tag:theconversation.com,2011:/au/topics/air-quality-3296/articlesAir quality – The Conversation2024-02-27T12:32:52Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2243122024-02-27T12:32:52Z2024-02-27T12:32:52ZE-bike incentives are a costly way to cut carbon emissions, but they also promote health, equity and cleaner air<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577761/original/file-20240225-22-nb9e6p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=7%2C15%2C5019%2C2916&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A man pulls his kids behind an electric bicycle near the pier in Huntington Beach, Calif.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/man-pulls-his-kids-behind-an-electric-bicycle-near-the-pier-news-photo/1311180585">Paul Bersebach/Orange County Register via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>E-bikes have captured <a href="https://velo.outsideonline.com/ebike/ebike-gear/5-e-bike-trends-we-expect-to-see-in-2024/">widespread attention</a> across the U.S., and for good reason. They are <a href="https://cleantechnica.com/2023/12/11/e-bikes-are-radically-more-efficient-than-electric-cars/">the most energy-efficient way</a> to move from place to place, providing exercise in the process, and offer enough assistance while pedaling uphill or into headwinds to make them usable for many types of riders. </p>
<p>Greenhouse gas emissions from e-bikes are much lower than those from either gasoline-powered or <a href="https://www.itf-oecd.org/good-go-assessing-environmental-performance-new-mobility">electric cars</a>. Some cities and states are encouraging the use of e-bikes by providing purchase incentives, often drawing on public funds dedicated to curbing climate change.</p>
<p>Currently, over 100 cities and states <a href="https://trec.pdx.edu/news/e-bike-incentive-programs-north-america-new-online-tracker">have or plan to launch e-bike incentive programs</a>, most funded by energy or environment initiatives. However, there has been little research on the effectiveness of these types of programs, how to design them or how to define goals. </p>
<p>We study transportation from many angles, including <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=I3wi1-EAAAAJ&hl=en">innovation</a>, <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/John-Macarthur-4">sustainability</a> and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=JltA3IAAAAAJ&hl=en">economics</a>. Our new study, published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2024.104114">Transportation Research Part D</a>, investigates the effectiveness of several types of e-bike purchase incentives and the investment required to induce additional e-bike purchases. </p>
<p>We found that incentives do spur extra e-bike purchases, but at a relatively high cost compared with narrowly defined climate benefits. We find that a public agency using a point-of-purchase discount would have to distribute about US$4,000 in incentives to generate one additional e-bike purchase. This is because over 80% of people who buy an e-bike would likely have bought one even without the discount. For perspective, it takes <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeem.2017.01.002">about $30,000 worth of incentives</a> to induce an electric car purchase. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">California initiated a $10 million statewide program in 2023 that offers voucher incentives to low-income residents for purchasing electric bikes.</span></figcaption>
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<p>Nonetheless, e-bikes provide many other benefits. They make mobility easier and more affordable for many people, including <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trip.2023.100940">older adults and people with disabilities</a>. They bolster the case for <a href="https://orbit.dtu.dk/en/publications/cost-benefit-of-bicycle-infrastructure-with-e-bikes-and-cycle-sup">investing in bike paths and infrastructure</a>, which produce <a href="https://www.urban.org/urban-wire/why-us-cities-are-investing-safer-more-connected-cycling-infrastructure">economic, safety and mobility benefits for cities</a>. And they <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jth.2017.06.002">boost health by promoting exercise</a>. In our view, cities and states should assess e-bike incentive investments based on this broad range of benefits, rather than focusing solely on a narrow environmental objective.</p>
<h2>Not just a climate tool</h2>
<p>Clean technology incentives tend to be focused on a specific outcome – usually, reducing greenhouse gas emissions. This works well for most energy-related upgrades, such as replacing old air conditioners, improving home insulation and generating electricity from wind and solar power. Consumers want the services that these devices deliver – cool air, comfortable conditions indoors and electricity that’s available and affordable. The new devices simply deliver those familiar goods more sustainably. </p>
<p>E-bike incentives are different. They invite people to adopt a new technology that can fundamentally change recipients’ travel patterns. In fact, while replacing car trips with e-bike trips <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2020.102482">can provide substantial climate benefits</a>, those benefits may be smaller than other benefits that are less widely measured. Focusing narrowly on reducing greenhouse gas emissions by replacing car trips means providing incentives to people who drive the most, or who drive the biggest gas guzzlers.</p>
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<p>But what about carless households, transit riders or bicyclists? For them, e-bikes can make it much easier to travel in most North American cities. That increased mobility could provide greater access to jobs, shopping or other important services, such as health care.</p>
<h2>Is investing in e-bike incentives worth it?</h2>
<p>Transportation is the <a href="https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/sources-greenhouse-gas-emissions">largest source of U.S. greenhouse gas emissions</a>. Electrifying as much of it as possible is an important strategy for slowing climate change. However, e-bike incentives – and, indeed, electric car incentives – are pretty expensive ways to reduce emissions. </p>
<p>The importance of e-bike incentives is that e-bikes are good at replacing car trips and make daily trips easier for people who rely on other options. These advantages provide two main classes of benefits from increasing ownership of e-bikes.</p>
<p>The first set of benefits comes from substituting car-based trips with e-bike trips. Transportation researchers think about a swap like this in terms of vehicle miles traveled.</p>
<p>If I used to drive to work but now ride an e-bike, many benefits will be proportional to the number of miles that I now cover by bike rather than by car. They include reduced traffic congestion, lower fuel and parking costs, increased physical activity and improved health, cleaner air and reduced greenhouse gas emissions. In North America, <a href="https://nitc.trec.pdx.edu/research/project/1041">about 60% of e-bike trips replace car trips</a>. </p>
<p>A second class of benefits comes from improvements in mobility. These effects are more complex to measure. For many people in U.S. cities who don’t own cars, the basic options for getting around are walking, public transit, ride-hailing services like Uber and Lyft, or riding a conventional bicycle. In almost all cases, e-bikes would get them to their destinations faster. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">A father explains how his family used electric cargo bikes to replace a car in Toronto and the Netherlands.</span></figcaption>
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<p>Carless households <a href="https://rosap.ntl.bts.gov/view/dot/63059">tend to have lower income</a> and lack mobility options. E-bike incentives can make travel more affordable and give people better access to jobs, health care, child care, shopping and other destinations. Such benefits likely far exceed any nominal greenhouse gas accounting from these transportation users. </p>
<p>E-bike purchase incentives are an investment in the broad benefits that e-bikes can provide. We believe they should be measured against the collective goals of the agency providing the incentives, whether its mission is transportation, equitable mobility, public health, economic development or environmental protection. </p>
<h2>Putting more people on two wheels</h2>
