tag:theconversation.com,2011:/au/technology/articlesScience + Tech – The Conversation2024-03-28T05:59:11Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2267562024-03-28T05:59:11Z2024-03-28T05:59:11ZInstagram and Threads are limiting political content. This is terrible for democracy<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/584705/original/file-20240327-24-b0sz75.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=556%2C440%2C4940%2C3476&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/neon-signage-xv7-GlvBLFw">Prateek Katyal/Unsplash</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Meta’s Instagram and Threads apps are “slowly” rolling out a change that will <a href="https://about.instagram.com/blog/announcements/continuing-our-approach-to-political-content-on-instagram-and-threads">no longer recommend political content</a> by default. The company defines political content broadly as being “potentially related to things like laws, elections, or social topics”.</p>
<p>Users who follow accounts that post political content will still see such content in the normal, algorithmically sorted ways. But by default, users will not see any political content in their feeds, stories or other places where <em>new</em> content is recommended to them. </p>
<p>For users who want political recommendations to remain, Instagram has a new setting where users can turn it back on, making this an “opt-in” feature.</p>
<p>This change not only signals Meta’s retreat from politics and news more broadly, but also challenges any sense of these platforms being good for democracy at all. It’s also likely to have a chilling effect, stopping content creators from engaging politically altogether.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/from-curry-nights-to-coal-kills-dresses-how-social-media-drives-politicians-to-behave-like-influencers-190246">From curry nights to ‘coal kills’ dresses: how social media drives politicians to behave like influencers</a>
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<h2>Politics: dislike</h2>
<p>Meta has long had a problem with politics, but that wasn’t always the case.</p>
<p>In 2008 and 2012, political campaigning <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/19331681.2016.1163519">embraced social media</a>, and Facebook was seen as especially important in Barack Obama’s success. The Arab Spring was painted as a social-media-led “Facebook Revolution”, although Facebook’s role in these events was <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/journalism/2012/11/28/role-social-media-arab-uprisings/">widely overstated</a>, </p>
<p>However, since then the spectre of political manipulation in the wake of the 2018 Cambridge Analytica scandal has soured social media users toward politics on platforms.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/cambridge-analytica-scandal-facebooks-user-engagement-and-trust-decline-93814">Cambridge Analytica scandal: Facebook's user engagement and trust decline</a>
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<p>Increasingly polarised politics, vastly increased mis- and disinformation online, and Donald Trump’s preference for social media over policy, or truth, have all taken a toll. In that context, Meta has already been reducing <a href="https://about.fb.com/news/2021/02/reducing-political-content-in-news-feed/">political content recommendations</a> on their main Facebook platform since 2021. </p>
<p>Instagram and Threads hadn’t been limited in the same way, but also ran into problems. Most recently, the Human Rights Watch <a href="https://www.hrw.org/news/2023/12/20/meta-systemic-censorship-palestine-content">accused Instagram</a> in December last year of systematically censoring pro-Palestinian content. With the new content recommendation change, Meta’s response to that accusation today would likely be that it is applying its political content policies consistently.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/584952/original/file-20240328-30-jfkoff.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A person holding a smartphone displaying an instagram profile at a high angle against a city backdrop." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/584952/original/file-20240328-30-jfkoff.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/584952/original/file-20240328-30-jfkoff.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584952/original/file-20240328-30-jfkoff.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584952/original/file-20240328-30-jfkoff.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584952/original/file-20240328-30-jfkoff.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584952/original/file-20240328-30-jfkoff.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584952/original/file-20240328-30-jfkoff.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Instagram has no shortage of political content from advocacy and media organisations.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/high-angle-photo-of-person-holding-turned-on-smartphone-with-tall-buildings-background-WUmb_eBrpjs">Jakob Owens/Unsplash</a></span>
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<h2>How the change will play out in Australia</h2>
<p>Notably, many Australians, especially in younger age groups, <a href="https://www.canberra.edu.au/about-uc/media/newsroom/2023/june/digital-news-report-australia-2023-tiktok-and-instagram-increase-in-popularity-for-news-consumption,-but-australians-dont-trust-algorithms">find news on Instagram</a> and other social media platforms. Sometimes they are specifically seeking out news, but often not. </p>
<p>Not all news is political. But now, on Instagram by default no news recommendations will be political. The serendipity of discovering political stories that motivate people to think or act will be lost.</p>
<p>Combined with Meta <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2024/mar/01/facebook-news-tab-shut-down-end-australia-journalism-funding-deals">recently stating</a> they will no longer pay to support the Australian news and journalism shared on their platforms, it’s fair to say Meta is seeking to be as apolitical as possible.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-will-metas-refusal-to-pay-for-news-affect-australian-journalism-and-our-democracy-224872">How will Meta's refusal to pay for news affect Australian journalism – and our democracy?</a>
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<h2>The social media landscape is fracturing</h2>
<p>With Elon Musk’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-elon-musk-is-obsessed-with-casting-x-as-the-most-authentic-social-media-platform-210956">disastrous Twitter rebranding to X</a>, and TikTok <a href="https://theconversation.com/if-tiktok-is-banned-in-the-us-or-australia-how-might-the-company-or-china-respond-225889">facing the possibility of being banned</a> altogether in the United States, Meta appears as the most stable of the big social media giants.</p>
<p>But with Meta positioning Threads as a potential new town square while Twitter/X burns down, it’s hard to see what a town square looks like without politics. </p>
<p>The lack of political news, combined with a lack of any news on Facebook, may well mean young people see even less news than before, and have less chance to engage politically. </p>
<p>In a Threads discussion, Instagram Head Adam Mosseri made the <a href="https://www.threads.net/@mosseri/post/CuZ6opKtHva">platform’s position clear</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Politics and hard news are important, I don’t want to imply otherwise. But my take is, from a platform’s perspective, any incremental engagement or revenue they might drive is not at all worth the scrutiny, negativity (let’s be honest), or integrity risks that come along with them.</p>
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<p>Like for Facebook, for Instagram and Threads politics is just too hard. The political process and democracy can be pretty hard, but it’s now clear that’s not Meta’s problem.</p>
<h2>A chilling effect on creators</h2>
<p>Instagram’s <a href="https://about.instagram.com/blog/announcements/continuing-our-approach-to-political-content-on-instagram-and-threads">announcement</a> also reminded content creators their accounts may no longer be recommended due to posting political content.</p>
<p>If political posts were preventing recommendation, creators could see the exact posts and choose to remove them. Content creators <a href="https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300264753/not-getting-paid-to-do-what-you-love/">live or die by the platform’s recommendations</a>, so the implication is clear: avoid politics. </p>
<p>Creators already spend considerable time trying to interpret what content platforms prefer, building <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444819854731">algorithmic</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/01634437221077174">folklore</a> about which posts do best.</p>
<p>While that folklore is sometimes flawed, Meta couldn’t be clearer on this one: political posts will prevent audience growth, and thus make an already precarious living harder. That’s the definition of a political chilling effect.</p>
<p>For the audiences who turn to creators because they are <a href="https://scholarsbank.uoregon.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1794/26365/ada08-commu-abi-2015.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y">perceived to be relatable and authentic</a>, the absence of political posts or positions will likely stifle political issues, discussion and thus ultimately democracy. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/C41CueKvYaF/?hl=en\u0026img_index=3","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<h2>How do I opt back in?</h2>
<p>For Instagram and Threads users who want these platforms to still share political content recommendations, follow these steps:</p>
<ul>
<li>go to your Instagram profile and click the three lines to access your settings.</li>
<li>click on Suggested Content (or Content Preferences for some).</li>
<li>click on Political content, and then select “Don’t limit political content from people that you don’t follow”.</li>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/social-media-apps-have-billions-of-active-users-but-what-does-that-really-mean-226021">Social media apps have billions of 'active users'. But what does that really mean?</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/226756/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tama Leaver receives funding from the Australian Research Council. He is a Chief Investigator in the ARC Centre of Excellence for the Digital Child.</span></em></p>A new change to Meta’s apps will see users no longer recommended political content by default. The ramifications of this will be far-reaching.Tama Leaver, Professor of Internet Studies, Curtin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2264012024-03-28T01:37:12Z2024-03-28T01:37:12ZQuantum computing just got hotter: 1 degree above absolute zero<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/584893/original/file-20240327-26-7h2dj1.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=11%2C2%2C1985%2C1266&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Diraq</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>For decades, the pursuit of quantum computing has struggled with the need for extremely low temperatures, mere fractions of a degree above absolute zero (0 Kelvin or –273.15°C). That’s because the quantum phenomena that grant quantum computers their unique computational abilities can only be harnessed by isolating them from the warmth of the familiar classical world we inhabit.</p>
<p>A single quantum bit or “qubit”, the equivalent of the binary “zero or one” bit at the heart of classical computing, requires a large refrigeration apparatus to function. However, in many areas where we expect quantum computers to deliver breakthroughs – such as in designing new materials or medicines – we will need large numbers of qubits or even whole quantum computers working in parallel.</p>
<p>Quantum computers that can manage errors and self-correct, essential for reliable computations, are anticipated to be gargantuan in scale. Companies like Google, IBM and PsiQuantum are preparing for a future of entire warehouses filled with cooling systems and consuming vast amounts of power to run a single quantum computer.</p>
<p>But if quantum computers could function at even slightly higher temperatures, they could be much easier to operate – and much more widely available. In new research <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07160-2">published in Nature</a>, our team has shown a certain kind of qubit – the spins of individual electrons – can operate at temperatures around 1K, far hotter than earlier examples.</p>
<h2>The cold, hard facts</h2>
<p>Cooling systems become less efficient at lower temperatures. To make it worse, the systems we use today to control the qubits are intertwining messes of wires reminiscent of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ENIAC">ENIAC</a> and other huge computers of the 1940s. These systems increase heating and create physical bottlenecks to making qubits work together.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-long-before-quantum-computers-can-benefit-society-thats-googles-us-5-million-question-226257">How long before quantum computers can benefit society? That's Google's US$5 million question</a>
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<p>The more qubits we try to cram in, the more difficult the problem becomes. At a certain point the wiring problem becomes insurmountable. </p>
<p>After that, the control systems need to be built into the same chips as the qubits. However, these integrated electronics use even more power – and dissipate more heat – than the big mess of wires. </p>
<h2>A warm turn</h2>
<p>Our new research may offer a way forward. We have demonstrated that a particular kind of qubit – one made with a quantum dot printed with metal electrodes on silicon, using technology much like that used in existing microchip production – can operate at temperatures around 1K.</p>
<p>This is only one degree above absolute zero, so it’s still extremely cold. However, it’s significantly warmer than previously thought possible. This breakthrough could condense the sprawling refrigeration infrastructure into a more manageable, single system. It would drastically reduce operational costs and power consumption.</p>
<p>The necessity for such technological advancements isn’t merely academic. The stakes are high in fields like drug design, where quantum computing promises to revolutionise how we understand and interact with molecular structures.</p>
<p>The research and development expenses in these industries, running into billions of dollars, underscore the potential cost savings and efficiency gains from more accessible quantum computing technologies.</p>
<h2>A slow burn</h2>
<p>“Hotter” qubits offer new possibilities, but they will also introduce new challenges in error correction and control. Higher temperatures may well mean an increase in the rate of measurement errors, which will create further difficulties in keeping the computer functional. </p>
<p>It is still early days in the development of quantum computers. Quantum computers may one day be as ubiquitous as today’s silicon chips, but the path to that future will be filled with technical hurdles. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-quantum-computation-and-communication-technology-7892">Explainer: quantum computation and communication technology </a>
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<p>Our recent progress in operating qubits at higher temperatures is as a key step towards making the requirements of the system simpler.</p>
<p>It offers hope that quantum computing may break free from the confines of specialised labs into the broader scientific community, industry and commercial data centres.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/226401/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrew Dzurak works at Diraq. Through Diraq, he receives funding from Australian Research Council (ARC), UNSW Sydney, US Army Research Office (ARO), the US Air Force Office of Scientific Research (AFOSR) and the Australian Government, among other organisations.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andre Saraiva works at Diraq. Through Diraq, he receives funding from Australian Research Council (ARC), UNSW Sydney, US Army Research Office (ARO), the US Air Force Office of Scientific Research (AFOSR) and the Australian Government, among other organisations.</span></em></p>Quantum computers that work at slightly higher temperatures could be cheaper and more accessible.Andrew Dzurak, Scientia Professor Andrew Dzurak, CEO and Founder of Diraq, UNSW SydneyAndre Luiz Saraiva De Oliveira, Solid State Physicist, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2267292024-03-27T23:55:16Z2024-03-27T23:55:16ZA cosmic ‘speed camera’ just revealed the staggering speed of neutron star jets in a world first<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/584904/original/file-20240327-26-ntaiw6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=1283%2C180%2C5431%2C3798&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Nuclear explosions on a neutron star feed its jets.
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Danielle Futselaar and Nathalie Degenaar, Anton Pannekoek Institute, University of Amsterdam</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>How fast can a neutron star drive powerful jets into space? The answer, it turns out, is about one-third the speed of light, as our team has just revealed in a <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07133-5">new study</a> published in Nature.</p>
<p>Energetic cosmic beams known as <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/radio-jet">jets</a> are seen throughout our universe. They are launched when material – mainly dust and gas – falls in towards any dense central object, such as a neutron star (an extremely dense remnant of a once-massive star) or a <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/universe/black-holes/">black hole</a>. </p>
<p>The jets carry away some of the gravitational energy released by the infalling gas, recycling it back into the surroundings on far larger scales.</p>
<p>The most powerful jets in the universe come from the biggest black holes at the centres of galaxies. The energy output of these jets can affect the evolution of an entire galaxy, or even a galaxy cluster. This makes jets a critical, yet intriguing, component of our universe.</p>
<p>Although jets are common, we still don’t fully understand how they are launched. Measuring the jets from a neutron star has now given us valuable information.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-brightest-object-in-the-universe-is-a-black-hole-that-eats-a-star-a-day-222612">The brightest object in the universe is a black hole that eats a star a day</a>
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<h2>Jets from stellar corpses</h2>
<p>Jets from black holes tend to be bright, and have been well studied. However, the jets from neutron stars are typically much fainter, and much less is known about them.</p>
<p>This presents a problem, since we can learn a lot by comparing the jets launched by different celestial objects. <a href="https://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/science/objects/neutron_stars1.html">Neutron stars</a> are extremely dense stellar corpses – cosmic cinders the size of a city, yet containing the mass of a star. We can think of them as enormous atomic nuclei, each about 20 kilometres across.</p>
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<p>In contrast to black holes, neutron stars have both a solid surface and a magnetic field, and gas falling onto them releases less gravitational energy. All of these properties will have an effect on how their jets are launched, making studies of neutron star jets particularly valuable.</p>
<p>One key clue to how jets are launched comes from their speeds. If we can determine how jet speeds vary with the mass or spin of the neutron star, that would provide a powerful test of theoretical predictions. But it is extremely challenging to measure jet speeds accurately enough for such a test.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/unexpected-find-from-a-neutron-star-forces-a-rethink-on-radio-jets-103843">Unexpected find from a neutron star forces a rethink on radio jets</a>
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<h2>A cosmic speed camera</h2>
<p>When we measure speeds on Earth, we time an object between two points. This could be a 100-metre sprinter running down the track, or a point-to-point speed camera tracking a car.</p>
<p>Our team, led by Thomas Russell from the <a href="http://www.inaf.it/en">Italian National Institute of Astrophysics</a> in Palermo, conducted a new experiment to do this for neutron star jets.</p>
<p>What has made this measurement so difficult in the past is that jets are steady flows. This means there is no single starting point for our timer. But we were able to identify a short-lived signal at X-ray wavelengths that we could use as our “starting gun”.</p>
<p>Being so dense, neutron stars can “steal” matter from a nearby orbiting companion star. While some of that gas is launched outwards as jets, most of it ends up falling onto the neutron star. As the material piles up, it gets hotter and denser.</p>
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<p>When enough material has built up, it triggers a thermonuclear explosion. A runaway nuclear fusion reaction occurs and rapidly spreads to engulf the entire star. The fusion lasts for a few seconds to minutes, causing a short-lived <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/universe/nasas-nicer-catches-record-setting-x-ray-burst/">burst of X-rays</a>.</p>
<h2>One step closer to solving a mystery</h2>
<p>We thought this thermonuclear explosion would disrupt the neutron star’s jets. So, we used CSIRO’s <a href="https://www.csiro.au/en/about/facilities-collections/atnf/australia-telescope-compact-array">Australia Telescope Compact Array</a> to stare at the jets for three days at radio wavelengths to try and catch the disruption. At the same time, we used the European Space Agency’s <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Integral_overview">Integral</a> telescope to look at the X-rays from the system.</p>
<p>To our surprise, we found the jets got brighter after every pulse of X-rays. Instead of disrupting the jets, the thermonuclear explosions seemed to power them up. And this pattern was repeated ten times in one neutron star system, and then again in a second system.</p>
<p>We can explain this surprising result if the X-ray pulse causes gas swirling around the neutron star to fall inwards more quickly. This, in turn, provides more energy and material to divert into the jets.</p>
<p>Most importantly, however, we can use the X-ray burst to indicate the launch time of the jets. We timed how long they took to move outwards to where they became visible at two different radio wavelengths. These start and finish points provided us with our cosmic speed camera.</p>
<p>Interestingly, the jet speed we measured was close to the “escape speed” from a neutron star. On Earth, this escape speed is <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/escape-velocity">11.2 kilometres per second</a> – what rockets need to achieve to break free of Earth’s gravity. For a neutron star, that value is around half the speed of light.</p>
<p>Our work has introduced a new technique for measuring neutron star jet speeds. Our next steps will be to see how the jet speed changes for neutron stars with different masses and rotation rates. That will allow us to directly test theoretical models, taking us one step closer to figuring out how such powerful cosmic jets are launched.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/226729/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>James Miller-Jones receives funding from the Australian Research Council and the Western Australian State Government.</span></em></p>Powerful jets are launched from the most massive objects in our universe, but we don’t fully understand how. This measurement gets us a step closer to solving the mystery.James Miller-Jones, Professor, Curtin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2267162024-03-27T03:59:18Z2024-03-27T03:59:18ZBaltimore bridge collapse: a bridge engineer explains what happened, and what needs to change<p>When the container ship MV Dali, 300 metres long and massing around 100,000 tonnes, lost power and slammed into one of the support piers of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Scott_Key_Bridge_(Baltimore)">Francis Scott Key Bridge</a> in Baltimore, the <a href="https://apnews.com/article/baltimore-bridge-collapse-53169b379820032f832de4016c655d1b">bridge collapsed in moments</a>. Six people are presumed dead, several others injured, and the city and region are expecting a months-long logistical nightmare in the absence of a crucial transport link.</p>
<p>It was a shocking event, not only for the public but for bridge engineers like me. We work very hard to ensure bridges are safe, and overall the probability of being injured or worse in a bridge collapse remains <a href="https://www.icevirtuallibrary.com/doi/10.1680/feng.13.00021">even lower</a> than the chance of being struck by lightning.</p>
<p>However, the images from Baltimore are a reminder that safety can’t be taken for granted. We need to remain vigilant. </p>
<p>So why did this bridge collapse? And, just as importantly, how might we make other bridges more safe against such collapse?</p>
<h2>A 20th century bridge meets a 21st century ship</h2>
<p>The Francis Scott Key Bridge was built through the mid 1970s and opened in 1977. The main structure over the navigation channel is a “continuous truss bridge” in three sections or spans.</p>
<p>The bridge rests on four supports, two of which sit each side of the navigable waterway. It is these two piers that are critical to protect against ship impacts.</p>
<p>And indeed, there were two layers of protection: a so-called “dolphin” structure made from concrete, and a fender. The dolphins are in the water about 100 metres upstream and downstream of the piers. They are intended to be sacrificed in the event of a wayward ship, absorbing its energy and being deformed in the process but keeping the ship from hitting the bridge itself.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/584647/original/file-20240327-28-cm4rr0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Diagram of a bridge" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/584647/original/file-20240327-28-cm4rr0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/584647/original/file-20240327-28-cm4rr0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=120&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584647/original/file-20240327-28-cm4rr0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=120&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584647/original/file-20240327-28-cm4rr0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=120&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584647/original/file-20240327-28-cm4rr0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=151&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584647/original/file-20240327-28-cm4rr0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=151&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584647/original/file-20240327-28-cm4rr0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=151&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Francis Scott Key Bridge in Baltimore, showing the pier struck by the cargo ship and the sections of bridge which collapsed as a result.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Scott_Key_Bridge_collapse#/media/File:2024_Francis_Scott_Key_Bridge_collapse.svg">F Vasconcellos / Wikimedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The fender is the last layer of protection. It is a structure made of timber and reinforced concrete placed around the main piers. Again, it is intended to absorb the energy of any impact.</p>
