tag:theconversation.com,2011:/au/topics/adrenaline-18749/articlesAdrenaline – The Conversation2021-07-15T12:55:23Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1642812021-07-15T12:55:23Z2021-07-15T12:55:23ZWhat stress does to the body – and how practice can help athletes react better under pressure<p>It isn’t easy being a professional athlete. Not only are the physical demands greater than most people could handle, athletes also face intense psychological pressure during competition.</p>
<p>This is something 18-year-old British tennis player Emma Raducanu <a href="https://twitter.com/EmmaRaducanu/status/1412423562577780746">wrote about on social media</a> following her <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/tennis/57737252">retirement from Wimbledon</a>. Though the young player had been doing well in the tournament, she began having difficulty regulating her breathing and heart rate during a match, which she later chalked up to “the accumulation of the excitement and the buzz.” </p>
<p>She isn’t the first athlete to experience the physical effects of stress, with <a href="https://twitter.com/MarcusRashford/status/1412440891931963399">English footballer Marcus Rashford</a> revealing he’d also had a similar experience in the past.</p>
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<p>There are many reasons why stress can cause such powerful bodily reactions. But with training, this response can be changed so that a person reacts positively under pressure.</p>
<h2>Evaluating stress</h2>
<p>Performance stress is almost unavoidable. But there are many different factors that dictate just how our <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=i-ySQQuUpr8C&oi=fnd&pg=PR5&ots=DgERqoliSg&sig=Ipb0Ikpvo0HN_Sg85S-QeMr88Ac&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false">minds and bodies respond</a> to stressful events. </p>
<p>Typically, stress is the result of an exchange between two factors: demands and resources. A person might feel stressed about an event if they feel the demands on them are greater than they can handle. So for an athlete, demands include the high level of physical and mental effort required to succeed, their levels of uncertainty about the event or their chance of succeeding, and any potential dangers to their health (such as injury) or their self-esteem.</p>
<p>Resources, on the other hand, are a person’s ability to cope with these demands. These include factors such as confidence levels, how much control they believe they have over the situation’s outcome, and whether they’re looking forward to the event or not.</p>
<p>Each new demand or change in circumstances affects whether a person responds positively or negatively to stress. Typically the more resources a person feels they have in handling the situation, the more positive their stress response. This positive stress response is known as a <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17509840902829331?casa_token=h3N1RUQH0z8AAAAA%3AGxYCGGgtScJ-5V1MFJqt3YlYNqMJm_lGpV2hoPNFCypbx9NkoPCany9x2d8G6KnihiL_yuy2G_E">challenge state</a>. </p>
<p>But should the person feel there are too many demands placed on them, the more likely they are to experience a negative stress response – known as a threat state. Research shows that challenge states lead to <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/buy/2018-26658-001">good performance</a>, while threat states lead to poorer performance.</p>
<p>So in Raducanu’s case, a much larger audience, higher expectations and facing a more skillful opponent, may all have led her to feel there were greater demands being placed on her – but she didn’t have the resources to tackle them. This led to her <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books/about/Tipping_the_Balance.html?id=OBo6tAEACAAJ&source=kp_book_description&redir_esc=y">experiencing a threat response</a>. </p>
<h2>Consequences of Stress</h2>
<p>Our challenge and threat responses essentially influence how our body responds to stressful situations, as both affect the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022103104000071?casa_token=xMVg9wQCVcsAAAAA:6OOPjU_v3QQ4IGUkv0DmxbUHIaFg2MQFghV3UmulEJ8hivn_cHv3GX__EaQ_-b9yU9XTntnI">production of adrenaline and cortisol</a> (also known as “stress hormones”). </p>
<p>During a challenge state, adrenaline increases the amount of blood pumped from the heart and expands the blood vessels. This is good for the body, as adrenaline allows more energy to be delivered to the muscles and brain. This increase of blood and decrease of pressure in the blood vessels has been consistently related to superior <a href="https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/65672592/L_Behnke_L_D_Kaczmarek_Successful_performance_and_cardiovascular_markers.pdf?1613144025=&response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DSuccessful_performance_and_cardiovascula.pdf&Expires=1626342567&Signature=LCPXn45OHcJC1-IJMyq6HaZ2eGxX1n3Jj3yvudpqFNnl3OPnvU8pL-vM1KzinRK5FadpOtrFOVJRXsr7rMFneLVS6ZY2eQTD4AgEcOFp9sqctY9AhEWOz2djSD8OLcASiZ3xOcGEtOhOiPcE0gi92qjO9gHtBX-M%7E8wegkQHWPflhPgP-R0MXpeBmRN3A4qmriFebAe5C26l-tgtPsUVkAAVk5cAv%7EvZRaS9bdXLKZqPbikYiiLlcg3728DzLv-WOBJG8ZmnJ8rwQj6bXIRea1%7EqauWHyaexiSN3QLM5odXvGnihgr3m81yLQx9ZXkTjI8NNUXAnlLA-s%7EeB8fSpGA__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA">sport performance</a> in everything from <a href="https://journals.humankinetics.com/view/journals/jsep/35/4/article-p387.xml">cricket batting</a>, <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1469-8986.2012.01449.x">golf putting</a> and <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/buy/2018-56865-001">penalty taking</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A football player takes a penalty kick, while the goal waits in the net to stop it." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/411476/original/file-20210715-32662-qvisrz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/411476/original/file-20210715-32662-qvisrz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411476/original/file-20210715-32662-qvisrz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411476/original/file-20210715-32662-qvisrz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411476/original/file-20210715-32662-qvisrz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411476/original/file-20210715-32662-qvisrz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411476/original/file-20210715-32662-qvisrz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Adrenaline can improve penalty performance.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/young-beautiful-footballers-train-football-353411210">BRG.photography/ Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>But during a threat state, cortisol inhibits the positive effect of <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/spc3.12052?casa_token=Ce4tg4wT0dMAAAAA%3AMfd6Ep3PBMIdXduRFx64D2oP96lnKO0YLZf6zadQy_sgLtVN_xbYwprY-l7uSh9wZxXGwb6LbZ_G">adrenaline</a>, resulting in tighter blood vessels, higher blood pressure, slower psychological responses (such as <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fa0026657">poorer decision making</a>), and a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0149763411000467?casa_token=Cupr5_u2IHQAAAAA:G60EJzgl4Ac0knTBPqIzI7GYUgGckIr6OoF-Oq4V49l6JMT69vt3_R8av_gEtlxUkNt3eQJr">higher heart rate</a>. In short, a threat state makes people more anxious – they make worse decisions and perform more poorly. </p>
<p>In tennis players, higher levels of cortisol have been associated with more unsuccessful <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306453014000250?casa_token=O73cUWvDeT0AAAAA:fOh52rLUbIZgJTKCe3tdQbT7-0F1jX641Tx9oZTPKtRuN7yKA2hoj9yehkA8DhJrUyA8pGyj#bib0025">serves</a>, and greater levels of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S030645300800228X?casa_token=1ZYczrGH2R8AAAAA:S1z6dhpw5PzGJ8m2AQosx2YwrNaQhFz_5xAOsJfA1XnYzHrJM8C-tMnUD-xLyCeCdOc7E25s">anxiety</a>.</p>
<p>That said, anxiety is also a common experience for athletes when they’re under pressure. Anxiety can increase heart rate and perspiration, cause heart palpitations, muscle tremors and <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Salahuddin-Khan-11/publication/320893282_Effects_of_Anxiety_on_Athletic_Performance/links/5a016354aca2725286e2efd8/Effects-of-Anxiety-on-Athletic-Performance.pdf">shortness of breath</a>, as well as headaches, nausea, stomach pain, weakness and a desire to escape in more <a href="https://so06.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/IJBS/article/view/2205">severe cases</a>. Anxiety can also reduce concentration and <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00314/full">self-control</a> (such as being able to stay calm), and cause overthinking. </p>
<p>How intensely a person experiences anxiety depends on the demands and resources they have. Anxiety may also manifest itself in the form of excitement or nervousness depending on the stress response.</p>
<h2>Coping mechanisms</h2>
<p>Negative stress responses can be harmful to both <a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.1.102803.144141?casa_token=Uoefo1leQgYAAAAA%3A_EehDcG0I2znXcblwE1EkCajaGcUz5p8SDTVdpB5QuPSmgTBdNNjJuY1MgWRqYpI5rzfDzJMjNo">physical and mental health</a> – and repeated responses can increase risk of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0149763416304614?casa_token=yPUxohE9oV0AAAAA:kzSPtAMjmfnGoqfK4mFe2W8X6gjdUT9G27TTGCF8wUzsq5Jlw4iuDvdAQfOtWamr9ziY3gFW">heart disease</a> and <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/psychological-medicine/article/not-fade-away-the-hpa-axis-and-depression/0C0E0D12EDE56C8FAD94CBC90EA83BD2">depression</a>. </p>
<p>But there are many ways athletes can ensure they respond positively under pressure. Positive stress responses can be promoted by encouraging feelings of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S016787601400172X?casa_token=IY3r4berhVwAAAAA:F7FHEzgxEIHJkM9ztPZ4GSSD1RXUL9CgbQFq4-e-6AR5yurmOPWY-3K-ZmltIAkWA-GRJyex">confidence and control</a> through the language we and others (such as coaches or parents) use. Psychologists can also help athletes change how they see their <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10615806.2017.1330952?casa_token=uHTex2sV4hkAAAAA%3AmSWSnlKEqnhzsdlc4f346seExw63oAft9xi7D5wdt4ESn9jy-A08Q2XO0uyLpAiV_YIGxvX_WBE">physiological responses</a> – such as helping them see a higher heart rate as excitement, rather than nerves. </p>