<p>Once there’s agreement that e-bikes are worth supporting for many reasons, the challenge is how to induce more e-bike use and realize those benefits.</p>
<p>Point-of-purchase discounts or vouchers are the most popular strategy, because they mimic other clean energy incentives, such as those for high-efficiency appliances or electric cars. Our study found that they are also the most efficient way to influence consumer behavior compared with other purchase incentives, such as rebates. </p>
<p>Other strategies could be more effective but need further research. For example, <a href="https://nextcity.org/urbanist-news/bike-libraries-are-increasing-access-to-bikes-across-america">e-bike lending libraries</a> let people test-ride e-bikes without ownership. And employers can <a href="https://transweb.sjsu.edu/sites/default/files/2051-Fitch-Ebike-Employer.pdf">provide e-bikes to employees</a> to help encourage more sustainable and affordable ways to get to work. </p>
<p>Partnering with community organizations or local mobility-oriented programs could be an effective way to get e-bikes into the hands of people who need them and couldn’t afford them otherwise. And giving e-bike owners more reason to use them, such as <a href="https://momentummag.com/is-it-time-governments-start-paying-people-to-bike-to-work/">payments for biking to work</a>, could increase e-bike use and subsequent benefits. </p>
<p>E-bike purchase incentives may be an expensive climate solution, but they also offer other important benefits. Carefully designed incentive programs could help many urban and suburban residents access a faster, healthier and cleaner way to get where they need to go.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/224312/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Christopher R. Cherry receives research funding from State and Federal Departments of Transportation and the National Science Foundation. He has consulted for micromobility operators and bicycling advocacy organizations.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>John MacArthur has received research support and funding from state and federal agencies, the National Science Foundation, micromobility operators and bicycling advocacy organizations.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Luke Jones does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Many incentive programs promote e-bike use, but they aren’t necessarily targeting the right people for the right reasons.Christopher R. Cherry, Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of TennesseeJohn MacArthur, Sustainable Transportation Program Manager, Transportation Research and Education Center, Portland State UniversityLuke Jones, Professor of Economics, Valdosta State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2155352024-02-23T03:15:52Z2024-02-23T03:15:52ZBushfire smoke affects children differently. Here’s how to protect them<p>Bushfires are currently burning in Australian states including <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2024/feb/23/victoria-bushfires-homes-and-sheds-lost-as-blaze-heads-towards-elmhurst-in-states-west">Victoria</a>, <a href="https://www.themercury.com.au/news/tasmania/tasmania-on-high-bushfire-alert-with-extreme-weather-conditions-predicted/news-story/bc2eca6d30fc09e34b2eb683e589a002">Tasmania</a>, <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2024-02-22/wa-balladonia-bushfire-closed-eyre-highway-sa/103498586">Western Australia</a> and <a href="https://www.adelaidenow.com.au/news/south-australia/cfs-issues-bushfire-alert-for-upper-hermitage-in-mount-lofty-ranges/news-story/15cddf960445c635194d9bc780b96787">South Australia</a>. In some areas, fire authorities have warned residents about the presence of smoke.</p>
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<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.5694/mja2.50545">Bushfire smoke</a> is harmful to our health. Tiny particles of ash can lodge deep in the lungs. </p>
<p>Exposure to this type of smoke may worsen existing conditions such as asthma, and induce a range of health effects from <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2021.682402">irritation</a> of the eyes, nose and throat to changes in the <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12989-020-00394-8">cardiovascular system</a>.</p>
<p>Public health recommendations during smoke events tend to provide general advice, and don’t often include advice specifically geared at children. But children are not just little adults. They are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pcl.2020.09.018">uniquely vulnerable</a> to environmental hazards such as bushfire smoke for a number of reasons.</p>
<h2>Different physiology, different behaviour</h2>
<p>Children’s lungs are <a href="https://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/doi/10.1289/ehp.00108s3483">still developing</a> and maturing. </p>
<p>Airways are smaller in children, especially young children, which is associated with greater rates of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0048969717322301">particle deposition</a> – when particles settle on the surfaces of the airways.</p>
<p>Children also <a href="https://www.childrens.health.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0031/179725/how-children-are-different-anatomical-and-physiological-differences.pdf">breathe more air</a> per kilogram of body weight compared with adults, and therefore inhale more polluted air relative to their size. </p>
<p>Further, children’s detoxification systems are still developing, so environmental toxins <a href="https://nyaspubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1196/annals.1454.017">take longer</a> to effectively clear from their bodies.</p>
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<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-black-summer-bushfires-put-an-enormous-strain-on-families-with-young-children-we-cant-make-the-same-mistakes-again-205026">The Black Summer bushfires put an enormous strain on families with young children. We can't make the same mistakes again</a>
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<p>Meanwhile, children’s behaviour and habits may expose them to more environmental toxins than adults. For example, they tend to do more physical activity and spend more time outdoors. Higher levels of physical activity lead to more air inhaled per kilogram of body weight.</p>
<p>Also, a normal and important part of children’s early play is exploring their environment, including by putting things in their mouth. This can result in kids ingesting soil, dust and dirt, which often contain <a href="https://nyaspubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1196/annals.1454.017">environmental contaminants</a>.</p>
<p>For these reasons, it’s important to consider the specific needs of children when providing advice on what to do when there’s smoke in the air.</p>
<h2>Keeping our environments healthy</h2>
<p>The Australian government <a href="https://www.health.gov.au/resources/publications/bushfire-smoke-general-information-fact-sheet">offers recommendations</a> for minimising the health risks from exposure to bushfire smoke. The main advice includes staying indoors and keeping doors and windows closed. </p>
<p>This is great advice when the smoke is thick outside, but air pollutants may still accumulate inside the home. So it’s important to air your home once the smoke outside starts to clear. Take advantage of wind changes to open up and get air moving out of the house with a cross breeze. </p>
<p>Kids are natural scientists, so get them involved. For example, you and your child can “rate” the air each hour by looking at a landmark outside your home and rating how clearly you can see it. When you notice the haze is reducing, open up the house and clear the air. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/bushfires-in-victoria-how-to-protect-yourself-if-the-air-is-smoky-where-you-live-215789">Bushfires in Victoria: how to protect yourself if the air is smoky where you live</a>
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<p>Because air pollutants settle onto surfaces in our home and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1101/2023.10.22.23297366">into household dust</a>, an easy way to protect kids during smoky periods is to do a daily dust with a wet cloth and vacuum regularly. This will remove pollutants and reduce ingestion by children as they play. Frequent hand washing helps too.</p>
<h2>Healthy bodies and minds</h2>
