable population estimates across their vast distributions. What’s more, introduced predators (feral cats and foxes) are known to prey upon them. Itjaritjari is listed as vulnerable in the Northern Territory.</p>
<h2>And 13 special mentions go to…</h2>
<p>With so many amazing wildlife species in Australia, it really is a near impossible task to choose our next mascot. So I also want to give special mentions to the following worthy contenders:</p>
<h2>The Australian giant cuttlefish</h2>
<p>These <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-were-watching-the-giant-australian-cuttlefish-101183">marine animals</a> put on spectacular, colourful displays each year when they form large breeding aggregations. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/231609/original/file-20180813-2921-mmd91y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/231609/original/file-20180813-2921-mmd91y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/231609/original/file-20180813-2921-mmd91y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/231609/original/file-20180813-2921-mmd91y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/231609/original/file-20180813-2921-mmd91y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=670&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/231609/original/file-20180813-2921-mmd91y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=670&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/231609/original/file-20180813-2921-mmd91y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=670&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Some giant Australian cuttlefish reach one metre in length.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Nick Payne</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-were-watching-the-giant-australian-cuttlefish-101183">Why we're watching the giant Australian cuttlefish</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Arnkerrth (thorny devil)</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.wired.com/2014/09/the-creature-feature-10-fun-facts-about-the-thorny-devil">A desert-dwelling</a>, ant-eating machine that can drink simply by standing in puddles.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505513/original/file-20230120-13-32axgk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505513/original/file-20230120-13-32axgk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505513/original/file-20230120-13-32axgk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505513/original/file-20230120-13-32axgk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505513/original/file-20230120-13-32axgk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505513/original/file-20230120-13-32axgk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505513/original/file-20230120-13-32axgk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505513/original/file-20230120-13-32axgk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Thorny devils can eat more than 1,000 ants per meal.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Euan Ritchie</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The Torresian striped possum</h2>
<p>This striking black and white <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/nature/amoty/striped-possum-stripes-are-in/">possum</a> is thought to have the largest brain relative to body size of any marsupial. Their extra long fourth finger makes extracting delicious grubs from rotting wood a cinch.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505500/original/file-20230120-11019-38hkmx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Black and white striped possum on a branch" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505500/original/file-20230120-11019-38hkmx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505500/original/file-20230120-11019-38hkmx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505500/original/file-20230120-11019-38hkmx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505500/original/file-20230120-11019-38hkmx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505500/original/file-20230120-11019-38hkmx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505500/original/file-20230120-11019-38hkmx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505500/original/file-20230120-11019-38hkmx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Torresian striped possum moves with speed throughout North Queensland’s rainforests.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Kila (palm cockatoo)</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/commentisfree/2022/jun/26/the-palm-cockatoo-should-be-brisbane-olympics-mascot-imagine-a-stadium-full-of-big-crested-hats-and-drumming-on-seats">Our largest</a> and arguably most spectacular “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?app=desktop&v=CePXx0HQq6Q">rockatoo</a>”, which plays the drums.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505501/original/file-20230120-26-msl599.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Palm cockatoo on a branch" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505501/original/file-20230120-26-msl599.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505501/original/file-20230120-26-msl599.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505501/original/file-20230120-26-msl599.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505501/original/file-20230120-26-msl599.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505501/original/file-20230120-26-msl599.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505501/original/file-20230120-26-msl599.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505501/original/file-20230120-26-msl599.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Queensland government moved this species onto the endangered list in 2021.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-ringo-starr-of-birds-is-now-endangered-heres-how-we-can-still-save-our-drum-playing-palm-cockatoos-169534">The 'Ringo Starr' of birds is now endangered – here’s how we can still save our drum-playing palm cockatoos</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Ulysses butterfly</h2>
<p>Also known as mountain blue butterflies, the vivid, electric blue wings of <a href="https://www.wettropics.gov.au/beautiful-butterflies">Ulysses butterflies</a> can span as much as 130 millimetres.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505503/original/file-20230120-11007-tk6ari.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Blue and black butterfly" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505503/original/file-20230120-11007-tk6ari.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505503/original/file-20230120-11007-tk6ari.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=389&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505503/original/file-20230120-11007-tk6ari.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=389&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505503/original/file-20230120-11007-tk6ari.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=389&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505503/original/file-20230120-11007-tk6ari.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=489&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505503/original/file-20230120-11007-tk6ari.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=489&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505503/original/file-20230120-11007-tk6ari.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=489&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An exquisite local of North Queensland.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Willem van Aken/CSIRO Science Image</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The Australian lungfish</h2>
<p><a href="https://australian.museum/learn/animals/fishes/australian-lungfish-neoceratodus-forsteri-krefft-1870">A living fossil</a>, which is now found only in Queensland, can breath air as well as in the water. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505755/original/file-20230123-38981-zassgk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505755/original/file-20230123-38981-zassgk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505755/original/file-20230123-38981-zassgk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505755/original/file-20230123-38981-zassgk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505755/original/file-20230123-38981-zassgk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505755/original/file-20230123-38981-zassgk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=522&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505755/original/file-20230123-38981-zassgk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=522&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505755/original/file-20230123-38981-zassgk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=522&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Australian lungfish is restricted to southeast Queensland.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Alice Clement</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/meet-5-remarkably-old-animals-from-a-greenland-shark-to-a-featherless-seafaring-cockatoo-185605">Meet 5 remarkably old animals, from a Greenland shark to a featherless, seafaring cockatoo</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Mupee, boongary or marbi (Lumholtz’s tree kangaroo)</h2>
<p>Despite being powerfully built for climbing, Lumholtz’s <a href="https://neradatea.com.au/blogs/social-responsibility/get-to-know-lumholtz-s-tree-kangaroo">tree kangaroos</a> are also adept at jumping, when alarmed they’ve been known to jump from heights of up to 15m to the ground.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505504/original/file-20230120-22-dchv7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two tree kangaroos" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505504/original/file-20230120-22-dchv7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505504/original/file-20230120-22-dchv7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505504/original/file-20230120-22-dchv7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505504/original/file-20230120-22-dchv7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505504/original/file-20230120-22-dchv7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505504/original/file-20230120-22-dchv7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505504/original/file-20230120-22-dchv7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Who knew kangaroos could climb and bounce through trees?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/meet-chimbu-the-blue-eyed-bear-eared-tree-kangaroo-your-cuppa-can-help-save-his-species-135033">Meet Chimbu, the blue-eyed, bear-eared tree kangaroo. Your cuppa can help save his species</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>The green tree python</h2>
<p><a href="https://arod.com.au/arod/reptilia/Squamata/Pythonidae/Morelia/viridis?q=green%20tree%20python">Green tree pythons</a> are the most vivid green snake you can possibly imagine. While adult pythons are a vibrant green the juveniles may be bright yellow or red (but not in Australia), <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2006.0574">changing colour</a> when they are about half a metre long.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505523/original/file-20230120-20-sxmcy9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505523/original/file-20230120-20-sxmcy9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505523/original/file-20230120-20-sxmcy9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505523/original/file-20230120-20-sxmcy9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505523/original/file-20230120-20-sxmcy9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505523/original/file-20230120-20-sxmcy9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505523/original/file-20230120-20-sxmcy9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505523/original/file-20230120-20-sxmcy9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Another reptile with serious wow factor.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Chris Jolly</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The chameleon grasshopper</h2>
<p>Based on temperature, male <a href="https://www.australiangeographic.com.au/blogs/creatura-blog/2018/07/chameleon-grasshopper/">chameleon grasshoppers</a> can change colour from black to turquoise, and back to black again, each day.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505740/original/file-20230122-22-w9oazu.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Chameleon grasshopper on a flower" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505740/original/file-20230122-22-w9oazu.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505740/original/file-20230122-22-w9oazu.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505740/original/file-20230122-22-w9oazu.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505740/original/file-20230122-22-w9oazu.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505740/original/file-20230122-22-w9oazu.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505740/original/file-20230122-22-w9oazu.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505740/original/file-20230122-22-w9oazu.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A kaleidoscope of colour in the Australian alps.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Kate Umbers</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Greater gliders</h2>
<p>These <a href="https://theconversation.com/greater-gliders-are-hurtling-towards-extinction-and-the-blame-lies-squarely-with-australian-governments-186469">fabulous fuzzballs</a> can <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/nature/amoty/greater-glider-glide-into-your-heart/">glide up to 100m</a> in a single leap.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/greater-gliders-are-hurtling-towards-extinction-and-the-blame-lies-squarely-with-australian-governments-186469">Greater gliders are hurtling towards extinction, and the blame lies squarely with Australian governments</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Peacock spiders</h2>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/i-travelled-australia-looking-for-peacock-spiders-and-collected-7-new-species-and-named-one-after-the-starry-night-sky-135201">Peacock spiders</a> come in rainbow colours and the males sure know <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xYIUFEQeh3g&t=1s">how to shake it</a>. Their vivid colours, such as in the species <em>Maratus volans</em>, are due to tiny scales that form nanoscopic lenses created from carbon nanotubes.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505766/original/file-20230123-41040-s3kiry.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505766/original/file-20230123-41040-s3kiry.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505766/original/file-20230123-41040-s3kiry.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505766/original/file-20230123-41040-s3kiry.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505766/original/file-20230123-41040-s3kiry.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505766/original/file-20230123-41040-s3kiry.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=593&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505766/original/file-20230123-41040-s3kiry.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=593&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505766/original/file-20230123-41040-s3kiry.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=593&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Peacock spiders are found only in Australia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Joseph Schubert</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/i-travelled-australia-looking-for-peacock-spiders-and-collected-7-new-species-and-named-one-after-the-starry-night-sky-135201">I travelled Australia looking for peacock spiders, and collected 7 new species (and named one after the starry night sky)</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Corroboree frogs</h2>