<p>Fenders are not intended to <a href="https://iabse.org/Sys/Store/Products/296602">absorb impacts from very large vessels</a>. And so when the MV Dali, weighing more than 100,000 tonnes, made it past the protective dolphins, it was simply far too massive for the fender to withstand.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/ive-captained-ships-into-tight-ports-like-baltimore-and-this-is-how-captains-like-me-work-with-harbor-pilots-to-avoid-deadly-collisions-226700">I've captained ships into tight ports like Baltimore, and this is how captains like me work with harbor pilots to avoid deadly collisions</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Video recordings show a cloud of dust appearing just before the bridge collapsed, which may well have been the fender disintegrating as it was crushed by the ship.</p>
<p>Once the massive ship had made it past both the dolphin and the fender, the pier – one of the bridge’s four main supports – was simply incapable of resisting the impact. Given the size of the vessel and its likely speed of around 8 knots (15 kilometres per hour), the impact force would have been <a href="https://iabse.org/Sys/Store/Products/296602">around 20,000 tonnes</a>.</p>
<h2>Bridges are getting safer</h2>
<p>This was not the first time a ship hit the Francis Scott Bridge. There was <a href="https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/tr/pdf/ADA135602.pdf">another collision in 1980</a>, damaging a fender badly enough that it had to be replaced. </p>
<p>Around the world, <a href="https://apnews.com/article/bridge-collapses-barges-list-1f2d6261d523ddc625aaaf3b32c626bc">35 major bridge collapses resulting in fatalities</a> were caused by collisions between 1960 and 2015, according to a 2018 report from the World Association for Waterborne Transport Infrastructure. Collisions between ships and bridges in the 1970s and early 1980s led to a significant improvement in the design rules for protecting bridges from impact.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/584643/original/file-20240327-30-727593.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A greenish book cover with the title Ship Collision With Bridges." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/584643/original/file-20240327-30-727593.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/584643/original/file-20240327-30-727593.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=883&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584643/original/file-20240327-30-727593.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=883&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584643/original/file-20240327-30-727593.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=883&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584643/original/file-20240327-30-727593.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1110&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584643/original/file-20240327-30-727593.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1110&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584643/original/file-20240327-30-727593.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1110&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Guidelines like this have played a crucial role in improved bridge safety.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://iabse.org/Sys/Store/Products/296602">IABSE</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-319-73833-8">Further impacts</a> in the 1970s and early 1980s instigated significant improvements in the design rules for impact. </p>
<p>The International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering’s <a href="https://iabse.org/Sys/Store/Products/296602">Ship Collision with Bridges</a> guide, published in 1993, and the American Association of State Highway and Transporation Officials’ <a href="https://store.transportation.org/Item/PublicationDetail?ID=1346">Guide Specification and Commentary for Vessel Collision Design of Highway Bridges</a> (1991) changed how bridges were designed.</p>
<p>In Australia, the <a href="https://www.standards.org.au/standards-catalogue/standard-details?designation=as-5100-2-2017">Australian Standard for Bridge Design</a> (published in 2017) requires designers to think about the biggest vessel likely to come along in the next 100 years, and what would happen if it were heading for any bridge pier at full speed. Designers need to consider the result of both head-on collisions and side-on, glancing blows. As a result, many newer bridges protect their piers with entire human-made islands.</p>
<p>Of course, these improvements came too late to influence the design of the Francis Scott Key Bridge itself.</p>
<h2>Lessons from disaster</h2>
<p>So what are the lessons apparent at this early stage? </p>
<p>First, it’s clear the protection measures in place for this bridge were not enough to handle this ship impact. Today’s cargo ships are much bigger than those of the 1970s, and it seems likely the Francis Scott Key Bridge was not designed with a collision like this in mind.</p>
<p>So one lesson is that we need to consider how the vessels near our bridges are changing. This means we cannot just accept the structure as it was built, but ensure the protection measures around our bridges are evolving alongside the ships around them.</p>
<p>Second, and more generally, we must remain vigilant in managing our bridges. I’ve written <a href="https://theconversation.com/are-australian-bridges-safe-and-can-we-do-better-101825">previously</a> about the current level of safety of Australian bridges, but also about how we can do better. </p>
<p>This tragic event only emphasises the need to spend more on maintaining our ageing infrastructure. This is the only way to ensure it remains safe and functional for the demands we put on it today.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/226716/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Colin Caprani receives funding from the Department of Transport (Victoria) and the Level Crossing Removal Project. He is also Chair of the Confidential Reporting Scheme for Safer Structures - Australasia, Chair of the Australian Regional Group of the Institution of Structural Engineers, and Australian National Delegate for the International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering.</span></em></p>Bridges are getting safer – but their designers need to keep up with the ever-growing size of cargo ships.Colin Caprani, Associate Professor, Civil Engineering, Monash UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2266212024-03-27T01:49:55Z2024-03-27T01:49:55ZAustralia just committed $207 million to a major satellite program. What is it, and why do we need it?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/584628/original/file-20240327-26-vxzw2z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C3104%2C6162%2C4601&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Landsat image of Lake Torrens, South Australia.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/150566/lake-torrens-is-a-lake-again">NASA Earth Observatory</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Last week, the federal minister for Resources and Northern Australia, Madeleine King, <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/news/featured-story/usgs-and-australia-continue-partnership-landsat-next-satellite-mission">signed a A$207 million commitment with the United States</a> in support of “Landsat Next”.</p>
<p>Aptly named, this is the next generation of an Earth observation satellite program from which Australia has benefited for <a href="https://www.ga.gov.au/news/40-years-of-landsat-in-australia">over 40 years</a>.</p>
<p>The commitment means we will make a critical contribution to global Earth observation efforts with our cutting-edge data management. In essence, we will be the custodians of data downloaded from new Landsat satellites – a major role. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/landsat-turns-50-how-satellites-revolutionized-the-way-we-see-and-protect-the-natural-world-186986">Landsat turns 50: How satellites revolutionized the way we see – and protect – the natural world</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What is Earth observation?</h2>
<p>Earth observation satellites provide the world with more than half of all climate change data – and some of that data can come from nowhere else but space. They also provide over 90% of weather data, which the Bureau of Meteorology uses to give us our daily forecasts. </p>
<p>In Australia, Earth observation data <a href="https://www.spacegovcentre.org/_files/ugd/cd297f_ae32824561374ea0982b562ff8332507.pdf">is also critical for supporting</a> agriculture, fisheries, mining, land and <a href="https://www.csiro.au/en/news/all/articles/2018/april/satellite-water-monitoring">water policies</a>, bushfire response, and national security needs. In 2020, the economic benefits of Earth observation data were estimated at over <a href="https://www.deloitte.com/au/en/services/economics/perspectives/economics-earth-observation.html">A$2.4 billion</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/584626/original/file-20240327-18-vxzw2z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/584626/original/file-20240327-18-vxzw2z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/584626/original/file-20240327-18-vxzw2z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584626/original/file-20240327-18-vxzw2z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584626/original/file-20240327-18-vxzw2z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584626/original/file-20240327-18-vxzw2z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584626/original/file-20240327-18-vxzw2z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584626/original/file-20240327-18-vxzw2z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Arrernte artwork by Roseanne Kemarre Ellis, Caterpillar Tracks, on a satellite antenna at the Alice Springs Ground Station.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/aboriginal-art-satellite-dish">USGS</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Furthermore, such data brings immense benefits to First Nations people, particularly in northern Australia. Indigenous rangers use Earth observation data to augment their traditional land and water management practices.</p>
<p>Importantly, Geoscience Australia and CSIRO work closely with the <a href="https://cfat.org.au/cfat-se">Centre for Appropriate Technology</a>, an Indigenous business in Alice Springs. This business owns a satellite dish that receives data from Landsat and other Earth observation satellites.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/painting-with-fire-how-northern-australia-developed-one-of-the-worlds-best-bushfire-management-programs-205113">‘Painting with fire’: how northern Australia developed one of the world’s best bushfire management programs</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What is Landsat?</h2>
<p>Landsat is a program led by NASA and the US Geological Survey. <a href="https://landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov/">For more than 50 years</a> it has provided the “longest continuous space-based record of Earth’s land in existence”.</p>
<p>This means since 1972 we’ve had continuous data on ice melts, weather and temperature changes, and changes in the planet’s landscapes and freshwater sources.</p>
<p>Australia has been a Landsat beneficiary and partner since the early 1970s. Just earlier this year, emergency services in Queensland facing Cyclone Kirilly depended on Landsat data to <a href="https://www.canberratimes.com.au/story/8564305/australia-continues-partnership-in-satellite-program/">help mitigate potential flooding</a>. Geoscience Australia has also used Landsat data gathered over decades to <a href="https://landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov/article/shifting-shores-of-the-australian-continent-mapped-with-landsat/">map changes in Australia’s shorelines</a>.</p>
<p>And during the Black Summer megafires of 2019–20, the worst bushfire season New South Wales has ever recorded, <a href="https://www.dea.ga.gov.au/article/landsat-black-summer">Landsat images were critical</a> in predicting where the bushfires would be worst, and assisting in real-time response. </p>
<p>The new agreement places us at the centre of data management for the next generation of Landsat.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/i-made-bushfire-maps-from-satellite-data-and-found-a-glaring-gap-in-australias-preparedness-132087">I made bushfire maps from satellite data, and found a glaring gap in Australia's preparedness</a>
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</p>
<hr>
<h2>What is Landsat Next?</h2>
<p>There have been nine Landsat satellites since 1972, of which eight are operational today. Landsat Next will add three more satellites to this, with new capabilities. As a result, we will get more data more often, and at a higher resolution.</p>
<p>Landsat Next will significantly improve image resolution of some of the original satellites. This means, for example, that 40% more detail can be captured for agricultural sowing, irrigation and harvesting needs.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/584629/original/file-20240327-22-4jjhqs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An overhead view of a deep blue ocean with brighter islets off a green coast." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/584629/original/file-20240327-22-4jjhqs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/584629/original/file-20240327-22-4jjhqs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584629/original/file-20240327-22-4jjhqs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584629/original/file-20240327-22-4jjhqs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584629/original/file-20240327-22-4jjhqs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584629/original/file-20240327-22-4jjhqs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584629/original/file-20240327-22-4jjhqs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Great Barrier Reef imaged by Landsat in 1999.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/3270/great-barrier-reef">NASA Earth Observatory</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The current Landsat satellites cover 11 spectral bands. These are wavelengths of light captured by satellite sensors, ranging from visible light which we can see with the naked eye to invisible wavelengths like infrared and ultraviolet.</p>
<p>Landsat Next will increase this to up to 26 bands, which makes it possible to track water quality at much greater accuracy. This is helpful, for example, in detecting harmful algal blooms.</p>
<p>Landsat satellites also sense thermal bands. This is a measurement of surface temperatures so we can understand soil health and water levels, and track bushfires.</p>
<p>Landsat Next will improve the resolution of temperature measurements, providing improved climate change data and more accurate information for farmers and sustainable urban planning.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/landsat-zooms-in-on-cities-hottest-neighborhoods-to-help-combat-the-urban-heat-island-effect-182925">Landsat zooms in on cities' hottest neighborhoods to help combat the urban heat island effect</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Australia is great at satellite data</h2>
<p>The new commitment builds on what Australia already does, and is really good at – the ground and data segments of Earth observation satellite systems. In fact, we are a <a href="https://www.space.gov.au/about-agency/publications/earth-observation-space-roadmap">world leader in Earth observation data management</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c6m8_2u91hA">We have excellent geography</a> for collecting data from the satellites via large satellite dishes in Alice Springs. We also have a longstanding tradition of being the data custodians and stewards for our US and European partners.</p>
<p>The Landsat Next agreement fulfils one aspect of the planned <a href="https://www.csiro.au/en/news/All/News/2022/March/National-Space-Mission-for-Earth-Observation">National Space Mission for Earth Observation</a> (NSMEO) which was cancelled last year due to <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-06-29/labor-axes-morrison-government-satellite-program/102538686">major budget cuts</a>. This was a disappointment to many people in Australia, and to our international partners.</p>
<p>This new commitment to Landsat Next puts in place part of what we were already planning to do through the NSMEO, and will make us a more important partner in global Earth observation infrastructure.</p>
<p>With our unique geography, Australia is a heavy user of Earth observation data, and this agreement means we can be bigger contributors, as well.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-first-ever-survey-on-australian-attitudes-towards-space-is-out-so-what-do-we-think-219813">The first-ever survey on Australian attitudes towards space is out. So, what do we think?</a>
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</em>
</p>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/226621/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Cassandra Steer receives funding from Geoscience Australia and the Department of Defence. In the past she has received funding from the Australian Space Agency, DFAT, the Canadian Department of National Defence, the US Department of State, and the US Department of Defense.</span></em></p>Without satellites, we wouldn’t have much of the Earth and climate data we have today. And Australia is a world leader in satellite data.Cassandra Steer, Deputy Director, Institute for Space (InSpace), Australian National UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2263972024-03-26T00:01:06Z2024-03-26T00:01:06ZWe went looking for glowing interstellar gas – and stumbled on 49 unknown galaxies<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583996/original/file-20240325-28-68vtd0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=350%2C5%2C1514%2C1385&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Gas detected by MeerKAT (white contours) on top of a three-colour optical image from the DECaLS DR10 survey.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://academic.oup.com/MNRAS/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/mnras/stae684">Glowacki et al. 2024.</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Stars are born from huge clouds of mostly hydrogen gas floating in space. Astronomers like me study this gas because it helps us understand how stars and galaxies form and grow.</p>
<p>Hydrogen gas gives off a faint glow that is invisible to human eyes but can be observed with a telescope tuned to detect radio waves. </p>
<p>Recently, my colleagues and I were using a telescope like this – a radio telescope called MeerKAT, in South Africa – to look for hydrogen gas in a particular galaxy. We were only observing for less than three hours, which is quite a short amount of time since the hydrogen glow is so faint. </p>
<p>When we looked at the results, we were in for a huge surprise. Instead of discovering hydrogen gas in the galaxy we aimed at, we spotted it in no less than 49 previously unknown galaxies. Our findings are <a href="https://academic.oup.com/MNRAS/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/mnras/stae684">published</a> in the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society.</p>
<h2>Gas in galaxies</h2>
<p>The giant clouds of gas in which stars are born are called nebulae. When stars eventually die, they expel their gas into their surrounding environment, where it eventually cools and forms new nebulae. </p>
<p>Galaxies are like huge factories where the life cycle of stars repeats itself over and over. To properly understand galaxies and how they grow and evolve, astronomers need to consider both the stars and the gas making up the galaxy. </p>
<p>One thing we are particularly interested in is “merger events”, when two galaxies collide and merge into a single, larger galaxy. These events can also impact the gas, and kickstart star formation. </p>
<p>Studying gas can often help us understand a galaxy’s history. Gas often extends far further out than the stars in galaxies. </p>
<p>When we see trails of disturbed gas, it is a classic clue that a recent galaxy merger or interaction has occurred. </p>
<p>But we don’t see galactic gas easily with optical telescopes. Thankfully, radio telescopes are a great tool for finding hydrogen gas.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583828/original/file-20240323-30-pmfayi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A photo of several large white radio dishes standing in a field." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583828/original/file-20240323-30-pmfayi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583828/original/file-20240323-30-pmfayi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=324&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583828/original/file-20240323-30-pmfayi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=324&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583828/original/file-20240323-30-pmfayi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=324&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583828/original/file-20240323-30-pmfayi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=408&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583828/original/file-20240323-30-pmfayi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=408&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583828/original/file-20240323-30-pmfayi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=408&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The MeerKAT radio telescope, made up of 64 radio dishes working together to act as a larger telescope.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">South African Radio Astronomy Observatory (SARAO)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The MeerKAT radio telescope</h2>
<p>The MeerKAT radio telescope in South Africa <a href="https://www.sarao.ac.za/news/sarao-hosts-meerkat-5-years-conference-in-2024/">recently celebrated its fifth birthday</a>. It is one of the “pathfinder” telescopes for the much larger Square Kilometre Array (SKA), a project under construction in South Africa and Australia. </p>
<p>MeerKAT has already achieved some great results, <a href="https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article/501/3/3833/6034001">from detecting giant radio galaxies</a> to studying the <a href="https://www.sarao.ac.za/media-releases/new-meerkat-radio-image-reveals-complex-heart-of-the-milky-way/">centre of our own galaxy</a>, the Milky Way.</p>
<p>There are large survey projects underway with MeerKAT to study the star-forming hydrogen gas in galaxies. These include the <a href="https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2021/02/aa39655-20/aa39655-20.html">MIGHTEE-HI</a> and <a href="https://science.uct.ac.za/laduma">LADUMA</a> surveys, the latter of which will use MeerKAT for more than 3,000 hours searching one part of the sky for hydrogen gas in very distant galaxies. These surveys are specifically focused on finding hydrogen gas and are carefully planned and carried out with that goal in mind.</p>
<p>But that’s not the only way MeerKAT can be used. Astronomers can also pitch ideas for “open time” observations to tackle other science questions or goals. </p>
<p>That’s how this discovery came about. I was hoping to detect hydrogen gas in one specific galaxy with MeerKAT, as it is the most sensitive telescope for these studies. </p>
<p>We did not find hydrogen gas in that galaxy, which was fine. We astronomers don’t always find what we are looking for.</p>
<p>But when I inspected the MeerKAT data, I spotted some gas located away from the target galaxy. So we investigated further. </p>
<p>By using techniques developed for the larger MeerKAT science surveys such as LADUMA, we found a lot more gas. In total, we had 49 detections.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583822/original/file-20240323-16-unrb75.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A photo of a field of stars with small loops of coloured lines." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583822/original/file-20240323-16-unrb75.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583822/original/file-20240323-16-unrb75.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=587&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583822/original/file-20240323-16-unrb75.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=587&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583822/original/file-20240323-16-unrb75.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=587&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583822/original/file-20240323-16-unrb75.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=738&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583822/original/file-20240323-16-unrb75.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=738&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583822/original/file-20240323-16-unrb75.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=738&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The 49 new gas-rich galaxies detected by the MeerKAT radio telescope in South Africa. Each detection is shown as coloured contours, with redder colours indicating more distant gas from us, and bluer colours as closer gas. The background image comes from the optical PanSTARRS survey.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://academic.oup.com/MNRAS/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/mnras/stae684">Glowacki et al. 2024</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Meet the 49ers</h2>
<p>Each detection of the gas in these galaxies was brand new. In little more than two hours of observing time, MeerKAT had revealed several collections of neighbouring galaxies. </p>
<p>Some of these neighbours are even interacting with each other, as their gas content shows. This was not at all obvious from just looking at the optical images of their stars. </p>
<p>In one case, a galaxy is stealing gas from two companion galaxies, and using it to fuel its own star formation.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583826/original/file-20240323-16-g8ybij.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583826/original/file-20240323-16-g8ybij.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583826/original/file-20240323-16-g8ybij.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=549&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583826/original/file-20240323-16-g8ybij.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=549&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583826/original/file-20240323-16-g8ybij.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=549&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583826/original/file-20240323-16-g8ybij.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=689&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583826/original/file-20240323-16-g8ybij.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=689&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583826/original/file-20240323-16-g8ybij.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=689&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Examples of individual detections of the gas detected by MeerKAT (white contours) on top of a three-colour optical image from the DECaLS DR10 survey. The gas seen here extends further out than the stars in the galaxies.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://academic.oup.com/MNRAS/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/mnras/stae684">Glowacki et al. 2024</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>I’ve informally nicknamed this collection of galaxies the 49ers, <a href="https://www.loc.gov/collections/california-first-person-narratives/articles-and-essays/early-california-history/forty-niners/">a reference to the miners of the 1849 California gold rush</a>. </p>
<p>While MeerKAT took the observations containing the 49 gold nuggets in just a couple of hours, winnowing them out required several other tools. These included <a href="https://www.ilifu.ac.za/about/">the ilifu cloud supercomputer</a>, where we reduced the MeerKAT observations (“data reduction” is a kind of pre-processing that makes the raw observations useful) and a data visualisation tool called <a href="https://cartavis.org/">CARTA</a> which we used for the initial discovery of the 49 new galaxies.</p>