<p>Research exploring the effects of bushfire smoke exposure on children’s health is sparse. However, during smoke events, we do see an increase <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41370-020-00267-4">in hospital visits</a> for asthma, as well as children reporting irritation to their eyes, nose and throat. </p>
<p>If your child <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/resp.14593">has asthma</a> or another medical condition, ensure they take any prescribed medications on a regular schedule to keep their condition well controlled. This will minimise the risk of a sudden worsening of their symptoms with bushfire smoke exposure.</p>
<p>Make sure any action plans for symptom flare-ups are up to date, and ensure you have an adequate supply of in-date medication somewhere easy to locate and access.</p>
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<img alt="A mother talks to her child who is sitting on a bed." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/562617/original/file-20231130-19-e868av.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/562617/original/file-20231130-19-e868av.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562617/original/file-20231130-19-e868av.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562617/original/file-20231130-19-e868av.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562617/original/file-20231130-19-e868av.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562617/original/file-20231130-19-e868av.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562617/original/file-20231130-19-e868av.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Children may be anxious during a bushfire.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/young-mother-having-conversation-her-child-2228408203">Media_Photos/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>Kids can get worried during bushfires, and fire emergencies have been linked with a reduction in children’s <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41370-020-00267-4">mental health</a>. Stories such as the <a href="https://www.childrens.health.qld.gov.au/our-work/birdies-tree-natural-disaster-recovery/birdies-tree-storybooks/birdie-and-the-fire">Birdie’s Tree books</a> can help children understand these events do pass and people help one another in times of difficulty. </p>
<p>Learning more about air pollution can help too. Our group has <a href="https://www.lsu.edu/srp/files/eddie_the_epfr_booklet.pdf">a children’s story</a> explaining how air pollution affects our bodies and what can help. </p>
<p>It’s also important for parents and caregivers not to get too stressed, as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/14780887.2010.500358">children cope better</a> when their parents manage their own anxiety and help their children do the same. Try to strike a balance between being vigilant and staying calm.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/bushfires-can-make-kids-scared-and-anxious-here-are-5-steps-to-help-them-cope-126926">Bushfires can make kids scared and anxious: here are 5 steps to help them cope</a>
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<h2>What about masks?</h2>
<p>N95 masks can protect the wearer from fine particles <a href="https://www.health.vic.gov.au/publications/face-masks-for-environmental-hazards">in bushfire smoke</a>, but their use is a bit complicated when it comes to kids. Most young children won’t be able to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1513/AnnalsATS.202008-990CME">fit properly</a> into an N95 mask, or won’t tolerate the tight fit for long periods. Also, their smaller airways make it harder for young children to breathe through a mask.</p>
<p>If you choose to use an N95 mask for your children, it’s best to save them for instances when high-level outdoor exposure is unavoidable, such as if you’re going outside when the smoke is very thick.</p>
<p>N95 masks should be replaced after <a href="https://www.health.nsw.gov.au/environment/factsheets/Pages/face-mask.aspx">around four hours</a> or when they become damp.</p>
<p>If your child has an existing heart or lung condition, consult their doctor before having them wear an N95 mask.</p>
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<p><em>Our team is currently recruiting for a study exploring the effects of bushfire smoke in children. If you live in south east Queensland and are interested in participating in the event of a bushfire or hazard reduction burn near your home, please <a href="https://child-health-research.centre.uq.edu.au/research/research-groups/childrens-health-and-environment-program/ember-environmental-measures-bushfire-smoke-exposure-and-respiratory-health">express your interest here</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/215535/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dwan Vilcins receives funding from the National Health and Medical Research Council, the US National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences and the Thoracic Society of Australia and New Zealand.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nicholas Osborne has received speaking fees from Reckitt. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Paul D. Robinson receives funding from the National Health and Medical Research Council.</span></em></p>Children are uniquely vulnerable to bushfire smoke because of their physiology and their behaviour.Dwan Vilcins, Group leader, Environmental Epidemiology, Children’s Health Environment Program, The University of QueenslandNicholas Osborne, Associate Professor, School of Public Health, The University of QueenslandPaul D. Robinson, Conjoint Professor in Respiratory and Sleep Medicine, Child Health Research Centre, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2157892024-02-14T03:13:52Z2024-02-14T03:13:52ZBushfires in Victoria: how to protect yourself if the air is smoky where you live<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575509/original/file-20240214-16-ze61q3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5760%2C3828&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/young-woman-opening-curtains-bedroom-268319546">Izf/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Bushfires broke out yesterday in <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2024-02-14/victoria-power-outage-severe-storms-bushfires/103461286">western Victoria</a> during a day of extreme weather conditions across the state. Although authorities have reported the situation is easing, emergency services continue to fight blazes in the Grampians National Park around the towns of Bellfield and Pomonal.</p>
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<p>While the <a href="https://soe.dcceew.gov.au/air-quality/introduction">air quality in Australia</a> is generally good, events such as bushfires can have a significant effect. Smoke can travel long distances and reduce air quality throughout a city or region.</p>
<p>The combustion of vegetation produces a range of gases, including <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/protection/npi/resource/student/carbon-monoxide">carbon monoxide</a>, as well as fine particles, often described as PM2.5 (particles of 2.5 micrometres in diameter or less). These particles can remain suspended in the air for extended periods and, owing to their tiny size, can penetrate <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/pharmacology-toxicology-and-pharmaceutical-science/particle-deposition">deep into the lungs</a> when inhaled. </p>
<p>Exposure to PM2.5 in bushfire smoke can result in a range of symptoms including coughing, throat irritation, as well as irritation to the eyes and nose. It can make <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4740163/">existing conditions</a> such as asthma worse and increase <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/resp.13798">hospital presentations</a>. </p>
<p>The longer-term health effects of PM2.5 exposure are well established, with <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160412022004834">research</a> by the <a href="https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241565196">World Health Organization</a> and the <a href="https://www.epa.gov/air-research/research-health-effects-air-pollution#long-term-short-term">US Environmental Protection Agency</a> linking PM2.5 exposure to respiratory and heart disease. </p>
<p>Ultimately, poor air quality can affect all of us, with even healthy people experiencing symptoms when exposed to high concentrations of bushfire smoke.