<p>Psychological skills – such as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167876016308455?casa_token=eEPizB-OU_IAAAAA:39VknXktbqTy3veF1TumBGjXP9spj9Ca9bMTPoYvbVbaRLwgyfKSbBGkA8kh-4hNHz_q0Osh">visualisation</a> – can also help decrease our physiological responses to threat. This may involve <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jennifer-Cumming/publication/267749244_The_Role_of_Imagery_in_Performance/links/545901b30cf26d5090acfdb2/The-Role-of-Imagery-in-Performance.pdf">creating a mental picture</a> of a time when the athlete performed well, or picturing themselves doing well in the future. This can help create feelings of confidence and control over the stressful event. </p>
<p>Recreating competitive pressure during training can also help athletes learn how to <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/21520704.2016.1255496?casa_token=Z4z5QXQ9M5AAAAAA%3AzFcKQGlrZAZpvBOUw2IbX6bIgwhmsirncM776YLoCKLjqNxJYryOrPzYlfZ28x63TqhH2s5zrkY">cope with stress</a>. An example of this might be scoring athletes against their peers to create a sense of competition. This would increase the demands players experience compared to a normal training session, while still allowing them to practice coping with stress.</p>
<p>It is therefore possible to learn to have a better reaction to <a href="https://www.ted.com/talks/kelly_mcgonigal_how_to_make_stress_your_friend?language=en#t-4101">stressful situations</a>. Learning this skill may be just one of the many reasons athletes are able to perform many of the feats they do.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/164281/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jamie Barker receives funding from the Economic and Social Research Council. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrew Wilkinson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Many elite athletes experience intense pressure, which can often manifest itself in many physical ways.Andrew Wilkinson, PhD Candidate, Sport and Exercise Psychology, Loughborough UniversityJamie Barker, Senior Lecturer in Sport and Exercise Psychology, Loughborough UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1010552018-10-12T10:47:13Z2018-10-12T10:47:13ZWhy is it fun to be frightened?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/240283/original/file-20181011-154549-glv4ak.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=559%2C440%2C3818%2C2871&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Visiting an extreme haunted house can be delightfully terrifying.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/APTOPIX-Halloween-Ohio/d3721e5d91184e9eb131f88d9949001c/4/0">AP Photo/John Minchillo</a></span></figcaption></figure><figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/240117/original/file-20181010-72110-1herkao.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/240117/original/file-20181010-72110-1herkao.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/240117/original/file-20181010-72110-1herkao.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=949&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/240117/original/file-20181010-72110-1herkao.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=949&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/240117/original/file-20181010-72110-1herkao.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=949&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/240117/original/file-20181010-72110-1herkao.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1193&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/240117/original/file-20181010-72110-1herkao.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1193&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/240117/original/file-20181010-72110-1herkao.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1193&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">A new installment of the ‘Halloween’ franchise brought the action forward to 2018.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1502407/mediaindex">Universal Pictures</a></span>
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<p>Audiences flock to horror films. They get a thrill from movies like “<a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0077651/">Halloween</a>,” with its seemingly random murder and mayhem in a small suburban town, a reminder that that picket fences and manicured lawns cannot protect us from the unjust, the unknown or the uncertainty that awaits us all in both life and death. The film offers no justice for the victims in the end, no rebalancing of good and evil.</p>
<p>Why, then, would anyone want to spend their time and money to watch such macabre scenes filled with depressing reminders of just how unfair and scary our world can be?</p>
<p>I’ve spent the past 10 years investigating just this question, finding the typical answer of “Because I like it! It’s fun!” incredibly unsatisfying. I’ve long been convinced there’s more to it than the “natural high” or adrenaline rush many describe – and indeed, the body does kick into “go” mode when you’re startled or scared, amping up not only adrenaline but a multitude of chemicals that ensure your body is fueled and ready to respond. This “fight or flight” response to threat has helped keep humans alive for millennia.</p>
<p>That still doesn’t explain why people would want to intentionally scare themselves, though. As a sociologist, I’ve kept asking “But, why?” After two years collecting data in a haunted attraction with my colleague <a href="http://www.wpic.pitt.edu/research/pican/">Greg Siegle</a>, a cognitive neuroscientist at the University of Pittsburgh, we’ve found the gains from thrills and chills can go further than the natural high.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/240285/original/file-20181011-154586-1tb8s0o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/240285/original/file-20181011-154586-1tb8s0o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/240285/original/file-20181011-154586-1tb8s0o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/240285/original/file-20181011-154586-1tb8s0o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/240285/original/file-20181011-154586-1tb8s0o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/240285/original/file-20181011-154586-1tb8s0o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/240285/original/file-20181011-154586-1tb8s0o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/240285/original/file-20181011-154586-1tb8s0o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Around Halloween, some people love to head to haunted attractions like this one in an old Cincinnati schoolhouse.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Halloween-Ohio/c8626a20521e41c5819728e0dc979b5e/1/0">AP Photo/John Minchillo</a></span>
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<h2>Studying fear at a terrifying attraction</h2>
<p>To capture in real time what makes fear fun, what motivates people to pay to be scared out of their skin and what they experience when engaging with this material, we needed to gather data in the field. In this case, that meant setting up a mobile lab in the basement of an extreme haunted attraction outside Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. </p>
<p>This adults-only extreme attraction went beyond the typical startling lights and sounds and animated characters found in a family-friendly haunted house. Over the course of about 35 minutes, visitors experienced a series of intense scenarios where, in addition to unsettling characters and special effects, they were touched by the actors, restrained and exposed to electricity. It was <a href="https://triblive.com/aande/movies/7104986-74/scarehouse-elijah-halloween">not for the faint of heart</a>. </p>
<p>For our study, we recruited 262 guests who had already purchased tickets. Before they entered the attraction, each completed a survey about their expectations and how they were feeling. We had them answer questions again about how they were feeling once they had gone through the attraction.</p>
<p>We also used mobile EEG technology to compare 100 participants’ brainwave activity as they sat through 15 minutes of various cognitive and emotional tasks before and after the attraction.</p>
<p><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/emo0000470">Guests reported significantly higher mood</a>, and felt less anxious and tired, directly after their trip through the haunted attraction. The more terrifying the better: Feeling happy afterward was related to rating the experience as highly intense and scary. This set of volunteers also reported feeling that they’d challenged their personal fears and learned about themselves. </p>
<p>Analysis of the EEG data revealed widespread decreases in brain reactivity from before to after among those whose mood improved. In other words, highly intense and scary activities – at least in a controlled environment like this haunted attraction – may “shut down” the brain to an extent, and that in turn is associated with feeling better. Studies of those <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nss054">who practice mindfulness meditation</a> have made a similar observation. </p>
<h2>Coming out stronger on the other side</h2>
<p>Together our findings suggest that going through an extreme haunted attraction provides gains similar to choosing to <a href="https://www.mentalhealth.org.uk/sites/default/files/lets-get-physical-report.pdf">run a 5K race</a> or tackling a difficult climbing wall. There’s a sense of uncertainty, physical exertion, a challenge to push yourself – and eventually achievement when it’s over and done with.</p>
<p>Fun-scary experiences could serve as an in-the-moment recalibration of what registers as stressful and even provide a kind of confidence boost. After watching a scary movie or going through a haunted attraction, maybe everything else seems like no big deal in comparison. You rationally understand that the actors in a haunted house aren’t real, but when you suspend your disbelief and allow yourself to become immersed in the experience, the fear certainly can feel real, as does the satisfaction and sense of accomplishment when you make it through. As I experienced myself after all kinds of <a href="https://www.publicaffairsbooks.com/titles/margee-kerr/scream/9781610397162/">scary adventures in Japan, Colombia and all over the U.S.</a>, confronting a horde of zombies can actually make you feel pretty invincible. </p>