<p>They are a striking black and yellow, and <a href="https://theconversation.com/our-field-cameras-melted-in-the-bushfires-when-we-opened-them-the-results-were-startling-139922">desperately need help</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/our-field-cameras-melted-in-the-bushfires-when-we-opened-them-the-results-were-startling-139922">Our field cameras melted in the bushfires. When we opened them, the results were startling</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>And finally, I’ll always have a soft spot for Australia’s much maligned canid, the <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/nature/amoty/dingo-charismatic-controversial-canid/">dingo</a>.</p>
<p>So now, over to you. What are your suggestions for unique animal mascots at the 2032 Brisbane Olympics?</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/180794/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Euan G. Ritchie is a Councillor within the Biodiversity Council, and a member of the Ecological Society of Australia and the Australian Mammal Society.</span></em></p>From a ‘worm’ that shoots deadly slime from its head, to a blind marsupial mole that ‘swims’ underground, let’s take a look at three leading candidates (plus 13 special mentions).Euan Ritchie, Professor in Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, School of Life & Environmental Sciences, Deakin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1965532022-12-14T03:29:05Z2022-12-14T03:29:05ZSnakes have clitorises<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500911/original/file-20221214-14-cj88o9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=17%2C0%2C1904%2C1260&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Luke Allen</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Snakes have clitorises – and we have given a full anatomical description of them for the first time.</p>
<p>In <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2022.1702">research</a> published in Proceedings of the Royal Society B, we describe the size and shape of the snake clitoris (or hemiclitores) across nine species. </p>
<p>We also closely studied the cellular makeup of the clitoris in Australian death adders, finding it to be composed of erectile tissue and bundles of nerves.</p>
<p>The discovery of what appears to be a functional clitoris offers a new perspective on snake courtship and mating. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-sex-life-aquatic-how-moving-from-land-to-water-led-to-the-surprisingly-touchy-courtship-of-sea-snakes-159431">The sex life aquatic: how moving from land to water led to the surprisingly touchy courtship of sea snakes</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Finding the snake clitoris</h2>
<p>As part of her PhD research, our student Megan Folwell at the University of Adelaide had been dissecting snake specimens in museums. She came across a heart-shaped structure in the female tail, nestled between two scent glands, that she thought was the clitoris (or the hemiclitores, as it is called in snakes) and showed me.</p>
<p>I wasn’t sure what we were looking at, so we got in touch with Patricia Brennan at Mount Holyoke College in the US, who is an expert in how genitals have evolved in vertebrates. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500876/original/file-20221213-151-bqi4g7.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An animation showing a wireframe drawing of the lower half of a snake's body with the clitoris highlighted." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500876/original/file-20221213-151-bqi4g7.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500876/original/file-20221213-151-bqi4g7.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=323&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500876/original/file-20221213-151-bqi4g7.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=323&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500876/original/file-20221213-151-bqi4g7.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=323&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500876/original/file-20221213-151-bqi4g7.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500876/original/file-20221213-151-bqi4g7.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500876/original/file-20221213-151-bqi4g7.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The snake clitoris is a heart-shaped structure in the tail.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Folwell et al</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>On closer inspection, we found it was a structure full of red blood cells and nerve tissue, as we would expect for erectile tissue. This suggests it is indeed the clitoris, and may swell and become stimulated during mating.</p>
<p>We went on to examine nine different species of snakes representing the major branches of snake evolution. All had a clitoris, though their sizes and shapes varied.</p>
<h2>Why didn’t we know about this already?</h2>
<p>Across all species, researchers have given female genitalia <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35353194/">a lot</a> <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.1001851">less attention</a> compared to its male counterpart. </p>
<p>What’s more, it’s hard to get a good look at snake genitalia. It’s all internal to the snake’s tail, for the most part, though the snake penis (or hemipenes) inflates for mating. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500912/original/file-20221214-13-kq7mqq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500912/original/file-20221214-13-kq7mqq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500912/original/file-20221214-13-kq7mqq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=627&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500912/original/file-20221214-13-kq7mqq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=627&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500912/original/file-20221214-13-kq7mqq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=627&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500912/original/file-20221214-13-kq7mqq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=788&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500912/original/file-20221214-13-kq7mqq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=788&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500912/original/file-20221214-13-kq7mqq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=788&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The clitoris of an Australian death adder.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Folwell et al.</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There has been quite a bit of research into the snake penis, but the snake clitoris has been missed.</p>
<p>While there are earlier reports, most actually referred to lizards, or mistakenly described the penis or scent glands, or featured only vague descriptions without anatomical references. Studies of species in which intersex individuals are relatively common heightened this confusion.</p>
<p>However, we have shown that the snake clitoris, although it shares its developmental origins with the penis, is very different from the penis – and our detailed anatomical description should help prevent this kind of confusion occurring in future.</p>
<h2>A crucial piece of anatomy</h2>
<p>In other species, we know the clitoris has <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/articleSelectSinglePerm?Redirect=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS0065345420300012%3Fvia%253Dihub&key=22f7498e0cabf6da1cbf5bbec791b299065c7bd7">important functions</a> in reproduction. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/all-female-mammals-have-a-clitoris-were-starting-to-work-out-what-that-means-for-their-sex-lives-114916">All female mammals have a clitoris – we're starting to work out what that means for their sex lives</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Perhaps because many scientists assumed female snakes had no clitoris, and hence no capacity for arousal, it has generally been assumed that mating in snakes is largely a matter of males coercing females. </p>
<p>But a crucial piece of anatomy was missing from this conversation. Our discovery suggests female arousal – and something more like seduction – may play a role.</p>
<p>We still have a lot to learn. It may turn out that variation in the clitoris between species will be correlated with courtship and mating behaviours, and help us understand how females choose mates.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/196553/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jenna Crowe-Riddell does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The first description of the snake clitoris may change what we think we know about mating and courtship among the slithering reptiles.Jenna Crowe-Riddell, Postdoctoral Researcher in Neuroecology, La Trobe UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1897792022-09-22T20:17:46Z2022-09-22T20:17:46ZLizard in your luggage? We’re using artificial intelligence to detect wildlife trafficking<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485460/original/file-20220920-19827-399kqy.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C2947%2C1967&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A scanned lace monitor lizard (_Varanus varius_) image produced by using new technology.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Rapiscan Systems</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Blue-tongue lizards and sulphur-crested cockatoos are among the native animals <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2022/apr/04/australia-adds-127-reptiles-to-global-treaty-in-crackdown-on-cruel-and-abhorrent-smuggling">frequently smuggled</a> overseas. </p>
<p>While the number of live animals seized by the Australian Government has <a href="https://taronga.org.au/donate/illegal-wildlife-trade-appeal">tripled since 2017</a>, the full scale of the problem eludes us as authorities don’t often know where and how wildlife is trafficked. Now, we can add a new technology to Australia’s arsenal against this cruel and inhumane industry. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcosc.2022.757950/abstract">Our research</a>, published today, shows the potential for new technology to detect illegal wildlife in luggage or mail. This technology uses artificial intelligence to recognise the shapes of animals when scanned at international frontlines such as airports and mail centres. </p>
<p>Exotic species are also smuggled <em>into</em> the country, such as snakes, turtles and fish. This could disrupt Australia’s multi-billion dollar agricultural industries by introducing pests and diseases, and could also threaten fragile native ecosystems. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485227/original/file-20220919-53681-ok1pe7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C36%2C4096%2C2685&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485227/original/file-20220919-53681-ok1pe7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C36%2C4096%2C2685&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485227/original/file-20220919-53681-ok1pe7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485227/original/file-20220919-53681-ok1pe7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485227/original/file-20220919-53681-ok1pe7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485227/original/file-20220919-53681-ok1pe7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485227/original/file-20220919-53681-ok1pe7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485227/original/file-20220919-53681-ok1pe7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Shingleback lizards are one of Australia’s most trafficked animals.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>An animal welfare problem</h2>
<p>Wildlife trafficking is driven by several factors, including purported medicinal purposes, animals having ornamental value or for the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2664.14138">illegal pet trade</a>.</p>
<p>It can have fatal consequences, as it usually involves transporting individual animals in tight or cramped environments. This often results in the animals becoming stressed, dehydrated and dying.</p>
<p>Some people have even tried to use <a href="https://parlinfo.aph.gov.au/parlInfo/download/media/pressrel/7859664/upload_binary/7859664.pdf;fileType=application%2Fpdf#search=%22media/pressrel/7859664%22">chip packets</a> to smuggle Australian wildlife. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/conservation-activists-suing-indonesian-zoo-could-inspire-global-action-on-endangered-species-trade-161048">Conservation activists suing Indonesian zoo could inspire global action on endangered species trade</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p><a href="https://thenewdaily.com.au/news/crime-news/2021/02/21/lizard-smuggler-sentenced-nsw/">Traffickers often transport several individuals</a> in one go, in the hope one animal makes it alive. </p>
<p>We don’t know the complete picture of which animals are being trafficked, how they’re trafficked or even when it’s occurring. But examples from seized cases in Australia suggest traffickers highly prize Aussie reptiles and birds. </p>
<p>For example, <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/shingleback-lizard-is-one-of-australias-most-trafficked-animals">shingleback lizards</a>, a type of blue-tongue lizard, are considered one of Australia’s most trafficked species. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/482936/original/file-20220906-20-nr91r0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/482936/original/file-20220906-20-nr91r0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482936/original/file-20220906-20-nr91r0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482936/original/file-20220906-20-nr91r0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482936/original/file-20220906-20-nr91r0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482936/original/file-20220906-20-nr91r0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482936/original/file-20220906-20-nr91r0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Just another sulphur-crested cockatoo to you? These Australian birds are exotic in the international pet trade and have been a known victim of illegal wildlife trafficking.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Dr Vanessa Pirotta</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Apart from being cruel and inhumane, wildlife trafficking can also facilitate the introduction of <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/wr/wr18185">alien species</a> into new environments. </p>
<p>This brings significant biosecurity risks. For example, zoonosis (diseases jumping from a non-human animal to a human) involves people handling <a href="https://theconversation.com/coronavirus-live-animals-are-stressed-in-wet-markets-and-stressed-animals-are-more-likely-to-carry-diseases-135479">stressed, wild animals</a>. Exotic species can also disrupt natural ecosystems, as we’ve famously seen with the damage wrought by cane toads in northern Australia. </p>
<p>Unregulated wildlife entering the country may also harbour <a href="https://theconversation.com/to-lock-out-foot-and-mouth-disease-australia-must-help-our-neighbour-countries-bolster-their-biosecurity-188010">new diseases</a> or destructive <a href="https://theconversation.com/hear-me-out-we-could-use-the-varroa-mite-to-wipe-out-feral-honey-bees-and-help-australias-environment-185959">parasites</a>. This could damage agricultural industries and potentially raise the prices of our fruit and vegetables. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/to-lock-out-foot-and-mouth-disease-australia-must-help-our-neighbour-countries-bolster-their-biosecurity-188010">To lock out foot-and-mouth disease, Australia must help our neighbour countries bolster their biosecurity</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Creating an trafficking image library</h2>
<p>Our new research documents a variety of wildlife species, which have been scanned using state-of-the-art technology to help build computer algorithms using “Real Time Tomography”. </p>