<p>We also examined our data with <a href="https://idavie.readthedocs.io/">iDaVIE-v, a virtual reality software for viewing astronomical datasets in 3D</a>. This software has already been <a href="https://theconversation.com/astronomers-have-discovered-a-rare-polar-ring-galaxy-wrapped-in-a-huge-ribbon-of-hydrogen-213254">used for new discoveries such as polar ring galaxies</a>.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/T_AJlFeoRu0?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">VR view of several “49er” gas-rich galaxies.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/lNuWz_EB9ls?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">VR view of a zoom-in of the 49er galaxies.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>More gold nuggets to be found</h2>
<p>Finding 49 new galaxies in such a short amount of observation time is quite unusual, even with a telescope as powerful as MeerKAT. However, we know there are more galaxies waiting to be found in upcoming and existing MeerKAT observations. </p>
<p>In some other recent work, our team found traces of gas in more than 80 galaxies (most brand new) across three separate MeerKAT observations. Each of these observations was originally focused on a single galaxy, like the “open time” observation in which we found the 49ers. </p>
<p>What will we find next? We don’t know, but with MeerKAT – and eventually its more powerful successor, the SKA telescope – we’re confident astronomers will turn up plenty more pieces of gold.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/226397/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Marcin Glowacki does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>An attempt to study gas in one galaxy with the MeerKAT radio telescope detected 49 other galaxies instead.Marcin Glowacki, Research Associate, Curtin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2257982024-03-25T22:36:21Z2024-03-25T22:36:21ZAlgorithms that predict crime are watching – and judging us by the cards we’ve been dealt<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583642/original/file-20240322-24-6fviwb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=209%2C341%2C6015%2C4561&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/statue-justice-lady-iustitia-justitia-roman-2166907855">Jbruiz/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Your money, postcode, friends and family can make all the difference to how the criminal system treats you. </p>
<p>The New South Wales police recently scrapped a widely condemned program known as the <a href="https://piac.asn.au/project-highlight/the-suspect-targeting-management-plan/">Suspect Targeting Management Plan</a>. It used algorithmic risk scores to single out “targets”, some as young as ten years old, for police surveillance.</p>
<p>But similar programs remain in place. For instance, Corrective Services NSW uses a <a href="https://criminaljustice.tooltrack.org/tool/16629">statistical assessment tool called LSI-R</a> to predict whether prisoners will reoffend. </p>
<p>“High risk” prisoners receive “high intensity interventions”, and may be denied parole. The <a href="https://correctiveservices.dcj.nsw.gov.au/documents/research-and-statistics/rb29-utility-of-level-of-service-inventory-.pdf">risk scores are calculated</a> from facts such as “criminal friends”, family involvement in crime or drugs, financial problems, living in a “high crime neighbourhood” and frequent changes of address. </p>
<p>A predictive algorithm is a set of rules for computers (and sometimes people) to follow, based on patterns in data. Lots has been written about how algorithms <a href="https://nyupress.org/9781479837243/algorithms-of-oppression/">discriminate against us</a>, from biased search engines to health databases.</p>
<p>In my newly published book, <a href="https://academic.oup.com/book/55116">Artificial Justice</a>, I argue the use of tools that predict our behaviour based on factors like poverty or family background should worry us, too. If we are punished at all, it should be only for what we have done wrong, not for the cards we have been dealt.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/biased-ai-can-be-bad-for-your-health-heres-how-to-promote-algorithmic-fairness-153088">Biased AI can be bad for your health – here's how to promote algorithmic fairness</a>
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<h2>Algorithms are watching us</h2>
<p>Algorithms generate risk scores used in criminal justice systems all over the world. In the United Kingdom, the <a href="https://theconversation.com/a-black-box-ai-system-has-been-influencing-criminal-justice-decisions-for-over-two-decades-its-time-to-open-it-up-200594">OASys</a> (Offender Assessment System) is used as part of the pre-sentence information given to judges – it shapes bail, parole and sentencing decisions. In the United States, a <a href="https://www.propublica.org/article/how-we-analyzed-the-compas-recidivism-algorithm">tool known as COMPAS</a> does something similar.</p>
<p>Risk scores are used beyond criminal justice, too, and they don’t always need computers to generate them. A short survey <a href="https://nida.nih.gov/sites/default/files/opioidrisktool.pdf">known as the Opioid Risk Tool</a> helps doctors in Australia and across the world decide whether to prescribe pain relief for acute and chronic illness, by predicting whether patients will misuse their medications.</p>
<p>Predictive algorithms literally save lives: they are used to allocate donor organs, triage patients and make <a href="https://www.theverge.com/c/22927811/medical-algorithm-explainer-sepsis-risk-watch">urgent medical treatment decisions</a>. But they can also create and sustain unjustified inequalities. </p>
<p>Imagine that we develop an algorithm – “CrimeBuster” – to help police patrol crime “hot spots”. We use data that links crime to areas populated by lower income families. Since we cannot measure “crime” directly, we instead look at rates of arrest.</p>
<p>Yet the fact that arrest rates are high in these areas may just tell us that police spend more time patrolling them. If there is no justification for this practice of intensive policing, rolling out CrimeBuster would give these prejudices the status of policy.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-evidence-is-in-you-cant-link-imprisonment-to-crime-rates-40074">The evidence is in: you can't link imprisonment to crime rates</a>
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<h2>Algorithms are judging us</h2>
<p>The trouble deepens when we use statistics to make predictions about intentional action – the things that we choose to do.</p>
<p>This might be a prediction about whether someone will be a “<a href="https://fama.io/post/toxic-employees-cost-your-enterprise-over-1-million-per-year">toxic</a>” employee, commit crimes or abuse drugs.</p>
<p>The factors that influence these predictions are rarely publicised. For the British sentencing algorithm OASys, they include whether someone has been the victim of <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5d231809ed915d0bb984b2db/oasys-needs-adhoc-stats.pdf">domestic violence</a>.</p>
<p>The American COMPAS system captures parental divorce and <a href="https://www.michigan.gov/-/media/Project/Websites/corrections/progserv/Folder1/Timothy_Brenne_PhD__Meaning_and_Treatment_Implications_of_COMPA_Core_Scales.pdf?rev=70b2e15249b849f6a3fbd8ba613506f6">childhood abuse</a>. The Opioid Risk Tool asks whether the patient’s family has a history of substance abuse, and whether the patient (if female) has a history of “<a href="https://www.health.vic.gov.au/sites/default/files/migrated/files/collections/policies-and-guidelines/o/opioid-risk-tool---pdf.pdf">preadolescent sexual abuse</a>”.</p>
<p>In each case, these facts make it more likely that someone will go to prison, miss out on medical treatment, and so on.</p>
<p>We all want to have the chance to make choices true to who we are, and meet our needs and goals. And we want to be afforded the same choices as other people, rather than be singled out as incapable of choosing well.</p>
<p>When we punish someone because of facts they can’t easily influence, we do just this: we treat that person as if they simply cannot help but make bad choices.</p>
<h2>We can’t lock people up just in case</h2>
<p>The problem isn’t the use of algorithms per se. In the 19th century, Italian physician <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cesare_Lombroso">Cesare Lombroso</a> argued we could identify “the born criminal” from physical characteristics – a misshapen skull, wide jaw, long limbs or big ears.</p>
<p>Not long after, British criminologist <a href="https://archive.org/details/englishconvictst00goriuoft/page/n387/mode/2up">Charles Goring</a> ran with this idea and argued that certain “defective” mental characteristics made “the fate of imprisonment” inevitable.</p>
<p>Algorithms simply make it much harder to see what’s going on in the world of crime risk assessment.</p>
<p>But when we look, it turns out what’s going on is something pretty similar to the Lombroso-Goring vision: we treat people as if they are fated to do wrong, and lock them up (or keep them locked up) just in case.</p>
<p>Public bodies should be required to publish the facts that inform the predictions behind such decisions. Machine learning should only be used if and to the extent that these publication requirements can be met. This makes it easier to have meaningful conversations about where to draw the line. </p>
<p>In the context of criminal justice, that line is clear. We should only deal out harsher penalties for bad behaviour, not other physical, mental or social characteristics. There are <a href="https://advancingpretrial.org/psa/factors/">plenty of guidelines</a> that take this approach, and this is the line that Australian institutions should toe.</p>
<p>Once penalties for their crime have been applied, prisoners should not be treated differently or locked up for longer because of their friends and family, their financial status or the way in which they’ve been treated at the hands of others.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225798/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tatiana Dancy does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Tools used in the criminal justice system predict the risk of crime – but the scores are based on factors completely out of our control.Tatiana Dancy, Associate Professor, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2252652024-03-25T02:37:22Z2024-03-25T02:37:22ZAlternative proteins are here – the next 30 years could be crucial for NZ’s meat and dairy sectors<p>The history of farming is seeded with technological “big bang” moments that have changed the trajectory of whole industries and countries. </p>
<p>Some – such as mechanisation, and the arrival of synthetic fertiliser and pesticides, have transformed agricultural economic and technical systems. Others have involved substitute commodities – <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0743016718309811">artificial flavourings, chemical dyes</a> or synthetic fibres to <a href="https://www.otago.ac.nz/centre-sustainability/research/foodagriculture/protein-20-understanding-the-synthetic-protein-transition">replace wool</a> – which have threatened the existence of whole farming sectors, including in New Zealand. </p>
<p>The next big disruption is arguably <a href="https://www.emergingproteins.co.nz/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/Unleashing-Aotearoa-New-Zealands-Next-Protein-Revolution_July-2023-WEB.pdf">alternative proteins</a>. They promise to introduce a brave new world of environmentally and animal-friendly proteins, produced by microbes in industrial vats or cell division in laboratories. </p>
<p>Proponents argue alternative proteins <a href="https://theconversation.com/nz-has-the-energy-resources-to-adopt-alternative-food-technologies-it-just-needs-a-plan-222348">offer a solution</a> to many of the world’s environmental and social problems. </p>
<p>Notably, the <a href="https://eatforum.org/eat-lancet-commission/">EAT-Lancet Commission on Food, Planet, Health</a> included non-animal proteins as integral to a sustainable diet for a stressed planet, making a significant contribution to climate change mitigation. </p>
<p>Most academic publications reflect this optimism about “promissory science”. They focus on technological advancement and solutions that require more investment of time and funding. In this version of the future, we can have our beef (equivalent) and eat it too. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/emerging-tech-in-the-food-transport-and-energy-sector-can-help-counter-the-effects-of-climate-change-180126">Emerging tech in the food, transport and energy sector can help counter the effects of climate change</a>
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<p>But what does a shift to alternative proteins mean for farming systems and landscapes in countries where animal protein production sectors are a significant element of rural economies? </p>
<p>For <a href="https://read.dukeupress.edu/environmental-humanities/article/14/1/71/294320/The-CAFO-in-the-BioreactorReflections-on">some critics</a>, questions remain as to who benefits, who is substituted out of existence, who captures value and who gets left behind?</p>
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<h2>Modelling the future</h2>
<p>These questions are particularly important for New Zealand, where agricultural sectors generate <a href="https://www.beehive.govt.nz/release/new-zealand-food-and-fibre-exports-leap-533-billion-result">80% of export earnings</a>. In competing with traditional agricultural sector, alternative proteins can change the fortunes of entire sectors and regions.</p>
<p>As part of the <a href="https://ourlandandwater.nz/project/protein-future-scenarios/">Protein Futures NZ</a> project (funded through the <a href="https://ourlandandwater.nz/">Our Land and Water</a> National Science Challenge), we used economic modelling to investigate the impacts of alternative proteins on the primary sector and regional land use in New Zealand.</p>
<p>The first step involved finding credible projections of growth for alternative protein production globally. Because most are not yet produced at commercial scales, expectations of their potential and impacts vary significantly.</p>
<p>This uncertainty is evident in the diverse predictions of experts on primary sector. Their assessments ranged from expecting minimal competition for existing farming sectors to foreseeing the complete replacement of traditional animal-based proteins in New Zealand. </p>
<p>We turned to the <a href="https://www.bcg.com/capabilities/climate-change-sustainability/alternative-proteins">market assessments</a> conducted by management consulting groups to model what might happen. These pointed to a range of potential growth for alternative proteins that we captured in four scenarios projected to the year 2050.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/whats-made-of-legumes-but-sizzles-on-the-barbie-like-beef-australias-new-high-tech-meat-alternative-124429">What's made of legumes but sizzles on the barbie like beef? Australia's new high-tech meat alternative</a>
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<p>The first of the scenarios used current growth trajectories for different forms of alternative protein (plant-based proteins, precision fermentation of protein ingredients, and cellular meat) until 2050. This provided a baseline for comparison. </p>
<p>In this first scenario the growth in global demand for protein outstripped any increases coming from alternative sources. Everyone benefits from the growth in escalating global demand for proteins.</p>
<p>The three other scenarios imagined what would happen to New Zealand’s meat and dairy sectors if there was significant growth in one or more of the alternative protein types. </p>
<p>Our modelling suggested the different alternative proteins would have mixed impact on New Zealand’s agricultural sector. The dairy sector would be particularly sensitive to developments in precision fermentation that produced direct substitutes for casein and whey protein. The number of sheep decreased in scenarios two, three and four while alternative proteins had an inconsistent impact on beef.</p>
<p>Broadly, our modelling showed any significant growth in one or more alternative proteins would result in fewer animals and more plants being grown in New Zealand. </p>
<p>Despite the negative impacts on the meat and dairy sectors, the modelling projected relatively moderate overall economic impacts for New Zealand. Increased production of alternative proteins also showed clear environmental benefits, including lower greenhouse gas emissions. </p>
<h2>Time to prepare for alternative proteins</h2>
<p>The findings of the project provide much food for thought. At the minimum, artificial proteins will change the world market for some major export sectors.</p>
<p>Our research indicates the need for policy that prepares the primary sector for changing protein markets and governing bodies for changing land use. </p>
<p>We also make the following observations:</p>
<p>• The appeal of alternative proteins lies in their reduced environmental impacts and increased animal welfare. For New Zealand to be competitive in these sectors, producers need to spotlight production practices that mitigate impacts on climate, water, soils, biodiversity and animal welfare. </p>
<p>• There are opportunities to shift production to plant proteins or to plant products that supply the nutrients, usually in a fluid base, which feed the microbes in precision fermentation and the cells in cellular meat. </p>
<p>• New Zealand may also benefit from investment in technologies that take advantage of renewable energy to produce proteins. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/less-meat-more-bugs-in-our-dietary-future-94853">Less meat, more bugs in our dietary future</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>History tells us that substitutes for traditional agricultural products can significantly alter the viability of once-profitable commodities. </p>
<p>Alternative proteins will very likely lead to significant shifts in land use alongside improved outcomes for some key environmental and welfare factors. It’s now time to develop policy enabling a resilient response to this impact.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>The authors wish to acknowledge the rest of the Protein Futures research team: Jon Manhire, Rob Burton, Stuart Ford, Klaus Mittenzwei, John Reid, Miranda Mirosa, John Saunders, Simon Barber, Sarah O’Connell, Kate Tomlinson, Ann Moriarty, Angus Sinclair Thompson and Brent Paehua. We also thank the industry experts who contributed to interviews.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225265/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Christopher Rosin receives funding from the Our Land and Water National Science Challenge.. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hugh Campbell receives funding from the Our Land and Water National Science Challenge. He also participates in development of Agricultural and Rural Policy for Te Pāti Kākāriki - the Green Party of Aotearoa New Zealand.</span></em></p>NZ’s sheep industry could be one of the biggest losers with the rise of alternative proteins. Once profitable industries will need to be ready to pivot away from animal-based products.Christopher Rosin, Senior Lecturer in Political Ecology, Lincoln University, New ZealandHugh Campbell, Professor of Sociology, Gender Studies and Criminology, University of OtagoLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2257922024-03-24T23:52:18Z2024-03-24T23:52:18ZWe have revealed a unique time capsule of Australia’s first coastal people from 50,000 years ago<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582751/original/file-20240319-18-jmngyk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=17%2C20%2C1649%2C1256&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">West coast of Barrow Island, overlooking the submerged northwestern shelf.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Kane Ditchfield</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Barrow Island, located 60 kilometres off the Pilbara in Western Australia, was once a hill overlooking an expansive coast. This was the northwestern shelf of the Australian continent, now permanently submerged by the ocean.</p>
<p>Our new research, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0277379124000489">published in Quaternary Science Reviews</a>, shows that Aboriginal people repeatedly lived on portions of this coastal plateau. We have worked closely with coastal Thalanyji Traditional Owners on this island work and also on their sites from the mainland.</p>
<p>This use of the plain likely began 50,000 years ago, and the place remained habitable until rising sea levels cut the island off from the mainland 6,500 years ago. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/people-once-lived-in-a-vast-region-in-north-western-australia-and-it-had-an-inland-sea-219505">People once lived in a vast region in north-western Australia – and it had an inland sea</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>A unique time capsule</h2>
<p>The northwestern shelf and the submerged coastlines of Australia are immensely significant for understanding how and where <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0277379122003377">First Nations people</a> lived before and during the last ice age.</p>
<p>When the last ice age was at its coldest (24,000 to 19,000 years ago), sea levels worldwide were about 130 metres below current levels. As the ice melted, the sea rose rapidly, eventually flooding the connection between Barrow Island and the mainland.</p>
<p>Since Aboriginal people did not occupy the island after this time, the human archaeological record of Barrow Island is a time capsule, unique in Australia. Most other coastal occupation areas from this period are now beneath the sea, but these drowned landscapes were once vast and habitable.</p>
<p>The largest rock shelter on the island is <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0277379117302640">Boodie Cave</a>, one of Western Australia’s oldest archaeological sites. Excavations here revealed evidence of Aboriginal occupation dating back at least 50,000 years.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/cave-dig-shows-the-earliest-australians-enjoyed-a-coastal-lifestyle-77326">Cave dig shows the earliest Australians enjoyed a coastal lifestyle</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>As sea levels fluctuated through time, the distance from Boodie Cave to the seashore varied significantly. Aboriginal people brought shellfish back to Boodie Cave even when it was many kilometres from the coast.</p>
<p>As the sea rose, people’s diets changed. The quantity of shellfish, crabs, turtles and fish consumed in the cave increased through time.</p>
<p>Aboriginal people here mainly used local, silica-rich limestone for crafting their stone tools. While this material was readily accessible, it blunted easily. Instead, people used thick and hard shells from large Baler sea snails to make knives for butchering turtles and dugong.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581911/original/file-20240314-30-7m01mt.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A man wearing a high vis jacket stands in a red rocky cave with archaeology tools in the background." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581911/original/file-20240314-30-7m01mt.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581911/original/file-20240314-30-7m01mt.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581911/original/file-20240314-30-7m01mt.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581911/original/file-20240314-30-7m01mt.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581911/original/file-20240314-30-7m01mt.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581911/original/file-20240314-30-7m01mt.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581911/original/file-20240314-30-7m01mt.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">One of the authors, Peter Veth, excavating a 7,000-year-old rich layer with shell knives, turtle, fish and wallaby remains.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Kane Ditchfield</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>43,000 years of exchange</h2>
<p>In contrast to the cave deposits, the open-air archaeological sites present a different picture. Three years of systematic field surveys recorded over 4,400 flaked and ground stone artefacts from nearly 50 locations.</p>
<p>Excluding one limestone source, most of these stone tools represent geological sources not found on the island. This means they were made out of rocks more typical of the west Pilbara and Ashburton regions.</p>
<p>The artefacts we’ve found on Barrow Island show that Aboriginal people transported and exchanged stone materials from inland or places now under the sea for over 43,000 years.</p>
<p>We don’t yet know why the artefacts in the cave are so different to the ones found in the open air.</p>
<p>The numerous open sites leave a record of how Aboriginal people adapted to sea-level changes. Both the surface and cave records suggest that Aboriginal people used more local limestone and shell tools as rising sea levels cut off access to the mainland or drowned sources.</p>
<p>Imported stone tools were precious and therefore conserved and heavily used for grinding seeds, working harder materials such as wood, and likely for cutting softer materials such as skins and plant fibre.</p>
<p>While early Aboriginal people continued to use coastal resources, they maintained social networks and exchanges with the mainland. The open sites from Barrow Island provide one line of evidence connecting contemporary Aboriginal people to the now-drowned coastal plains, coastlines and continental islands.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583633/original/file-20240322-26-4nwr5g.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A dark cavern with a single light source illuminating a rectangular excavation." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583633/original/file-20240322-26-4nwr5g.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583633/original/file-20240322-26-4nwr5g.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583633/original/file-20240322-26-4nwr5g.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583633/original/file-20240322-26-4nwr5g.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583633/original/file-20240322-26-4nwr5g.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583633/original/file-20240322-26-4nwr5g.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583633/original/file-20240322-26-4nwr5g.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Researchers working at Boodie Cave.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Kane Ditchfield</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>An ancestral connection for Thalanyji peoples</h2>
<p>Despite the distance of Barrow Island from the mainland for most of the last 6,500 years, Thalanyji knowledge holders refer to the use of the island from both historic-era fishing activities and as forced labourers in the early pearling industry.</p>
<p>They know the Sea Country between the islands, and the songline connections linking the mainland to the islands. Traditional Owners involved in our project see the artefacts as evidence of their ancestral connection to the island, old coastlines and now drowned coastal plain.</p>
<p>The Barrow Island open-air sites are a significant time capsule, offering unique insights into coastal Aboriginal lifeways over tens of thousands of years.</p>