<p>Movies like “Halloween” allow people to tackle the big, existential fears we all have, like why bad things happen without reason, through the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1086/519498">protective frame of entertainment</a>. Choosing to do fun, scary activities may also serve as a way to practice being scared, building greater self-knowledge and resilience, similar to <a href="https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ959713">rough-and-tumble play</a>. It’s an opportunity to engage with fear on your own terms, in environments where you can push your boundaries, safely. Because you’re not in real danger, and thus not occupied with survival, you can choose to observe your reactions and how your body changes, gaining greater insight to yourself. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/240286/original/file-20181011-154555-1pocceg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/240286/original/file-20181011-154555-1pocceg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/240286/original/file-20181011-154555-1pocceg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/240286/original/file-20181011-154555-1pocceg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/240286/original/file-20181011-154555-1pocceg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/240286/original/file-20181011-154555-1pocceg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=526&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/240286/original/file-20181011-154555-1pocceg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=526&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/240286/original/file-20181011-154555-1pocceg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=526&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Friends stuck together in a ‘Gates of Hell’ haunted house.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Vegas-Haunted-Houses-Photo-Essay/b358f3381be54b4fa2a436bd54753618/2/0">AP Photo/John Locher</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What it takes to be safely scared</h2>
<p>While there are countless differences in the nature, content, intensity and overall quality of haunted attractions, horror movies and other forms of scary entertainment, they all share a few critical components that help pave the way for a fun scary time.</p>
<p>First and foremost, you have to make the choice to engage – don’t drag your best friend with you unless she is also on board. But do try to gather some friends when you’re ready. When you engage in activities with other people, even just watching a movie, your own emotional experience is intensified. Doing intense, exciting and thrilling things together can make them more fun and help create rewarding social bonds. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1320040111">Emotions can be contagious</a>, so when you see your friend scream and laugh, you may feel compelled to do the same. </p>
<p>No matter the potential benefits, horror movies and scary entertainment are not for everyone, and that’s OK. While the fight-or-flight response is universal, there are important differences between individuals – for example, in genetic expressions, environment and personal history – that help explain why some loathe and others love thrills and chills.</p>
<p>Regardless of your taste (or distaste) for all things horror or thrill-related, an adventurous and curious mindset can benefit everyone. After all, we’re the descendants of those who were adventurous and curious enough to explore the new and novel, but also quick and smart enough to run or fight when danger appeared. This Halloween, maybe challenge yourself to at least one fun scary experience and prepare to unleash your inner superhero.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/101055/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Margee Kerr does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Visiting a haunted house or watching a horror movie can be terrifying and enjoyable at the same time. A sociologist explains the psychological benefits of being safely scared.Margee Kerr, Adjunct Professor of Sociology, University of PittsburghLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/767882017-05-14T20:12:03Z2017-05-14T20:12:03ZFairytale no more: when love turns to hatefully ever after<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/168519/original/file-20170509-5468-10lyib6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Little good comes when love turns to hate.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s often said that the opposite to love is not hate, it’s indifference. Why then are some of us so seemingly fickle in our ability to switch from love to hate in an instant? </p>
<p>To understand hate, we must first (try to) understand love.</p>
<p>Psychologists are not even in agreement that love is truly an emotion. <a href="https://www.ted.com/talks/helen_fisher_studies_the_brain_in_love/transcript?language=en">Some argue</a> it is more a form of temporary insanity, a sweet madness that allows us to overlook our loved one’s failings at least long enough to procreate and, for a lucky few, remain truly, deeply, madly <a href="http://neuro.hms.harvard.edu/harvard-mahoney-neuroscience-institute/brain-newsletter/and-brain-series/love-and-brain">attached</a> until death do us part. </p>
<p>Love certainly brings with it a strong “approach” motivation. We are drawn almost magnetically to having close and intimate contact with our loved one. The physiology of love is well understood – excited heartbeat, nervous sweating, ardent respiration and a cascade of happy neurotransmitters. </p>
<p>One aspect of falling in love may actually help us understand how quickly we can switch to hate. In 1974, researchers conducted <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/psp/30/4/510/">a fascinating experiment</a> in which they asked young men to cross a bridge to chat to an attractive female research assistant on the other side. One bridge was stable, the other rickety. Men who crossed the rickety bridge (thereby raising their heart rate and respiration via fear) were significantly more likely to ask the research assistant out on a post-interview date. </p>
<p>This study was interpreted as providing evidence for the <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1994.tb00607.x">Schachter and Singer model</a> of emotion – in the case of an uncertain cause of our physiological response, we seek out a rationale before “feeling” our subjective emotion. </p>
<p>In this case, the men’s adrenaline rush was really caused by the unstable bridge. But they wrongly attributed their physiological response to the female research assistant, believing themselves to be attracted to her.</p>
<p>In other words, love could just be a massive attribution error. Hence the advice from dating experts to take your person of interest out on an “exciting” date – basically to fool them into thinking the emotions they are feeling are in response to all of your thrilling qualities, rather than bungee jumping off a cliff. </p>
<p>As the physiology underpinning love and hate are very similar (increased heart rate, respiration and so on), a simple perceptual change could transform one’s object of desire to object of derision. Hence our collective understanding of that quick switch that can lead to “crimes of passion” or “love-hate relationships”. </p>
<p>Neurologically, <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0003556">researchers have found</a> a unique pattern of activity for hate in the brain that is distinct from the pattern for love. This activity involves parts of the cerebral cortex that are responsible for planning and organisational skills.</p>
<p>In love, large parts of the cerebral cortex are deactivated; in hate, only small parts are deactivated. In love individuals might shut down negative judgments; in hate individuals might shut down their ability to self-reflect.</p>
<p>Hate also has an “approach” <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1350-4126.2005.00116.x/full">motivational basis</a> focused on devaluing, diminishing or destroying another’s wellbeing. Hate is fuelled by anger, the primary goal of which is to remove a perceived obstacle, such as the hated other. </p>
<p>Cognitive attributions <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/index.cfm?fa=buy.optionToBuy&uid=2004-22194-003">reportedly</a> sustain hate via moral judgements that the hated other is evil. Research suggests that hate might serve as a self-protective mechanism that masks insecurities resulting from feeling helpless and weak, <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9780230610255_4">offering psychological protection</a>. </p>
<p>Hate is sometimes the reaction to people we have loved and invested ourselves in, which manifests itself when an agreement that was vital to the maintenance of the relationship is broken, such as separation.</p>
<p>But what is going on when hate fails to diminish after a period of time? Might it serve as a bizarre form of attachment? Might hate even serve as an attempt to maintain a bond (no matter how dysfunctionally) with a former loved one – for example, through rumination, stalking or abusive behaviour?</p>
<p>This peculiar, ongoing hateful attachment to a previous partner causes serious problems in our society. In 2015, there were <a href="http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats%5Cabs@.nsf/0/893C1288678FD232CA2568A90013939C?Opendocument">23,063 divorces</a> in Australia involving 42,303 children. With the majority of parents able to move on from their separation, approximately 10% to 15% remain entrenched in conflict.</p>
<p>This minority <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01926187.2010.530194">reportedly</a> consumes an estimated 90% of court resources, and can involve litigation, withholding of children, denigration, involvement of child protection or other related family support services, withholding of financial resources and difficulties in shared parenting.</p>
<p>What hate does at the point of separation is clear – the primary purpose of maintaining hate beyond that is unknown. </p>
<p>One thing we do know is that little good ever comes from hate. More often than not it results in a lose-lose situation. Or, as Martin Luther King more eloquently noted:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Hate is just as injurious to the hater as it is to the hated. Like an unchecked cancer, hate corrodes the personality … Hate is too great a burden to bear.</p>
</blockquote><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/76788/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Could it be all just a terrible misunderstanding? Researchers are increasingly turning to love to understand hate.Rachael Sharman, Senior Lecturer in Psychology, University of the Sunshine CoastDr Leanne Francia, PhD Candidate, University of the Sunshine CoastLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/771242017-05-05T09:43:12Z2017-05-05T09:43:12ZSwearing can help you boost your physical performance<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/167730/original/file-20170503-21645-a7k5k2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Feeling sweary? On your bike!