<p>Real Time Tomography is an imaging technique that uses a series of x-rays to scan an item (such as a lizard). It then produces a three dimensional image of the animal which, in turn, is used to develop algorithms. For example, mail and luggage can be scanned at the airport and, if wildlife are enclosed, the algorithms will alert operators of their presence.</p>
<p>Our study scanned known species of trafficked Australian animals to create an image reference library. A total of 294 scans from 13 species of lizards, birds and fish were used to develop initial wildlife algorithms, with a detection rate of 82%, and a false alarm rate at just 1.6%. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/482937/original/file-20220906-22-nr91r0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/482937/original/file-20220906-22-nr91r0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=798&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482937/original/file-20220906-22-nr91r0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=798&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482937/original/file-20220906-22-nr91r0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=798&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482937/original/file-20220906-22-nr91r0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1003&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482937/original/file-20220906-22-nr91r0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1003&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482937/original/file-20220906-22-nr91r0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1003&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Wildlife algorithm successfully detecting a shingleback lizard. This is a screenshot from the user interface alerting the operator of a detected shingleback lizard (<em>Tiliqua rugosa</em>) via the green bounding box which has labelled this a lizard.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Pirotta et al. 2022</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This research is the first to document the use of 3D X-ray CT security scan technology for wildlife protection within the peer-reviewed scientific literature. It’s also the first to report results for the detection of reptiles, birds and fish within such scans. </p>
<p>The detection tool is designed to complement existing detection measures of Australian Border Force, biosecurity officers and detection dogs, which remain crucial in our fight against wildlife crime. </p>
<h2>How else are we stopping wildlife trafficking?</h2>
<p>The tools currently helping to detect and restrict wildlife trafficking mainly rely on human detection methods.</p>
<p>This includes <a href="https://www.austrac.gov.au/sites/default/files/2020-10/AUSTRAC_IWT%20Guide_October%202020.pdf">cyber-crime investigations</a> or Australian Border Force and biosecurity officers manually searching bags. <a href="https://www.agriculture.gov.au/biosecurity-trade/policy/australia/detector-dogs">Biosecurity detector dogs</a> patrolling airports are also useful, as are smartphone reporting apps such as the <a href="https://taronga.org.au/conservation-and-science/act-for-the-wild/wildlife-witness">Wildlife Witness App</a>.</p>
<p>Also crucial are efforts to dismantle illegal trade networks at the source. This is by understanding and reducing <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cobi.13578">consumer demand</a> for wildlife and wildlife products, providing alternate livelihoods for would-be poachers, and enforcing stronger governance and monitoring. </p>
<p>Seized animals can be used as evidence to identify traffickers, with previous cases resulting in successful prosecution by environmental investigators. For example, a former rugby league player has been <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/nsw/most-serious-offending-ex-nrl-player-jailed-for-animal-smuggling-20191018-p53230.html">jailed for four years</a> after getting caught trying to smuggle a variety of animals in and out of Australia.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/elephant-ivory-dna-analysis-offers-clearest-insight-yet-into-illegal-trafficking-networks-177012">Elephant ivory: DNA analysis offers clearest insight yet into illegal trafficking networks</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Continuing the fight</h2>
<p>All these measures help fight wildlife trafficking, but there’s no single solution to predict when and where the events will likely take place.</p>
<p>Wildlife traffickers may adapt their behaviours frequently to avoid being detected. As a result, innovative and adaptive solutions, such as our new technology, are vital to support existing detection techniques. </p>
<p>Any effort to stamp out this terrible activity is a step in the right direction, and the potential for 3D detection enables us to adapt and evolve with how traffickers may change their behaviours. </p>
<hr>
<p><em>We would like to acknowledge Dr Phoebe Meagher from the Taronga Conservation Society Australia for her contribution to this research and article.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/189779/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dr Vanessa Pirotta is employed by Rapiscan Systems as the chief scientist for this wildlife research project. This is a collaborative project with the Australian Federal Government (Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry (DAFF) and the Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water, previously the Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment) and the Taronga Conservation Society Australia. This project receives funding from DAFF.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dr Justine O'Brien is a research scientist and Manager of Conservation Science at the Taronga Conservation Society Australia. She is an Honorary Associate at the School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Sydney, and an Adjunct Associate Professor at the School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of NSW. She receives funding from the Institute of Museum and Library Services, Great Barrier Reef Foundation, Zoo and Aquarium Association Wildlife Conservation Fund, and the Taronga Foundation. </span></em></p>The number of live animals seized by the Australian Government has tripled since 2017, with blue-tongue lizards and sulphur-crested cockatoos frequently captured.Vanessa Pirotta, Postdoctoral Researcher and Wildlife Scientist, Macquarie UniversityJustine O'Brien, Manager of Conservation Science, Taronga Conservation Society Australia, University of Sydney, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1906062022-09-20T03:19:34Z2022-09-20T03:19:34ZYoung cold-blooded animals are suffering the most as Earth heats up, research finds<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485445/original/file-20220920-18478-bj2hb3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=15%2C15%2C5160%2C3422&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Climate change is <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/">making heatwaves</a> worse. Many people have already noticed the difference – and so too have other animals.</p>
<p>Sadly, <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ele.14083">research</a> by myself and colleagues has found young animals, in particular, are struggling to keep up with rising temperatures, likely making them more vulnerable to climate change than adults of their species.</p>
<p>The study focused on “ectotherms”, or cold-blooded animals, which comprise <a href="https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3148.1.2">more than 99%</a> of animals on Earth. They include fish, reptiles, amphibians and insects. The body temperature of these animals reflects outside temperatures – so they can get <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.1316145111">dangerously hot</a> during heat waves.</p>
<p>In a warming world, a species’ ability to adapt or acclimatise to temperatures is crucial. Our study found that young ectotherms, in particular, can struggle to handle more heat as their habitat warms up. That may have dramatic consequences for biodiversity as climate change worsens.</p>
<p>Our findings are yet more evidence of the need to urgently reduce greenhouse gas emissions to prevent catastrophic global heating. Humans must also provide and retain cool spaces to help animals navigate a warmer future.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="large and small beetles move across a log" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485449/original/file-20220920-14334-jailsk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485449/original/file-20220920-14334-jailsk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485449/original/file-20220920-14334-jailsk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485449/original/file-20220920-14334-jailsk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485449/original/file-20220920-14334-jailsk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485449/original/file-20220920-14334-jailsk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485449/original/file-20220920-14334-jailsk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A species’ ability to adapt or acclimatise to higher temperatures is crucial.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Tolerating heat in a changing climate</h2>
<p>The body temperature of ectotherms is extremely variable. As they move through their habitat, their body temperature varies according to the outside conditions. </p>
<p>However, there’s only so much heat these animals can tolerate. Heat tolerance is defined as the maximum body temperature ectotherms can handle before they <a href="https://doi.org/10.1139/z97-783">lose functions</a> such as the ability to walk or swim. During heat waves, their body temperature gets so high they can <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.1316145111">die</a>. </p>
<p>Species, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/geb.12911">including ectotherms</a>, can adapt to challenges in their environment over time by evolving across generations. But the rate at which global temperatures are rising means in many cases, this adaptation is not happening fast enough. That’s why we need to understand how animals acclimatise to rising temperatures within a single lifetime. </p>
<p>Unfortunately, some young animals have little to no ability to move and seek cooler temperatures. For example, baby lizards inside eggs cannot move elsewhere. And owing to their small size, juvenile ectotherms cannot move great distances.</p>
<p>This suggests young animals may be particularly vulnerable during intense heat waves. But we know <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/jez.2414">very little</a> about how young animals acclimatise to high temperatures. Our research sought to find out more.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="snakes hatching from eggs" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485446/original/file-20220920-18498-ys0duh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485446/original/file-20220920-18498-ys0duh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485446/original/file-20220920-18498-ys0duh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485446/original/file-20220920-18498-ys0duh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485446/original/file-20220920-18498-ys0duh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485446/original/file-20220920-18498-ys0duh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485446/original/file-20220920-18498-ys0duh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Ectotherms cannot escape their eggs to avoid a heatwave.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Young animals at risk</h2>
<p><a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ele.14083">Our study</a> drew on 60 years of research into 138 ectotherm species from around the world. </p>
<p>Overall, we found the heat tolerance of embryos and juvenile ectotherms increased very little in response to rising temperatures. For each degree of warming, the heat tolerance of young ectotherms only increased by an average 0.13°C.</p>
<p>The physiology of heat acclimatisation in animals is very complex and poorly understood. It appears linked to a number of factors such as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.145208">metabolic activity</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10695-011-9578-9">proteins</a> produced by cells in response to stress. </p>
<p>Our research showed young land-based animals were worse at acclimatising to heat than aquatic animals. This may be because moving to a cooler temperature on land is easier than in an aquatic environment, so land-based animals may not have developed the same ability to acclimatise to heat.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/thousands-of-photos-captured-by-everyday-australians-reveal-the-secrets-of-our-marine-life-as-oceans-warm-189231">Thousands of photos captured by everyday Australians reveal the secrets of our marine life as oceans warm</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Large striped fish swimming with smaller fish" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485448/original/file-20220920-376-ydzc7s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485448/original/file-20220920-376-ydzc7s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485448/original/file-20220920-376-ydzc7s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485448/original/file-20220920-376-ydzc7s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485448/original/file-20220920-376-ydzc7s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485448/original/file-20220920-376-ydzc7s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485448/original/file-20220920-376-ydzc7s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Aquatic animals appear better able to acclimatise to warmer conditions than land-based animals.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Heat tolerance can vary within a species. It can <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rspb.2015.0401">depend on</a> what temperatures an animal has experienced during its lifetime and, as such, the extent to which it has acclimatised. But surprisingly, our research found past exposure to high temperatures does not necessarily help a young animal withstand future high temperatures. </p>
<p>Take, for example, Lesueur’s velvet gecko which is found mostly along Australia’s east coast. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1242/jeb.152272">Research shows</a> juveniles from eggs incubated in cooler nests (23.2°C) tolerated temperatures up to 40.2°C. In contrast, juveniles from warmer nests (27°C) only tolerated temperatures up to 38.7°C.</p>
<p>Those patterns can persist through adulthood. For example, adult male <a href="https://www.proquest.com/pagepdf/305356367">mosquito fish</a> from eggs incubated to 32°C were less tolerant to heat than adult males that experienced 26°C during incubation.</p>
<p>These results show embryos are especially vulnerable to extreme heat. Instead of getting better at handling heat, warmer eggs tend to produce juveniles and adults less capable of withstanding a warmer future.</p>
<p>Overall, our findings suggest young cold-blooded animals are already struggling to cope with rising temperatures – and conditions during early life can have lifelong consequences.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-know-heatwaves-kill-animals-but-new-research-shows-the-survivors-dont-get-off-scot-free-184645">We know heatwaves kill animals. But new research shows the survivors don’t get off scot-free</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="baby turtles moving across sand" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485447/original/file-20220920-17325-deaukn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485447/original/file-20220920-17325-deaukn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485447/original/file-20220920-17325-deaukn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485447/original/file-20220920-17325-deaukn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485447/original/file-20220920-17325-deaukn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485447/original/file-20220920-17325-deaukn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485447/original/file-20220920-17325-deaukn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Young cold-blooded animals are already struggling to cope with higher temperatures.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What’s next?</h2>