There are, however, things we can do to protect ourselves.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/3-ways-to-prepare-for-bushfire-season-if-you-have-asthma-or-another-lung-condition-214065">3 ways to prepare for bushfire season if you have asthma or another lung condition</a>
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<h2>Monitor the air quality</h2>
<p>Air quality indexes are based on measurements of PM2.5 and other pollutants. On air quality indexes lower numbers indicate higher air quality, and vice versa. A number of websites provide air quality index information, for example <a href="https://www.iqair.com/au/australia">IQAir</a> for locations around Australia, or <a href="https://waqi.info/">World’s Air Pollution</a> for locations globally.</p>
<p>There are also apps such as <a href="https://airrater.org/">AirRater</a> which can provide useful information in addition to air quality values, such as pollen levels.</p>
<p>Although a number is much more informative from a research point of view, these sorts of services also provide air quality ratings such as “poor, "fair” or “good”, which can be helpful for people who may be unfamiliar with what the numbers mean.</p>
<p>Notably, these sources indicate the air quality around Victoria remains good at present.</p>
<p>When looking at air quality index values or PM2.5 concentrations, it’s important to note these do not identify the sources of the particles, so not everything counted as PM2.5 on even a smoky day is necessarily bushfire smoke. But PM2.5 values are a good indicator of overall air quality. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Smoke over houses and trees." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557230/original/file-20231102-19-iimke4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557230/original/file-20231102-19-iimke4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557230/original/file-20231102-19-iimke4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557230/original/file-20231102-19-iimke4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557230/original/file-20231102-19-iimke4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557230/original/file-20231102-19-iimke4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557230/original/file-20231102-19-iimke4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">When there’s a lot of smoke around, the air quality may be poor.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/sydney-australia-20191204-australian-bushfire-smoke-1580277991">Daria Nipot/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A growing number of air quality monitors are available to buy for home use, which measure single pollutants or a number of pollutants. </p>
<p>However, these instruments are not the same as those used in statutory air quality monitoring stations (which provide data for websites like those mentioned above). Statutory stations are set up by regulators or government agencies and use instruments that must meet national or international standards. </p>
<p>In many cases the accuracy of <a href="https://www.epa.gov/indoor-air-quality-iaq/low-cost-air-pollution-monitors-and-indoor-air-quality">low-cost devices</a> may not be well established. And effective calibration – where the measurements are verified using an alternative method, as would happen in a statutory monitoring station – might not be possible, particularly by end users.</p>
<h2>Stay inside</h2>
<p>When the air is noticeably smoky, or the air quality index is high, it’s best to remain indoors with doors and windows closed if you can. </p>
<p>The threshold at which you make this decision may depend on your personal circumstances. For example, healthy people can generally continue outdoor activities when the air quality is “fair”. However, someone with a respiratory condition might need to decrease or stop outdoor activities at this point. If the air quality is “very poor”, everyone should <a href="https://www.der.wa.gov.au/your-environment/air/air-quality-index">stay indoors</a>.</p>
<p>If you have a particularly leaky home – say if you notice a draft, or odours from outside when the doors and windows are shut – then smoke ingress may be an issue. In this case, you may like to go elsewhere (for example, a friend’s house, or a public building with filtered air), provided it’s safe to do so. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/queenslands-fires-are-not-easing-at-night-thats-a-bad-sign-for-the-summer-ahead-216732">Queensland's fires are not easing at night. That's a bad sign for the summer ahead</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>A high-powered air cleaner or purifier with a HEPA (high efficiency particulate air) filter may also offer some benefit, especially for people with respiratory conditions.</p>
<p>If you get one of these, remember placement is important. Portable units may work for a single room, but not a whole house. Consider the best location for these devices (probably the room where you spend the most time). </p>
<p>Ultimately only the air which passes through the filter will be treated, so the size of the unit must be appropriate for the space. The <a href="https://www.vic.gov.au/choosing-an-air-purifier">Victorian government</a> offers some advice on how to ascertain what sort of unit will be suitable for your space. </p>
<p>When staying indoors it’s safe to use air conditioners, provided they recirculate the air already in the house (and the windows and doors are closed). Reverse-cycle air conditioners are a good option if you have them. Any system which draws in outside air without treatment should be avoided.</p>
<h2>Wear a mask if going outside</h2>
<p>If you need to go out when the air quality is poor, a P2 (or N95) mask provides protection from smoke particles in the air (but <a href="https://asthma.org.au/wp-content/uploads/Resources/P2-Mask.pdf">not gases</a> such as carbon monoxide). For effective protection, the mask should be fitted properly and worn for the duration of your time outdoors.</p>
<p>Respirator masks may not be a good option for those with existing health conditions such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, so in these cases people should seek medical advice.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/215789/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ryan Mead-Hunter receives funding from NHMRC and the Department of Water and Environmental Regulation.</span></em></p>Smoke from bushfires can travel significant distances and reduce air quality throughout a city or region.Ryan Mead-Hunter, Senior lecturer, School of Population Health, Curtin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2211542024-01-15T17:52:24Z2024-01-15T17:52:24ZCan technology clean up our air? An atmospheric scientist got a glimpse of the future<p>Every few years I visit CES (formerly the Consumer Electronics Show) in Las Vegas, a goliath event that is equal parts shameless spin and publicity, trade show and business conference. I’m an atmospheric scientist, and I want to get some insight into the technologies that might reduce our personal emissions in future.</p>
<p>In 2018, there was an explosion in interest in air-quality sensors alongside products aimed at cleaning air in the home. I wondered back then whether air filtration would gain traction in Europe and <a href="https://theconversation.com/air-purification-is-catching-on-but-it-may-be-doing-more-harm-than-good-111309">whether this was environmentally sustainable or socially equitable</a>. </p>
<p>That was in a pre-COVID world. While indoor air filters still aren’t ubiquitous, I see far more today than I’d have predicted in 2018. My futurologist skills are pretty poor.</p>
<p>All this matters because, thanks to various engineering successes, emissions of “traditional” air pollution particles from combustion (so-called PM2.5) in most rich countries are the lowest they’ve been in a <a href="https://royalsociety.org/topics-policy/projects/air-quality-climate-change/">century or more</a>. The key sources of air pollution are changing, vehicle emissions are improving and there are fewer large industrial emitters left to control.</p>
<p>Air pollution remains the largest global environmental factor that harms <a href="https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240034228">public health</a>, but there is an increased focus on pollution in <a href="https://www.rcpch.ac.uk/resources/inside-story-health-effects-indoor-air-quality-children-young-people">day-to-day life</a> and what to do about it.</p>
<h2>An air-quality dimension to new tech</h2>
<p>CES involves a lot of walking because it is vast – seven miles on day one according to my smartwatch, six miles the next. Those miles deliver an endless stream of booths and stands offering new tech, large and small, and there is an air-quality dimension to a surprising number of them. </p>