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/senior-fitness-training-riding-bicycle-on-108803480?src=yRGGUXvyADxQ4VfENMX9tQ-1-7">Lisa S./Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>A few years ago my good friend Mark Foulks occupied the rear seat of a tandem on a sponsored long distance cycle ride from Berkshire to Barcelona. His pithily entitled <a href="https://www.justgiving.com/fundraising/berks2barca">JustGiving website “Berks2Barca”</a>, is typical Mark and no doubt contributed to him raising more than <a href="http://www.getreading.co.uk/news/reading-berkshire-news/pride-reading-winner-cancer-nurse-12131271">£10,000 towards a mobile chemotherapy unit</a> at the Royal Berkshire Hospital. </p>
<p>But it wasn’t easy – accessing Barcelona by road from the north involves crossing the Pyrenees by <a href="https://berks2barca.wordpress.com/2014/04/">cycling uphill for long stretches of time</a>. He told me that one strategy that evolved spontaneously during these difficult moments was swearing loudly. But could it really be that shouting profanities in any way helped him get up that hill? If so, why? As a psychologist interested in understanding swearing I decided to find out.</p>
<p>My research has previously shown that <a href="journals.lww.com/neuroreport/Abstract/2009/08050/Swearing_as_a_response_to_pain.4.aspx">swearing helps people to better tolerate pain</a>, apparently because swearing triggers the body’s acute stress response. Indeed, this research demonstrate that repeating a swear word during an ice water challenge produces an increase in heart rate, consistent with an aroused autonomic nervous system as seen during moments of acute stress. </p>
<p>This same phenomenon is sometimes talked about as the “fight or flight” response and is well known to incorporate a range of elevated bodily responses. One example is the release of endorphins, which contributes to a phenomenon known as <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301008209000574">stress-induced analgesia</a> – potentially explaining why swearing reduces pain. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/3NYzcrukJ7k?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">There’s a reason all those people taking part in the ice-bucket challenge were swearing.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But one feature of the fight or flight response is the release of adrenaline, which can lead to increased physical performance. This raises the intriguing question as to whether swearing while performing a physical challenge might improve performance by triggering the fight or flight response in similar fashion to what happened in our swearing and pain research. </p>
<h2>‘Hell on wheels’ experiment</h2>
<p>To find out, my colleague <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/David_Spierer">David K Spierer</a> and I asked volunteers to ride a stationary bicycle in what is known as the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wingate_test">Wingate Test</a>. After warming up, the rider is asked gradually to build up to top speed, at which moment a switch is flipped adding huge resistance so that the next 30 seconds of exertion resembles hell on wheels. It’s a tough challenge to push very hard under these circumstances and vomiting is not uncommon during or shortly afterwards. </p>
<p>In this study participants performed the Wingate Test twice – on one occasion repeating a swear word during that 30 seconds of high intensity, and on another occasion repeating a neutral word. Interestingly, volunteers produced a 4.6% increase in peak power (power exerted during the first five seconds) and a 2.8% boost in average power when swearing.</p>
<p>However, there were no biological signs of the fight or flight response, which we had anticipated would underlie these performance increases. Indeed, several measures of heart rate showed no difference across the swearing and non-swearing conditions. This was a puzzle – we had an effect but no explanation for it. </p>
<p>Thinking that perhaps the enormous exertion required during the Wingate Test may have obscured meaningful heart-rate data, we ran a second study using the more sedate physical challenge of a hand-grip task. But this study showed the same pattern of results. Now we found an 8.2% increase in grip strength when participants swore while undertaking the task. However, once again, there were no physiological signs of the fight or flight response. </p>
<p>The results of both studies are to be presented on May 5 at <a href="https://www.bps.org.uk/system/files/user-files/Annual%20Conference%202017/AC2017%20Programme_TIMETABLE.pdf">the British Psychological Society Annual Conference</a>, and have been submitted to Psychology of Sport and Exercise.</p>
<h2>Psychological explanation</h2>
<p>We feel fairly sure that whatever is causing this effect of swearing on physical performance is not related to fight or flight mechanisms. But if the effect isn’t physical, it’s intriguing to try and work out what psychology may be at play. </p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/167738/original/file-20170503-21616-p7ly5x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/167738/original/file-20170503-21616-p7ly5x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/167738/original/file-20170503-21616-p7ly5x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/167738/original/file-20170503-21616-p7ly5x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/167738/original/file-20170503-21616-p7ly5x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/167738/original/file-20170503-21616-p7ly5x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/167738/original/file-20170503-21616-p7ly5x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Just let go, mate.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/portrait-overweight-man-on-exercise-bike-144928210?src=XCKuP4mxOm-TBBaYZ0-6OA-1-0">sirtravelalot/Shuttestock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It may be that our studies are simply detecting the effects of “letting go” – where any concerns that overexertion may cause injury or embarrassment become more easily put aside. This would be thanks to an “I don’t care” mindset brought about by swearing. If true then swearing might also be expected to improve performance of non-strength based physical tasks such as balancing, and perhaps even cognitive performance. Watch this space.</p>
<p>What our new studies do show, without explaining it, is that repeating a swear word enables higher degrees of physical exertion compared with repeating a non-swear word. So, at least for now, it seems that science was indeed on the side of my friend Mark during his difficult times in the Pyrenees.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/77124/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Richard Stephens does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Be careful about where you try this out.Richard Stephens, Senior Lecturer in Psychology, Keele UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/729442017-03-24T16:28:13Z2017-03-24T16:28:13ZAdrenaline zen: what ‘normal people’ can learn from extreme sports<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/161842/original/image-20170321-24884-tbwwkm.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Pexels.</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="http://www.basejumper.com/">BASE jumping</a>, <a href="http://www.wingsuitfly.com/">wingsuit flying</a>, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/gallery/2016/dec/21/surfers-face-monster-waves-as-big-wave-tour-hits-nazare-in-pictures">big wave surfing</a>, extreme skiing and <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2015/11/the-cliffhanger/407824/">solo rope-free climbing</a>, when we think of someone who takes part in these extreme activities, we think of a risk-taker. The type of person you might describe as a “deviant hedonist” or a “sensation-seeker”, who is looking for an “adrenaline rush”. And they are most likely to be young and male.</p>
<p>The problem with this stereotype of extreme sport participants, is that not only <a href="http://aplus.com/a/female-athletes-break-stereotypes-extreme-sports?no_monetization=true">does it not always ring true</a>, but it also means that extreme sports then become viewed in a way that <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Phenomenology-and-the-Extreme-Sport-Experience/Brymer-Schweitzer/p/book/9781138957619">makes them inaccessible</a> to “normal people”. </p>
<p>This view can be extremely damaging, especially given <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Phenomenology-and-the-Extreme-Sport-Experience/Brymer-Schweitzer/p/book/9781138957619">evidence</a> – which emerged when I was researching a book on the subject – shows that extreme sports might actually be more accessible and have more of a <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22689592">positive impact than traditional</a>, competitive sports.</p>
<p>Interviews I conducted with people between the ages of 30 and 70 who participate in extreme sports suggested they can help to create profound and positive life changes – both in the short term and longer term. So instead of just the fast-paced experiences often portrayed in <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PF0L3gvSVcg">short videos of extreme sports</a>, in reality, participants describe a feeling of peace and tranquillity during the experience that reflects something similar to mindfulness. </p>