<p>These sites, combined with the cave records, provide scientists and Traditional Owners with invaluable opportunities to understand and preserve Australia’s rich and deep history.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>The authors would like to acknowledge the Buurabalayji Thalanyji Aboriginal Corporation, recognised communally according to their cultural preference, as co-authors of this study.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225792/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Peter Veth receives funding from the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kane Ditchfield receives funding from the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Peter Kendrick was previously employed by the government of Western Australia, and assisted in implementation of the Barrow Island Archaeology Project throughout its field work period. He consults part time as a zoologist and ecologist to Biota Environmental Sciences.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>David W. Zeanah and Fiona Hook do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Barrow Island off the coast of Western Australia holds a unique record of First Nations people. For millennia, they lived on vast plains that are now drowned by the sea.Peter Veth, Laureate Professor in Archaeology, The University of Western AustraliaDavid W. Zeanah, Professor, California State University, SacramentoFiona Hook, Adjunct associate, The University of Western AustraliaKane Ditchfield, Postdoctoral Research Fellow, The University of Western AustraliaPeter Kendrick, Adjunct Research Fellow, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Western AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2260052024-03-24T19:06:33Z2024-03-24T19:06:33Z‘The ghost has taken the spirit of the Moon’: how Torres Strait Islanders predict eclipses<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583024/original/file-20240320-17-fz4qht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Total Lunar Eclipse</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/cafuego/28739923428/in/album-72157629315334679/">Peter Lieverdink</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s eclipse season. The Sun, Earth and Moon are aligned so it’s possible for the Earth and Moon to cast each other into shadow.</p>
<p>A faint <a href="https://bigthink.com/starts-with-a-bang/march-full-moon-april-solar-eclipse/">lunar eclipse</a> will occur on March 25, visible at dusk from Australia and eastern Asia, at dawn from western Africa and Europe, and for much of the night from the Americas. Two weeks later, on April 8, a total solar eclipse will sweep across North America. </p>
<p>These events are a good time to think about an infamous incident 520 years ago, in which an eclipse prediction was supposedly used to exploit an Indigenous population. The incident has shaped how we think about astronomy and Indigenous cultures – but the real story is far more complex.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-eclipses-were-regarded-as-omens-in-the-ancient-world-81248">How eclipses were regarded as omens in the ancient world</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Columbus and the eclipse</h2>
<p>In June 1503, on his fourth voyage to the Americas, Italian explorer <a href="https://www.space.com/27412-christopher-columbus-lunar-eclipse.html">Christopher Columbus</a> and his crew became stranded on Jamaica. They were saved by the Indigenous <a href="https://www.blackhistorymonth.org.uk/article/section/pre-colonial-history/taino-indigenous-caribbeans/">Taíno</a> people, who gave them food and provisions.</p>
<p>As months passed, tensions grew. Columbus’s crew threatened mutiny, while the Taíno grew frustrated with providing so much for so little in return. By February, the Taíno had reached their breaking point and stopped providing food.</p>
<p>Supposedly, Columbus then consulted an astronomical almanac and discovered a lunar eclipse was forecast for February 29 1504. He <a href="https://www.cincinnati.com/story/news/2020/02/29/today-history-february-29-1504-columbus-predicted-lunar-eclipse-frighten-natives/4842873002/">took advantage of this knowledge</a> to trick the Taíno, threatening to use his “magic power” to turn the Moon a deep red – “inflamed with wrath” – if they refused to provide supplies.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583613/original/file-20240322-21-5ctwb4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An old engraving showing a European man gesturing at a partially eclipsed Moon while others watch on." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583613/original/file-20240322-21-5ctwb4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583613/original/file-20240322-21-5ctwb4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=488&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583613/original/file-20240322-21-5ctwb4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=488&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583613/original/file-20240322-21-5ctwb4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=488&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583613/original/file-20240322-21-5ctwb4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=613&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583613/original/file-20240322-21-5ctwb4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=613&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583613/original/file-20240322-21-5ctwb4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=613&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An illustration of Columbus predicting a lunar eclipse to trick the Taíno people into providing his crew with food and supplies.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Eclipse_Christophe_Colomb.jpg">Astronomie Populaire (1879) by Camille Flammarion, via Wikimedia</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>According to Columbus, this worked and the fearful Taíno continued to supply his crew until relief arrived months later. This incident inspired the idea of the “convenient eclipse”, which has become a <a href="https://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/ConvenientEclipse">familiar trope</a> in works including Mark Twain’s A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur’s Court (1889) and <a href="https://www.tintin.com/en/albums/prisoners-of-the-sun">The Adventures of Tintin</a> (1949).</p>
<p>But is there truth to the trope? How much did Indigenous peoples really know about eclipses?</p>
<h2>Merlpal Maru Pathanu</h2>
<p>In the Torres Strait, knowledge of the stars is central to culture and identity. Traditionally, special people were chosen for years of intense instruction in the art of star knowledge, which occurred in a secretive place of higher learning called the <em>kwod</em>. They would be initiated as “Zugubau Mabaig”, a western Islander term meaning “star man” – an astronomer.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582763/original/file-20240319-20-qstvmi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Detailed artwork of a man against a complex patterned background." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582763/original/file-20240319-20-qstvmi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582763/original/file-20240319-20-qstvmi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=353&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582763/original/file-20240319-20-qstvmi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=353&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582763/original/file-20240319-20-qstvmi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=353&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582763/original/file-20240319-20-qstvmi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=443&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582763/original/file-20240319-20-qstvmi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=443&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582763/original/file-20240319-20-qstvmi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=443&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A Zugubau Mabaig, the keeper of constellations in the western Torres Strait, who reads the stars and passes knowledge down through song, dance, and story.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">David Bosun</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Mualgal man David Bosun, a talented artist and son of a Zugubau Mabaig, explains that these individuals paid careful attention to all things celestial. They kept constant watch over the stars to inform their <em>Buai</em> (kinship group) when to plant and harvest gardens, hunt and fish, travel and hold ceremonies.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-shark-in-the-stars-astronomy-and-culture-in-the-torres-strait-15850">A shark in the stars: astronomy and culture in the Torres Strait</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The final stage of Zugubau Mabaig initiation involved a rare celestial event. Initiates were required to prove their bravery as well as their mental skill by taking the head of an enemy, particularly a sorcerer. In this way they would absorb that person’s powerful magic.</p>
<p>Headhunting raids occurred immediately after a total lunar eclipse, signalled by the blood red appearance of the Moon. During the eclipse, communities performed a ceremony in which dancers donned a special <em>dhari</em> (headdress) as they systematically chanted the names of all the surrounding islands.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583032/original/file-20240320-28-ad1jmi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Eclipse mask and headdress." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583032/original/file-20240320-28-ad1jmi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583032/original/file-20240320-28-ad1jmi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=315&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583032/original/file-20240320-28-ad1jmi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=315&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583032/original/file-20240320-28-ad1jmi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=315&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583032/original/file-20240320-28-ad1jmi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=395&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583032/original/file-20240320-28-ad1jmi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=395&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583032/original/file-20240320-28-ad1jmi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=395&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An eclipse mask by Sipau Gibuma (Boigu, 1990) and Madthubau Dhibal headdress by Jeff Waia (Saibai, 2008).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">National Gallery of Australia</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The island named when the Moon emerged from the eclipse was the home of the sorcerers they planned to attack. Women and children sought shelter while the men prepared for war. The ceremony, named <em>Merlpal Maru Pathanu</em> (“the ghost has taken the spirit of the Moon”), was planned well in advance by the Zugubau Mabaig.</p>
<p>How was this done?</p>
<h2>Predicting an eclipse</h2>
<p>The Moon does not orbit Earth in the same plane Earth orbits the Sun. It’s off by a few degrees. The position of the Moon appears to zigzag across the sky over a 29.5-day lunar month. When it crosses the plane connecting Earth and the Sun, and the three bodies are in a straight line, we see an eclipse. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/6euyU6fxUKE?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Lunar Analemma, by György Soponyai.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We know that ancient cultures including the Chinese and Babylonians possessed the ability to predict eclipses, and <a href="https://www.uwa.edu.au/news/article/2023/april/humans-have-been-predicting-eclipses-for-thousands-of-years-but-its-harder-than-you-might-think">it is rather difficult to do</a>. How did the Zugubau Mabaig accomplish it?</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-memory-code-how-oral-cultures-memorise-so-much-information-65649">The Memory Code: how oral cultures memorise so much information</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>There are some things they would know. First, lunar eclipses only occur during a full moon, and solar eclipses during a new moon. </p>
<p>Second are the “eclipse seasons”: times when the planes of Earth, Moon and the Sun can intersect to form an eclipse. This happens twice a year. Each season lasts around 35 days, and repeats six months later. </p>
<p>Third is the <a href="https://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/SEsaros/SEsaros.html">Saros cycle</a>: eclipses repeat every 223 lunar months (approximately 18 years and 11.3 days).</p>
<p>The details are highly complex. But it’s clear that predicting an eclipse requires careful, long-term observations and keeping detailed records, skills Torres Strait Islander astronomers have long possessed.</p>
<h2>Flipping the narrative</h2>
<p>The Zugubau Mabaig eclipse forecasts turn a common understanding of the history of science on its head. Indigenous peoples did, in fact, develop the ability to predict eclipses.</p>
<p>Perhaps the real situation is better captured in a short story called <a href="http://www.medina502.com/classes/faith_lac/readings/Monterroso-The-Eclipse.pdf">El Eclipse</a> (1972), by Honduran writer Augusto Monterroso.</p>
<p>In the story, a Spanish priest is captured by Maya in Guatemala, who opt to sacrifice him. He tries to exploit his knowledge that a solar eclipse will occur that day to trick his captors, but the Maya look at the priest with a sense of incredulity. Two hours later, he meets his fate on the altar during the totality of the eclipse. </p>
<p>As the Sun goes dark and the priest’s blood is spilled, a Maya astronomer recites the dates of all the upcoming eclipses, solar and lunar. The Maya had already predicted them.</p>
<p>The truth behind this story is found in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dresden_Codex">Dresden Codex</a>, a thousand-year-old book of Maya records that includes tables of eclipse predictions.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Learn more at <a href="http://www.aboriginalastronomy.com.au">www.aboriginalastronomy.com.au</a></em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/226005/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Duane Hamacher received funding from the Australian Research Council, the Laby Foundation, the Indigenous Knowledge Institute, and the University of Melbourne.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Bosun does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A lunar eclipse ceremony from the Torres Strait turns our understanding of the history of science on its head.Duane Hamacher, Associate Professor, The University of MelbourneDavid Bosun, Mualgal man, Moa Island, Torres Strait, Indigenous KnowledgeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2261182024-03-22T02:10:41Z2024-03-22T02:10:41ZConspiracy theorist tactics show it’s too easy to get around Facebook’s content policies<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583342/original/file-20240321-26-joql1y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=40%2C148%2C4257%2C2849&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/kuala-lumpur-malaysia-august-25-2013-1168328122">MavardiBahar/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>During the COVID pandemic, social media platforms were swarmed by far-right and anti-vaccination communities that spread dangerous conspiracy theories.</p>
<p>These included the false claims that <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/54893437">vaccines are a form of population control</a>, and that the virus was a <a href="https://theconversation.com/qanon-conspiracy-theories-about-the-coronavirus-pandemic-are-a-public-health-threat-135515">“deep state” plot</a>. Governments and the World Health Organization redirected precious resources from vaccination campaigns to debunk these falsehoods. </p>
<p>As the tide of misinformation grew, platforms were accused of not doing enough to stop the spread. To address these concerns, Meta, the parent company of Facebook, made several policy announcements in 2020–21. However, it hesitated to remove “<a href="https://www.facebook.com/notes/751449002072082/?hc_location=ufi">borderline</a>” content, or content that didn’t cause direct physical harm, save for one <a href="https://about.fb.com/news/2020/04/covid-19-misinfo-update/">policy change</a> in February 2021 that expanded the content removal lists.</p>
<p>To stem the tide, Meta continued to rely more heavily on algorithmic moderation techniques to reduce the visibility of misinformation in users’ feeds, search and recommendations – known as shadowbanning. They also used fact-checkers to label misinformation.</p>
<p>While shadowbanning is widely seen as a <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-shadowbanning-how-do-i-know-if-it-has-happened-to-me-and-what-can-i-do-about-it-192735">concerningly opaque technique</a>, our <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1329878X241236984">new research</a>, published in the journal Media International Australia, instead asks: was it effective?</p>
<h2>What did we investigate?</h2>
<p>We used two measures to answer this question. First, after identifying 18 Australian far-right and anti-vaccination accounts that consistently shared misinformation between January 2019 and July 2021, we analysed the performance of these accounts using key metrics.</p>
<p>Second, we mapped this performance against five content moderation policy announcements for Meta’s flagship platform, Facebook.</p>
<p>The findings revealed two divergent trends. After March 2020 the <em>overall</em> performance of the accounts – that is, their <em>median</em> performance – suffered a decline. And yet their <em>mean</em> performance shows increasing levels after October 2020. </p>
<p>This is because, while the majority of the monitored accounts underperformed, a few accounts overperformed instead, and strongly so. In fact, they continued to overperform and attract new followers even after the alleged policy change in February 2021.</p>
<hr>
<p><iframe id="85UaE" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/85UaE/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<hr>
<h2>Shadowbanning as a badge of pride</h2>
<p>To examine why, we scraped and thematically analysed comments and user reactions from posts on these accounts. We found users had a high motivation to stay engaged with problematic content. Labelling and shadowbanning were viewed as motivating challenges.</p>
<p>Specifically, users frequently used “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/01634437221111923">social steganography</a>” – using deliberate typos or code words for key terms – to evade algorithmic detection. We also saw <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/21670811.2021.1938165">conspiracy “seeding”</a> where users add links to archiving sites or less moderated sites in comments to re-distribute content Facebook labelled as misinformation, and to avoid detection.</p>
<p>In one example, a user added a link to a <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2023/02/17/key-facts-about-bitchute/">BitChute</a> video with keywords that dog-whistled support for QAnon style conspiracies. As terms such as “vaccine” were believed to trigger algorithmic detection, emoji or other code names were used in their place:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>A friend sent me this link, it’s [sic.] refers to over 4000 deaths of individuals after getting 💉 The true number will not come out, it’s not in the public’s interest to disclose the amount of people that have died within day’s [sic.] of jab.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>While many conspiracy theories were targeted at government and public health authorities, platform suppression of content fuelled further conspiracies regarding big tech and their complicity with “Big Pharma” and governments.</p>
<p>This was evident in the use of keywords such as MSM (“mainstream media”) to reference QAnon style agendas: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>MSM are in on this whole thing, only report on what the elites tell them to. Clearly you are not doing any research but listening to msm […] This is a completely experimental ‘vaccine’.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Another comment thread showed reactions to Meta’s <a href="https://about.fb.com/news/2020/08/addressing-movements-and-organizations-tied-to-violence/">dangerous organisations policy update</a>, where accounts that regularly shared QAnon-content were labelled “extremist”. In the reactions, MSM and “the agenda” appeared frequently. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/qanon-is-spreading-outside-the-us-a-conspiracy-theory-expert-explains-what-that-could-mean-198272">QAnon is spreading outside the US – a conspiracy theory expert explains what that could mean</a>
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<hr>
<p>Some users recommended that sensitive content be moved to alternative platforms. We observed one anti-vaccination influencer complain that their page was being shadowbanned by Facebook, and calling on their followers to recommend a “good, censorship free, livestreaming platform”.</p>
<p>The replies suggested moderation-lite sites such as <a href="https://rumble.com/">Rumble</a>. Similar recommendations were made for Twitch, a livestreaming site popular with gamers which has since attracted <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/04/27/us/politics/twitch-trump-extremism.html">far-right political influencers</a>.</p>
<p>As one user said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I know so many people who get censored on so many apps especially Facebook and Twitch seems to work for them. </p>
</blockquote>
<h2>How can content moderation fix the problem?</h2>
<p>These tactics of coordination to detect shadowbans, resist labelling and fight the algorithm provide some insight into why engagement didn’t dim on some of these “overperforming” accounts despite all the policies Meta put in place. </p>
<p>This shows that Meta’s suppression techniques, while partially effective in containing the spread, do nothing to prevent those invested in sharing (and finding) misinformation from doing so.</p>
<p>Firmer policies on content removal and user banning would help address the problem. However, <a href="https://about.fb.com/news/2022/07/oversight-board-advise-covid-19-misinformation-measures/">Meta’s announcement last year suggests</a> the company has little appetite for this. Any loosening of policy changes will all but ensure this misinformation playground will continue to thrive.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-researcher-asked-covid-anti-vaxxers-how-they-avoid-facebook-moderation-heres-what-they-found-186406">A researcher asked COVID anti-vaxxers how they avoid Facebook moderation. Here's what they found</a>
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</p>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/226118/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amelia Johns has received funding from Meta content policy award for some of the research presented in this article. She has also received funding from the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Emily Booth is supported by funding from the Australian Department of Home Affairs and the Defence Innovation Network.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Francesco Bailo has received funding from Meta content policy award for some of the research presented in this article. He receives funding from the Defence Innovation Network. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Marian-Andrei Rizoiu receives funding from the Australian Department of Home Affairs, the Defence Science and Technology Group, the Defence Innovation Network and the Australian Academy of Science.</span></em></p>New research shows that even after Facebook made changes to stem the tide of dangerous pandemic misinformation, some accounts continued to thrive.Amelia Johns, Associate Professor, Digital and Social Media, School of Communication, University of Technology SydneyEmily Booth, Research assistant, University of Technology SydneyFrancesco Bailo, Lecturer, Digital and Social Media, University of SydneyMarian-Andrei Rizoiu, Associate Professor in Behavioral Data Science, University of Technology SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2262252024-03-21T19:07:33Z2024-03-21T19:07:33ZPrestigious journals make it hard for scientists who don’t speak English to get published. And we all lose out<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583287/original/file-20240320-17-ek0zj5.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C12%2C4288%2C2830&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/stem-cotton-gossypium-hirsutum-microscopic-view-170232521">D. Kucharski K. Kucharska/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>For the first time in history, a single language dominates global scientific communication. But the actual production of knowledge continues to be a multilingual enterprise.</p>
<p>The use of English as the norm poses challenges for scholars from regions where English is not widely spoken. They must decide whether to publish in English for global visibility, or publish in their native language to make their work accessible to local communities. And when they work in English, they end up <a href="https://theconversation.com/non-native-english-speaking-scientists-work-much-harder-just-to-keep-up-global-research-reveals-208750">expending more time and effort</a> writing and revising papers than their native English-speaking peers.</p>
<p>As gatekeepers of scientific knowledge, academic publishers play a key role in helping or hindering the participation of a multilingual scientific community. So how are they doing?</p>
<p>We reviewed the policies of 736 journals in the biological sciences and discovered the great majority are making only minimal efforts to overcome language barriers in academic publishing. Our research is <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2023.2840">published in Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.</p>
<h2>A wide range of inclusive policies</h2>
<p>Linguistically inclusive policies come in many forms, and can be implemented at each stage of the editorial process. They might aim to make publishing more multilingual. Alternatively – if sticking with English – they may aim to reduce the burden on non-native English speakers.</p>
<p>Allowing papers to be published in more than one language at the same time would resolve the dilemma many non-native English speaking scholars face about communicating locally or globally. However, only 7% of the journals we surveyed allowed this possibility. (A further 11% will allow multilingual versions of an abstract alone.)</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/non-native-english-speaking-scientists-work-much-harder-just-to-keep-up-global-research-reveals-208750">Non-native English speaking scientists work much harder just to keep up, global research reveals</a>
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</p>
<hr>
<p>Another possibility would be to implement machine translation tools to make versions of an article available in multiple languages on a journal’s website. There has been recent <a href="https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/72/10/988/6653151">progress in this area</a>, but only 11% of journals we surveyed have put it into practice. </p>
<p>Journals can also indicate they value submissions from authors from diverse linguistic backgrounds by explicitly declaring they will not reject manuscripts solely on the basis of the perceived quality of the English. Surprisingly, we found only two journals stated this.</p>
<p>Similarly, providing author guidelines in multiple languages would further encourage submissions from diverse authors. While 11% of the journals we examined translate specific sections of their guidelines to other languages, only 8% offer their entire guidelines in more than one language.</p>
<p>To ensure published research learns from the scientific contributions of <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2664.14370">scholars from around the globe</a>, journals should explicitly allow or encourage non-English literature to be cited. Only one tenth of journals mention this in author guidelines.</p>