<p>The first thing to note was the conspicuous absence of air-quality sensors, which haven’t quite delivered what was promised in 2018. This is probably due to a combination of continued accuracy issues of the sensors themselves, difficulty finding a niche in an often regulated marketplace, and the reality that just measuring pollution in lots of places and showing it on a nice website doesn’t directly make it any better.</p>
<p>Home air filtration is, however, still a major product sector and every appliance manufacturer has offerings – but these never really were “tech” in the first place. Indoor air cleaners remain pretty basic and any half-competent DIY-er could make their own. They’re just filter papers, a fan, a cheap particle counter, often now coupled with a dehumidifier to help reduce mould and spores indoors. For both combustion and biological particles they really can be effective if you can afford them. </p>
<p>There still aren’t convincing technological solutions to reducing indoor pollution from <a href="https://theconversation.com/common-products-like-perfume-paint-and-printer-ink-are-polluting-the-atmosphere-91914">“volatile organic compounds”, or VOCs</a>, however. These gases are released from personal care products, aerosol sprays, fires, candles, cooking, paints, glues, wood, furniture and many others. Modern energy-efficient buildings can have limited ventilation and often trap VOCs inside. Once they are in the air, they are difficult to collect and contain. </p>
<p>Some devices aim to oxidise VOCs to CO2 and water but this process may not be completely efficient and can <a href="https://news.mit.edu/2021/study-finds-indoor-air-cleaners-fall-short-removing-volatile-organic-compounds-1029">create byproducts</a> that are themselves harmful, such as formaldehyde. Technologies that removed the need to use VOCs in the first place would seem a simpler indoor air quality fix.</p>
<h2>Electrification means better air quality</h2>
<p>Electrification is everywhere at the consumer show, with the promise of phasing out fossil fuel burning from our lives. The pollution benefits of battery electric cars are now very well understood. </p>
<p>Perhaps more significant for the future will be the accumulating air quality benefits from replacing less visible polluting equipment – using heat pumps, solar and battery storage in place of gas and oil boilers, hydrogen fuel cells for trucks and backup generators, hydrogen engines for construction and farming, the list goes on. Compared to 2018, hydrogen is much more prominent, although accessing sufficient “green” supplies is another story.</p>
<p>Vehicle autonomy has been a part of CES for years but fully self-driving cars still seem some way off (or appear so to a complete non-expert like me). There is, however, growing <a href="https://secureenergy.org/savs-sf-case-study/">evidence</a> that using more autonomy could have a direct air quality benefit since it is aggressive stop-start driving that wears out tyres and suspends tiny polluting particles from the road into the air. </p>
<p>This could be reduced by smoother driving that is synchronised with nearby vehicles and urban traffic management, taking heavy-footed humans out of the equation. </p>
<p>Then come more distant transport technologies that might never come to pass – electric drones for everything, from food deliveries to air taxis for people, all displacing combustion-driven road vehicles.</p>
<p>I’m a technology enthusiast and came away with an optimistic view of the air pollution future. But I’m not naive and know that CES is ultimately about selling us stuff. </p>
<p>While it’s far less glitzy we can also get cleaner air by simply consuming less. It sounds (and is) simple, but I’m sure I’m not alone in feeling conflicted when offered different options. The latest mobile app-driven AI-guided e-scooter journey creates less urban air pollution than using a diesel car, but for those that can, it will always be cheaper and healthier just to walk.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/221154/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alastair Lewis is part of the National Centre for Atmospheric Science and receives funding from various UKRI schemes for research in areas associated with air pollution and atmospheric chemistry. He is currently a Royal Society Industry Fellow collaborating with Givaudan AG on consumer product impacts on air quality. He is Chair of the Defra Air Quality Expert Group and Department for Transport Science Advisory Council, however this article is written in a personal capacity.</span></em></p>A surprising number of new consumer tech products promise to improve air quality.Alastair Lewis, Professor of Atmospheric Chemistry at the National Centre for Atmospheric Science and University of York, University of YorkLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2140652023-10-26T01:12:15Z2023-10-26T01:12:15Z3 ways to prepare for bushfire season if you have asthma or another lung condition<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555707/original/file-20231025-25-7t7ylm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=4%2C0%2C994%2C666&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/sunlight-shining-through-smoke-haze-coloring-1605818323">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Australia’s bushfire season is officially <a href="https://www.nsw.gov.au/media-releases/fire-season-commences">under way</a> during an <a href="https://www.climatecouncil.org.au/resources/what-the-return-of-el-nino-means/">El Niño</a>. And after three wet years, and the <a href="https://www.afac.com.au/auxiliary/publications/newsletter/article/seasonal-bushfire-outlook-spring-2023#:%7E:text=For%20spring%202023%2C%20increased%20risk,bushfire%20this%20season%20are%20widespread">plant growth</a> that comes with it, there’s fuel to burn.</p>
<p>With the prospect of <a href="https://theconversation.com/its-official-australia-is-set-for-a-hot-dry-el-nino-heres-what-that-means-for-our-flammable-continent-209126">catastrophic bushfire</a> comes smoke. This not only affects people in bushfire regions, but those <a href="https://theconversation.com/bushfire-smoke-is-everywhere-in-our-cities-heres-exactly-what-you-are-inhaling-129772">in cities and towns</a> far away, as smoke travels. </p>
<p>People with a <a href="https://www.atsjournals.org/doi/10.1164/rccm.202012-4471LE">lung condition</a> are among those especially affected.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/our-mood-usually-lifts-in-spring-but-after-early-heatwaves-and-bushfires-this-year-may-be-different-213643">Our mood usually lifts in spring. But after early heatwaves and bushfires, this year may be different</a>
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</em>
</p>
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<h2>What’s so dangerous about bushfire smoke?</h2>
<p>Bushfire smoke <a href="https://www.health.nsw.gov.au/environment/air/Pages/common-air-pollutants.aspx">pollutes the air</a> we breathe by increasing the concentration of particulate matter (or PM).</p>
<p>Once inhaled, <a href="https://www.health.nsw.gov.au/environment/air/Pages/particulate-matter.aspx">small particles</a> (especially with a diameter of 2.5 micrometres or less, known as PM2.5) can get deep into the lungs and into the bloodstream. </p>
<p>Concentration of gases in the air – such as <a href="https://www.health.nsw.gov.au/environment/air/Pages/ozone.aspx">ozone</a>, <a href="https://www.health.nsw.gov.au/environment/air/Pages/nitrogen-dioxide.aspx">nitrogen dioxide</a> and <a href="https://www.health.nsw.gov.au/environment/air/Pages/sulphur-dioxide.aspx">sulfur dioxide</a> – also increase, to pollute the air.</p>
<p>All these cause the airway to <a href="https://www.alfredhealth.org.au/news/the-effects-of-bushfire-smoke-explained/">narrow and spasm</a>, making it hard to breathe. </p>
<p>This can be even worse for people with existing asthma or other respiratory conditions whose airways are already inflamed.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/bushfire-smoke-is-everywhere-in-our-cities-heres-exactly-what-you-are-inhaling-129772">Bushfire smoke is everywhere in our cities. Here's exactly what you are inhaling</a>
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</em>
</p>
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<p>Emergency department visits and hospital admissions for asthma-related symptoms <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0013935119305742?dgcid=author">rise</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33601224/">after exposure</a> to bushfire smoke.</p>
<p>Smoke from the bushfires in summer 2019/20 <a href="https://www.mja.com.au/system/files/issues/213_06/mja250545.pdf">resulted in</a> an estimated 400 deaths or more from any cause, more than 1,300 emergency department visits for asthma symptoms, and more than 2,000 hospital admissions for respiratory issues.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1265122247628386305"}"></div></p>
<p>Even if symptoms are not serious enough to warrant emergency medical attention, exposure to bushfire smoke <a href="https://www.qld.gov.au/health/staying-healthy/environmental/after-a-disaster/bushfires/bushfire-smoke-and-your-health#:%7E:text=Signs%20of%20smoke%20irritation%20include,throat%2C%20runny%20nose%20and%20coughing">can lead to</a> cough, nasal congestion, wheezing and asthma flares.</p>