<p>Over the long term, these experiences support sustained well-being benefits including the realisation that emotions, such as fear, that are traditionally considered negative, do not have to constrain one’s potential. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/161843/original/image-20170321-5377-1vmqif6.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/161843/original/image-20170321-5377-1vmqif6.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161843/original/image-20170321-5377-1vmqif6.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161843/original/image-20170321-5377-1vmqif6.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161843/original/image-20170321-5377-1vmqif6.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161843/original/image-20170321-5377-1vmqif6.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161843/original/image-20170321-5377-1vmqif6.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Do extreme sport lovers have something in common with meditation masters?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Pexels.</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These reflections can often change people’s everyday lives – they described no longer “being bored with life” and talked of having a “passion” for their sport. They also reported seeing other people and the planet in a much more positive way after taking up extreme sports.</p>
<h2>Human potential</h2>
<p>Participants from all sorts of extreme sports often describe <a href="https://ericbrymer.wordpress.com/2017/01/30/evoking-the-ineffable/">extraordinary sensory experiences</a> of the sort not usually available in everyday life. This is because during participation in an extreme sport, a person’s ability to see, hear, and feel are <a href="http://eprints.leedsbeckett.ac.uk/3360/3/Evoking%20the%20Ineffable%20-%20The%20Phenomenology%20of%20Extreme%20Sports.pdf">all enhanced</a>. </p>
<p>BASE jumpers, for example, talk about an enhanced capacity to see every nook and cranny, shade and colour of the rock even though they are travelling at 200 mph. Participants also describe an experience that feels like they are merging with the environment which invariably turns into a feeling of being profoundly part of nature. </p>
<p>This may be one reason why so many extreme sports athletes spend a great deal of energy and time working hard to <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14775080902965223?journalCode=rjto20">educate and protect the natural environment</a> – this glimpse into human potential acts as a learning opportunity for psychological health and well-being more generally. </p>
<h2>The death risk</h2>
<p>But of course when taking part in these types of activities a mismanaged mistake or accident can result in death. Perhaps this is why nonparticipants find it hard to understand why anyone would willingly undertake extreme sports – unless there is something “not normal” about “those types of people”. </p>
<p>But this death risk is a large part of why participation in extreme sports requires considerable commitment, along with a great deal of hard work. Extreme sports are not for those interested in the quick rush, thrills or hedonism. In fact, people interested in the short-term hedonistic outcomes might be better finding another outlet. Participants in extreme sport have to have an incredible understanding of the environment that they participate in and if the conditions are not right – such as the wind in the wrong direction for BASE jumping – then they will walk away. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/161844/original/image-20170321-5386-1d54mh3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/161844/original/image-20170321-5386-1d54mh3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=331&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161844/original/image-20170321-5386-1d54mh3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=331&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161844/original/image-20170321-5386-1d54mh3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=331&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161844/original/image-20170321-5386-1d54mh3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161844/original/image-20170321-5386-1d54mh3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161844/original/image-20170321-5386-1d54mh3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">How extreme sports can invoke meditative states.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Pexels.</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>Extreme sports participants also possess a well-tuned knowledge of their own <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Phenomenology-and-the-Extreme-Sport-Experience/Brymer-Schweitzer/p/book/9781138957619">physical and psychological capacities and limitations</a>. This is vitally important, because extreme sports are not the place to find out if you can or can’t undertake an activity. </p>
<p>BASE jumpers do not start as BASE jumpers, just the same as big wave surfers slowly develop the skills. And solo rope-free climbers start with ropes on less difficult terrain. In most cases, the journey to extreme sports is often one of deliberate skill and knowledge development.</p>
<h2>Sporting heroes</h2>
<p>It is clear from my own research, that extreme sports have the capacity to shine a light on what it means to be human – and what human beings are capable of. But to realise this, as a society we need a cultural shift that accepts extreme sports as beneficial. Along with a change in view that recognises extreme sports participants as examples of what is possible in human performance. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/161846/original/image-20170321-5405-113jyvu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/161846/original/image-20170321-5405-113jyvu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161846/original/image-20170321-5405-113jyvu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161846/original/image-20170321-5405-113jyvu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161846/original/image-20170321-5405-113jyvu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161846/original/image-20170321-5405-113jyvu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161846/original/image-20170321-5405-113jyvu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Good for your body and mind.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But before you go out and find your latest BASE jumping club, the good news is that many of these <a href="http://ro.uow.edu.au/hbspapers/1672/">benefits can be touched on through adventure sports</a> more generally. This includes activities such as climbing, kayaking and mountaineering. Adventure sports do not have the downside of being constrained by tightly controlled fields as in football or cricket. And they are not focused on competition, winning and losing. </p>
<p>These sports are open to all and, like extreme sports, could help to encourage participation in physical activity – along with a great sense of well-being, and a <a href="http://ro.uow.edu.au/edupapers/767/">deeper relationship with the natural environment</a>. And if all of this can be achieved at the same time as having fun on the water, a rock-face or up a mountain, what’s not to like?</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/72944/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Eric Brymer does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Why extreme sports can change your life for the better.Eric Brymer, Reader, Psychology with Outdoor and Adventure studies, Leeds Beckett UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/703612016-12-21T10:35:10Z2016-12-21T10:35:10ZFive ways Christmas affects your brain<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/150720/original/image-20161219-24289-1mizjz7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/download/confirm/514807234?src=dM9m2Tq3H-U7lIw9GlgvqQ-1-5&id=514807234&size=medium_jpg">Lucky Business/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Christmas is a time of year like no other; gifts are exchanged, little-spoken-to relatives are contacted, and appetising treats are consumed with great gusto. Christmas can be both a time of stress and a time of relaxation. But whether you love or hate Christmas it’s pretty difficult to avoid – and so your brain may be altered by the experience one way or another. Here are some of the main facets of the Christmas experience, and how they might affect your brain. </p>
<p><strong>The festive spirit:</strong> The joy surrounding Christmas may influence some of the chemicals in your brain (<a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-athletes-way/201211/the-neurochemicals-happiness">dopamine and serotonin</a>) which affect your happiness levels. Dopamine is known to be involved with reward-driven behaviour and pleasure seeking and serotonin is thought to increase our feelings of worth and belonging. So when people talk about “Christmas cheer” they may be on to something. </p>
<p>In fact, researchers at the <a href="http://www.bmj.com/content/351/bmj.h6266">University of Copenhagen</a> conducted an imaging study to try and find the “centre” of the Christmas spirit in the human brain. Here, participants were shown Christmas-themed images and, in those participants who actively celebrated Christmas, there was increased brain activation in the sensory motor cortex, the premotor and primary motor cortex, and the parietal lobule. Previously these brain areas have been associated with spirituality, bodily senses and recognising facial emotions. While these results should be interpreted with some caution, it is interesting to note the physical effects that feeling festive can exert on your brain. </p>
<p><strong>Stress:</strong> Not everyone finds Christmas an entirely joyful and festive time – many people find it very stressful. In fact, the burdens of navigating through a busy shopping centre to find the ideal gift for your other half, or of cooking the perfect turkey for a house full of hungry people, is enough to rattle even the calmest person. Stress can exert a physical response in your body, with the automatic release of <a href="http://dujs.dartmouth.edu/2011/02/the-physiology-of-stress-cortisol-and-the-hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal-axis/#.WFPdH9WLSUk">adrenaline and cortisol</a>. Further, cortisol has been shown to have a <a href="http://drgailgross.com/academia/effects-of-stress-on-the-hippocampus/">profound effect on the hippocampus</a>, which may decrease your memory and ability to multitask. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/150722/original/image-20161219-24274-ngszeo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/150722/original/image-20161219-24274-ngszeo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/150722/original/image-20161219-24274-ngszeo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/150722/original/image-20161219-24274-ngszeo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/150722/original/image-20161219-24274-ngszeo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/150722/original/image-20161219-24274-ngszeo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/150722/original/image-20161219-24274-ngszeo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Don’t get stressed. It may reduce your ability to multitask.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/download/confirm/335250599?src=qvQ30u6yVZg6RWGLnWuJkQ-1-2&id=335250599&size=medium_jpg">Sebastian Gauert/Shutterstock.com</a></span>