<p>To date, most studies on the impacts of climate change have focused on adults. Our research suggests animals may be harmed by heatwaves long before they reach adulthood – perhaps even before they’re born. </p>
<p>Alarmingly, this means we may have underestimated the damage climate change will cause to biodiversity. </p>
<p>Clearly, it’s vitally important to limit global greenhouse gas emissions to the extent required by the <a href="https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement/the-paris-agreement">Paris Agreement</a>. </p>
<p>But we can also act to protect species at a finer scale – by conserving habitats that allow animals to find shade and shelter during heatwaves. Such habitats include trees, shrubs, burrows, ponds, caves, logs and rocks. These places must be created, restored and preserved to help animals prosper in a warming world.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/beyond-net-zero-we-should-if-we-can-cool-the-planet-back-to-pre-industrial-levels-187781">Beyond net-zero: we should, if we can, cool the planet back to pre-industrial levels</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/190606/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Patrice Pottier works for The University of New South Wales. He is supported by a UNSW Scientia Doctoral scholarship. </span></em></p>In a warming world, a species’ ability to acclimatise to temperatures is crucial. But young ectotherms can struggle to handle the heat.Patrice Pottier, PhD Candidate in Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1886802022-09-13T17:43:35Z2022-09-13T17:43:35ZInvasive reptile and amphibian species are causing billions of dollars in damages globally<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/482138/original/file-20220831-4764-z2dv88.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Invasive alien species are a growing concern for both the environment and economy.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Economic growth and globalization have connected the world’s most distant places. Rapid trade and transport have boosted economic growth globally, but not without consequences: many species have been introduced to new regions, far from where they evolved.</p>
<p>Alien species are those introduced by humans to regions outside their natural range. Invasive alien species are a growing concern for both the environment and economy. </p>
<p>In recent decades, alien herpetofauna — amphibians and reptiles — have increasingly gained attention on social media, with more information being circulated about the impacts these species have on native flora and fauna. </p>
<p>And yet, the number of invasive reptiles and amphibians is increasing, facilitated by the persistently high globalization of human activities. </p>
<h2>Detrimental effects</h2>
<p>Some invasive species arrive unintentionally as hitchhikers on planes, ships and cars. Others are sold intentionally as exotic pets, which then escape or are released into the wild. Of those that survive and establish, some are able to spread with severe negative impacts, giving them the title of “invasive.” </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.153404">These impacts can be massive</a>. Alien species are a leading cause of biodiversity loss and extinction worldwide, affecting human welfare and quality of life. </p>
<p>While alien species can also have detrimental effects on the economy, this is often complex to assess. Available information is often scattered, covers different scales or periods, recorded using variable measurements and currencies and presented in many languages. </p>
<p>The InvaCost database, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41597-020-00586-z">the most comprehensive database of the cost of alien species and a global initiative of scientists</a>, gathers this information and makes it accessible to researchers and the public.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/482402/original/file-20220901-9301-wcqbt7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="a Burmese python swimming through shallow water" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/482402/original/file-20220901-9301-wcqbt7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/482402/original/file-20220901-9301-wcqbt7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482402/original/file-20220901-9301-wcqbt7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482402/original/file-20220901-9301-wcqbt7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482402/original/file-20220901-9301-wcqbt7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482402/original/file-20220901-9301-wcqbt7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482402/original/file-20220901-9301-wcqbt7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The alien Burmese python has successfully established itself in the Everglades National Park in Florida, where it has decimated local mammal populations.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Surprising impacts</h2>
<p>The most common pathway for invasive reptiles and amphibians is the often-illegal trade of exotic snakes and frogs as pets. </p>
<p>Another common pathway is release for biological control, where a new species is introduced in an attempt to control a pest species. This is how <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-1795.2009.00319.x">the cane toad was introduced in Australia</a>. </p>
<p>Other pathways include aquaculture enterprises, such as those that raise <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-007-9178-x">American bullfrogs for human consumption</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.2984/1534-6188(2007)61%5B307:BAIOPI%5D2.0.CO;2">species hitchhiking on planes or boats</a>.</p>
<p>Alien reptiles and amphibians can have quite unusual and surprising economic impacts. For instance, after the arrival of the coquí frog to Hawaii via contaminated nursery plants, <a href="https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/21313/">its very loud mating song caused severe declines in property values in infested areas</a>.</p>
<p>More typical economic impacts stem from programs for the control or eradication of these species. Management programs are needed due to the damage these invaders cause on biodiversity by eliminating native species, including at-risk amphibians and reptiles.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481903/original/file-20220830-37919-2ltj1a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An American bullfrog with a large goldfish of approximately equal size in its mouth" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481903/original/file-20220830-37919-2ltj1a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481903/original/file-20220830-37919-2ltj1a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481903/original/file-20220830-37919-2ltj1a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481903/original/file-20220830-37919-2ltj1a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481903/original/file-20220830-37919-2ltj1a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481903/original/file-20220830-37919-2ltj1a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481903/original/file-20220830-37919-2ltj1a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">American bullfrogs have the largest reported economic impacts of any amphibian.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bullfrog_tries_to_swallow_huge_Goldfish_-_Fish_survived.jpg">(Rusty Clark/Wikimedia Commons)</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This is the case for one of the most famous snakes in the pet trade, the California kingsnake, <a href="https://phys.org/news/2021-12-invasive-snake-gran-canaria-native.html">for which numerous eradication programs on the Canary Islands exist</a>.</p>
<h2>Quantifying the damage</h2>
<p>Our team of researchers quantified and synthesized, for the first time, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-15079-9">the economic costs of invasive reptiles and amphibians worldwide using the InvaCost database</a>. Between 1986 and 2020, we found that the cost of invasive reptiles and amphibians was massive, totalling approximately US$17 billion — with US$10.4 billion due to reptiles and US$6.3 billion due to amphibians. </p>
<p>Further, the bulk of these costs was from a small subset of highly impactful species. Most notably, the brown tree snake alone has resulted in a loss of US$4.5 million per year in Guam due to island-wide power outages and costing a total of US$10.34 billion during the study period (1986-2019).</p>
<p>The runner-up in terms of total impacts was the American bullfrog, whose impacts of US$6.04 billion accounted for approximately 97 per cent of the total amphibian cost, mostly due to control and eradication measures in Europe.</p>
<p>The types of costs incurred varied across species. In the case of amphibians, costs mostly originated from government expenditures — US$6.25 billion, or 99.6 per cent. These costs are derived from mitigating the spread or impacts of invaders through prevention, control, research, long-term management or eradication. </p>
<p>Reptile costs, however, mostly affected the public and social welfare sector, reportedly causing staggering damages — US$10.02 billion, or 96.6 per cent. These costs are incurred directly due to the impact of invaders, such as yield loss, infrastructure damage or income reduction.</p>
<p>Geographically, we found that economic impacts were present across all continents, except for amphibians in Africa, likely due to the lack of information. The geographic regions most affected were Europe by amphibians (US$6.04 billion), and Oceania and the Pacific Islands by reptiles (US$10.35 billion, 99.61 per cent).</p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/BsR3Q1XgUjH","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<h2>Prevention is the better solution</h2>
<p>The economic costs of herpetofauna invasions are massive across all continents, but also underestimated. The vast part of our estimated total cost originated from only two species: the brown tree snake and the American bullfrog, which is likely, at least in part, due to missing data. </p>
<p>Further, only 21 species (six amphibians and 15 reptiles) were reported in InvaCost, out of 280 alien amphibians and reptiles recorded worldwide. </p>
<p>It should nevertheless be acknowledged that not all invasive reptiles and amphibians will have tangible monetary impacts, so some gaps are expected. Nonetheless, a greater research effort is needed to distinguish the true absence of economic cost from gaps in cost detection — especially for those species known to cause detrimental ecological impacts.</p>
<p>And as shown, investments in preventive measures can be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.153404">an important money-saving measure for the public over the long term</a>, compared to reactive control approaches once a species has successfully invaded. </p>
<p>We propose the compilation of national lists for species facing import and selling bans, better screening for potentially harmful species and a more comprehensive effort to obtain information on the actual and species-specific costs. Our research highlights the importance of these measures to prevent future immense economic costs.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/188680/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>EJH was funded by a B3X postdoctoral fellowship from the Fonds de Recherche du Québec - Nature et Technologies.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ismael Soto Almena does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>New research has found that since the mid-1980s, the economic impact of invasive reptiles and amphibians totals more than US$17 billion.Ismael Soto Almena, PhD Student, Protection of Waters, University of South BohemiaEmma J. Hudgins, Postdoctoral fellow, Biology, Carleton UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1855832022-06-23T20:08:24Z2022-06-23T20:08:24ZWe helped track 77 species for up to 60 years to try to reveal the secrets of long life. And some don’t seem to age at all<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/470484/original/file-20220623-7584-nu1tiw.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Mike Gardner</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Ever wondered about the secret to a long life? Perhaps understanding the lifespans of other animals with backbones (or “vertebrates”) might help us unlock this mystery.</p>
<p>You’ve probably heard turtles live a long (and slow) life. At 190 years, <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/at-190-jonathan-the-tortoise-is-the-worlds-oldest-living-land-animal-180979514/">Jonathan</a> the Seychelles giant tortoise might be the oldest land animal alive. But why do some animals live longer than others?</p>
<p>Research <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abm0151">published today</a> by myself and colleagues in the journal Science investigates the various factors that may affect longevity (lifespan) and ageing in reptiles and amphibians.</p>
<p>We used long-term data from 77 different species of reptiles and amphibians – all cold-blooded animals. Our work is a collaboration between more than 100 scientists with up to 60 years of data on animals that were caught, marked, released and re-caught.</p>
<p>These data were then compared to existing information on warm-blooded animals, and several different ideas about ageing emerged.</p>
<h2>What factors might be important?</h2>
<h1>Cold-blooded or warm-blooded</h1>
<p>One popular line of thought we investigated is the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4843886/">idea</a> that cold-blooded animals such as frogs, salamanders and reptiles live longer because they age more <em>slowly</em>.</p>
<p>These animals have to rely on external temperatures to help regulate their body temperature. As a result they have slower “metabolisms” (the rate at which they convert what they eat and drink into energy).</p>
<p>Animals that are small and warm-blooded, such as mice, age quickly since they have faster metabolisms – and turtles age slowly since they have slower metabolisms. By this logic, cold-blooded animals should have lower metabolisms than similar-sized warm-blooded ones. </p>
<p>However, we found cold-blooded animals don’t age more slowly than similar-sized warm-blooded ones. In fact, the variation in ageing in the reptiles and amphibians we looked at was much greater than previously predicted. So the reasons vertebrates age are more complex than this idea sets out. </p>
<h1>Environmental temperature</h1>
<p>Another related <a href="https://academic.oup.com/biolinnean/article/125/4/730/5145102?login=true">theory</a> is that environmental temperature itself could be a driver for longevity. For instance, animals in colder areas might be processing food more slowly and have periods of inactivity, such as with hibernation – leading to an overall increase in lifespan. </p>
<p>Under this scenario, both cold and warm-blooded animals in colder areas would live longer than animals in warmer areas. </p>
<p>We found this was true for reptiles as a group, but not for amphibians. Importantly, this finding has implications for the effects of global warming, which might lead to reptiles ageing faster in permanently warmer environments.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/470478/original/file-20220623-51865-930myg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="The stripy brown small lizard sits on a rock" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/470478/original/file-20220623-51865-930myg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/470478/original/file-20220623-51865-930myg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/470478/original/file-20220623-51865-930myg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/470478/original/file-20220623-51865-930myg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/470478/original/file-20220623-51865-930myg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/470478/original/file-20220623-51865-930myg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/470478/original/file-20220623-51865-930myg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Viviparous lizard (<em>Zootoca vivipara</em>) is one of the cold-blooded species we studied.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/viviparous-lizard-zootoca-vivipara-34699252">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h1>Protection</h1>