<p>If you have <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-causes-asthma-what-we-know-dont-know-and-suspect-96409">asthma</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-what-is-chronic-obstructive-pulmonary-disease-25539">chronic obstructive pulmonary disease</a>, <a href="https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/bronchiectasis#:%7E:text=Bronchiectasis%20is%20a%20condition%20that,These%20tubes%20are%20called%20airways.">bronchiectasis</a> or another lung condition, or you care for someone who has, here’s what you can do to prepare for the season ahead.</p>
<h2>1. Avoid smoke</h2>
<p>Monitor your local air quality by downloading one or both of these apps:</p>
<ul>
<li><p><a href="https://asthma.org.au/what-we-do/current-projects/airsmart/">AirSmart</a> from Asthma Australia has live air-quality information to help you plan and act</p></li>
<li><p><a href="https://airrater.org/">AirRater</a>, developed by Australian scientists, can be another useful app to monitor your environment, track your symptoms and help manage your health. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>During times of poor air quality and smoke stay indoors and avoid smoke exposure. Close windows and doors, and if you have one, use an air conditioner to recirculate the air. </p>
<p>Avoid unnecessary <a href="https://28bysamwood.com/blog/fitness/should-you-exercise-if-its-smoky-outside/">physical activity</a> which makes us breathe more to deliver more oxygen to the body, but also means we inhale more polluted air. Consider temporarily moving to a safer residence. </p>
<p>Well-fitting N95/P2 masks can reduce your exposure to fine smoke particles if you must travel. However they can make it more difficult to breathe if you are unwell. In that case, you may find a mask with a valve <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-protect-yourself-against-bushfire-smoke-this-summer-154720">more comfortable</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555709/original/file-20231025-17-n7pp9e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Person holding a N95/P2 respirator" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555709/original/file-20231025-17-n7pp9e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555709/original/file-20231025-17-n7pp9e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555709/original/file-20231025-17-n7pp9e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555709/original/file-20231025-17-n7pp9e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555709/original/file-20231025-17-n7pp9e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555709/original/file-20231025-17-n7pp9e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555709/original/file-20231025-17-n7pp9e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Well-fitting N95/P2 masks can help.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/sydney-australia-20200105-trojan-p2-disposable-1608222889">Daria Nipot/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-protect-yourself-against-bushfire-smoke-this-summer-154720">How to protect yourself against bushfire smoke this summer</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>2. Have an action plan</h2>
<p>Taking your regular preventer medication ensures your lung health is optimised before the danger period. </p>
<p>Ensure you have a <a href="https://www.nationalasthma.org.au/health-professionals/asthma-action-plans">written action plan</a>. This provides you with clear instructions on how to take early actions to prevent symptoms deteriorating or to reduce the severity of flare-ups. Review this plan with your GP, share it with a family member, pin it to the fridge.</p>
<p>Make sure you have emergency medication available, know when to call for help, and what medication to take while you wait. You may consider storing an emergency “reliever puffer” in your home or with a neighbour.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-manage-your-essential-medicines-in-a-bushfire-or-other-emergency-127516">How to manage your essential medicines in a bushfire or other emergency</a>
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</em>
</p>
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<h2>3. Have the right equipment</h2>
<p>High-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters <a href="https://www.phrp.com.au/issues/online-early/residential-indoor-air-quality-and-hepa-cleaner-use/">can reduce</a> smoke exposure inside the home during a fire event by 30-74%. These filters remove particulate matter from the air. </p>
<p>A spacer, which is a small chamber to contain inhaled medication, can help you take emergency medication if you are breathing quickly. You may want to have one to hand.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/from-face-masks-to-air-purifiers-what-actually-works-to-protect-us-from-bushfire-smoke-128633">From face masks to air purifiers: what actually works to protect us from bushfire smoke?</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/214065/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>People with a lung condition are among those particularly vulnerable to bushfire smoke. But you can prepare for the season ahead.Kazi Mizanur Rahman, Associate Professor of Healthcare Innovations, Faculty of Health Sciences and Medicine, Bond UniversityJoe Duncan, Clinical Associate Lecturer, Northern Clinical School and Lecturer, Internal Medicine. Rural Clinical School (Northern Rivers), University of SydneyJo Longman, Senior Research Fellow, The University Centre for Rural Health, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2140602023-10-13T18:01:21Z2023-10-13T18:01:21ZWildfire smoke leaves harmful gases in floors and walls − air purifiers aren’t enough, new study shows, but you can clean it up<p>When wildfire smoke turns the air brown and hazy, you might think about heading indoors with the windows closed, running an air purifier or even wearing a mask. These are all good strategies to reduce exposure to the particles in wildfire smoke, but smoky air is also filled with potentially harmful gases. Those gases can get into buildings and remain in the walls and floors for weeks.</p>
<p>Getting rid of these gases isn’t as simple as turning on an air purifier or opening a window on a clear day.</p>
<p>In a new study published in the journal Science Advances, colleagues and I tracked <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adh8263">the life of these gases</a> in a home exposed to wildfire smoke. We also found that the best way to get rid of the risk is among the simplest: start cleaning.</p>
<h2>The challenge of smoke particles and gases</h2>
<p>In December 2021, several of my friends and colleagues were affected by the <a href="https://theconversation.com/homes-that-survived-the-marshall-fire-1-year-ago-harbored-another-disaster-inside-heres-what-weve-learned-about-this-insidious-urban-wildfire-risk-196926">Marshall Fire</a> that burned about 1,000 homes in Boulder County, Colorado. The “lucky” ones, whose homes were still standing, asked me what they should do to clean their houses. I am <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=XpzGDEUAAAAJ&hl=en">an atmospheric and indoor chemist</a>, so I started looking into the published research, but I found very few studies on what happens after a building is exposed to smoke.</p>
<p>What scientists did know was that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1039/D1EM00087J">smoke particles end up on indoor surfaces</a> – floors, walls, ceilings. We knew that air <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/02786826.2022.2054674">filters</a> could remove particles from the air. And colleagues and I were just beginning to understand that volatile organic compounds, which are traditionally thought to stay in the air, could actually <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aay8973">stick to surfaces inside a home and build up reservoirs</a> – invisible pools of organic molecules that can contribute to the air chemistry inside the house.</p>
<p>Volatile organic compounds, or VOCs, are compounds that easily become gases at room temperature. They include everything from limonene in lemons to benzene in gasoline. VOCs aren’t always hazardous to human health, but <a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.0c04497">many VOCs in smoke are</a>. I started to wonder whether the VOCs in wildfire smoke could also stick to the surfaces of a house.</p>
<h2>Tracking lingering risks in a test house</h2>
<p>I worked with researchers from across the U.S. and Canada to explore this problem during the <a href="https://indoorchem.org/projects/casa/">Chemical Assessment of Surfaces and Air</a>, or CASA, study in 2022. We built on <a href="https://doi.org/10.1039/C9EM00228F">HOMEChem</a>, a previous study in which we looked at how cooking, cleaning and occupancy could change indoor air.</p>