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</figure>
<p><strong>Giving gifts:</strong> The giving and receiving of gifts is an age-old Christmas tradition and there’s no better feeling than seeing your loved one’s eyes light up when you’ve found the perfect gift for them. But why does giving make us feel so good? Generosity has been linked with the reward circuitry of our brain, causing the release of dopamine and endorphins. Researchers have described a “<a href="http://www.webmd.com/balance/features/science-good-deeds">helpers’ high</a>”, which is experienced after giving. The chemicals that cause this high can reduce stress and increase your desire to repeat these acts of kindness. So, while you may resent being out of pocket after buying your great aunt that pair of slippers, your brain at least ensures that you are compensated with a chemical reward. </p>
<p><strong>Bonding with family and friends:</strong> The quintessential Christmas experience involves sitting around a table with your loved ones. In fact, it’s hard to even imagine the festive period without thinking of your family and friends. The bond between you and those special to you can result in the release of a hormone called oxytocin in the brain. Oxytocin – sometimes referred to as the “cuddle hormone” – drives maternal behaviour, trust, and social attachment. As such, this hormone may help towards explaining that <a href="http://www.nature.com/news/neuroscience-the-hard-science-of-oxytocin-1.17813">warm, fuzzy feeling you get at Christmas</a> when surrounded by those you love and trust. </p>
<p><strong>Overindulging:</strong> Indulging in our favourite food and drinks is all part of the Christmas experience – but <a href="https://theconversation.com/christmas-stuffing-heres-what-happens-to-your-body-when-you-overeat-69678">overeating</a> can affect your brain. It has been shown to activate a pathway linking the hypothalamus in the brain to the immune system. This leads to an immune response and low-grade inflammation, which may explain why you can feel unwell after eating too much. Of course, this doesn’t do much harm to your body after one extravagant Christmas meal – but, when overeating becomes a long-term issue, this inflammation can become chronic, and <a href="https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2012-10/tmsh-sso101712.php">contribute to Type 2 diabetes and heart disease</a>. </p>
<p>But for now, don’t worry too much if you’ve got Christmas on the brain, you’ll soon be back to your usual self come January.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/70361/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kira Shaw does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The festive season is an intense time of year. Neuroscience can shed some light on what it does to our brains.Kira Shaw, Postdoctoral Researcher in Neuroscience, University of SussexLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/628462016-07-27T10:31:33Z2016-07-27T10:31:33ZOld man strength: is dad really stronger?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/131382/original/image-20160721-32639-10ixkf1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/cat.mhtml?lang=en&language=en&ref_site=photo&search_source=search_form&version=llv1&anyorall=all&safesearch=1&use_local_boost=1&autocomplete_id=&search_tracking_id=-gWPVSF9sbmrmQEfl6oFWQ&searchterm=strong%20old%20man&show_color_wheel=1&orient=&commercial_ok=&media_type=images&search_cat=&searchtermx=&photographer_name=&people_gender=&people_age=&people_ethnicity=&people_number=&color=&page=1&inline=112493303">threerocksimages/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Sometimes, older men seem to possess incredible strength for their age. People call it “old man strength”. But is it an actual phenomenon? Do older guys really retain their strength? Or even get stronger?</p>
<p>Some people think that old man strength can be explained by stress hormones. In stressful situations, people have been know to develop almost superhuman strength. For example, in 2009, Nick Harris of Kansas managed to lift a car to free a six-year-old child <a href="http://www.kansas.com/news/local/article1018475.html">trapped beneath it</a>. </p>
<p>In these types of situations, the body goes into fight-or-flight mode by releasing hormones such as adrenaline. These hormones prepare the body for action, increasing arousal, alertness and processing speed. They also increase blood flow and neural drive to skeletal muscles. Collectively, this response can culminate in greater muscle strength and power. </p>
<p>Reports of increases in the <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10674429">production of adrenaline-related hormones with ageing</a> have been thought to explain the apparent ability of older men to perform <a href="http://www.mensfitness.com/training/build-muscle/whats-deal-old-man-strength,%20http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26400207">freak feats of strength</a>. However, there is no experimental data demonstrating that increased production of these hormones actually enhances strength in older adults. In fact, following a “stressor”, the ability for an older adult to maintain a controlled forceful muscle contraction is <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15220319">decreased compared with a younger person</a>. Similarly, excess levels of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norepinephrine">noradrenaline</a> hormone that accompanies ageing are associated with impaired, rather than improved, processing speed and cognitive function, which <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23639207">negatively influences fine motor control</a>. </p>
<p>Also countering the notion of old man strength is age-related muscle loss, a process termed sarcopenia (from the Greek sarx, “flesh” and penia, “poverty”). In other words, as we get older, starting from about the age of 40, we <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22934016">slowly lose muscle mass</a> such that the size of our muscles at the age of 80 can be about half of what they were at 40. </p>
<p>Since muscle cross-sectional area and strength are <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11454977">closely linked</a>, declining muscle mass associated with ageing is mirrored by a loss of strength. Hormonal changes with ageing are also partially responsible for this. Indeed, while adrenaline may increase with age, hormones positively regulating muscle mass and strength, such as testosterone and growth hormone, decrease. </p>
<h2>So is old man strength a fallacy?</h2>
<p>This does not mean that just because you are old you cannot remain strong or even become stronger. Take Charles Eugster, for example. The 96-year-old Englishman, who took up weight training at the age of 87, is able to do 61 45-degree chin-ups in 45 seconds. </p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/UI6bIptDffE?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
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<p>Just becoming more active in older age and performing low-level exercise programmes or even everyday manual tasks can increase strength and mobility in the ageing population providing a <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26626157">healthy and independent older age</a>. Indeed, this is probably what makes your dad appear stronger, for instance, when lifting paving slabs – because he is used to it and strength can be very task specific. </p>
<p>Performing regular weight training into older age also increases strength and muscle bulk. In fact, weight training in older adults has been shown to increase hormone levels to an equivalent level to that of <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24443372">untrained younger adults</a>. But the fact remains that these gains will probably never reach those of a younger adult starting and performing the same training at the same time. There will almost always be a discrepancy in strength, power, coordination and muscle mass, all else being equal. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UI6bIptDffE">Media stories of old man strength</a> probably don’t provide the full picture. An older man holding a strength record is likely to have been training since a young age and has continued this into older age, allowing him to maintain strength and muscle mass at a higher level for longer. Otherwise he may be a freak of nature. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/131383/original/image-20160721-32602-w1kga1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/131383/original/image-20160721-32602-w1kga1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/131383/original/image-20160721-32602-w1kga1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/131383/original/image-20160721-32602-w1kga1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/131383/original/image-20160721-32602-w1kga1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1006&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/131383/original/image-20160721-32602-w1kga1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1006&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/131383/original/image-20160721-32602-w1kga1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1006&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Mark Felix: the World’s Strongest Man competitor, aged 50.