<p>One <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/jeb.12143">suggestion</a> is that animals with certain types of protections, such as protruding spines, armour, venom or shells, also don’t age as fast and therefore live longer. </p>
<p>A lot of energy is put into producing these protections, which can allow animals to live longer by making them less vulnerable to predation. However, could it be the very fact of having these protections allows animals to age more slowly?</p>
<p>Our work found this to be true. It seems having such protections does lead to animals living longer. This is especially true for turtles, which have hard shell protection and incredibly long lifespans.</p>
<p>We’ll need to conduct more research to figure out why just having protections is linked to a longer life.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/470483/original/file-20220623-51187-mpi2xr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A crocodile sits on the bank of a river with its mouth open" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/470483/original/file-20220623-51187-mpi2xr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/470483/original/file-20220623-51187-mpi2xr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/470483/original/file-20220623-51187-mpi2xr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/470483/original/file-20220623-51187-mpi2xr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/470483/original/file-20220623-51187-mpi2xr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/470483/original/file-20220623-51187-mpi2xr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/470483/original/file-20220623-51187-mpi2xr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">One species of crocodile studied, <em>Crocodylus johnsoni</em>, has a powerful armoured body with protruding scales that protect it from predation.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/freshwater-crocodile-crocodylus-johnstoni-species-endemic-1541741615">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h1>Reproduction</h1>
<p>Finally, it has been <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0066670">posited</a> that perhaps longevity is linked to how late into life an animal reproduces. </p>
<p>If they can keep reproducing later into life, then natural selection would drive this ability, generation to generation, allowing these animals to live longer than those that reproduce early and can’t continue to do so.</p>
<p>Indeed, we found animals that start producing offspring at a later age do seem to live longer lives. Sleepy lizards (or shinglebacks) are a great example. They don’t reproduce until they’re about five years old, and live until they’re close to 50!</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/breakthrough-allows-scientists-to-determine-the-age-of-endangered-native-fish-using-dna-162084">Breakthrough allows scientists to determine the age of endangered native fish using DNA</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>The challenge in understanding ageing</h2>
<p>To understand ageing, we need a lot of data on the same animals. That’s simply because if we want to know how long a species lives, we have to keep catching the same individuals over and over, across large spans of time. </p>
<p>This is “longitudinal” research. Luckily, it’s exactly what some scientists have committed themselves to. It’s also what my team is doing with sleepy lizards, <em>Tiliqua rugosa</em>. These lizards have been studied continuously at Bundey Bore station in the Mid North of South Australia since 1982. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/470225/original/file-20220622-3398-sv0ijc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/470225/original/file-20220622-3398-sv0ijc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/470225/original/file-20220622-3398-sv0ijc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/470225/original/file-20220622-3398-sv0ijc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/470225/original/file-20220622-3398-sv0ijc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/470225/original/file-20220622-3398-sv0ijc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/470225/original/file-20220622-3398-sv0ijc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/470225/original/file-20220622-3398-sv0ijc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The sleepy lizard is one of the species used in the longevity study. As far as we know, this species lives up to 50 years.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Mike Gardner</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Here, more than 13,000 lizards have been caught over 40 years of study. Some have been caught up to 60 times! But given the 45-year longevity of these lizards, we’ve been studying them for a shorter time than some of them live. By keeping the survey work going we might find they live even longer. </p>
<h2>Some animals’ chance of dying isn’t linked to age</h2>
<p>Another interesting part of this research was finding, for a range of animals, that their chance of dying is just as small when they’re quite old compared to when they’re young. This “negligible ageing” is found in at least one species across each of frogs, salamanders, lizards, crocodiles and, of course, in tortoises like Jonathon. </p>
<p>We’re not quite sure why this is. The next challenge is to find out – perhaps by analysing species genomes. Knowing some animals have negligible ageing means we can target these species for future investigations. </p>
<p>Understanding what drives long life in other animals might lead to different biomedical targets to study humans too. We might not live to Jonathan the tortoise’s age, but we could theoretically use this knowledge to develop therapies that help stop some of the ageing process in us. </p>
<p>For now, healthy eating and exercising remain surer ways to a longer life.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-search-to-extend-lifespan-is-gaining-ground-but-can-we-truly-reverse-the-biology-of-ageing-75127">The search to extend lifespan is gaining ground, but can we truly reverse the biology of ageing?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/185583/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mike Gardner receives funding from the Australian Research Council. He is affiliated with The South Australian Museum. </span></em></p>Our research is countering some previous ideas about what factors might slow down ageing. Further study could help us create targeted treatments in humans too.Mike Gardner, Flinders UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1769712022-05-19T05:13:32Z2022-05-19T05:13:32ZHere’s how we track down and very carefully photograph Australia’s elusive snakes<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/458300/original/file-20220414-12571-z0vibq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C8%2C5760%2C3819&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A mulga snake </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/149281781@N05/">Christina N. Zdenek</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>Environmental scientists see flora, fauna and phenomena the rest of us rarely do. In this series, we’ve invited them to share their unique <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/photos-from-the-field-92499">photos from the field</a>.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>While most people go out of their way to avoid snakes, we’re the opposite. We’re crazy about snakes. As wildlife photographers, we’ve spent months in the Australian bush and in overseas jungles tracking down beautiful snakes. </p>
<p>Photographing snakes is no easy task. Apart from wild weather, long hours, biting insects and lack of sleep, there’s one final hurdle to overcome: actually finding the elusive reptiles. Australia’s snakes, for instance, <a href="https://theconversation.com/7-reasons-australia-is-the-lucky-country-when-it-comes-to-snakes-175188">usually flee</a> when they hear humans, and they’re very good at hiding. </p>
<p>But it’s all worth it for those moments when we round a corner and spot the scaly body of a species we haven’t seen before. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451804/original/file-20220314-27-puzg9q.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451804/original/file-20220314-27-puzg9q.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451804/original/file-20220314-27-puzg9q.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451804/original/file-20220314-27-puzg9q.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451804/original/file-20220314-27-puzg9q.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451804/original/file-20220314-27-puzg9q.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451804/original/file-20220314-27-puzg9q.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451804/original/file-20220314-27-puzg9q.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A juvenile King Cobra we photographed in Indonesia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Chris Hay</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Why do we spend so much time looking for snakes?</h2>
<p>Australia’s snakes are remarkably diverse and adaptable. We have over 200 different species across the land and sea. They have carved out niches in every possible habitat, from coastal rainforests to arid deserts to alpine regions. </p>
<p>It’s difficult to put into words about why we love snakes so much, but we have both been obsessed with the beauty and mystery of snakes since we were young children. This obscure obsession has developed into fascinating careers for both of us, which is also how we found each other.</p>
<p>Even though they’re found across the continent, our snakes are notoriously difficult to find. They’re exceptionally good at hiding. When we go herping (searching for snakes), we don’t just wander through the bush hoping to stumble across one. There’s quite a process we go through to boost our chances. </p>
<h2>Snakes are hard to find. Here’s how we improve our chances.</h2>
<p>First, we decide which species we want to photograph. To make our trips worthwhile, we often look for spots where the ranges of several target species overlap. Once we choose an area, we take a deep dive into the details of each species. </p>
<p>Combined, we have more than 50 years of snake knowledge to draw on. We use this to examine each species’ preferred habitats and microhabitats and where these features occur in our area. </p>
<p>To home in further, we focus on behaviour. Is it nocturnal? Is it active only in daytime? Or is it crepuscular, moving around only at dusk? </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451852/original/file-20220314-17-ydyvzk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451852/original/file-20220314-17-ydyvzk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451852/original/file-20220314-17-ydyvzk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=906&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451852/original/file-20220314-17-ydyvzk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=906&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451852/original/file-20220314-17-ydyvzk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=906&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451852/original/file-20220314-17-ydyvzk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1138&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451852/original/file-20220314-17-ydyvzk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1138&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451852/original/file-20220314-17-ydyvzk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1138&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Indonesian Russell’s Viper.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Chris Hay</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Once we’ve figured out the most likely spots to look, we have to choose the best time of year to go. </p>
<p>You might think summer is always the best, given reptiles are more active in the warmth. For some species, we’ve had better luck in cooler months, when they’re inactive. This can make them easier to find. </p>
<p>Once we’ve picked a time to go, we look at the local climate and weather forecasts to help predict the location and severity of storms. </p>
<p>Heavy rain is generally not good for herping, unless you’re looking for one of Australia’s 46 species of <a href="https://australian.museum/learn/animals/reptiles/blind-snake/">blind snakes</a>, which come up from underground to escape drowning in water-logged soils. </p>
<p>But for the above-ground species we look for, the best conditions come when there’s been recent rain or the threat of rain. This is because rain leads to vegetation growth, which in turn increases insect activity and animals that feed on them, and so on and so forth. It stimulates activity throughout the food chain. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451803/original/file-20220314-13-gfyeoi.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451803/original/file-20220314-13-gfyeoi.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451803/original/file-20220314-13-gfyeoi.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451803/original/file-20220314-13-gfyeoi.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451803/original/file-20220314-13-gfyeoi.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451803/original/file-20220314-13-gfyeoi.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451803/original/file-20220314-13-gfyeoi.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Our simple camp set-up.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Christina N. Zdenek</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Once we’ve done all of this, we plan our trip and hopefully find some remarkable species to photograph. Success is, of course, not guaranteed. We once went looking for a species of whipsnake, spending a full week and $3000 in the process and still didn’t find the snake. But we did find many unusual lizards. </p>
<p>Herping is no relaxing holiday. It is very hard work requiring early mornings and late nights. To find nocturnal snakes, for instance, we have to stay up until the early hours of the morning. (Nocturnal snakes are active only in warmer months, and soak up radiant heat left over after the day). We often start early, too, since the best natural light for photography is early morning or late afternoon, when the sun is low in the sky. </p>