<p>In CASA, we studied what happens when pollutants and chemicals get inside our homes – pesticides, smog and even wood smoke.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/VptLTyx0ptk?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Tracking VOCs from smoke and other sources.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Using a cocktail smoker and wood chips, we created a surprisingly chemically accurate proxy for wildfire smoke and released small doses into a <a href="https://www.nist.gov/el/net-zero-energy-residential-test-facility">test house</a> built by the National Institute of Standards and Technology. NIST’s house allowed us to conduct controlled chemistry experiments in a real-world setting.</p>
<p>We even aged the smoke in a large bag with ozone to simulate what happens when smoke travels long distances, like the smoke from Canadian wildfires that <a href="https://theconversation.com/wildfire-smoke-and-dirty-air-are-also-climate-change-problems-solutions-for-a-world-on-fire-207676">moved into the U.S.</a> in the summer of 2023. Smoke chemistry changes as it travels: <a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acsearthspacechem.9b00125">Particles become more oxidized</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2012218117">brown</a>, while VOCs <a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.1c05684">break down</a> and the smoke loses its distinctive smell.</p>
<h2>How VOCs behave in your home</h2>
<p>What we found in CASA was intriguing. While smoke particles quickly settled on indoor surfaces, <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adh8263">VOCs were more insidious</a>.</p>
<p>At first, the house took up these smoke VOCs – on floors, walls and building surfaces. But once the initial smoke cleared, the house would slowly release those VOCs back out over the next hours, days or even months, depending on the type of VOC.</p>
<p>This release is what we call a partitioning process: During the smoke event, individual VOC molecules in the air attach to indoor surfaces with weak chemical bonds. The <a href="https://www.int-ads-soc.org/what-is-adsorption/">process is called adsorption</a>. As smoke clears and the air cleans out, the bonds can break, and molecules “desorb” back out into the air.</p>
<p><iframe id="v93H7" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/v93H7/10/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>We could watch this partitioning happen in the air by measuring smoke VOC concentrations. On surfaces, we could measure the weight of smoke VOCs that deposited on very sensitive balances and then were slowly released.</p>
<p>Overall, we concluded that this surface reservoir <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adh8263">allows smoke VOCs to linger indoors</a>, meaning that people are exposed to them not just during the major smoke event but also long after.</p>
<h2>Why worry about VOCs?</h2>
<p>Smoke VOCs include well-known <a href="https://doi.org/10.1029/2021GH000546">carcinogens</a>, and high levels of exposure can induce <a href="https://theconversation.com/wildfire-smoke-can-harm-human-health-even-when-the-fire-is-burning-hundreds-of-miles-away-a-toxicologist-explains-why-206057">respiratory and health problems</a>.</p>
<p>While smoke VOC concentrations in our test house decreased with time, they remained persistently elevated above normal levels.</p>
<p>Given that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.2c01381">VOC concentrations from other sources</a>, such as cooking and cleaning, can already be high enough in homes to harm health, this additional long-term exposure source from smoke could be important. Further toxicology studies will be needed to determine the significance of its health effects.</p>
<h2>How to clean up when smoke gets in</h2>
<p>So, what can you do to remove these lingering smoke gases?</p>
<p>We found that air purifiers can remove only some of the VOCs that are in the air – they can’t clean the VOCs on your floors or in your walls. They also work only when they’re running, and even then, air purifiers don’t work particularly well to reduce VOCs.</p>
<p>Opening windows to ventilate will clean the air, if it isn’t smoggy or smoky outside. But as soon as we closed windows and doors, smoke VOCs started to bleed off the surface reservoirs and into the air again, resulting in an elevated, near-constant concentration.</p>
<p>We realized that to permanently remove those smoke VOCs, we had to physically remove them from surfaces.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A young scientist, wearing a face mask, and a large air purifier." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550124/original/file-20230925-19-s23qd0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550124/original/file-20230925-19-s23qd0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550124/original/file-20230925-19-s23qd0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550124/original/file-20230925-19-s23qd0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550124/original/file-20230925-19-s23qd0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550124/original/file-20230925-19-s23qd0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550124/original/file-20230925-19-s23qd0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A scientist takes samples while running an air purifier in the test house. The results show the air purifier helps while it’s running, but only for gases in the air.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">John Eisele/Colorado State University</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The good news is that cleaning surfaces by vacuuming, dusting and mopping with a commercial, nonbleach solution did the trick. While some remediation companies may do this surface cleaning for you after extreme exposures, surface cleaning after any smoke event – like <a href="https://theconversation.com/north-americas-summer-of-wildfire-smoke-2023-was-only-the-beginning-210246">Canadian wildfire smoke</a> drifting into homes in 2023 – should effectively and permanently reduced smoke VOC levels indoors.</p>
<p>Of course, we could reach only a certain number of surfaces – it’s hard to vacuum the ceiling! That meant that surface cleaning improved but didn’t eliminate smoke VOC levels in the house. But our study at least provides a path forward for cleaning indoor spaces affected by air pollutants, whether from wildfires, chemical spills or other events. </p>
<p>With wildfires <a href="https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/story/air-pollution-wildfires-expected-surge-world-warms">becoming more frequent</a>, surface cleaning can be an easy, cheap and effective way to improve indoor air quality.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/214060/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Delphine Farmer receives funding from the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, W.M. Keck Foundation, National Science Foundation, Department of Energy, and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.</span></em></p>Wildfire smoke, even from fires far away, carries potentially harmful gases that, once inside, tend to stick around. An air quality specialist offers an easy, cheap, effective way to deal with it.Delphine Farmer, Professor of Chemistry, Colorado State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2137812023-10-11T15:43:17Z2023-10-11T15:43:17ZExpanding London’s Ulez has sparked fractious debate – psychologists explain how it can be de-escalated<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552578/original/file-20231006-26-a2squl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4176%2C2781&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The expansion of London's Ulez has caused acrimonious controversy.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/furious-antiulez-protesters-stage-demonstration-trafalgar-2269087019">Koca Vehbi/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Drivers of the most polluting vehicles are now charged £12.50 a day (or more for heavier vehicles) to drive within London’s M25 orbital motorway, following an <a href="https://tfl.gov.uk/modes/driving/ultra-low-emission-zone/ulez-expansion-2023">expansion</a> to the city’s ultra-low emission zone (Ulez) in August 2023. </p>
<p>Something had to be done. A <a href="https://www.london.gov.uk/New%20highly%20localised%20data%20shows%20every%20borough%20in%20London%20exceeds%20World%20Health%20Organization%20limits%20for%20toxic%20pollution">report</a> published by the Greater London Authority earlier in the year found that every London borough exceeds the World Health Organization’s limits for toxic air pollution.</p>
<p>But critics argue that the change will make life <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-64241156">unaffordable for some Londoners</a>. And there are <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/ac30c1">question marks surrounding</a> whether it will have a significant impact on improving air quality anyway.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/london-air-pollution-expanding-the-ulez-is-good-but-it-wont-work-by-itself-195587">London air pollution: expanding the ULEZ is good but it won't work by itself</a>