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Felix#/media/File:Mark_Felix.jpg">Artur Andrzej/Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Needless to say that most tales of old man strength are no doubt exaggerated. This is why you don’t see older people pitting against younger counterparts on an equal footing in athletics events and why we have age categories in athletic competitions: records tend to slide with age. There are of course, exceptions to every rule. A prime example of this is Mark Felix, who aged 50 is still able to compete with his considerably younger counterparts at the World Strongest Man competition.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/62846/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>What science can tell us about ageing and strength.Daniel J Wilkinson, Assistant Professor in Physiology and Biochemistry, University of NottinghamPhilip J Atherton, Professor of Clinical, Metabolic & Molecular Physiology, University of NottinghamLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/449832015-09-09T04:45:31Z2015-09-09T04:45:31ZChemical messengers: how hormones help us sleep<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/92331/original/image-20150819-12421-1sn7w0v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The activities we do during the day – from having a fight with a partner to using our iPhones at night – also affect our hormone levels and, in turn, our quality of sleep.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-194744459/stock-photo-young-beautiful-woman-sleeping-in-bed-in-closeup-shot.html?src=5CZs4Zr5KIdPffy940ybLg-6-20">Jan Faukner/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When it comes to motives for getting a good night’s sleep we don’t usually think about our body’s hormones. But sleep allows many of our hormones to replenish so we have the optimal energy, immunity, appetite and coping ability to face the day’s highs and lows.</p>
<p>The activities we do during the day – from having a fight with a partner, using our iPhones at night, running in a race, to travelling overseas – also affect our hormone levels and, in turn, our quality of sleep.</p>
<p>For both men and women, changes in our levels of sex hormones can affect how well we sleep. These differences also change with age. </p>
<p>Understanding the connections between hormones and sleep may help improve your own sleep and well-being. </p>
<h2>What are hormones?</h2>
<p>Our body’s hormones are like <a href="http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Hormonal_(endocrine)_system?open">chemical messages</a> in the bloodstream which cause a change in a particular cell or organ and surrounding tissues. The hormone <a href="http://www.yourhormones.info/Hormones/Adrenaline.aspx">adrenaline</a>, for example, is produced by the adrenal glands (on top of the kidneys) and helps prepare the body’s “fight or flight” response during times of stress. </p>
<p>Hormones control many of the <a href="http://www.pearson.com.au/9781292057200?gclid=CJzzzKGkiccCFdgnvQodjFwHxg">body’s processes</a>, including growth, development, reproduction, responding to stress, metabolism and energy balance.</p>
<p>Hormones are linked with sleep in a number of ways.</p>
<h2>Hormones affect sleep through our stress levels</h2>
<p>Some hormones, such as <a href="http://www.yourhormones.info/Hormones/Adrenaline.aspx">adrenaline</a>, make us feel more alert and prepared for action. This then makes it hard for us to go to sleep. To prevent this effect it’s best to do relaxing activities before bedtime, rather than stressful work tasks or intense exercise.</p>
<p>When stress is long lasting, <a href="http://www.sleepdex.org/acth.htm">adrenocorticotrophic hormone</a> within the pituitary gland (attached to the base of the brain) triggers the release of <a href="http://www.britannica.com/science/cortisone">cortisone</a> and <a href="http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Hormones_-_cortisol_and_corticosteroids">cortisol</a> from the adrenal glands. </p>
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<p>Levels of adrenocorticotrophic hormone tend be higher in people with <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-what-is-insomnia-and-what-can-you-do-about-it-36365">insomnia</a> than in good sleepers. This suggests that excessive arousal and ongoing stressors contribute to the insomnia.</p>
<p><a href="http://sock-doc.com/cortisol-and-sleep/">Elite athletes</a> can have difficulty getting to sleep because they tend to have high levels of cortisol throughout the day, including in the evening.</p>
<h2>Hormones released during sleep boost our immune system and make us hungry</h2>
<p>Sleep is a time when several of the body’s hormones are <a href="http://sleepfoundation.org/how-sleep-works/what-happens-when-you-sleep">released</a> into the bloodstream. These include growth hormone, which is essential for growth and tissue repair, including in adults. </p>
<p>Sleep helps to balance our <a href="http://sleepfoundation.org/how-sleep-works/what-happens-when-you-sleep">appetite</a> by maintaining optimal levels of the hormones <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17212793">ghrelin and leptin</a>. So, when we get less sleep than normal we may feel an urge to eat more. </p>
<p>Sleep also controls levels of the hormones <a href="http://draliciastanton.com/how-poor-sleep-effects-our-health-hormones-and-weight">insulin and cortisol</a> so that we wake up hungry, prompting us to eat breakfast, and we are prepared for facing daytime stress. </p>
<p>If we get less sleep than normal our levels of <a href="http://draliciastanton.com/how-poor-sleep-effects-our-health-hormones-and-weight">prolactin</a> may get out of balance and we can end up with a weakened immune system, difficulty concentrating and carbohydrate cravings during the day.</p>
<h2>Hormones stop us from having to get up in the night to go to the bathroom</h2>
<p>Changes in hormonal levels during sleep, including higher levels of aldosterone and <a href="https://myhealth.alberta.ca/health/pages/conditions.aspx?hwid=hw211268&">antidiuretic hormone</a>, prevent us from needing to go to the toilet. In children, while the hormonal system is still developing, bedwetting may be partly influenced by low levels of antidiuretic hormone.</p>
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<h2>Hormones make us feel sleepy at night</h2>
<p>Hormone levels also influence the timing of when we feel sleepy and awake – our body clock or sleep-wake cycle. The hormone melatonin is released with <a href="http://draliciastanton.com/how-poor-sleep-effects-our-health-hormones-and-weight">darkness</a> and tells our body it’s time to sleep. This is why being around too much <a href="http://sleepfoundation.org/sleep-topics/melatonin-and-sleep/page/0/1">bright light</a> before bed can affect our sleep as it can stop the release of melatonin. It’s also why it can be hard for night-time <a href="http://www.sleepeducation.com/essentials-in-sleep/shift-work/">shift workers</a> to sleep during the day. </p>
<p>While <a href="http://sleepfoundation.org/sleep-topics/melatonin-and-sleep/page/0/1">artificial melatonin</a> is available, taking the wrong dosage and at the wrong time of day can make things worse, so it’s best used with the guidance of a medical doctor.</p>
<h2>Hormones give us a wake-up call in the morning</h2>
<p>Levels of the hormone <a href="http://sleepfoundation.org/how-sleep-works/what-happens-when-you-sleep">cortisol</a> dip at bedtime and increase during the night, peaking just before waking. This acts like a <a href="http://www.brainfacts.org/across-the-lifespan/stress-and-anxiety/articles/2012/stress-the-role-of-glucocorticoids/">wake-up signal</a>, turning on our appetite and energy. </p>
<p>When we travel <a href="http://www.brainfacts.org/across-the-lifespan/stress-and-anxiety/articles/2012/stress-the-role-of-glucocorticoids/">long distances</a> our body’s sleep-wake cycle takes a while to adjust. So increased cortisol levels and hunger may occur at inappropriate times of the day.</p>
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<h2>For women, changes in sex hormones affect sleep</h2>
<p>The relationship between hormones and the sleep-wake cycle in women is further influenced by the <a href="http://www.hindawi.com/journals/ije/2010/259345/">menstrual cycle</a>. Just before a woman’s period, hormonal changes, including the sudden drop in levels of <a href="http://www.yourhormones.info/Hormones/Progesterone.aspx">progesterone</a>, affect the body’s temperature control, which in turn can reduce the amount of “REM” sleep. This is the stage of sleep when most of our dreams occur. </p>
<p>For women with <a href="http://www.hindawi.com/journals/ije/2010/259345/">severe premenstrual symptoms</a> reduced levels of melatonin before bedtime just before their menstrual period can cause poor sleep, including night-time awakenings or daytime sleepiness.</p>
<p>Changes in hormone levels also contribute to sleeping difficulties during <a href="http://sleepfoundation.org/sleep-topics/pregnancy-and-sleep">pregnancy</a>. Increased progesterone levels can cause daytime sleepiness, particularly in the first trimester. High levels of <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-brain-also-produces-the-sex-hormone-oestrogen-21194">oestrogen</a> and progesterone during pregnancy can also cause nasal swelling and lead to snoring.</p>
<p>During <a href="http://www.sleephealthfoundation.org.au/fact-sheets-a-z/212-menopause-and-sleep.html">menopause</a>, low levels of oestrogen may contribute to sleeping difficulties. Changes in hormone levels mean that body temperature is less stable and there may be increases in adrenaline levels, both of which can affect sleep. </p>
<p>The loss of oestrogen causes body fat to move more to the stomach area, which increases the chances of women having snoring and <a href="https://theconversation.com/health-check-heres-what-you-need-to-know-about-sleep-apnoea-26402">sleep apnoea</a>.</p>
<h2>For men, testosterone levels affect sleep</h2>
<p>For men, levels of <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24435056">testosterone</a> are highest during sleep and require at least three hours sleep to reach this peak. Low levels of testosterone in men, which can occur with sleep deprivation, ageing and physical problems, have been associated with a reduction in sleep efficiency and changes to the stages of sleep men experience. </p>