<p>Journals may also adopt measures to ensure work submitted by non-native English speakers is assessed fairly. One such measure is the provision of English-language editing services. </p>
<p>More than half the journals we surveyed refer authors to some kind of editing services; only 1% offer the service free of charge to authors. The cost of editing may impose a considerable <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0238372">financial burden</a> on scholars in lower-income countries.</p>
<p>Another measure is to educate reviewers and editors about language barriers and instruct them to assess the manuscripts based on their research attributes alone. This is something only 4–6% of journals implement.</p>
<h2>Drivers of inclusivity</h2>
<p>We also identify two key influences on a journal’s adoption of linguistically inclusive policy. </p>
<p>The first is impact factor, a measure commonly taken to represent the prestige of a journal. We found journals with higher impact factors tend to adopt less-inclusive policies, possibly because they mostly target English-proficient authors and readers.</p>
<p>The second influence is ownership by a scientific society. Journals owned by scientific societies tended to adopt more inclusive policies. They have also taken the lead in the movement to publish multilingual content.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-open-access-and-why-should-we-care-11608">What is open access and why should we care?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Many scientific societies have a mandate to <a href="https://anatomypubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ar.24735">foster diverse communities</a>. They are supported by their members and are well positioned to push for a cultural change in scientific publishing.</p>
<p>We also found that open access journals (which make research available to the public for free) were no more likely to adopt inclusive linguistic policies, nor were journals with more diverse editorial boards. </p>
<p>The apparent lack of influence of linguistically diverse board members is a puzzle. Perhaps editors who have experienced language barriers in their own professional life do not advocate for non-native English speaking authors. Or perhaps editorial boards have less power to define editorial policies than we might expect.</p>
<h2>Language barriers</h2>
<p>Language barriers deepen geographic divides, hampering knowledge sharing. Tackling them in academic publishing becomes critical to effectively address both regional and global issues, such as health and conservation.</p>
<p>In our study, we looked at a number of linguistically inclusive policies, but there are plenty of other things journals can do to help scientists from non-English speaking backgrounds. These range from <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adg9714">using artificial intelligence tools</a> to the re-negotiation of copyrights to <a href="https://academic.oup.com/iob/article/5/1/obad003/7008844">authorise the publication of translations</a> elsewhere.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/226225/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Henry Arenas-Castro does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A study of 736 biological science journals showed only a small fraction are making efforts to foster a multilingual scientific community.Henry Arenas-Castro, Postdoctoral Fellow, Yale University, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2260212024-03-21T06:12:11Z2024-03-21T06:12:11ZSocial media apps have billions of ‘active users’. But what does that really mean?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583295/original/file-20240321-26-3vpdrd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=628%2C519%2C4539%2C2925&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/group-of-people-standing-on-brown-floor-HN6uXG7GzTE">Creative Christians/Unsplash</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Our digital world is bigger and more connected than ever. Social media isn’t just a daily habit – <a href="https://wearesocial.com/au/blog/2024/01/digital-2024-5-billion-social-media-users/">with more than 5 billion users globally</a>, it’s woven into the very fabric of our existence.</p>
<p>These platforms offer entertainment, connection, information and support, but they’re also battlegrounds for misinformation and online harassment. </p>
<p>Platforms like Facebook, YouTube, Instagram and TikTok vie for our attention, each boasting user counts in the billions. But what do these numbers actually tell us, and should we care?</p>
<h2>What is an active user or a unique user?</h2>
<p>Behind the impressive statistics lies a complex reality. While global social media usership has hit the 5 billion mark, representing <a href="https://datareportal.com/reports/digital-2024-global-overview-report">about 62% of the world’s population</a>, these figures mask the intricacies of online participation.</p>
<p>In Australia, the average person juggles <a href="https://www.genroe.com/blog/social-media-statistics-australia/13492">nearly seven social media accounts</a> across multiple platforms. This challenges the assumption that user counts equate to unique individuals.</p>
<p>It is also important to differentiate between accounts and active users. Not all accounts represent actual engagement in the platform’s community.</p>
<p>An “active user” is typically someone who has logged into a platform within a specific timeframe, such as the past month, indicating engagement with the platform’s content and features. They’re measured with analytics tools provided by the platform itself, or with third-party software. </p>
<p>The tools track the number of unique users – that is, individual accounts – who have interacted with or been exposed to specific content, whether a post, story or advertising campaign. </p>
<p>Social media companies use these metrics to showcase the potential reach of their platform to marketers. It’s key to their business model, as advertising revenue is typically their main source of income. </p>
<p>However, the reliability of these statistics is debatable. Factors such as <a href="https://www.dw.com/en/fact-check-how-do-i-spot-fake-social-media-accounts-bots-and-trolls/a-60313035">bot accounts</a>, inactive accounts and duplicates can inflate numbers, offering a distorted view of a platform’s user base.</p>
<p>Moreover, the criteria for an “active user” vary across platforms. This makes it difficult to make comparisons between user bases and to truly understand online audiences.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583298/original/file-20240321-22-ifb91e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A person holding up a smartphone at a busy nightclub." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583298/original/file-20240321-22-ifb91e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583298/original/file-20240321-22-ifb91e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583298/original/file-20240321-22-ifb91e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583298/original/file-20240321-22-ifb91e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583298/original/file-20240321-22-ifb91e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583298/original/file-20240321-22-ifb91e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583298/original/file-20240321-22-ifb91e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sheer user numbers can make a social media platform influential, but there’s nuance in how we measure impact.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/a-person-taking-a-picture-with-a-cell-phone-D4kALj_9CEE">Michael Effendy/Unsplash</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>User count isn’t always relevance</h2>
<p><a href="https://datareportal.com/reports/digital-2024-global-overview-report">TikTok boasts a staggering 1.5 billion users globally</a>. This doesn’t even include users on its Chinese counterpart, Douyin. It is also often at the centre of <a href="https://theconversation.com/tiktok-has-a-startling-amount-of-sexual-content-and-its-way-too-easy-for-children-to-access-216114">controversies</a> and <a href="https://medium.com/datasociety-points/the-politics-and-optioncs-of-the-tiktok-ban-d88bdcb532d">geopolitical tensions</a>.</p>
<p>For example, <a href="https://theconversation.com/attempts-to-ban-tiktok-reveal-the-hypocrisy-of-politicians-already-struggling-to-relate-to-voters-225870">TikTok has repeatedly faced threats of bans</a> in significant markets such as the United States, raising questions about future access. But with such a vast user base, TikTok’s impact on culture and trends – particularly among young people – is clear and far-reaching.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/if-tiktok-is-banned-in-the-us-or-australia-how-might-the-company-or-china-respond-225889">If TikTok is banned in the US or Australia, how might the company – or China – respond?</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>However, the true impact of platforms is further muddied by algorithms – the complex formulas that dictate the content we see and engage with. Designed to keep us scrolling and interacting, they significantly shape our online experiences.</p>
<p>They also complicate how “active” a user might appear. Someone could seem more engaged simply because the algorithm promotes content they interact with more often.</p>
<p>So, while a high active-user count might indicate a platform’s popularity and reach, it doesn’t fully capture its influence or social relevance. True engagement goes beyond numbers, delving into the depth of user interaction, the quality of the content, and the cultural impact these platforms wield.</p>
<h2>Different strokes for different ages</h2>
<p>When we look at the users’ demographics, we see <a href="https://wearesocial.com/au/blog/2024/01/digital-2024-5-billion-social-media-users/">distinct preferences across age groups</a>. </p>
<p>Among the younger crowd, specifically Gen Z, <a href="https://wearesocial.com/au/blog/2024/01/digital-2024-5-billion-social-media-users/">TikTok vastly outpaces Instagram</a> with <a href="https://explodingtopics.com/blog/tiktok-demographics">one in four users under the age of 20</a>. </p>
<p>Meanwhile, <a href="https://sproutsocial.com/insights/new-social-media-demographics/">Snapchat and Instagram</a> are the preferred platforms for people aged 18–29. </p>
<p>Facebook, with its massive user base of more than 3 billion and a <a href="https://datareportal.com/essential-facebook-stats">median user age of 32</a>, is the platform of choice for millennials, Gen X and boomers.</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/ok-boomer-how-a-tiktok-meme-traces-the-rise-of-gen-z-political-consciousness-165811">'OK Boomer': how a TikTok meme traces the rise of Gen Z political consciousness</a>
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<p>People in their 30s and older <a href="https://datareportal.com/reports/digital-2024-global-overview-report">tend to use LinkedIn</a> and X (formerly Twitter) more than platforms like Snapchat.</p>
<p>But all these social media platforms tend to vary in their primary focus, from news and professional connections (like LinkedIn) to predominantly serving entertainment (like TikTok).</p>
<p>This means demographic trends also reveal how each platform impacts users differently, catering to varied content preferences – whether it’s for entertainment, staying updated on news and events, or connecting with friends and family. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583296/original/file-20240321-30-s182sm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A group of women at a nice restaurant taking a selfie together." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583296/original/file-20240321-30-s182sm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583296/original/file-20240321-30-s182sm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583296/original/file-20240321-30-s182sm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583296/original/file-20240321-30-s182sm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583296/original/file-20240321-30-s182sm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583296/original/file-20240321-30-s182sm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583296/original/file-20240321-30-s182sm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Ultimately, social media really is about community, not global relevance.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/3-women-smiling-and-standing-near-table-_3Pyr85zcE8">Rendy Novantino/Unsplash</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>User count isn’t what matters</h2>
<p>For content creators and news media, delving into user statistics is crucial if they want to reach their target audiences.</p>
<p>However, despite headlines often focusing on vast user numbers, do these figures actually matter to the everyday social media user? <a href="https://apo.org.au/node/322860">Research I’ve done with colleagues</a> suggests they don’t.</p>
<p>For individuals navigating these digital spaces, it’s not about which platform boasts the highest user count and is therefore deemed “important”.</p>
<p>Instead, the focus is on maintaining connections within their social circles. This preference is rooted in cultural practices, meaning it aligns with the habits, preferences and values of their own community or cultural group.</p>
<p>In other words, people are drawn to social media platforms that are popular or widely accepted among their family, friends, social allies and broader cultural community. This suggests the essence of social media lies in the quality of interactions rather than the platform’s global standing.</p>
<p>Whether for staying informed, being entertained, or nurturing relationships, people gravitate to spaces where their community or “tribe” gathers. </p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/its-hard-to-imagine-better-social-media-alternatives-but-scuttlebutt-shows-change-is-possible-190351">It's hard to imagine better social media alternatives, but Scuttlebutt shows change is possible</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/226021/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Milovan Savic receives funding from Australian Research Council </span></em></p>Platforms like Facebook, Instagram and TikTok vie for our attention and boast billions of users. Ultimately, what matters is connection.Milovan Savic, Research Fellow, ARC Centre of Excellence for Automated Decision-Making and Society, Swinburne University of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2259902024-03-20T19:03:17Z2024-03-20T19:03:17ZPlanet cannibalism is common, says cosmic ‘twin study’<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582969/original/file-20240319-20-8o3pjz.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C2560%2C1912&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Intouchable / Openverse</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>How stable are planetary systems? Will Earth and its seven siblings always continue in their steady celestial paths, or might we one day be randomly ejected from our cosmic home?</p>
<p>Physicists understand the rules that govern the orbits of two celestial bodies, but as soon as a third is added (let alone a fourth, fifth, or hundredth) the dynamics become far more complex. Unpredictable instabilities arise, in which an object may be randomly ejected into space or fall into its host star.</p>
<p>The so-called “three-body problem” has troubled scientists for centuries (and more recently forms the premise of a <a href="https://www.bloomsbury.com/au/threebody-problem-9781035909575/">bestselling series</a> of science fiction novels and a <a href="https://www.netflix.com/au/title/81024821">new Netflix adaptation</a>). One obstacle to understanding it has been that we know relatively little about how common it is for such catastrophic instabilities to arise. </p>
<p>In a new study <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07091-y">published in Nature</a>, we and our colleagues have shed some light on this question. In a survey of nearby stars, we found as many as one in dozen pairs of stars may have devoured a planet, likely because the planet developed a “wobble” in its orbit and fell into the star.</p>
<h2>Studying twins</h2>
<p>Our study found at least 8% of pairs of stars in our sample show chemical anomalies indicating one star had engulfed planetary material that once orbited it. </p>
<p>To detect this subtle signal, we had to rule out other possible explanations for these chemical patterns. So we focused on “twin stars”, known to have been born at the same time from the same mix of materials. </p>
<p>This approach can eliminate confounding factors, in the same way that studies of twins are sometimes used in sociological or medical research. </p>
<p>The result comes from a survey of twin stars named <a href="https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article/526/2/2181/7287617">C3PO</a> which one of the authors (Ting) initiated in the US, and Liu and others later joined. </p>
<p>Our team collected an exquisite sample of spectroscopic data from 91 pairs of twin stars – many times larger than similar studies conducted in the past. </p>
<p>We found that some stars differed from their twins, showing a distinct chemical pattern with higher amounts of certain elements like iron, nickel and titanium compared to others such as carbon and oxygen. These differences indicate strong evidence that the star has ingested a planet.</p>
<h2>Instabilities may be unexpectedly common</h2>
<p>If a host star engulfs one or more members of a planetary system, it suggests some instability in the dynamics of the system must have occurred. </p>
<p>Simulations suggest such instability may be common in the early life of a planetary system – the first 100 million years or so. However, any traces of planets engulfed during this early period would be undetectable in the stars we observed which are billions of years old.</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/new-evidence-for-an-unexpected-player-in-earths-multimillion-year-climate-cycles-the-planet-mars-225454">New evidence for an unexpected player in Earth’s multimillion-year climate cycles: the planet Mars</a>
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<p>This suggests the chemical anomalies we saw were caused by more recent instabilities, causing the stars to consume some planets or planetary material. </p>
<p>This revelation is not entirely unexpected. Theorists who study planetary dynamics, including our co-author Bertram Bitsch, have noted that many planetary systems are known to be unstable, especially among systems with a kind of planet called a “super-Earth” – somewhat larger planets than Earth but far smaller than giants like Jupiter.</p>
<p>Systems including a super-Earth planet may be particularly unstable. The gravitational tug-of-war between the host star and its massive planets might generate instability.</p>
<h2>A delicate balance</h2>
<p>Our study encourages us to reconsider our place in the universe. While we take stability for granted in our Solar System, this may not be normal throughout the cosmos. </p>
<p>Our study does not suggest we are likely to see such instabilities in our own Solar System. Even with our new results, however, it is important to recognise that planet engulfment and instability still occur only in a minority of cases.</p>
<p>We hope our study will inspire more people to study planetary systems and their relationship with their host stars. Our understanding of the dynamics of multiple-body systems is still very much incomplete.</p>
<p>As we continue to explore the mysteries of the cosmos, studies like this remind us of the delicate balance that allows life to thrive on Earth and the potential fragility of our cosmic home.</p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-three-body-problem-liu-cixins-extraterrestrial-novel-is-a-heady-blend-of-politics-ethics-physics-and-chinese-history-218793">The Three-Body Problem: Liu Cixin's extraterrestrial novel is a heady blend of politics, ethics, physics and Chinese history</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225990/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The largest study yet of ‘twin stars’ shows planetary orbits may be less stable than we thought.Yuan-Sen Ting, Associate Professor, Astrophysics, Australian National UniversityFan Liu, Research Fellow, School of Physics and Astronomy, Monash UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2262192024-03-20T04:06:40Z2024-03-20T04:06:40ZTerrorist content lurks all over the internet – regulating only 6 major platforms won’t be nearly enough<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583026/original/file-20240320-17-wn83c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=4%2C241%2C2619%2C1761&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/burning-car-unrest-antigovernment-crime-581564755">Bumble Dee/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Australia’s eSafety commissioner <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2024-03-19/social-media-esafety-commissioner-terrorist-violent-extremist/103603518">has sent legal notices</a> to Google, Meta, Telegram, WhatsApp, Reddit and X (formerly Twitter) asking them to show what they’re doing to protect Australians from online extremism. The six companies <a href="https://www.esafety.gov.au/newsroom/media-releases/tech-companies-grilled-on-how-they-are-tackling-terror-and-violent-extremism">have 49 days to respond</a>.</p>
<p>The notice comes at a time when governments are increasingly cracking down on major tech companies to address online harms like <a href="https://theconversation.com/australia-has-fined-x-australia-over-child-sex-abuse-material-concerns-how-severe-is-the-issue-and-what-happens-now-215696">child sexual abuse material</a> or <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/mark-zuckerberg-apologizes-parents-victims-online-exploitation-senate-hearing/">bullying</a>.</p>
<p>Combating online extremism presents unique challenges different from other content moderation problems. Regulators wanting to establish effective and meaningful change must take into account what research has shown us about extremism and terrorism.</p>
<h2>Extremists are everywhere</h2>
<p>Online extremism and terrorism have been pressing concerns for some time. A stand-out example was the 2019 Christchurch terrorist attack on two mosques in Aotearoa New Zealand, which was live streamed on Facebook. It led to the <a href="https://www.beehive.govt.nz/release/nz-and-france-seek-end-use-social-media-acts-terrorism">“Christchurch Call” to action</a>, aimed at countering extremism through collaborations between countries and tech companies.</p>
<p>But despite such efforts, <a href="https://www.rand.org/pubs/perspectives/PEA1458-2.html">extremists still use online platforms</a> for networking and coordination, recruitment and radicalisation, knowledge transfer, financing and mobilisation to action.</p>
<p>In fact, extremists use the same online infrastructure as everyday users: marketplaces, dating platforms, gaming sites, music streaming sites and social networks. Therefore, all regulation to counter extremism needs to consider the rights of regular users, as well.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/christchurch-attacks-5-years-on-terrorists-online-history-gives-clues-to-preventing-future-atrocities-225273">Christchurch attacks 5 years on: terrorist’s online history gives clues to preventing future atrocities</a>
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<h2>The rise of ‘swarmcasting’</h2>
<p>Tech companies have responded with initiatives like the <a href="https://gifct.org/membership">Global Internet Forum to Counter Terrorism</a>. It shares information on terrorist online content among its members (such as Facebook, Microsoft, YouTube, X and others) so they can take it down on their platforms. These approaches aim to <a href="https://gifct.org/hsdb/">automatically identify and remove</a> terrorist or extremist content.</p>
<p>However, a moderation policy focused on individual pieces of content on individual platforms fails to capture much of what’s out there.</p>
<p>Terrorist groups commonly use a <a href="https://static.rusi.org/20190716_grntt_paper_06.pdf">“swarmcasting” multiplatform approach</a>, leveraging 700 platforms or more to distribute their content.</p>
<p>Swarmcasting involves using “beacons” on major platforms such as Facebook, Twitter and Telegram to direct people to locations with terrorist material. This beacon can be a hyperlink to a blog post on a website like Wordpress or Tumblr that then contains further links to the content, perhaps hosted on Google Drive, JustPaste.It, BitChute and other places where users can download it.</p>
<p>So, while extremist content may be flagged and removed from social media, it remains accessible online thanks to swarmcasting. </p>
<h2>Putting up filters isn’t enough</h2>
<p>The process of identifying and removing extremist content is far from simple. For example, at a recent US Supreme Court hearing over internet regulations, <a href="https://law.stanford.edu/podcasts/the-netchoice-cases-reach-the-supreme-court/">a lawyer argued</a> platforms could moderate terrorist content by simply removing anything that mentioned “al Qaeda”.</p>
<p>However, internationally recognised terrorist organisations, their members and supporters do not solely distribute policy-violating extremist content. Some may be discussing non-terrorist activities, such as those who engage in humanitarian efforts.</p>
<p>Other times their content is borderline (awful but lawful), such as misogynistic dog whistles, or even “hidden” <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/isj.12454">in a different format</a>, such as memes.</p>
<p>Accordingly, platforms can’t always cite policy violations and are compelled to use other methods to counter such content. They report using various content moderation techniques such as redirecting users, <a href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/politics/google-to-expand-misinformation-prebunking-initiative-in-europe">pre-bunking misinformation</a>, promoting counterspeech and <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-57697779">offering warnings</a>, or <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-shadowbanning-how-do-i-know-if-it-has-happened-to-me-and-what-can-i-do-about-it-192735">implementing shadow bans</a>. Despite these efforts, online extremism continues to persist.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/disinformation-threatens-global-elections-heres-how-to-fight-back-223392">Disinformation threatens global elections – here's how to fight back</a>
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</p>
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<h2>What is extremism, anyway?</h2>
<p>All these problems are further compounded by the fact we lack a <a href="https://www.unodc.org/e4j/en/terrorism/module-4/key-issues/defining-terrorism.html">commonly accepted definition</a> for terrorism or extremism. All definitions currently in place are contentious.</p>
<p>Academics attempt to seek clarity by using <a href="https://www.ijcv.org/index.php/ijcv/article/view/3809">relativistic definitions</a>, such as</p>
<blockquote>
<p>extremism itself is context-dependent in the sense that it is an inherently relative term that describes a deviation from something that is (more) ‘ordinary’, ‘mainstream’ or ‘normal’. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>However, what is something we can accept as a universal normal? Democracy is not the global norm, nor are equal rights. Not even our understanding of <a href="https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/humanrights/2016/09/14/are-human-rights-really-universal-inalienable-and-indivisible/">central tenets of human rights</a> is globally established.</p>
<h2>What should regulators do, then?</h2>
<p>As the eSafety commissioner attempts to shed light on how major platforms counter terrorism, we offer several recommendations for the commissioner to consider.</p>