<p>We’re both registered snake catchers, so sometimes we’ll be called out to a job and find an interesting snake which we can photograph before releasing it. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451805/original/file-20220314-19-13ibazc.JPEG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A sweaty husband and wife team holding a large Reticulated Python." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451805/original/file-20220314-19-13ibazc.JPEG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451805/original/file-20220314-19-13ibazc.JPEG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=716&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451805/original/file-20220314-19-13ibazc.JPEG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=716&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451805/original/file-20220314-19-13ibazc.JPEG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=716&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451805/original/file-20220314-19-13ibazc.JPEG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451805/original/file-20220314-19-13ibazc.JPEG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451805/original/file-20220314-19-13ibazc.JPEG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A Reticulated Python we caught and relocated away from houses while in Indonesia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Chris Hay</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451854/original/file-20220314-17-ofmttv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="a Death Adder on a boulder in a dry creek bed with beautiful lighting." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451854/original/file-20220314-17-ofmttv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451854/original/file-20220314-17-ofmttv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451854/original/file-20220314-17-ofmttv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451854/original/file-20220314-17-ofmttv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451854/original/file-20220314-17-ofmttv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=539&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451854/original/file-20220314-17-ofmttv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=539&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451854/original/file-20220314-17-ofmttv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=539&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A Common Death Adder on Magnetic Island in Queensland.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Christina N. Zdenek</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Safety comes first</h2>
<p>When the stars align and we find one of the snakes we’ve been looking for, we have to make sure we don’t get too excited. Our safety is more important than any photograph. </p>
<p>We’re often in remote parts of Australia, hundreds of kilometres from any help. If one of us gets a snake bite, it would mean real trouble. </p>
<p>When you’re looking through a camera’s eye-piece, you can get the impression you’re further away from the snake than you really are. We’ve had to learn how to choose the right lens for each species, to ensure we can keep a safe distance without making the snake too small in the frame. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Man and woman photographing a cobra" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451807/original/file-20220314-18-1d2ms0o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451807/original/file-20220314-18-1d2ms0o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=336&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451807/original/file-20220314-18-1d2ms0o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=336&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451807/original/file-20220314-18-1d2ms0o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=336&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451807/original/file-20220314-18-1d2ms0o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451807/original/file-20220314-18-1d2ms0o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451807/original/file-20220314-18-1d2ms0o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The authors demonstrating the level of safety required when photographing a Javan Spitting Cobra in Indonesia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Dan Mandarino</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Only one of us takes the photographs at any one time. That’s because you need someone to watch the situation and make sure you’re not taking risks. As a husband and wife team, we place our full trust in each other. Distractions are not an option. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451802/original/file-20220314-22-18qvcic.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Central Ranges Taipan on the sandy ground with spinifex grass in the background" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451802/original/file-20220314-22-18qvcic.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451802/original/file-20220314-22-18qvcic.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451802/original/file-20220314-22-18qvcic.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451802/original/file-20220314-22-18qvcic.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451802/original/file-20220314-22-18qvcic.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451802/original/file-20220314-22-18qvcic.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451802/original/file-20220314-22-18qvcic.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The little-known Central Ranges Taipan.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Chris Hay</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We don’t intend this to be a how-to guide for people to find dangerous reptiles and photograph them. Snake photography is not a hobby to dive into without a great deal of preparation and knowledge. </p>
<p>Having said that, it is a rewarding profession – particularly when you get a shot of a rare reptile that’s very hard to find. Getting a shot like this and seeing it used in books, field guides and online makes all the preparation worthwhile. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451800/original/file-20220314-24-1xrpwm7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A strap-snouted brown snake in Brigalow country in Queensland" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451800/original/file-20220314-24-1xrpwm7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451800/original/file-20220314-24-1xrpwm7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451800/original/file-20220314-24-1xrpwm7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451800/original/file-20220314-24-1xrpwm7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451800/original/file-20220314-24-1xrpwm7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=539&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451800/original/file-20220314-24-1xrpwm7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=539&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451800/original/file-20220314-24-1xrpwm7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=539&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A Strap-snouted Brown Snake photographed in brigalow habitat in St George, Queensland.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Christina N. Zdenek</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/176971/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Most people try their best to avoid snakes. This snake photographer couple spends their free time searching for them.Chris Hay, Honorary Fellow, The University of QueenslandChristina N. Zdenek, Lab Manager/Post-doc at the Venom Evolution Lab, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1819012022-04-27T15:37:49Z2022-04-27T15:37:49ZReptiles: why one in five species face extinction<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/460029/original/file-20220427-24-6xgf41.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3814%2C2540&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A yacare caiman (_Caiman yacare_) in the Pantanal wetlands of Bolivia.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/crocodile-catch-fish-river-water-evening-1112389226">Ondrej Prosicky/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Reptiles are cold-blooded and scaly animals, the majority of which are predators. They include some of the <a href="https://www.animalwised.com/the-8-most-dangerous-reptiles-in-the-world-2758.html">most deadly and venomous</a> creatures on Earth, including the spitting cobra and saltwater crocodile.</p>
<p>Many of these fascinating creatures are <a href="https://www.history.com/news/snake-symbol-history-mythology">feared by humans</a> and inhabit hard-to-traverse places such as swamps. Compared with <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/">birds, amphibians and mammals</a>, there is little data available on the distribution, population size and extinction risk of reptiles. This has meant that wildlife conservationists have largely helped reptiles indirectly in the past by meeting the needs of other animals (for food and habitat for example) living in similar places.</p>
<p>Now, a first-of-its-kind <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-04664-7">global assessment</a> of more than 10,000 species of reptiles (around 90% of the known total) has revealed that 21% need urgent support to prevent them going extinct. But since <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0059741">reptiles are so diverse</a>, ranging from lizards and snakes to turtles and crocodiles, the threats to the survival of each species are likely to be equally varied. </p>
<p>Here are five important findings the new study has unveiled.</p>
<h2>Crocodiles and turtles among most threatened</h2>
<p>Well over half (58%) of all crocodile species and 50% of all turtles are at risk of extinction, making them the most threatened among reptiles. This is comparable to the most threatened groups of amphibians and mammals, so reptiles are not faring any better than other animals. </p>
<p>The biggest threats to crocodiles and turtles are hunting and the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-020-18523-4">illegal wildlife trade</a>. This trade, often to supply distant customers with pets (or luxury handbags), threatens 31% of turtles. They are also the groups of reptiles most frequently associated with <a href="https://www.wwt.org.uk/our-work/threats-to-wetlands/#:%7E:text=Unsustainable%20development,for%20housing%2C%20industry%20and%20agriculture.">wetlands</a>, habitats which are <a href="https://www.global-wetland-outlook.ramsar.org/">under siege globally</a> by the development of urban space and farmland, as well as climate change.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/reptiles-one-in-three-species-traded-online-and-75-arent-protected-by-international-law-147122">Reptiles: one in three species traded online – and 75% aren't protected by international law</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Conservation works</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=44JUXPzEI2U">tuatara</a> is the only survivor of an ancient order of reptiles called the Rhynchocephalia, which roamed the Earth alongside dinosaurs 200 million years ago. </p>
<p>To help you understand how isolated this species is in evolutionary terms, rodents belong to a single order which makes up 40% of mammals. Thankfully, populations of this species have stabilised, largely due to the protection they have received by law since 1895, which makes it an offence to kill individuals or their eggs or to take them from the wild.</p>
<p>Tuataras, which are greenish brown and grey, measure up to 80cm from head to tail and have a spiny crest along their backs, were once widespread across New Zealand but became extinct on the main islands around 200 years ago – the same time that invasive rats, brought there by European colonisers, became established. <a href="https://www.doc.govt.nz/nature/native-animals/reptiles-and-frogs/tuatara/">Conservation efforts</a>, such as captive breeding and targeted reintroductions, have meant that tuataras are once again breeding in the wild on New Zealand’s North Island.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencenews.org/article/tuataras-rare-reptiles-genes-longevity-cool-weather">Interestingly</a>, this species has one of the longest lifespans of any reptile (more than 100 years) and a body temperature of around 10°C – more than 10°C lower than most reptiles. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A green iguana-like reptile." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/460031/original/file-20220427-26-h8cxkr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/460031/original/file-20220427-26-h8cxkr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/460031/original/file-20220427-26-h8cxkr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/460031/original/file-20220427-26-h8cxkr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/460031/original/file-20220427-26-h8cxkr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/460031/original/file-20220427-26-h8cxkr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/460031/original/file-20220427-26-h8cxkr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Tuataras can continue breeding well past their 100th birthday.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/new-zealand-native-tuatara-1345787294">Mark Walshe/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Habitat destruction the biggest threat overall</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2351989421004157">Habitat loss</a>, caused by expanding farmlands, urbanisation and logging, contributes more to the extinction risk of most reptiles than any other factor. <a href="https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/50/8/653/243214">Other major threats</a> include the displacement of native reptiles by invasive species and hunting. These threats are all <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/jul/10/earths-sixth-mass-extinction-event-already-underway-scientists-warn">human-induced</a> and pose a problem for all other groups of animals.</p>
<h2>Most threatened in the tropics</h2>
<p>South-east Asia, west Africa, Madagascar and the Caribbean are <a href="http://www.gardinitiative.org/">hotspots</a> for reptiles at risk of extinction. According to the new assessment, some of these areas contain twice as many threatened reptiles as those from other groups of animals. </p>
<p>More than half of threatened reptile species <a href="https://rainforests.mongabay.com/kids/elementary/204.html">live in forests</a>, where habitat destruction is a looming threat. The picture is similar for birds and mammals, so conserving forested areas for one group of species will help to protect them all.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-forest-loss-has-changed-biodiversity-around-the-globe-over-the-last-150-years-140968">How forest loss has changed biodiversity around the globe over the last 150 years</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Climate change</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/kidspost/ever-wondered-about-warm-blooded-and-cold-blooded-animals/2015/11/27/575d30ca-6c57-11e5-aa5b-f78a98956699_story.html">Cold-blooded</a> reptiles must warm up in the sun to function properly. But if they are heated above their optimum temperature, their metabolism is less efficient and they need to move into the shade to cool down. </p>
<p>Increasing global temperatures reduce the windows available to reptiles for daily foraging – when it is not too cold but not too hot either – and shrink their habitable range overall. For some reptile species, ambient temperature influences the <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/experts-temperature-sex-determination-reptiles/">sex of offspring</a>. Cooler temperatures cause many turtle eggs to develop into males, so climate change may see <a href="https://inews.co.uk/news/environment/turtle-populations-danger-hatchlings-female-climate-change-981184">male turtles die out</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A large sea turtle depositing white eggs in the sand." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/460034/original/file-20220427-10052-6cn3i6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/460034/original/file-20220427-10052-6cn3i6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/460034/original/file-20220427-10052-6cn3i6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/460034/original/file-20220427-10052-6cn3i6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/460034/original/file-20220427-10052-6cn3i6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/460034/original/file-20220427-10052-6cn3i6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/460034/original/file-20220427-10052-6cn3i6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A male-female imbalance could prevent populations reproducing.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/turtles-nesting-during-sunrise-ostional-beach-1921648922">Jarib/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What’s good for other animals…</h2>