<p>Testosterone can be taken as a <a href="http://www.smrv-journal.com/article/S1087-0792(07)00166-9/">drug</a> but abuse of it can lead to other sleep problems.</p>
<h2>Hormones influence our dreams</h2>
<p>Finally, as we sleep, our hormones, including levels of <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/dream-catcher/201108/oxytocin-sleep-and-dreams">oxytocin</a> and <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15576884">cortisol</a>, may influence the content of our dreams.</p>
<p>By doing things to promote good sleep, such as reducing stress, engaging in relaxing evening routines before bed, going to bed and getting up at regular times, or seeking professional help for sleeping difficulties, we can facilitate the replenishing activities of our hormones that help us make the most of our day and optimise our well-being.</p>
<p><em>This article is part of an occasional series, <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/chemical-messengers">Chemical Messengers</a>, on hormones and the body. Stay tuned for other articles on hunger, mood and sexual desire.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/44983/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jo Abbott does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Sleep allows many of our hormones to replenish so we have the optimal energy, immunity, appetite and coping ability to face the day’s highs and lows.Jo Abbott, Research Fellow / Health Psychologist, Swinburne University of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/372292015-07-20T03:14:58Z2015-07-20T03:14:58ZHealth Check: the science of ‘hangry’, or why some people get grumpy when they’re hungry<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/88622/original/image-20150716-32652-1yvhwwp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">There are many reasons why some people get very grumpy when they haven't eaten for a while.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/katiekills/3819235832/">Katie Inglis/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Have you ever snapped angrily at someone when you were hungry? Or has someone snapped angrily at <em>you</em> when <em>they</em> were hungry? If so, you’ve experienced “hangry” (an amalgam of hungry and angry) – the phenomenon whereby some people get grumpy and short-tempered when they’re overdue for a feed. </p>
<p>But where does hanger come from? And why is it that only some people seem to get hangry? The answer lies in some of the processes that happen inside your body when it needs food. </p>
<h2>The physiology of hanger</h2>
<p>The carbohydrates, proteins and fats in everything you eat are digested into simple sugars (such as glucose), amino acids and free fatty acids. These nutrients pass into your bloodstream from where they are distributed to your organs and tissues and used for energy. </p>
<p>As time passes after your last meal, the amount of these nutrients circulating in your bloodstream starts to drop. If your blood-glucose levels fall far enough, your brain will perceive it as a life-threatening situation. You see, unlike most other organs and tissues in your body which can use a variety of nutrients to keep functioning, your brain is critically dependent on glucose to do its job. </p>
<p>You’ve probably already noticed this dependence your brain has on glucose; simple things can become difficult when you’re hungry and your <a href="http://m.diabetes.diabetesjournals.org/content/50/7/1618.full">blood glucose levels drop</a>. You may find it hard to concentrate, for instance, or you may make silly mistakes. Or you might have noticed that your words become muddled or slurred. </p>
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<p>Another thing that can become more difficult when you’re hungry is behaving within socially acceptable norms, such as not snapping at people. So while you may be able to conjure up enough brain power to avoid being grumpy with important colleagues, you may let your guard down and inadvertently <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24733932">snap at the people you are most relaxed with or care most about</a>, such as partners and friends. Sound familiar?</p>
<h2>Another bodily response</h2>
<p>Besides a drop in blood-glucose concentrations, another reason people can become hangry is the glucose counter-regulatory response. Let me explain.</p>
<p>When blood-glucose levels drop to a certain threshold, your brain sends instructions to several organs in your body to synthesise and release hormones that increase the amount of glucose in your bloodstream. </p>
<p>The four main glucose counter-regulatory hormones are: growth hormone from the pituitary gland situated deep in the brain; glucagon from the pancreas; and adrenaline, which is sometimes called epinephrine, and cortisol, which are both from the adrenal glands. These latter two glucose counter-regulatory hormones are stress hormones that are released into your bloodstream in all sorts of stressful situations, not just when you experience the physical stress of low blood-glucose levels. </p>
<p>In fact, adrenaline is one of the major hormones released into your bloodstream with the “fight or flight” response to a sudden scare, such as when you see, hear or even think something that threatens your safety. Just as you might easily shout out in anger at someone during the “fight or flight” response, the flood of adrenaline you get during the glucose counter-regulatory response can promote a similar response. </p>
<h2>Nature and nurture</h2>
<p>Another reason hunger is linked to anger is that both are controlled by common genes. The product of one such gene is <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19822185">neuropeptide Y</a>, a natural brain chemical released into the brain when you are hungry. It stimulates voracious feeding behaviours by acting on a variety of receptors in the brain, including one called the Y1 receptor. </p>
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<p>Besides acting in the brain to <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22768253">control hunger</a>, neuropeptide Y and the Y1 receptor also regulate <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15314215">anger or aggression</a>. In keeping with this, people with high <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22985695">levels of neuropeptide Y in their cerebrospinal fluid</a> also tend to show high levels of impulse aggression. </p>
<p>As you can see, there are several pathways that can make you prone to anger when you’re hungry. Hanger is undoubtedly <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0031938415001316">a survival mechanism</a> that has served humans and other animals well. Think about it like this: if hungry organisms stood back and graciously let others eat before them, their species could die out.</p>
<p>While many physical factors contribute to hanger, psychosocial factors also have a role. Culture influences <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/%28SICI%291098-2337%281999%2925:3%3C185::AID-AB3%3E3.0.CO;2-K/abstract">whether you express verbal aggression</a> directly or indirectly, for instance. </p>
<p>And as we are all different across all of these factors, it’s little wonder there are differences in how angry people seem to get when they’re hungry. </p>
<h2>Dealing with hanger</h2>
<p>The easiest way to handle hanger is to eat something before you get too hungry. While you may hanker for quick-fix foods, such as chocolate and potato chips, when you’re in the throes of hanger, junk foods generally induce large rises in blood-glucose levels that come crashing down fast. </p>
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<p>Ultimately, they may leave you feeling hangrier. So think nutrient-rich, natural foods that help satisfy hunger for as long as possible, without excess kilojoules. </p>
<p>Eating as soon as you are hungry may not always be possible. This may be the case during long shifts at work, for instance, or through religious fasts such as Ramadan, or during weight-loss diets that involve severe energy restriction (such as intermittent fasting diets). All of these should only be done if your doctor has given you the all-clear.</p>
<p>In these cases, it can help to remember that, with time, your glucose counter-regulatory response will kick in and your blood-glucose levels will stabilise. Also, when you go without food, your body starts breaking down its own fat stores for energy, some of which are converted by your body into ketones, a product of fat metabolism. <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/obr.12230/abstract">Ketones are thought to help keep your hunger under control</a> because your brain can use ketones in place of glucose for fuel. </p>
<p>A final – and very civilised – way of handling hanger is to suggest that difficult situations be dealt with <em>after</em> food, not before!</p>
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<p><em>If you live in the Sydney metropolitan area and would like to find out about participating in clinical trials aimed at reducing hunger during weight loss, <a href="mailto:tempo.diet@sydney.edu.au">please email us</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/37229/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amanda Salis (publishing as Sainsbury) receives funding from the National Health & Medical Research Council (NHMRC) of Australia, in the form of research project grants and a Senior Research Fellowship. She is the author of The Don’t Go Hungry Diet (Bantam, Australia and New Zealand, 2007) and Don’t Go Hungry for Life (Bantam, Australia and New Zealand, 2011) and owns shares in a company (Zuman International Pty Ltd) that sells these books</span></em></p>“Hangry” is an amalgam of hungry and angry that describes the distinct grumpiness that some people experience when they haven’t eaten for a while. Ring a bell?Amanda Salis, NHMRC Senior Research Fellow in the Boden Institute of Obesity, Nutrition, Exercise & Eating Disorders, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.