<p>1. Extremists rely on more than just the major platforms to disseminate information. This highlights the importance of expanding the current inquiries beyond just the major tech players.</p>
<p>2. Regulators need to consider the differences between platforms that resist compliance, those that comply halfheartedly, and those that struggle to comply, such as small content storage providers. Each type of platform <a href="https://ksp.techagainstterrorism.org/">requires different regulatory approaches</a> or assistance. </p>
<p>3. Future regulations should encourage platforms to transparently collaborate with academia. The global research community is well positioned <a href="https://gifct.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/GIFCT-TaxonomyReport-2021.pdf">to address these challenges</a>, such as by developing actionable definitions of extremism and novel countermeasures.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/226219/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Marten Risius is the recipient of an Australian Research Council Australian Discovery Early Career Award funded by the Australian Government. Marten Risius has received project funding from the Global Internet Forum to Counter Terrorism (GIFCT). </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stan Karanasios has received funding from Emergency Management Victoria, Asia-Pacific Telecommunity, and the International Telecommunications Union. Stan is a Distinguished Member of the Association for Information Systems.</span></em></p>Online extremism is a unique challenge – terrorists use methods that can’t be captured by standard content moderation. So, what can we do about it?Marten Risius, Senior Lecturer in Business Information Systems, The University of QueenslandStan Karanasios, Associate Professor, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2258942024-03-19T19:44:12Z2024-03-19T19:44:12ZCan AI improve football teams’ success from corner kicks? Liverpool and others are betting it can<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582686/original/file-20240318-26-ut2che.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4000%2C2005&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Google DeepMind</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Last Sunday, Liverpool faced Manchester United in the <a href="https://www.espn.com.au/football/report/_/gameId/699283">quarter finals of the FA Cup</a> – and in the final minute of extra time, with the score tied at three-all, Liverpool had the crucial opportunity of a corner kick. A goal would surely mean victory, but losing possession could be risky.</p>
<p>What was Liverpool to do? Attack or play it safe? And if they were to attack, how best to do it? What kind of delivery, and where should players be waiting to attack the ball?</p>
<p>Set-piece decisions like this are vital not only in football but in many other competitive sports, and traditionally they are made by coaches on the basis of long experience and analysis. However, Liverpool has recently been looking to an unexpected source for advice: researchers at the Google-owned UK-based artificial intelligence (AI) lab <a href="https://deepmind.google/discover/blog/advancing-sports-analytics-through-ai-research/">DeepMind</a>.</p>
<p>In a <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-45965-x">paper published today</a> in Nature Communications, DeepMind researchers describe an AI system for football tactics called TacticAI, which can assist in developing successful corner kick routines. The paper says experts at Liverpool favoured TacticAI’s advice over existing tactics in 90% of cases.</p>
<h2>What TacticAI can do</h2>
<p>At a corner kick, play stops and each team has the chance to organise its players on the field before the attacking team kicks the ball back into play – usually with a specific prearranged plan in mind that will (hopefully) let them score a goal. Advice on these prearranged plans or routines is what TacticAI sets out to offer.</p>
<p>The package has three components: one that predicts which player is most likely to receive the ball in a given scenario, another that predicts whether a shot on goal will be taken, and a third that recommends how to adjust the position of players to increase or decrease the chances of a shot on goal.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582707/original/file-20240319-28-xag9u9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A diagram showing a soccer field with player positions marked, as well as a network diagram." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582707/original/file-20240319-28-xag9u9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582707/original/file-20240319-28-xag9u9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=258&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582707/original/file-20240319-28-xag9u9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=258&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582707/original/file-20240319-28-xag9u9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=258&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582707/original/file-20240319-28-xag9u9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=325&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582707/original/file-20240319-28-xag9u9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=325&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582707/original/file-20240319-28-xag9u9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=325&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">TacticAI represents a corner-kick setup as a ‘graph’ of player positions and relationships, which it then uses to make predictions.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-45965-x">Wang et al. / Nature Communications</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Trained on a dataset of 7,176 corner kicks from Premier League matches, TacticAI used a technique called “geometric deep learning” to identify key strategic patterns.</p>
<p>The researchers say this approach could be applied not only to football, but to any sport in which a stoppage in the game allows teams to deliberately manoeuvre players into place unopposed, and plan the next sequence of play. In football, it could also be expanded in future to incorporate throw-in routines as well as other set pieces such as attacking free kicks.</p>
<h2>Vast amounts of data</h2>
<p>AI in football is not new. Even in amateur and semi-professional football, AI-powered auto-tracking camera systems are becoming commonplace, for example. At the last men’s and women’s World Cups in 2022 and 2023, AI in conjunction with advanced ball-tracking technology produced semi-automated offside decisions with an unprecedented level of accuracy.</p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/games-by-numbers-machine-learning-is-changing-sport-38973">Games by numbers: machine learning is changing sport</a>
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<p>Professional football clubs have analytical departments using AI at every level of the game, predominantly in the areas of <a href="https://www.wired.com/story/ai-football-soccer-scouting/">scouting</a>, <a href="https://www.engadget.com/will-ai-revolutionize-professional-soccer-recruitment-130045118.html">recruitment</a> and <a href="https://theathletic.com/4966509/2023/10/19/wearable-technology-in-football/">athlete monitoring</a>. Other research has also tried to <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/23/9/4506">predict players’ shots on goal</a>, or guess from a video what <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-12547-0">off-screen players are doing</a>. </p>
<p>Bringing AI into tactical decisions promises to offer coaches a more objective and analytical approach to the game. Algorithms can process vast amounts of data, identifying patterns that may not be apparent to the naked eye, giving teams valuable insights into their own performance as well as that of their opponents. </p>
<h2>A useful tool</h2>
<p>AI may be a useful tool, but it cannot make decisions about match play alone. An algorithm might suggest the optimal positional setup for an in-swinging corner or how best to exploit the opposition’s defensive tactics. </p>
<p>What AI cannot do is make decisions on the fly – like deciding whether to take a corner quickly to exploit an opponent’s lapse in concentration. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/b1zjjf5EN1g?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Sometimes the best move is a speedy reaction to conditions on the ground, not an elaborate prearranged set play.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There’s also something to be said for allowing players creative licence in some situations. Once teams are using AI to suggest the optimal corner strategy, opponents will doubtless counter with their own AI-prompted defensive setup.</p>
<p>So while the tech behind TacticAI is very interesting, it remains to be seen whether it can evolve to be useful in open play. Could AI get to the stage where it can recognise the best tactical player substitution in a given situation? </p>
<p>DeepMind researchers have advanced decision-making like this in their sights for <a href="https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1613/jair.1.12505">future research</a>, but will it ever reach a point where coaches would trust it?</p>
<p>My sense from discussions with people in the industry is many believe AI should only be used as an input to decision-making, and not be allowed to make decisions itself. There is no substitute for the experience and instinct of the best coaches, the intangible ability to feel what the game needs, to make a change in formation, to play someone out of position. </p>
<h2>Smart tactics – but what about strategy?</h2>
<p>Coming back to that crucial Liverpool corner in last Sunday’s FA Cup quarter final: we don’t know whether Liverpool’s manager Jürgen Klopp considered AI advice, but the decision was made to play an attacking corner kick, presumably in the hope of scoring a last-minute winner. </p>
<p>The out-swinging delivery into the box may well have been the tactic with the highest probability of scoring a goal – but things rapidly went wrong. Manchester United gained possession of the ball, moved it down the pitch on the counterattack and slotted home the winning goal, sending Liverpool out of the tournament at the last moment.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/DKk8N2PYwCA?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Even the best tactics can go wrong.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>So while AI might suggest the optimal delivery and setup for a set piece, a coach might decide the wiser move is to play safe and avoid the risk of a counterattack. If TacticAI continues its career progression as a coaching assistant, it will no doubt learn that keeping the ball in the corner and playing for penalties may sometimes be the better option.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225894/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mark Scanlan does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A new AI system may improve soccer tactics in 90% of corner kicks – but is it ready for the big leagues?Mark Scanlan, Lecturer, Edith Cowan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2229872024-03-19T00:12:59Z2024-03-19T00:12:59ZThe ‘digital divide’ is already hurting people’s quality of life. Will AI make it better or worse?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579788/original/file-20240305-18-nir9gs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=17%2C22%2C2775%2C1971&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/road-closed-sign-outback-red-center-1438599635">ChameleonsEye/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Today, <a href="https://www.digitalinclusionindex.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/ADII-2023-Summary_FINAL-Remediated.pdf">almost a quarter of Australians</a> are digitally excluded. This means they miss out on the social, educational and economic benefits <a href="https://ctu.ieee.org/benefits-of-closing-the-global-digital-divide/">online connectivity provides</a>.</p>
<p>In the face of this ongoing “digital divide”, countries are now talking about a future of inclusive artificial intelligence (AI).</p>
<p>However, if we don’t learn from current problems with digital exclusion, it will likely spill over into people’s future experiences with AI. That’s the conclusion from our <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s43681-024-00452-3">new research</a> published in the journal AI and Ethics.</p>
<h2>What is the digital divide?</h2>
<p>The digital divide is a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040162521007903#bib0030">well-documented social schism</a>. People on the wrong side of it face difficulties when it comes to accessing, affording, or using digital services. These disadvantages significantly reduce their quality of life.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.digitalinclusionindex.org.au/">Decades of research</a> have provided us with a rich understanding of who is most at risk. In Australia, older people, those living in remote areas, people on lower incomes and First Nations peoples are most likely to find themselves digitally excluded.</p>
<p>Zooming out, <a href="https://www.itu.int/itu-d/reports/statistics/facts-figures-2023/">reports</a> show that one-third of the world’s population – representing the poorest countries – remains offline. Globally, the <a href="https://gddindex.com/#:%7E:text=The%20Gender%20Digital%20Divide%20Index%20(GDDI)%20is%20a%20pilot%20benchmarking,gender%20divides%20in%20digital%20development.">digital gender divide</a> also still exists: women, particularly in low and middle-income countries, face substantially more barriers to digital connectivity.</p>
<p>During the COVID pandemic, the impacts of digital inequity became much more obvious. As large swathes of the world’s population had to “shelter in place” – unable to go outside, visit shops, or seek face-to-face contact – anyone without digital access was severely at risk.</p>
<p>Consequences ranged from social isolation to reduced employment opportunities, as well as a lack of access to vital health information. <a href="https://press.un.org/en/2020/sgsm20118.doc.htm">The UN Secretary-General stated in 2020</a> that “the digital divide is now a matter of life and death”. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579789/original/file-20240305-22-cqzgoc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A lonely older woman looking out a window while wearing a medical mask." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579789/original/file-20240305-22-cqzgoc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579789/original/file-20240305-22-cqzgoc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579789/original/file-20240305-22-cqzgoc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579789/original/file-20240305-22-cqzgoc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579789/original/file-20240305-22-cqzgoc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579789/original/file-20240305-22-cqzgoc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579789/original/file-20240305-22-cqzgoc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">People without digital access were severely impacted during the COVID pandemic.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/lonely-senior-woman-surgical-mask-sitting-1688780245">Miriam Doerr Martin Frommherz/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/digital-inclusion-and-closing-the-gap-how-first-nations-leadership-is-key-to-getting-remote-communities-online-216085">‘Digital inclusion’ and closing the gap: how First Nations leadership is key to getting remote communities online</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Not just a question of access</h2>
<p>As with most forms of exclusion, the digital divide functions in multiple ways. It was originally defined as a gap between those who have access to computers and the internet and those who do not. But research now shows it’s <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/tesg.12047">not just an issue of access</a>. </p>
<p>Having little or no access leads to reduced familiarity with digital technology, which then erodes confidence, <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/global-agenda-for-social-justice/tackling-digital-exclusion-counter-social-inequalities-through-digital-inclusion/C9171EE3C4C944FC7712306280EAABDC">fuels disengagement</a>, and ultimately sets in motion <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/0144929X.2021.1882577">an intrinsic sense of not being “digitally capable</a>”.</p>
<p>As AI tools increasingly reshape our workplaces, classrooms and everyday lives, there is a risk AI could deepen, rather than narrow, the digital divide.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/artificial-intelligence-holds-great-potential-for-both-students-and-teachers-but-only-if-used-wisely-81024">Artificial intelligence holds great potential for both students and teachers – but only if used wisely</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>The role of digital confidence</h2>
<p>To assess the impact of digital exclusion on people’s experiences with AI, in late 2023 we surveyed a representative selection of hundreds of Australian adults. We began by asking them to rate their confidence with digital technology. </p>
<p>We found digital confidence was lower for women, older people, those with reduced salaries, and those with less digital access.</p>
<p>We then asked these same people to comment on their hopes, fears and expectations of AI. Across the board, the data showed that people’s perceptions, attitudes and experiences with AI were linked to how they felt about digital technology in general. </p>
<p>In other words, the more digitally confident people felt, the more positive they were about AI. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/giving-ai-direct-control-over-anything-is-a-bad-idea-heres-how-it-could-do-us-real-harm-210168">Giving AI direct control over anything is a bad idea – here's how it could do us real harm</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>To build truly inclusive AI, these findings are important to consider for several reasons. First, they confirm that digital confidence is not a privilege shared by all. </p>
<p>Second, they show us digital inclusion is about more than just access, or even someone’s digital skills. How confident a person feels in their ability to interact with technology is important too. </p>
<p>Third, they show that if we don’t contend with existing forms of digital exclusion, they are likely to spill over into perceptions, attitudes and experiences with AI. </p>
<p>Currently, <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2023/09/digital-quality-life-internet-affordability-cybersecurity/">many countries are making headway</a> in their efforts to reduce the digital divide. So we must make sure the rise of AI doesn’t slow these efforts, or worse still, exacerbate the divide.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577249/original/file-20240222-22-7cjal0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A person working on a laptop with the ChatGPT loading screen displayed." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577249/original/file-20240222-22-7cjal0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577249/original/file-20240222-22-7cjal0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577249/original/file-20240222-22-7cjal0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577249/original/file-20240222-22-7cjal0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577249/original/file-20240222-22-7cjal0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577249/original/file-20240222-22-7cjal0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577249/original/file-20240222-22-7cjal0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">AI tools are already transforming lives – but only if you’re on the right side of the ‘digital divide’.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/a-person-is-using-a-laptop-computer-on-a-table-16094056/">Matheus Bertelli/Pexels</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What should we hope for AI?</h2>
<p>While there <a href="https://theconversation.com/forget-dystopian-scenarios-ai-is-pervasive-today-and-the-risks-are-often-hidden-218222">is a slew of associated risks</a>, when deployed responsibly, AI can make significant positive impacts on society. Some of these can directly target issues of inclusivity.</p>
<p>For example, computer vision can <a href="https://www.monash.edu/news/articles/monash-university-and-tennis-australia-serve-up-world-first-accessible-audio-stream-for-fans-with-blindness-or-low-vision">track the trajectory of a tennis ball</a> during a match, making it audible for blind or low-vision spectators.</p>
<p>AI has been used to analyse <a href="https://www.niaa.gov.au/indigenous-affairs/closing-gap/implementation-measures/csiro-indigenous-jobs-map">online job postings</a> to help boost employment outcomes in under-represented populations such as First Nations peoples. And, while they’re still in the early stages of development, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41746-022-00560-6">AI-powered chatbots</a> could increase accessibility and affordability of medical services. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/to-boost-indigenous-employment-we-need-to-map-job-opportunities-to-skills-and-qualifications-our-new-project-does-just-that-212440">To boost Indigenous employment, we need to map job opportunities to skills and qualifications. Our new project does just that</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>But this responsible AI future can only be delivered if we also address what keeps us digitally divided. To develop and use truly inclusive AI tools, we first have to ensure the feelings of digital exclusion don’t spill over. </p>
<p>This means not only tackling pragmatic issues of access and infrastructure, but also the knock-on effects on people’s levels of engagement, aptitude and confidence with technology.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222987/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sarah Bentley works for CSIRO, which receives funding from the Australian Government.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Claire Naughtin works for CSIRO, which receives funding from the Australian Government.</span></em></p>The benefits of AI are transforming modern life — but disparities in digital confidence are leaving some behind.Sarah Vivienne Bentley, Research Scientist, Responsible Innovation, Data61, CSIROClaire Naughtin, Principal Research Consultant in Strategic Foresight, Data61Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2251812024-03-18T19:21:34Z2024-03-18T19:21:34ZDo you have 7,513 unread emails in your inbox? Research suggests that’s unwise<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581813/original/file-20240314-18-q0ect0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=60%2C13%2C2965%2C2018&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/email-inbox-phone-outdoors-list-new-2135776669">Tero Vesalainen/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>How do you manage your emails? Are you an “<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2021/oct/04/email-is-a-zombie-that-keeps-rising-from-the-dead-the-endless-pursuit-of-inbox-zero">inbox zero</a>” kind of person, or do you just leave thousands of them unread?</p>
<p>Our <a href="https://informationr.net/infres/article/view/604/326">new study</a>, published today in the journal <a href="https://informationr.net/infres">Information Research</a>, suggests that leaving all your emails in the inbox is likely to leave you dissatisfied with your personal records management. </p>
<p>In an exploratory survey, we asked participants how they dealt with their personal records such as bills, online subscriptions and similar items. Many of these <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2204.13282">arrive by email</a>.</p>
<p>We found that most respondents left their electronic records in their email. Only half saved items such as bills and other documents to other locations, like their computer or the cloud. But having a disorganised inbox also led to problems, including missing bills and losing track of important correspondence.</p>
<h2>The risk of losing track of your emails</h2>
<p>Receiving bills, insurance renewals and other household documents by email <a href="https://www.questline.com/blog/top-reasons-customers-choose-paperless-billing">saves time and money</a>, and reduces unnecessary paper use.</p>
<p>However, there are risks involved if you don’t stay on top of your electronic records. Respondents in our research reported issues such as <a href="https://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/news/nsw/drivers-fined-millions-since-new-no-vehicle-registration-sticker-system-introduced-in-nsw/news-story/040a82526edc73eb8c23bce47fd1b8f9">lapsed vehicle registration</a>, failing to cancel <a href="https://newsroom.ing.com.au/unused-subscriptions-and-forgotten-outgoings-could-cost-each-aussie-up-to-1261-a-year/">unwanted subscriptions</a>, and overlooking tax deductions because it was too much trouble finding the receipts. </p>
<p>This suggests late fines and other email oversights could be costing people hundreds of dollars each year.</p>
<p>In addition to the financial costs, research suggests that not sorting and managing electronic records makes it more difficult to put together the information needed at tax time, or for other high-stakes situations, such as loan applications.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-do-i-get-so-much-spam-and-unwanted-email-in-my-inbox-and-how-can-i-get-rid-of-it-208665">Why do I get so much spam and unwanted email in my inbox? And how can I get rid of it?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What did we find?</h2>
<p>We surveyed over 300 diverse respondents on their personal electronic records management. Most of them were from Australia, but we also received responses from other countries, such as the United Kingdom, United States, Switzerland, Portugal and elsewhere.</p>
<p>Two-thirds of the respondents used their email to manage personal records, such as bills, receipts, subscriptions and more. Of those, we found that once respondents had dealt with their email, about half of them would sort the emails into folders, while the other half would leave everything in the inbox.</p>
<p>While most sorted their workplace email into folders, they were much less likely to sort their personal email in the same way.</p>
<p>The results also showed that only half (52%) of respondents who left all their email in the inbox were satisfied with their records management, compared to 71% of respondents who sorted their email into folders.</p>
<p>Of the respondents who saved their paperwork in the cloud (Google Drive, iCloud, Dropbox and similar), 83% reported being satisfied with their home records management.</p>
<p>The study was exploratory, so further research will be needed to see if our findings apply more universally. However, our statistical analysis did reveal practices associated with more satisfactory outcomes, and ones that might be better to avoid.</p>
<h2>What can go wrong with an inbox-only approach?</h2>
<p>Based on the responses, we have identified three main problems with leaving all your email in the inbox.</p>
<p>First, users can lose track of the tasks that need to be done. For example, a bill that needs to be paid could slip down the line unnoticed, drowned by other emails.</p>
<p>Second, relying on search to re-find emails means you need to know exactly what you’re looking for. For example, at tax time searching for charity donation receipts depends on remembering what to search for, as well as the exact wording in the email containing the receipt.</p>