<p>Where reptiles are restricted to a particular range – endemic to a single small island, for example – the species is generally so specialised that a conservation effort focused on the <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12210-020-00922-w">needs of that species</a> is prudent.</p>
<p>But on the whole, birds and mammals are good surrogates for the conservation of reptiles, despite being so different. This is because the threats imposed on all groups of animals are broadly the same. Conservation efforts employed for one species can benefit all. </p>
<p>While this new assessment casts more light than has ever been shed before on the plight of the world’s scaly masses, it nevertheless shares universal lessons for what’s needed to preserve Earth’s biodiversity: space and freedom from persecution in a stable climate. </p>
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<figure class="align-right ">
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Louise Gentle does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>More than half of all crocodile species are a high priority for conservation according to the assessment.Louise Gentle, Principal Lecturer in Wildlife Conservation, Nottingham Trent UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1802282022-04-08T12:34:06Z2022-04-08T12:34:06ZTo protect wildlife from free-roaming cats, a zone defense may be more effective than trying to get every feline off the street<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/456624/original/file-20220406-7184-ca7n0y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=16%2C8%2C5590%2C3724&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Killer on the loose.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/street-cat-walking-on-cobblestone-street-royalty-free-image/1303705524">Alex Walker via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Should domestic cats be allowed to roam freely outdoors? It’s a contentious issue. Those who say yes assert that they’re <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s12136-019-00408-x">defending outdoor cats</a> and the <a href="https://www.alleycat.org/about/">people who care for them</a>. Critics respond that free-roaming cats <a href="https://theconversation.com/dont-let-them-out-15-ways-to-keep-your-indoor-cat-happy-138716">kill so many birds, reptiles, mammals and important insects like butterflies and dragonflies</a> that they <a href="https://abcbirds.org/program/cats-indoors/cats-and-birds">threaten biodiversity on a global scale</a>. </p>
<p>As <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Dan-Herrera">conservation</a> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=RaEz6G8AAAAJ&hl=en">biologists</a> familiar with these clashing viewpoints, we wondered whether there was room for a more nuanced strategy than the typical yes/no standoff. In a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2022.109503">recently published study</a>, we used camera traps at hundreds of sites across Washington, D.C., to analyze the predatory behavior of urban free-roaming cats. The cameras recorded all cats that passed them, so our study did not distinguish between feral cats and pet cats roaming outdoors.</p>
<p>Our data showed that the cats were unlikely to prey on native wildlife, such as songbirds or small mammals, when they were farther than roughly 1,500 feet (500 meters) from a forested area, such as a park or wooded backyard. We also found that when cats were approximately 800 feet (250 meters) or farther from forest edges, they were more likely to prey on rats than on native wildlife. </p>
<p>Since the average urban domestic cat ranges over a small area – <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/acv.12563">roughly 550 feet</a> (170 meters), or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_block">one to two city blocks</a> – the difference between a diet that consists exclusively of native species and one without any native prey can be experienced within a single cat’s range. Our findings suggest that focusing efforts on managing cat populations near forested areas may be a more effective conservation strategy than attempting to manage an entire city’s outdoor cat population. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Cats have an instinctual drive to hunt, even when they’re well-fed, and pursue many types of prey.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Cats on the loose</h2>
<p>Free-roaming cats are a common sight in Washington, D.C., which has a feline population of <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/dc-md-va/2021/09/24/cat-count-dc/">200,000</a>. Like many cities, Washington has had its share of <a href="https://washingtoncitypaper.com/article/445531/d-c-official-wildlife-plan-does-not-endorse-killing-feral-cats/">cat management controversies</a>. </p>
<p>Professionals on either side of the free-roaming cat debate largely agree that cats are safest when kept indoors. An outdoor cat’s lifespan generally peaks <a href="https://pets.webmd.com/cats/features/should-you-have-an-indoor-cat-or-an-outdoor-cat">around 5 years</a>, compared with 10 to 15 years for an indoor cat. Free-roaming cats face numerous threats, including vehicle collisions and contact with rat poison. Acknowledging these risks, most animal welfare organizations encourage <a href="https://www.humanesociety.org/resources/our-position-cats">an indoor-only lifestyle</a>.</p>
<p>Similarly, there is little disagreement that cats hunt; for centuries humans have used them for rodent control. But invasive rats, which are often the target of modern rodent control, <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2018/09/cats-vs-rats-new-york/571414/">can grow too large</a> to be easy prey for cats. In response, cats also pursue smaller species that are easier to catch. Studies have linked cats to <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1602480113">63 extinctions globally</a> and estimated that cats <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms2380">kill 12.3 billion wild mammals</a> annually in the U.S. alone. </p>
<p>Disagreements arise around handling cats that already live outside. Population management programs often utilize trap-neuter-return, or TNR – a process in which cats are trapped, spayed or neutered and re-released where they were caught. </p>
<p>In theory, TNR limits population growth by reducing the number of kittens that will be born. In reality it is rarely effective, since <a href="https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.2004.225.1871">75% of individual cats must be treated every year</a> to reduce the population, which is often not feasible. Regardless, reproduction itself is not what most worries conservation biologists.</p>
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<h2>Feline invaders</h2>
<p>Today the Earth is losing wild species at such a rate that many scientists believe it is experiencing its <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1922686117">sixth mass extinction</a>. In this context, free-roaming cats’ effects on wildlife are a serious concern. Cats have an instinctual drive to hunt, even if they are fed by humans. Many wildlife populations are <a href="https://www.npr.org/2020/09/10/911500907/the-world-lost-two-thirds-of-its-wildlife-in-50-years-we-are-to-blame">already struggling to survive</a> in a rapidly changing world. Falling prey to a non-native species doesn’t help.</p>
<p>Cats <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/podcast/episode/new-data-on-killer-house-cats/">aren’t picky hunters</a> but will pounce on the easiest available prey. This generalist predatory behavior contributes to their reputation as <a href="https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/extinction-countdown/worst-invasive-predators/#:%7E:text=Cats%20are%20number%20one%E2%80%94the,for%2063%20modern%2Dday%20extinctions.">one of the most damaging invasive species</a>. In our view, however, it could also be a key to limiting their ecological impact.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/456666/original/file-20220406-18446-icfn7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Silhouettes of predator species above bar charts representing threatened species they kill." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/456666/original/file-20220406-18446-icfn7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/456666/original/file-20220406-18446-icfn7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=207&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/456666/original/file-20220406-18446-icfn7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=207&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/456666/original/file-20220406-18446-icfn7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=207&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/456666/original/file-20220406-18446-icfn7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=260&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/456666/original/file-20220406-18446-icfn7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=260&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/456666/original/file-20220406-18446-icfn7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=260&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">This graphic shows the numbers of threatened and extinct bird (B), mammal (M) and reptile (R) species negatively affected by invasive mammalian predators. Gray bars are the total number of extinct and threatened species, and red bars are extinct species. Predators (L to R) are the cat, rodents, dog, pig, small Indian mongoose, red fox and stoat.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1602480113">Doherty et al., 2016</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
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<h2>Managing cats based on their behavior</h2>
<p>Since cats are generalist predators, their wild-caught diet tends to reflect the local species that are available. In areas with more birds than mammals, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2009.09.013">like New Zealand</a>, birds are cats’ primary prey. Similarly, cat diets in the most developed portions of cities likely reflect the most available prey species – rats.</p>
<p>While cats top the list of harmful invasive species, <a href="https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/extinction-countdown/worst-invasive-predators/#:%7E:text=Cats%20are%20number%20one%E2%80%94the,for%2063%20modern%2Dday%20extinctions.">rats aren’t far behind</a>. In cities, rats spread disease, contaminate food and <a href="https://www.nbcwashington.com/news/local/rat-increase-can-have-real-impact-on-city-infrastructure/24370/">damage infrastructure</a>. There aren’t many downsides to free-roaming cats preying on rats.</p>
<p>City centers have <a href="https://www.governing.com/archive/gov-rodents-rats-population-urban-cities.html">no shortage of rats</a>, which can live anywhere, including parks, subways, sewers and buildings. But native animals tend to stay in or near <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2017.00063">areas with sufficient outdoor habitat</a>, like parks and forested neighborhoods. When cats hunt in these same spaces, they are a threat to native wildlife. But if cats don’t share these spaces with native species, the risk declines dramatically.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">The National Park Service built a specially designed 5-mile fence on the island of Hawaii to protect endangered petrels from predation by feral cats.</span></figcaption>
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<p>Conservation funding is limited, so it’s critical to choose effective strategies. The traditional approach to cat management has largely consisted of attempting to prohibit cats from being loose altogether – an approach that’s incredibly unpopular with people who care for outdoor cats. Despite <a href="https://abcbirds.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/Letter-to-Secretary-Jewell.pdf">calls for outdoor cat bans</a>, few have been enacted. </p>
<p>Instead, we suggest prioritizing areas where wildlife is most at risk. For example, cities could create “no cat zones” near urban habitats, which would forbid releasing trap-neuter-return cats in those areas and fine owners in those areas who let their cats roam outdoors. </p>
<p>In Washington, D.C., this would include <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2022.109503">forested neighborhoods</a> like Palisades or Buena Vista, as well as homes near parks like Rock Creek. As we see it, this targeted approach would have more impact than citywide outdoor cat bans that are unpopular and difficult to enforce.</p>
<p>Hard-line policies have done little to reduce outdoor cat populations across the U.S. Instead, we believe a data-driven and targeted approach to cat management is a more effective way to protect wildlife.</p>
<p>[<em>Understand new developments in science, health and technology, each week.</em> <a href="https://memberservices.theconversation.com/newsletters/?nl=science&source=inline-science-understand">Subscribe to The Conversation’s science newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/180228/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A new study shows that when free-ranging cats are more than a few blocks from forested areas in cities, such as parks, they’re more likely to prey on rats than on native wildlife.Daniel Herrera, PhD Student in Environmental Science and Policy, George Mason UniversityTravis Gallo, Assistant Professor of Urban Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, George Mason UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1710522021-11-11T14:40:42Z2021-11-11T14:40:42ZVulnerable lizard species gets hot and bothered in rising temperatures<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/429911/original/file-20211103-17-1spa5be.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The sungazer lizard faces a number of threats. Could rising temperatures be among them?</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Dennis W Donohue/Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Reptiles probably don’t spring to mind when you think of species likely to be affected by rising global temperatures. After all, since they’re often found in hot environments, they’re able to withstand high temperatures and can reduce water loss through their skin.</p>
<p>Despite the ability to withstand high temperatures within their environment, reptiles depend on access to specific thermal environments to optimise various bodily functions. These include metabolism – converting food to energy – and reproduction. That means significant increases in temperature of the kind being <a href="https://www.climate.gov/news-features/understanding-climate/climate-change-global-temperature#">increasingly recorded</a> in many parts of the world could potentially have a negative effect on reptiles.</p>
<p>Although more than <a href="https://www.sanbi.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/tolley-et-al-2016-african-reptile-conservation.pdf">1600 of the 9400 reptile species globally</a> can be found on the African continent, there has been almost no research conducted on the effect of climate change on African reptiles. This is partly because of the evasive nature of many reptile species, and also because funding is limited. </p>
<p>To start filling this knowledge gap, <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15627020.2021.1980103">we studied</a> how higher temperatures affect the <a href="https://www.sanbi.org/animal-of-the-week/giant-girdled-lizard/">sungazer lizard</a> (<em>Smaug giganteus</em>). These charismatic reptiles are endemic to South Africa’s highveld. They are <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/5336/115650269">already threatened</a> by habitat destruction and illegal collection for the pet and traditional medicine trades. Captive breeding attempts have not worked, which sets the species back further. </p>