<p>Third, many bills and statements are not sent as attachments to emails, <a href="https://publications.archivists.org.au/index.php/asa/article/view/10421">but rather as hyperlinks</a>. If you change your bank or another service provider, those hyperlinks may not be accessible at a later date. Not being able to access missing payslips from a former employer can also cause issues, as shown by the <a href="https://ia.acs.org.au/article/2019/court-finds-robodebt-unlawful.html">Robodebt scandal</a> or the recent case of the Australian Tax Office <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2024-03-14/ato-reignites-old-debts-individuals-businesses-struggle/103578746">reviving old debts</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581489/original/file-20240313-24-614jwk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=270%2C779%2C3168%2C2001&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Close-up of a mouse cursor selecting an inbox link with one unread email." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581489/original/file-20240313-24-614jwk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=270%2C779%2C3168%2C2001&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581489/original/file-20240313-24-614jwk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581489/original/file-20240313-24-614jwk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581489/original/file-20240313-24-614jwk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581489/original/file-20240313-24-614jwk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=512&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581489/original/file-20240313-24-614jwk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=512&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581489/original/file-20240313-24-614jwk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=512&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">You can apply a few simple practices to your email management to minimise stress and financial losses.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/email-menu-on-monitor-screen-127894817">kpatyhka/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>4 tips for better records management</h2>
<p>When we asked respondents to nominate a preferred location for keeping their personal records, they tended to choose a more organised format than their current behaviour. Ideally, only 8% of the respondents would leave everything in their email inbox, unsorted. </p>
<p>Our findings suggest a set of practices that can help you get on top of your electronic records and prevent stress or financial losses:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>sort your email into category folders, or save records in folders in the cloud or on a computer</p></li>
<li><p>download documents that are not attached to emails or sent to you – such as utility bills and all your payslips</p></li>
<li><p>put important renewals in your calendar as reminders, and</p></li>
<li><p>delete junk mail and unsubscribe, so that your inbox can be turned into a to-do list.</p></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/do-you-answer-emails-outside-work-hours-do-you-send-them-new-research-shows-how-dangerous-this-can-be-160187">Do you answer emails outside work hours? Do you send them? New research shows how dangerous this can be</a>
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</em>
</p>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225181/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Matt Balogh previously received funding from an Australian Government Research Training Stipend Scholarship.</span></em></p>Managing our electronic records is a big task. But using a few simple tips to turn your inbox into a to-do list can save a lot of problems down the line.Matt Balogh, Adjunct Lecturer, University of New EnglandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2257892024-03-18T00:27:02Z2024-03-18T00:27:02ZHow safe are Australia’s mines? New analysis shows reform has been stalled for a decade<p>On Sunday August 7 1994, an <a href="https://www.publications.qld.gov.au/dataset/moura-mining-disaster-inquiry-reports/resource/a8e96409-52a3-4075-b4a6-b1224ecc8e63">explosion at the Moura No 2 underground coal mine</a> in Queensland led to the deaths of 11 miners. This tragedy was the catalyst for a major shakeup in the approach to safety in all kinds of mines around Australia over the late 1990s and early 2000s.</p>
<p>Since that time, we have seen <a href="https://data.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/interactive-data/industry/mining">major improvements in safety performance</a>. In 2003, there were 12.4 fatalities per 100,000 workers; a decade later the figure was down to 3.4.</p>
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<p>However, since then progress has slowed if not stalled. Despite the industry’s adoption of risk management systems, competency training, and a shift away from prescriptive regulation in the years following Moura, the rate of deaths and serious injuries has barely changed over the past decade.</p>
<p>Given the huge size and variety of Australia’s mining industry, and the inherent dangers of the work, we may never reach a time when there are no deaths. But zero fatalities must still be the goal.</p>
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<h2>A rise in ‘one-off’ incidents</h2>
<p>In the past, most deaths were due to what are called “principal hazards”. These are major incidents such as fires, explosions and mine flooding that can kill or injure many people. </p>
<p>Most safety work has, for good reason, focused on these hazards, and by my count they are today involved in fewer than 20% of deaths. What this means is that today’s tragedy landscape is more diffuse, with fatalities scattered across a range of different scenarios.</p>
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<p>Now, most deaths are the result of “one-off” events such as being struck by objects, caught in machinery, falling from heights, or vehicle collisions. Addressing all these possibilities is more complex.</p>
<h2>Mental health, fatigue, staff turnover</h2>
<p>Human factors also loom large. Despite a huge increase in mine automation and remote operation technologies that reduce workers’ exposure to hazards, there are indications of <a href="https://www.ecu.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0015/1060080/Michael-Quinlan-Presentation.pdf">worsening mental health</a>, rising fatigue and <a href="https://www.aigroup.com.au/news/reports/2023-economics/factsheet-labour-turnover-in-2023/">high staff turnover</a>, which can erode corporate knowledge.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/mine-workers-and-their-families-suffer-the-toll-of-shift-work-10897">Mine workers and their families suffer the toll of shift work</a>
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<p>Psychological and social problems such as these affect an <a href="https://minerals.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/MCA_Mental_Health_Blueprint.pdf">estimated 20%</a> of the modern mining workforce. Although there are fewer workers on site, they are often under huge production pressures and the rosters can be very tough on family life. </p>
<p>Poor mental health can compromise decision-making and reduce vigilance, leading to safety problems.</p>
<h2>Slow, steady improvement</h2>
<p>There are some promising developments. The “<a href="https://www.icmm.com/en-gb/guidance/health-safety/2015/ccm-good-practice-guide">critical control management</a>” approach already adopted by <a href="https://www.riotinto.com/en/invest/reports/sustainability-report">Rio Tinto</a> and <a href="https://s24.q4cdn.com/382246808/files/doc_financials/2022/ar/%E2%80%8CNewmont-2022-Annual-Report.pdf">Newmont</a>, among others, has been highly effective. This is a method that identifies a relatively small number of vital controls that can prevent serious incidents, and directs resources towards rigorously designing, implementing and maintaining them.</p>
<p>We are also likely to see future safety gains from <a href="https://www.acarp.com.au/abstracts.aspx?repId=C29001">better equipment design</a>, further advances in automation and remote operation, and mental health initiatives, such as Western Australia’s <a href="https://www.wa.gov.au/organisation/department-of-energy-mines-industry-regulation-and-safety/mental-awareness-respect-and-safety-mars-program">Mental Awareness, Respect and Safety</a> program.</p>
<p>But in an industry that has still averaged <a href="https://data.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/interactive-data/industry/mining">eight fatalities per year</a> over the past decade, more safety reform is overdue. While new technologies and initiatives may be helpful, none will be a “silver bullet”.</p>
<p>Queensland alone has staged three “<a href="https://www.rshq.qld.gov.au/about-us/resources/safety-reset">safety resets</a>” in the past five years, with little result. Real safety improvement will be slow and steady, and will come from diligently and consistently applying proven safety management techniques.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225789/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Cliff has received funding from many different sources including various major mining companies and government regulatory agencies such as Resources Safety And Health Queensland, research funding from various independent and industry funded agencies such as the Australian Coal Association Research Program. He is a member of the Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, the Mine Managers Association of Australia and various professional bodies such as the Australian Institute of Occupational Health and Safety, and the Royal Australian Chemical Institute.</span></em></p>Mining’s high-tech transformation has dramatically increased safety – but there is plenty more work to be done.David Cliff, Professor of Occupational Health and Safety in Mining, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2255552024-03-17T19:01:36Z2024-03-17T19:01:36ZSomething felt ‘off’ – how AI messed with our human research, and what we learned<p>All levels of research are being changed by the rise of artificial intelligence (AI). Don’t have time to read that journal article? AI-powered tools such as <a href="https://www.tldrthis.com/">TLDRthis</a> will summarise it for you. </p>
<p>Struggling to find relevant sources for your review? <a href="https://inciteful.xyz/">Inciteful</a> will list suitable articles with just the click of a button. Are your human research participants too expensive or complicated to manage? Not a problem – try <a href="https://www.syntheticusers.com/">synthetic participants</a> instead. </p>
<p>Each of these tools suggests AI could be superior to humans in outlining and explaining concepts or ideas. But can humans be replaced when it comes to qualitative research?</p>
<p>This is something we recently had to grapple with while carrying out unrelated research into <a href="https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/spc3.12643">mobile dating during the COVID-19 pandemic</a>. And what we found should temper enthusiasm for artificial responses over the words of human participants.</p>
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<h2>Encountering AI in our research</h2>
<p>Our research is looking at how people might navigate mobile dating during the pandemic in Aotearoa New Zealand. Our aim was to explore broader social responses to mobile dating as the pandemic progressed and as public health mandates changed over time.</p>
<p>As part of this ongoing research, we prompt participants to develop stories in response to hypothetical scenarios. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-happens-when-we-outsource-boring-but-important-work-to-ai-research-shows-we-forget-how-to-do-it-ourselves-223981">What happens when we outsource boring but important work to AI? Research shows we forget how to do it ourselves</a>
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<p>In 2021 and 2022 we received a wide range of intriguing and quirky responses from 110 New Zealanders recruited through Facebook. Each participant received a gift voucher for their time.</p>
<p>Participants described characters navigating the challenges of “Zoom dates” and clashing over vaccination statuses or wearing masks. Others wrote passionate love stories with eyebrow-raising details. Some even broke the fourth wall and wrote directly to us, complaining about the mandatory word length of their stories or the quality of our prompts. </p>
<p>These responses captured the highs and lows of online dating, the boredom and loneliness of lockdown, and the thrills and despair of finding love during the time of COVID-19. </p>
<p>But, perhaps most of all, these responses reminded us of the idiosyncratic and irreverent aspects of human participation in research – the unexpected directions participants go in, or even the unsolicited feedback you can receive when doing research. </p>
<p>But in the latest round of our study in late 2023, something had clearly changed across the 60 stories we received.</p>
<p>This time many of the stories felt “off”. Word choices were quite stilted or overly formal. And each story was quite moralistic in terms of what one “should” do in a situation. </p>
<p>Using AI detection tools, such as ZeroGPT, we concluded participants – or even bots – were using AI to generate story answers for them, possibly to receive the gift voucher for minimal effort.</p>
<p>Contrary to claims that AI can sufficiently replicate human participants in research, we found AI-generated stories to be woeful. </p>
<p>We were reminded that an essential ingredient of any social research is for the data to be based on lived experience. </p>
<h2>Is AI the problem?</h2>
<p>Perhap the biggest threat to human research is not AI, but rather the philosophy that underscores it. </p>
<p>It is worth noting the majority of claims about AI’s capabilities to replace humans come from computer scientists or quantitative social scientists. In these types of studies, human reasoning or behaviour is often measured through scorecards or yes/no statements. </p>
<p>This approach necessarily fits human experience into a framework that can be more easily analysed through computational or artificial interpretation. </p>
<p>In contrast, we are qualitative researchers who are interested in the messy, emotional, lived experience of people’s perspectives on dating. We were drawn to the thrills and disappointments participants originally pointed to with online dating, the frustrations and challenges of trying to use dating apps, as well as the opportunities they might create for intimacy during a time of lockdowns and evolving health mandates. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/ai-is-in-danger-of-becoming-too-male-new-research-121229">AI is in danger of becoming too male – new research</a>
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<p>In general, we found AI poorly simulated these experiences. </p>
<p>Some might accept generative AI is here to stay, or that AI should be viewed as offering various tools to researchers. Other researchers might retreat to forms of data collection, such as surveys, that might minimise the interference of unwanted AI participation. </p>
<p>But, based on <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14780887.2024.2311427">our recent research experience</a>, we believe theoretically-driven, qualitative social research is best equipped to detect and protect against AI interference. </p>
<p>There are additional implications for research. The threat of AI as an unwanted participant means researchers will have to work longer or harder to spot imposter participants. </p>
<p>Academic institutions need to start developing policies and practices to reduce the burden on individual researchers trying to carry out research in the changing AI environment. </p>
<p>Regardless of researchers’ theoretical orientation, how we work to limit the involvement of AI is a question for anyone interested in understanding human perspectives or experiences. If anything, the limitations of AI reemphasise the importance of being human in social research.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225555/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alexandra Gibson receives funding from Te Apārangi - Royal Society of New Zealand.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alex Beattie does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Responses to our qualitative survey suggested artificial intelligence was at play. The results were woeful, and researchers will need to work harder to prevent contaminated outcomes.Alexandra Gibson, Senior Lecturer in Health Psychology, Te Herenga Waka — Victoria University of WellingtonAlex Beattie, Research Fellow, School of Health, Te Herenga Waka — Victoria University of WellingtonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2240642024-03-14T19:24:44Z2024-03-14T19:24:44ZWhat washing machine settings can I use to make my clothes last longer?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581554/original/file-20240313-30-b0w0se.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=194%2C310%2C4780%2C3135&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/man-accidentally-dyeing-laundry-inside-washing-236885413">Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Orbiting 400 kilometres above Earth’s surface, the astronauts on the International Space Station live a pretty normal social life, if not for one thing: they happily wear their unwashed clothes <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/glenn/nasa-glenn-interns-take-space-washing-machine-designs-for-a-spin/">for days and weeks at a time</a>. They can’t do their laundry <a href="https://www.esa.int/Enabling_Support/Space_Engineering_Technology/Keeping_your_underwear_clean_on_the_Moon">just yet</a> because water is scarce up there.</p>
<p>But down here on Earth, washing clothes is a large part of our lives. <a href="https://bigee.net/media/filer_public/2013/03/28/bigee_domestic_washing_machines_worldwide_potential_20130328.pdf">It’s estimated</a> that a volume of water equivalent to 21,000 Olympic swimming pools is used every day for domestic laundry worldwide.</p>
<p>Fibres from our clothes make their way into the environment via the air (during use or in the dryer), water (washing) and soil (lint rubbish in landfill). Most of this fibre loss is invisible – we often only notice our favourite clothing is “disappearing” when it’s too late.</p>
<p>How can you ensure your favourite outfit will outlast your wish to wear it? Simple question, complex answer.</p>
<h2>Washing machines are not gentle</h2>
<p>When you clean the filters in your washing machine and dryer, how often do you stop to think that the lint you’re holding <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk-laundry-releases-microfibres-weighing-the-equivalent-of-1-500-buses-each-year-199712"><em>was</em>, in fact, your clothes</a>?</p>
<p>Laundering is harsh on our clothes, and <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0250346">research confirms this</a>. Several factors play a role: the type of washing machine, the washing cycle, detergents, temperature, time, and the type of fabric and yarn construction. </p>
<p>There are two types of domestic washing machines: top-loader and front-loader. Mechanical agitation (the way the machine moves the clothes around) is one of the things that helps ease dirt off the fabric.</p>
<p>Top-loaders have a vertical, bucket-like basket with a paddle, which sloshes clothes around in a large volume of water. Front-loaders have a horizontal bucket which rotates, exposing the clothes to a smaller volume of water – it takes advantage of gravity, not paddles.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581556/original/file-20240313-26-zgawjl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A person selecting a program on a front loader washing machine panel with buttons." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581556/original/file-20240313-26-zgawjl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581556/original/file-20240313-26-zgawjl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581556/original/file-20240313-26-zgawjl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581556/original/file-20240313-26-zgawjl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581556/original/file-20240313-26-zgawjl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581556/original/file-20240313-26-zgawjl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581556/original/file-20240313-26-zgawjl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Washing machine programs tend to be carefully programmed to ensure minimal damage to the garments.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/person-using-washing-machine-5591460/">RDNE Stock Project/Pexels</a></span>
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<p>Top-loading machines <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12541-010-0047-7">tend to be more aggressive</a> towards fabrics than front-loaders due to the different mechanical action and larger volumes of water. </p>
<p>Washing machine panels also present many choices. Shorter, low-temperature programs <a href="https://clevercare.info/more-eco-temperature-tips">are usually sufficient for everyday stains</a>. Choose longer or <a href="https://iprefer30.eu/animations/UK/wash-brochure-uk.pdf">high-temperature programs</a> only for clothing you have concerns about (healthcare uniforms, washable nappies, etc.).</p>
<p>Generally, washing machine programs are carefully selected combinations of water volume, agitation intensity and temperature recommended by the manufacturer. They take into consideration the type of fabric and its level of cleanliness.</p>
<p>Select the wrong program and you can say goodbye to your favourite top. For example, high temperatures or harsh agitation may cause some fibres to weaken and break, causing holes in the garment.</p>
<h2>Some fabrics lose fibres more easily than others</h2>
<p>At a microscopic level, the fabric in our clothes is made of yarns – individual fibres twisted together. The nature and length of the fibres, the way they are twisted and the way the yarns form the fabric can determine how many fibres will be lost during a wash.</p>
<p>In general, if you want to lose fewer fibres, you should wash less frequently, but some fabrics are affected more than others. </p>
<p>Open fabric structures (knits) with loose yarns <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-98836-6">can lose more fibres</a> than tighter ones. Some sports clothing, like running shirts, are made of continuous filament yarn. These fibres are less likely to come loose in the wash. </p>
<p>Cotton fibres are only a few centimetres long. Twisted tightly together into a yarn, they can still escape.</p>
<p>Wool fibres are also short, but have an additional feature: scales, which make wool clothes much more delicate. Wool fibres can come loose like cotton ones, but also tangle with each other during the wash due to their scales. This last aspect is what causes wool garments to shrink when <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/004051756403400303">exposed to heat</a> and agitation.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581557/original/file-20240313-22-s1rv88.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A tangle of white fibres in a loose web." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581557/original/file-20240313-22-s1rv88.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581557/original/file-20240313-22-s1rv88.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581557/original/file-20240313-22-s1rv88.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581557/original/file-20240313-22-s1rv88.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581557/original/file-20240313-22-s1rv88.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581557/original/file-20240313-22-s1rv88.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581557/original/file-20240313-22-s1rv88.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Cotton fibres under a microscope, magnified 100 times.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/fibres-under-microscope-100x-1013172277">Dr. Norbert Lange/Shutterstock</a></span>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/laundry-is-a-top-source-of-microplastic-pollution-heres-how-to-clean-your-clothes-more-sustainably-217072">Laundry is a top source of microplastic pollution – here's how to clean your clothes more sustainably</a>
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<h2>Go easy on the chemicals</h2>
<p>The type of detergent and other products you use also makes a difference.</p>
<p>Detergents contain a soap component, enzymes to make stains easier to remove at low temperature, and fragrances. Some contain harsher compounds, such as bleaching or whitening agents.</p>
<p>Modern detergents are very effective at <a href="https://www.choice.com.au/home-and-living/laundry-and-cleaning/laundry-detergents/review-and-compare/laundry-detergents">removing stains such as food</a>, and you don’t need to use much.</p>
<p>An incorrect choice of wash cycles, laundry detergent and bleaching additives could cause disaster. Certain products, like bleach, can <a href="https://site.extension.uga.edu/textiles/textile-basics/understand-your-fibers/">damage some fibres like wool and silk</a>.</p>
<p>Meanwhile, research on <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0269749120366872?via%3Dihub">fabric softeners and other treatments</a> <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/file?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0233332&type=printable">continues</a> – there’s no one-size-fits-all answer about their potential impact on our clothes.</p>
<h2>Just skip laundry day</h2>
<p>So, how to ensure your clothes last longer? The main tip is to wash them less often.</p>
<p>When it’s time for a wash, carefully read and follow the care labels. In the future, our washing machines will <a href="https://www.teknoscienze.com/tks_article/trends-in-laundry-by-2030/">recognise fabrics and select the wash cycle</a>. For now, that’s our responsibility.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-make-your-clothes-last-longer-its-good-for-your-bank-account-and-the-environment-too-201823">How to make your clothes last longer – it's good for your bank account and the environment too</a>
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<p>And the next time you throw your shirt into the dirty laundry basket, stop. Think of the astronauts orbiting above Earth and ask yourself: if they can go without clean laundry for a few days, maybe I can too? (Although we don’t recommend just burning your dirty undies, either.)</p>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alessandra Sutti has received research funding from the Australian Research Council, the Marine Bioproducts Cooperative Research Centre, the Innovative Manufacturing Cooperative Research Centre and by companies participating in associated projects such as the ARC Research Hub for Functional and Sustainable Fibres and the ARC Industrial Transformation Training Centre for Green Chemistry, as well as from industry partners associated with these grants, such as HeiQ Pty Ltd, Xefco Pty Ltd, C. Sea Solutions Pty Ltd (trading as ULUU) and Simba Global Pty/Ltd. Alessandra is a paid member of the HeiQ Innovation Advisory Board, is a member of the American Chemical Society and serves as a volunteer member on Standards Australia ME-009 Committee (Microplastics). She collaborates closely with The GLOBE Program (through GLOBE Italy), The University of California Berkeley and San Francisco State University, co-developing microplastics monitoring protocols and is involved in environmental education programmes.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amol Patil is engaged at the ARC Research Hub for Functional and Sustainable Fibres, a collaboration between Deakin University, the Australian Research Council and industry partners such as Simba Global Pty Ltd, Xefco Pty Ltd, HeiQ Pty Ltd, and Sea Solutions P/L (trading as ULUU). He is also working on a joint project sponsored by HeiQ-Marine bioproducts (MBCRC). </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Maryam Naebe is the recipient of Discover Natural Fibre Initiative Innovation Award. She has received funding through competitive grants and industry projects including Australian Research Council ARC Research Hub, ARC Discovery Project, Australian Wool Innovation, Cotton Research and Development Corporation, Cotton Incorporated (USA), Ford Motor Company (USA).
</span></em></p>Next time you do your laundry, think like an astronaut – wash your clothes as little as possible.Alessandra Sutti, Associate Professor, Institute for Frontier Materials, Deakin UniversityAmol Patil, Reseach Engineer, Deakin UniversityMaryam Naebe, Associate professor, Deakin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2256752024-03-14T05:47:43Z2024-03-14T05:47:43ZShould you be concerned about flying on Boeing planes?<p>The American aerospace giant Boeing has been synonymous with safe air travel for decades. Since the 1990s, Boeing and its European competitor Airbus have dominated the market for large passenger jets. </p>
<p>But this year, Boeing has been in the news for all the wrong reasons. In January, an emergency door plug <a href="https://www.seattletimes.com/business/boeing-aerospace/alaska-airlines-let-boeing-max-fly-despite-warning-signals">blew off a Boeing 737 MAX</a> in mid flight, triggering an investigation from United States federal regulators. </p>
<p>More recently, we have seen a Boeing plane lose a tyre while taking off, another flight turned back as the plane was leaking fluid, an apparent engine fire, a landing gear collapse, a stuck rudder pedal, and a plane “dropping” in flight and <a href="https://theconversation.com/latam-flight-800-just-dropped-in-mid-flight-injuring-dozens-an-expert-explores-what-happened-and-how-to-keep-yourself-safe-225554">injuring dozens of passengers</a>. A Boeing engineer who had raised concerns regarding quality control during the manufacturing process on the company’s 787 and 737 MAX planes also <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/business-68534703">died earlier this week</a>, apparently of a self-inflicted gunshot wound. </p>
<p>As members of the travelling public, should we be concerned? Well, yes and no.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/boeing-door-plug-blowout-highlights-a-possible-crisis-of-competence-an-aircraft-safety-expert-explains-221069">Boeing door plug blowout highlights a possible crisis of competence − an aircraft safety expert explains</a>
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<h2>Many problems, but not all can be blamed on Boeing</h2>
<p>The recent parade of events has certainly been dramatic – but not all of them can be blamed on Boeing. Five incidents occurred on aircraft owned and operated by United Airlines and were related to factors outside the manufacturer’s control, like maintenance issues, potential foreign object debris, and possible human error. </p>
<p>A <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/travel/news-and-advice/united-airlines-plane-tire-blowout-boeing-b2509241.html">United Airlines 777</a> flying from San Francisco to Japan lost a tyre on takeoff, a maintenance issue not related to Boeing. The aircraft landed safely in Los Angeles. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1767636549288824990"}"></div></p>
<p>A <a href="https://www.mercurynews.com/2024/03/12/united-airlines-reports-fifth-flight-incident-in-a-week-as-jet-turns-back-due-to-maintenance-issue/">United Airlines flight from Sydney</a> to Los Angeles had to return to Sydney due to a “maintenance issue” after a fluid was seen leaking from the aircraft on departure. </p>
<p>A <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/passenger-video-shows-flames-shoot-united-airlines-engine-midflight-rcna142217">United Airlines 737-900</a> flying from Texas to Florida ended up with some plastic bubble wrap in the engine, causing a suspected <a href="https://skybrary.aero/articles/compressor-stall#:%7E:text=Compressor%20stalls%20cause%20the%20air,dirty%20or%20contaminated%20compressor%20components">compressor stall</a>. This is a disruption of air flow to an operating engine, making it “backfire” and emit flames. </p>
<p>A <a href="https://simpleflying.com/united-boeing-737-max-houston-runway-incident/">United Airlines 737 Max</a> flying from Tennessee to Texas suffered a gear collapse after a normal landing. The pilot continued to the end of the runway before exiting onto a taxiway – possibly at too high a speed – and the aircraft ended up in the grass and the left main landing gear collapsed. </p>
<p>The fifth event occurred on a <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/another-boeing-max-mishap-ntsb-probes-stuck-rudder-pedals-united-airli-rcna142286">United Airlines 737-8</a> flight from the Bahamas to New Jersey. The pilots reported that the rudder pedals, which control the left and right movement of the aircraft in flight, were stuck in the neutral position during landing.</p>
<h2>Manufacturing quality concerns</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://www.seattletimes.com/business/boeing-aerospace/alaska-airlines-let-boeing-max-fly-despite-warning-signals">exit door plug failure in January</a> occurred on an Alaska Airlines flight. US regulators are currently investigating Boeing’s <a href="https://www.vox.com/money/24052245/boeing-corporate-culture-737-airplane-safety-door-plug">manufacturing quality assurance</a> as a result. </p>
<p>The door plug was installed by a Boeing subcontractor called Spirit AeroSystem. The door plug bolts were not properly secured and the plug door fell off in flight. The same aircraft had a series of pressurisation alarms on two previous flights, and was scheduled for a maintenance inspection at the completion of the flight. </p>
<p>Spirit got its start after Boeing shut down its own manufacturing operations in Kansas and Oklahoma, and Boeing is now in the process of <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2024/03/01/spirit-aerosystems-boeing.html">buying the company</a> to improve quality oversight. Spirit currently works with Airbus, as well, though that may change.</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-did-alaska-airlines-flight-1282-have-a-sealed-off-emergency-exit-in-the-first-place-the-answer-comes-down-to-money-221263">Why did Alaska Airlines Flight 1282 have a sealed-off emergency exit in the first place? The answer comes down to money</a>
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</p>
<hr>
<h2>What changed at Boeing</h2>
<p>Critics say the <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2024/03/12/boeing-whistleblower-death-plane-issues/">culture at Boeing has changed</a> since Airbus became a major competitor in the early 2000s. The company has been accused of shifting its focus to profit at the expense of quality engineering. </p>
<p>Former staff have raised concerns over tight production schedules, which increased the pressure on employees to finish the aircraft. This caused many engineers to question the process, and the US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) to fine Boeing for lapses in quality oversight after tools and debris were found on aircraft being inspected. </p>
<p>Several employees have testified before US Congress on the production issues regarding quality control. Based on the congressional findings, the FAA began to inspect Boeing’s processes more closely.</p>
<p>Several Boeing employees noted there was a high staff turnover rate during the COVID pandemic. This is not unique to Boeing, as all manufacturing processes and airline maintenance facilities around the globe were also hit with high turnover. </p>
<p>As a result, there is an acute shortage of qualified maintenance engineers, as well as pilots. These shortages have created several issues with the airline industry successfully returning to the <a href="https://www.aviationbusinessnews.com/mro/critical-shortage-of-engineers-means-looming-crisis-for-aviation-warns-aeroprofessional/">pre-pandemic levels</a> of 2019. Airlines and maintenance training centres around the globe are working hard to train replacements, but this takes time as one cannot become a qualified engineer or airline pilot overnight.</p>
<p>So, is it still safe to fly on Boeing planes? Yes it is. Despite dramatic incidents in the news and social media posts <a href="https://twitter.com/DaveMcNamee3000/status/1767636549288824990">poking fun at the company</a>, air travel is still extremely safe, and that includes Boeing.</p>
<p>We can expect these issues with Boeing planes now will be corrected. The financial impact has been significant – so even a profit-driven company will demand change.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225675/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Doug Drury does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The American aerospace company Boeing has been synonymous with safe air travel for decades, but recent weeks have seen it plagued by a series of issues.Doug Drury, Professor/Head of Aviation, CQUniversity AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2251772024-03-13T19:15:03Z2024-03-13T19:15:03ZVinegar and baking soda: a cleaning hack or just a bunch of fizz?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581208/original/file-20240312-20-t421p3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=270%2C48%2C3915%2C2868&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/caucasian-man-green-sponge-his-hand-2020591898">Daniele De Vivo/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Vinegar and baking soda are staples in the kitchen. Many of us have combined them in childhood scientific experiments: think fizzy volcanoes and geysers. </p>
<p>But people also frequently mix vinegar and baking soda to produce a reportedly effective household cleaner. Unfortunately, the chemistry behind the bubbly reaction doesn’t support the cleaning hype. The fizzy action is essentially <a href="https://theconversation.com/six-surprising-things-about-placebos-everyone-should-know-220829">a visual “placebo</a>”, formed by the combination of an acid and a base. </p>
<p>So, how does it work, and is it worth using these chemicals for cleaning? To understand all this, it helps to know a little more about chemistry. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-new-tiktok-trend-has-people-drinking-toxic-borax-an-expert-explains-the-risks-and-how-to-read-product-labels-210278">A new TikTok trend has people drinking toxic borax. An expert explains the risks – and how to read product labels</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What’s an acid?</h2>
<p>Foods with a sour taste typically contain acids. These include citric acid in lemon juice, malic acid in apples, lactic acid in yoghurt and <a href="https://theconversation.com/kitchen-science-everything-you-eat-is-made-of-chemicals-56583">phosphoric acids in soft drinks</a>. Most vinegars contain around 4–10% acetic acid, the rest is water and small amounts of flavour chemicals.</p>
<p>There are other naturally occurring acids, such as formic acid in ant bites and hydrochloric acid in our stomachs. Industrially, sulfuric acid is used in mineral processing, nitric acid for <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-ammonium-nitrate-the-chemical-that-exploded-in-beirut-143979">fertiliser manufacturing</a> and the highly potent hydrofluoric acid is used to etch glass.</p>
<p>All of these acids share similar properties. They can all release hydrogen ions (positively charged atoms) into water. Depending on their potency, acids can also dissolve minerals and metals through various chemical reactions.</p>
<p>This is why vinegar is an excellent cleaner for showers or kettles – it can react with and dissolve mineral deposits like limescale. </p>
<p>Other common acidic cleaning ingredients are oxalic acid, used for revitalising timber decks, hydrochloric acid in concrete and masonry cleaners, and sulfamic acid in potent toilet cleaners.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581224/original/file-20240312-18-tb4sa3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A hand in a yellow glove cleaning the inside of a shower screen with a squeegee." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581224/original/file-20240312-18-tb4sa3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581224/original/file-20240312-18-tb4sa3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581224/original/file-20240312-18-tb4sa3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581224/original/file-20240312-18-tb4sa3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581224/original/file-20240312-18-tb4sa3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=552&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581224/original/file-20240312-18-tb4sa3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=552&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581224/original/file-20240312-18-tb4sa3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=552&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Adding some vinegar to your shower cleaning routine can help to dissolve away the limescale deposits on the glass.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/crop-person-cleaning-glass-shower-unit-4239091/">Karolina Grabowska/Pexels</a></span>
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</figure>
<h2>What’s a base?</h2>
<p>In chemistry, bases – the opposite of acids in many ways – can bind, rather than release hydrogen ions. This can help lift and dissolve insoluble grime into water. Bases can also break apart fat molecules. </p>
<p>Baking soda (also known as sodium hydrogen carbonate, sodium bicarbonate, or bicarb) is a relatively weak base. Stronger common bases include sodium carbonate (washing soda), sodium hydroxide (lye) and ammonia.</p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/spill-at-a-nuclear-facility-shows-potential-burn-risks-from-a-household-chemical-112763">Sodium hydroxide</a> is a potent drain cleaner – its strong base properties can dissolve fats and hair. This allows blockages to be broken down and easily flushed away.</p>
<h2>Mixing a base and an acid</h2>
<p>Mixing vinegar and baking soda causes an immediate chemical reaction. This reaction forms water, sodium acetate (a salt) and carbon dioxide – the fizzy part. </p>
<p>The amount of carbon dioxide gas that is produced from baking soda is remarkable – one tablespoon (around 18 grams) can release over <a href="https://www.chemedx.org/JCESoft/jcesoftSubscriber/CCA/CCA8/MAIN/8/06/2/4/movie.html">five litres of gas</a>! But only if you add enough acid.</p>
<p>Reactions in chemistry often use equal quantities of chemical reagents. A perfect balance of acetic acid and baking soda would give you just water, carbon dioxide and sodium acetate. </p>
<p>But the majority of vinegar and bicarb cleaner recipes use a large excess of one or the other components. An example from TikTok for a DIY oven cleaner calls for one and a half cups of baking soda and one quarter cup of vinegar. </p>
<p>Crunching the numbers behind the chemical reaction shows that after the fizz subsides, over 99% of the added baking soda remains. So the active cleaning agent here is actually the baking soda (and the “elbow grease” of scrubbing).</p>
<p><div data-react-class="TiktokEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.tiktok.com/@carmsssdi/video/6846229758724885765"}"></div></p>
<p>Ovens can be cleaned much more rigorously with stronger, sodium hydroxide based cleaners (although these are also more caustic). Many modern ovens also have a self-cleaning feature, so read your product manual before reaching for a chemical cleaner of any sort.</p>
<h2>What about the sodium acetate?</h2>
<p>Devotees of vinegar and baking soda mixtures might be wondering if the product of the fizzy reaction, sodium acetate, is the undercover cleaning agent. </p>
<p>Unfortunately, sodium acetate is an even weaker base than baking soda, so it doesn’t do much to clean the surface you’re trying to scrub.</p>
<p>Sodium acetate is used in <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vABpel-11Nc">crystallisation-based heating packs</a> and as a concrete sealant, but not typically as a cleaner. </p>
<p>Fun fact: sodium acetate can be combined with acetic acid to make a crystalline <a href="https://theconversation.com/busting-the-myth-that-all-food-additives-are-bad-a-quick-guide-for-label-readers-82883">food additive</a> called sodium diacetate. These crystals give the vinegar flavour to <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N0hEutu_goY">salt and vinegar chips</a> without making them soggy.</p>
<h2>Sorry to burst your bubbles</h2>
<p>There are a few rare cases where mixing vinegar and baking soda may be useful for cleaning. This is where the bubbling has a mechanical effect, such as in a blocked drain. </p>
<p>But in most cases you’ll want to use either vinegar or baking soda by itself, depending on what you’re trying to clean. It will be less <a href="https://theconversation.com/visually-striking-science-experiments-at-school-can-be-fun-inspiring-and-safe-banning-is-not-the-answer-195362">visually exciting</a>, but it should get the job done.</p>
<p>Lastly, remember that mixing cleaning chemicals at home can be risky. Always carefully read the product label and directions before engaging in DIY concoctions. And, to be extra sure, you can find out more safety information by reading the product’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/a-new-tiktok-trend-has-people-drinking-toxic-borax-an-expert-explains-the-risks-and-how-to-read-product-labels-210278">safety data sheet</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225177/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nathan Kilah does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A mix of vinegar and baking soda is a popular DIY cleaner – but it’s really inefficient. A chemist explains why you should reconsider using this fizzy mixture.Nathan Kilah, Senior Lecturer in Chemistry, University of TasmaniaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2256542024-03-13T04:10:22Z2024-03-13T04:10:22ZThe surprising key to magpie intelligence: it’s not genetic<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581509/original/file-20240313-18-hcxhmo.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=5%2C0%2C3426%2C2001&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Elizabeth Speechley</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>If you’ve ever had the pleasure of encountering Australia’s iconic magpies, you know these birds are intelligent creatures. With their striking black and white plumage, loud warbling voices and complex social behaviours, magpies possess a level of avian brilliance that fascinates birders and scientists alike. </p>
<p>But what enables these clever birds to thrive? Are their sharp cognitive abilities innate – something coded into their genetic makeup? Or are magpie smarts more a product of their environment and social experiences? </p>
<p>In a <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.231399">new study</a>, we shed light on the “nature versus nurture” debate – at least when it comes to avian intelligence. </p>
<h2>Bigger social groups, smarter birds</h2>
<p>Our study focused on Western Australian magpies, which unlike their eastern counterparts live in large, cooperative social groups all year round. We put young fledglings – and their mothers – through a test of their learning abilities. </p>
<p>We made wooden “puzzle boards” with holes covered by different-coloured lids. For each bird, we hid a tasty food reward under the lid of one particular colour. We also tested each bird alone, so it couldn’t copy the answer from its friends.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581510/original/file-20240313-20-o5qszi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A mother magpie and a fledgling standing side by side." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581510/original/file-20240313-20-o5qszi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581510/original/file-20240313-20-o5qszi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581510/original/file-20240313-20-o5qszi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581510/original/file-20240313-20-o5qszi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581510/original/file-20240313-20-o5qszi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581510/original/file-20240313-20-o5qszi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581510/original/file-20240313-20-o5qszi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Do fledgling magpies get their smarts from their mothers?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Lizzie Speechley</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Through trial and error, the magpies had to figure out which colour was associated with the food prize. We knew the birds had mastered the puzzle when they picked the rewarded colour in 10 out of 12 consecutive attempts.</p>
<p>We tested fledglings at 100, 200 and 300 days after leaving the nest. While they improved at solving the puzzle as they developed, the cognitive performance of the young magpies showed little connection to the problem-solving prowess of their mothers. </p>
<p>Instead, the key factor influencing how quickly the fledglings learned to pick the correct colour was the size of their social group. Birds raised in larger groups solved the test significantly faster than those growing up in smaller social groups.</p>
<p>Fledglings living in groups of ten or more birds needed only about a dozen tries to consistently pick the rewarded colour. But a youngster growing up in a group of three took more than 30 attempts to learn the link between colour and food.</p>
<h2>How the social environment shapes cognition</h2>
<p>Why would living in a larger social group boost cognitive abilities? We think it probably comes down to the mental demands that social animals face on a daily basis, such as recognising and remembering group members, and keeping track of different relationships within a complex group.</p>
<p>Magpies can learn to recognise and remember humans, too. The bird populations we work with live in the wild, but they recognise us by our appearance and a specific whistle we make.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581512/original/file-20240313-22-4oq51f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A photo of Lizzie Speechley sitting on the grass next to a fledgling magpie." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581512/original/file-20240313-22-4oq51f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581512/original/file-20240313-22-4oq51f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=272&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581512/original/file-20240313-22-4oq51f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=272&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581512/original/file-20240313-22-4oq51f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=272&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581512/original/file-20240313-22-4oq51f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=342&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581512/original/file-20240313-22-4oq51f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=342&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581512/original/file-20240313-22-4oq51f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=342&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Magpies recognise researchers and come looking for food.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Sarah Woodiss-Field</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A young magpie living in a group gets plenty of mental exercise recognising and remembering numerous individuals and relationships. Working to make sense of this stream of social information may boost their ability to learn and solve problems. </p>
<p>Our findings go against the idea that intelligence is something innately “set” within an animal at birth, based solely on genetic inheritance. Instead, we show how cognition can be shaped by the environment, especially in the first year after leaving the nest when young magpies’ minds are still developing.</p>
<p>While we focused specifically on Australian magpies, the implications of our research could extend to other highly social and intelligent species.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225654/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lizzie Speechley does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Magpies are expert problem-solvers – but just how good they are seems to depend on the size of the social group they grow up in.Lizzie Speechley, Behavioural Ecologist, The University of Western AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2254542024-03-12T19:14:54Z2024-03-12T19:14:54ZNew evidence for an unexpected player in Earth’s multimillion-year climate cycles: the planet Mars<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580914/original/file-20240311-30-ef6q0e.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C8%2C6000%2C3979&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Dietmar Muller</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Our existence is governed by natural cycles, from the daily rhythms of sleeping and eating, to longer patterns such as the turn of the seasons and the quadrennial round of <a href="https://theconversation.com/leap-of-imagination-how-february-29-reminds-us-of-our-mysterious-relationship-with-time-and-space-224503">leap years</a>. </p>
<p>After looking at seabed sediment stretching back 65 million years, we have found a previously undetected cycle to add to the list: an ebb and flow in deep sea currents, tied to a 2.4-million-year swell of global warming and cooling driven by a gravitational tug of war between Earth and Mars. Our research is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-46171-5">published in Nature Communications</a>.</p>
<h2>Milankovitch cycles and ice ages</h2>
<p>Most of the natural cycles we know are determined one way or another by Earth’s movement around the Sun. </p>
<p>As the German astronomer <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/the-history-of-johannes-kepler">Johannes Kepler</a> first realised four centuries ago, the orbits of Earth and the other planets are not quite circular, but rather slightly squashed ellipses. And over time, the gravitational jostling of the planets changes the shape of these orbits in a predictable pattern.</p>
<p>These alterations affect our long-term climate, influencing the coming and going of ice ages. In 1941, Serbian astrophysicist <a href="https://www.amnh.org/learn-teach/curriculum-collections/earth-inside-and-out/milutin-milankovitch-seeking-the-cause-of-the-ice-ages">Milutin Milankovitch</a> recognised that changes in the shape of Earth’s orbit, the tilt of its axis, and the wobbling of its poles all affect the amount of sunlight we receive. </p>
<p>Known as “<a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/milankovitch-cycles-paleoclimatic-change-and-hominin-evolution-68244581/">Milankovitch cycles</a>”, these patterns occur with periods of 405,000, 100,000, 41,000 and 23,000 years. Geologists have found traces of them throughout Earth’s deep past, even in <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/milankovitch-cycles-paleoclimatic-change-and-hominin-evolution-68244581/">2.5-billion-year old rocks</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580915/original/file-20240311-17800-u3fw0j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A photo shows rocky pillars and cliffs in the ocean." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580915/original/file-20240311-17800-u3fw0j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580915/original/file-20240311-17800-u3fw0j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580915/original/file-20240311-17800-u3fw0j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580915/original/file-20240311-17800-u3fw0j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580915/original/file-20240311-17800-u3fw0j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580915/original/file-20240311-17800-u3fw0j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580915/original/file-20240311-17800-u3fw0j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Fine layering in the Port Campbell Limestone by the Great Ocean Road in Victoria is the product of Earth’s orbital eccentricity and obliquity.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Adriana Dutkiewicz</span></span>
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</figure>
<h2>Earth and Mars</h2>
<p>There are also slower rhythms, called astronomical “grand cycles”, which cause fluctuations over millions of years. One such cycle, related to the slow rotation of the orbits of Earth and Mars, recurs every 2.4 million years. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580907/original/file-20240311-22-m3lfms.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Diagram showing the orbits of Earth and Mars around the Sun." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580907/original/file-20240311-22-m3lfms.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580907/original/file-20240311-22-m3lfms.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580907/original/file-20240311-22-m3lfms.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580907/original/file-20240311-22-m3lfms.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580907/original/file-20240311-22-m3lfms.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580907/original/file-20240311-22-m3lfms.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580907/original/file-20240311-22-m3lfms.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The orbits of Earth and Mars exert a subtle influence on each other in a cycle that repeats every 2.4 million years.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">NASA</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>The cycle is predicted by <a href="https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2011/08/aa16836-11/aa16836-11.html">astronomical models</a>, but is <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1714342115">rarely detected</a> in geological records. The easiest way to find it would be in sediment samples that continuously cover a period of many millions of years, but these are rare.</p>
<p>Much like the shorter Milankovitch cycles, this grand cycle affects the amount of sunlight Earth receives and has an impact on climate. </p>
<h2>Gaps in the record</h2>
<p>When we went hunting for signs of these multimillion-year climate cycles in the rock record, we used a “big data” approach. <a href="https://www.iodp.org/about-iodp/history">Scientific ocean drilling</a> data collected since the 1960s have generated a treasure trove of information on deep-sea sediments through time across the global ocean. </p>
<p>In our study, published in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-46171-5">Nature Communications</a>, we used sedimentary sequences from more than 200 drill sites to discover a previously unknown connection between the changing orbits of Earth and Mars, past global warming cycles, and the speeding up of deep-ocean currents. </p>
<p>Most studies focus on complete, high-resolution records to detect climate cycles. Instead, we concentrated on the parts of the sedimentary record that are missing — breaks in sedimentation called hiatuses. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-plate-tectonics-mountains-and-deep-sea-sediments-have-maintained-earths-goldilocks-climate-183725">How plate tectonics, mountains and deep-sea sediments have maintained Earth's 'Goldilocks' climate</a>
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<p>A deep-sea hiatus indicates the action of vigorous bottom currents that eroded seafloor sediment. In contrast, continuous sediment accumulation indicates calmer conditions. </p>
<p>Analysing the timing of hiatus periods across the global ocean, we identified hiatus cycles over the past 65 million years. The results show that the vigour of deep-sea currents waxes and wanes in 2.4 million year cycles coinciding with changes in the shape of Earth’s orbit.</p>
<p>Astronomical models suggest the interaction of Earth and Mars drives a 2.4 million year cycle of more sunlight and warmer climate alternating with less sunlight and cooler climate. The warmer periods correlate with more deep-sea hiatuses, related to more vigorous deep-ocean currents. </p>
<h2>Warming and deep currents</h2>
<p>Our results fit with recent <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-021-01006-9">satellite data</a> and <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-021-01212-5">ocean models</a> mapping short-term ocean circulation changes. Some of these suggest that ocean mixing has become more intense over the last decades of global warming. </p>
<p>Deep-ocean <a href="https://www.gfdl.noaa.gov/ocean-mesoscale-eddies/">eddies</a> are predicted to intensify in a warming, more energetic climate system, particularly at <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-023-01908-w#:%7E:text=Satellite%20altimetry%20records%20reveal%20that,from%201993%20to%2020209">high latitudes</a>, as major storms become more frequent. This makes deep ocean mixing more vigorous. </p>
<p>Deep-ocean eddies are like giant wind-driven whirlpools and often reach the deep sea floor. They result in seafloor erosion and large sediment accumulations called <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0070457108100140">contourite drifts</a>, akin to snowdrifts.</p>
<h2>Can Mars keep the oceans alive?</h2>
<p>Our findings extend these insights over much longer timescales. Our deep-sea data spanning 65 million years suggest that warmer oceans have more vigorous eddy-driven circulation. </p>
<p>This process may play an important role in a warmer future. In a warming world the difference in temperature between the equator and poles diminishes. This leads to a <a href="https://insideclimatenews.org/news/09022024/climate-impacts-from-collapse-of-atlantic-meridional-overturning-current-could-be-worse-than-expected/">weakening</a> of the world’s <a href="https://www.worldatlas.com/oceans/what-is-the-ocean-conveyor-belt.html">ocean conveyor belt</a>.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/even-temporary-global-warming-above-2-will-affect-life-in-the-oceans-for-centuries-214251">Even temporary global warming above 2℃ will affect life in the oceans for centuries</a>
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<p>In such a scenario, oxygen-rich surface waters would no longer mix well with deeper waters, potentially resulting in a <a href="https://johnmenadue.com/humanity-sinking-into-a-stagnant-ocean/#:%7E:text=%E2%80%93%20as%20the%20difference%20in%20temperature,waters%2C%20which%20then%20become%20stagnant">stagnant ocean</a>. Our results and <a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.fluid.36.050802.122121">analyses of deep ocean mixing</a> suggest that more intense deep-ocean eddies may counteract such ocean stagnation. </p>
<p>How the Earth-Mars astronomical influence will interact with shorter Milankovitch cycles and current human-driven global warming will largely depend on the future trajectory of our greenhouse gas emissions.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225454/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Adriana Dutkiewicz receives funding from the Australian Research Council. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dietmar Müller and Slah Boulila do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Deep-sea sediments show how the changing orbits of Earth and Mars are linked to past global warming and the speeding up of deep-ocean eddies.Adriana Dutkiewicz, ARC Future Fellow, University of SydneyDietmar Müller, Professor of Geophysics, University of SydneySlah Boulila, Associate lecturer, Sorbonne UniversitéLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.