<p>We wanted to know what higher temperatures in South Africa will mean for endemic species like the sungazer lizard. Specifically, we wanted to test how being exposed to higher temperatures affected the lizards’ adrenocortical activity as seen in glucocorticoid secretion. Once an animal is exposed to a possible stressor, such as <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-73354-z">elevated temperatures</a>, the physiological stress response is activated. The animal then secretes more glucocorticoids. </p>
<p>One of this hormone’s primary functions is to provide the required energy and behaviour responses to ensure survival. An elevation in glucocorticoids is adaptive in the short term. But prolonged exposure to elevated levels can have negative effects. These include the suppression of reproductive and immune systems and overall reduced survival. By quantifying an animal’s glucocorticoid levels, scientists can learn crucial information about physiological stress and chances of survival. </p>
<h2>Experiments</h2>
<p>Animals’ bodies respond in various ways to stressors like the presence of a predator, an injury, or a change of surroundings. Physiological responses allow an organism to produce sufficient energy or maintain water balance to escape or recover from a stressful situation. A temporary increase in the secretion of glucocorticoids from the adrenal gland is just one form of response. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-predators-may-have-shaped-the-way-some-southern-african-lizards-survive-and-reproduce-145483">How predators may have shaped the way some southern African lizards survive and reproduce</a>
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<p>Once in the bloodstream, glucocorticoids are heavily metabolised in the liver; the hormone metabolites move to the bile before being excreted in faeces. As such, faecal glucocorticoid metabolites can be monitored as a robust proxy for an individual’s adrenocortical activity. Faecal collection also requires almost no direct human-animal interaction, so it’s non-invasive for the animals.</p>
<p>Our research was conducted in a captive environment, at the <a href="https://www.pretoriazoo.org/">National Zoological Garden</a> in Pretoria. Because the species is already vulnerable and there aren’t many available to researchers, we only studied four female and two male animals. </p>
<p>At the National Zoological Garden animals are kept at 27°C-30°C, which is thought to be the ideal range for the species. In the wild they will, of course, experience a wider range of temperatures, depending on the season. For now, though, these will rarely reach the 39°C we used as our high point here.</p>
<p>We divided the animals equally into a control and an experimental group. We let them get used to their new surroundings, at a temperature of 30°C for two weeks. Control animals were then kept at 30°C for another six weeks; the experimental group were kept at 39°C for the same time. Finally, both groups were kept at 30°C for a further three weeks. Study animals were monitored by conservation staff throughout the study to ensure they were safe and healthy.</p>
<p>We collected faecal samples from all study animals daily and quantified their faecal glucocorticoid metabolites (fGCM). Females kept at constant temperatures showed a constant fGCM pattern throughout the study period. Those subjected to higher temperatures showed a sudden spike in fGCM levels immediately following an increase in temperature, as well as during the return period to 30°C. </p>
<p>The male kept at constant temperatures did not show consistent fGCM levels during the study period. The male exposed to higher temperatures, meanwhile, showed a steady increase in fGCM levels as the study progressed.</p>
<p>These results tell us several things. First, the sudden peak in fGCM levels in test females following temperature manipulations suggests the animals perceived the sudden change in environmental temperatures as a stressor. It activated their physiological stress response to restore homeostasis and ensure survival. </p>
<p>This response in female sungazer lizards may be interpreted positively: it could potentially help them to survive in environments where temperatures rise significantly.</p>
<p>The test male’s story is less positive, as he showed increased adrenocortical activity throughout the study period, even when temperatures returned to 30°C. This could indicate that male sungazer lizards are sensitive to any temperature elevation in their immediate environment, despite only displaying a gradual moderate increase in excreted hormone metabolite levels. </p>
<h2>More to understand</h2>
<p>We do not want to make substantial inferences, particularly given the small number of lizards we were able to test. But these findings suggest there are sex-specific differences in stress responses within the species – and a potential further threat to sungazer lizard populations likely to be subjected to higher temperatures in future. </p>
<p>Follow-up studies will be needed. For instance, stress responses should be monitored in wild sungazer lizard populations. It’s also important to remember that different species will react differently to climate change, so more reptile species will need to be studied.</p>
<p><em>Dr Robert Campbell, a wildlife veterinarian, co-authored the study this article is based on.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/171052/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Juan Scheun is affiliated with the Mammal Research Institute, University of Pretoria, as a research fellow. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Trevor McIntyre is affiliated with the Mammal Research Institute, University of Pretoria, as a research fellow. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andre Ganswindt does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>By quantifying an animal’s glucocorticoid levels, scientists can learn crucial information about physiological stress and chances of survival.Juan Scheun, Postdoctoral fellow, University of South AfricaAndre Ganswindt, Professor and Director of the Mammal Research Institute, University of Pretoria, University of PretoriaTrevor McIntyre, Associate Professor in Zoology, University of South AfricaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1629982021-09-12T20:02:37Z2021-09-12T20:02:37ZSaving these family-focused lizards may mean moving them to new homes. But that’s not as simple as it sounds<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/407135/original/file-20210618-15-1ifhpwt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C1599%2C1077&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Holly Bradley</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em><strong><a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/am-i-not-pretty-enough-106740">Am I not pretty enough?</a></strong> This article is part of The Conversation’s series introducing you to unloved Australian animals that need our help.</em></p>
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<p>Spiny-tailed skinks (<em>Egernia stokesii badia</em>), known as meelyu in the local Badimia language in Western Australia, are highly social lizards that live together in family groups — an uncommon trait among reptiles. </p>
<p>They’re culturally significant to the Badimia people but habitat degradation and mining has put them under threat of extinction.</p>
<p>These sturdy, mottled lizards — which live in colonies in the logs of fallen trees and branches — are a candidate for what researchers call “mitigation translocation”. </p>
<p>That’s where wildlife are relocated away from high-risk areas (such as those cleared for urban development or mining) to lower risk areas.</p>
<p>It might sound simple. But <a href="https://scholar.google.com.au/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=en&user=orU0UxkAAAAJ&citation_for_view=orU0UxkAAAAJ:u5HHmVD_uO8C">research</a> shows these mitigation translocation decisions are often made on an ad hoc basis, without a long-term strategic plan in place.</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/407138/original/file-20210618-25-1l4cc46.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/407138/original/file-20210618-25-1l4cc46.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407138/original/file-20210618-25-1l4cc46.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407138/original/file-20210618-25-1l4cc46.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407138/original/file-20210618-25-1l4cc46.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407138/original/file-20210618-25-1l4cc46.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407138/original/file-20210618-25-1l4cc46.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Example of the range in individual size/age occupying the same permanent log pile structure within the Mid West region of Western Australia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Holly Bradley</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Not enough pre-planning or follow-up</h2>
<p>There has been much research into assisted relocation of larger, charismatic <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/oryx/article/bias-and-dispersal-in-the-animal-reintroduction-literature/BAB3FC3B2FE61B60CDC4273373624569">mammals and birds</a>. But other animals, such as reptiles with a <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1046/j.1523-1739.1998.97253.x">less positive social image</a>, have been less widely studied.</p>
<p>Our <a href="https://scholar.google.com.au/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=en&user=orU0UxkAAAAJ&citation_for_view=orU0UxkAAAAJ:u5HHmVD_uO8C">recent research</a> has found there is often little pre-planning or follow-up to monitor success of mitigation translocations, even though <a href="https://www.thebhs.org/publications/the-herpetological-journal/early-publication/3302-1-killing-them-softly-a-review-on-snake-translocation-and-an-australian-case-study">reptile mitigation translocations</a> do take place, sometimes on a large scale.</p>
<p>In fact, <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/cobi.13667">fewer than 25%</a> of mitigation translocations worldwide actually result in long-term self-sustaining populations.</p>
<p>Mitigation translocation methods are also not being improved. <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/cobi.13667">Fewer than half</a> of published mitigation translocation studies have explicitly compared or tested different management techniques. </p>
<p>Mitigation translocation studies also rarely consider long-term implications such as how relocated animals can <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169534707003345?casa_token=YabqE7E6hIMAAAAA:9CbRKh_13KGM3T6pAYEo8Zl4pthuzYGamQjPXaK3FWCzQAD3g50tPiHS6jZCqksXhIglU1Sb">impact the site</a> to which they are moved — for example, if the ecosystem has limited capacity to support the relocated animals.</p>
<p>But it’s not just about ecosystem benefits. Preservation of species such as meelyu also has cultural benefits — but mitigation translocation can only be part of the solution if it’s done strategically.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/hundreds-of-australian-lizard-species-are-barely-known-to-science-many-may-face-extinction-161572">Hundreds of Australian lizard species are barely known to science. Many may face extinction</a>
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<h2>The meelyu: a totem species</h2>
<p>As part of Holly Bradley’s research into understanding how to protect meelyu from further loss in numbers, she had the privilege to meet with Badimia Indigenous elder, Darryl Fogarty, who identified meelyu as his family’s totem.</p>
<p>Totemic species can represent a person’s connection to their nation, clan or family group. </p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/407137/original/file-20210618-16484-bsnotp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/407137/original/file-20210618-16484-bsnotp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407137/original/file-20210618-16484-bsnotp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407137/original/file-20210618-16484-bsnotp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407137/original/file-20210618-16484-bsnotp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407137/original/file-20210618-16484-bsnotp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407137/original/file-20210618-16484-bsnotp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">The meelyu or Western Spiny-tailed Skink is significant to the Badimia people and require translocation as part of mine site restoration and mitigation of population loss.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Holly Bradley</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>Unfortunately, Darryl Fogarty cannot remember the last time he saw the larger meelyu in the area. The introduction of European land management and feral species into Western Australia has upset the ecosystem balance — and this also has cultural consequences.</p>
<p>Preserving totemic fauna in their historic range can be a critical component of spiritual connection to the land for Indigenous groups in Australia. </p>
<p>In the past, this spiritual accountability for the stewardship of a totem has helped protect species over the long term, with this responsibility passed down between generations.</p>
<p>Before European colonisation, this traditional practice helped to preserve biodiversity and maintain an abundance of food supplies.</p>
<p>A strategic approach to future meelyu relocations from areas of active mining is crucial to prevent further population losses — for both ecological and cultural reasons. </p>
<h2>Good mitigation translocation design</h2>
<p>If we are to use mitigation translocation to shore up their numbers, we need effective strategies in place to boost the chance it will actually help the meelyu.</p>
<p>Good mitigation translocation design includes factors such as:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>selecting a good site and understanding properly whether it can support new wildlife populations</p></li>
<li><p>having a good understanding of the animal’s ecological needs and how they fit with the environment to which they’re moving</p></li>
<li><p>using the right methods of release for the circumstances. For example, is it better to use a <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/WR/WR14257">soft release</a> method, where an individual animal is gradually acclimatised to its new environs over time? Or a <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/WR/WR14257">hard release</a> method, where the animal is simply set free in its new area?</p></li>
<li><p>having a good understanding of the cultural factors involved.</p></li>
</ul>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1008507987072184321"}"></div></p>
<h2>A holistic approach</h2>
<p>A holistic approach to land management and restoration practice considers both cultural and <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fevo.2017.00159/full">ecological</a> significance.</p>
<p>It supports the protection and return of healthy, functioning ecosystems — as well as community well-being and connection to nature.</p>
<p>Mitigation translocation could have a role to play in protection of culturally significant wildlife like the meelyu, but only when it’s well planned, holistic and part of a long term strategy.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/photos-from-the-field-australia-is-full-of-lizards-so-i-went-bush-to-find-out-why-146020">Photos from the field: Australia is full of lizards so I went bush to find out why</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/162998/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Holly Bradley has received funding from the Gunduwa Regional Conservation Association as part of her research.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bill Bateman and Darryl Fogarty do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Spiny-tailed skinks, also known as meelyu, are culturally significant to the Badimia people in Western Australia. But habitat degradation and mining have put them at threat of extinction.Holly Bradley, PhD candidate, Curtin UniversityBill Bateman, Associate professor, Curtin UniversityDarryl Fogarty, Badimia Elder, Indigenous KnowledgeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.