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<p>The Ulez expansion has caused particularly acrimonious controversy, leading to polarised and impolite exchanges on the Facebook page of London’s Mayor, Sadiq Khan. Comments on the main announcement included harsh criticisms like “you need to be serving the people not your global overlords”, to personal attacks, including “you are a racist and a liar. And karma is a real thing”. </p>
<p>There were over 1,200 comments, many of which had a similar tone. Clearly there is some way to go concerning constructive debate on social media.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Sadiq Khan making a speech." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552577/original/file-20231006-22-6wmhek.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552577/original/file-20231006-22-6wmhek.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552577/original/file-20231006-22-6wmhek.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552577/original/file-20231006-22-6wmhek.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552577/original/file-20231006-22-6wmhek.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552577/original/file-20231006-22-6wmhek.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552577/original/file-20231006-22-6wmhek.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Mayor of London, Sadiq Khan.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/london-uk-29-april-2017-sadiq-1033064341">B. Lenoir/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>But there is more to this story than just online comments. Instances of <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/ulez-expansion-camera-locations-protests-london-b2401631.html">violence have</a> included criminal damage to Ulez cameras and clashes between the police and protesters.</p>
<p>Disagreement is a natural part of a healthy democratic society that fosters diverse viewpoints. Nevertheless, the intensity and bitterness seen in modern debates, including those surrounding London’s expanded Ulez, can be <a href="https://theconversation.com/political-polarization-is-affecting-mental-health-and-patients-want-therapists-who-share-their-views-177245">emotionally taxing</a>. Understanding the nature of disagreement may help inform ways to resolve it.</p>
<p>The study of disagreement can be traced back to ancient Greece, where Aristotle <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-rhetoric/#ThreMeanPers">introduced the idea</a> that persuasion has three elements. Modern psychologists have arrived at a similar understanding. They have identified <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2020.2957">three types of disagreement</a>. </p>
<p>These types of disagreement can be conflated, which may be counterproductive in the context of London’s expanded Ulez.</p>
<h2>1. Values</h2>
<p>The first type of disagreement arises from differences in personal values. In the context of Ulez, this could manifest as a clash between someone who values the importance of clean air versus another who feels that the health benefit does not justify the economic burden for those who have no option but to drive within the zone.</p>
<p>Disagreement that is rooted in differing values can be hard to resolve. This is because the general principles embodied in values ultimately reflect personal choices, and why should one person’s personal choice be deemed better than another’s?</p>
<p>The other ways to disagree depend on an idea that psychologists call <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1745691612460685">dual process theory</a>. According to this theory, thinking has two modes: system 1 (quick and emotional) and system 2 (measured and analytical). </p>
<h2>2. Emotions</h2>
<p>The second source of disagreement relates to system 1 thinking. This type of thought is fast, reflexive and intense – and can be influenced by emotions. </p>
<p>There is plenty of evidence in psychology that emotion can bias the process of arguing and reasoning, and even <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13669870500419503?journalCode=rjrr20">overwhelm objective information</a>. For example, a committed environmentalist could continue to enjoy meat consumption, despite <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0219607">having a rational understanding</a> of its environmental impact.</p>
<p>The introduction of Ulez potentially raises issues that are deeply emotional for many people. Disagreement based on emotion typically cannot be resolved, since how we feel about an issue is also a personal matter. </p>
<h2>3. Facts</h2>
<p>The third source of disagreement relates to system 2 thinking. This refers to reflective and deliberate thought, where a person is critical, analytical, and tries to solve a problem in a logical manner.</p>
<p>System 2 disagreement is based (more or less) on factual information, which can be independently established. So, two parties should be able to agree on the relevant facts in order to reach a resolution.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Protestors holding a placard at a ULEZ Protest in Trafalgar Square, London." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552574/original/file-20231006-22-te1aky.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552574/original/file-20231006-22-te1aky.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552574/original/file-20231006-22-te1aky.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552574/original/file-20231006-22-te1aky.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552574/original/file-20231006-22-te1aky.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552574/original/file-20231006-22-te1aky.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552574/original/file-20231006-22-te1aky.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">February 2023: Protestors at a ULEZ Protest in Trafalgar Square, London.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/london-england-uk-february-25-2023-2267008193">Loredana Sangiuliano/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>However, the real problem is that these sources of disagreement are often conflated, especially in public debate forums. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10670-022-00616-9">Research</a> shows that when dealing with controversial decisions, people with extreme views are often more confident and therefore more likely to publicly comment. </p>
<p>As a result, arguments that are based on values or emotions might be more visible than those that are based on facts or logic. This, in turn, leads to increasing polarisation in public discourse. It could also give the impression that a debate is more fractious than it really is. </p>
<p>All of these problems appear to be particularly troublesome for Ulez and the wider debate on climate change. </p>
<h2>The path to constructive debate</h2>
<p>Discussion that is grounded in values and emotion can be valuable. These key parts of our human identity play a pivotal role in morality-based decision making. However, as psychologists, we believe that both individual people and society could benefit from more deliberative and fact-based thinking when dealing with controversial matters.</p>
<p>Regarding Ulez, fact-based exchanges should focus on questions like whether the expanded Ulez is expected to make a sizeable impact on air quality, and if there are sufficient support mechanisms for those who may be affected but lack the financial means to replace their vehicles.</p>
<p>There is a lot to be gained by recognising these different influences on disagreement. But emotions and values, for all their importance in our life, should complement and not fully replace an analytical outlook.</p>
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<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The psychology of disagreement offers insight into why there is such a strong polarisation in opinions surrounding London’s expanded Ulez.Emmanuel Pothos, Professor of Psychology, City, University of LondonLee White, Honorary Research Fellow, City, University of LondonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2110182023-09-29T12:23:25Z2023-09-29T12:23:25ZFrom pests to pollutants, keeping schools healthy and clean is no simple task<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549406/original/file-20230920-23-p1ptte.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C9%2C2117%2C1400&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Schools have more to manage than just their educational strategies.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/empty-primary-school-classroom-royalty-free-image/1498426360?phrase=school&adppopup=true">10'000 Hours/DigitalVision via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Parents send their children to school to learn, and they don’t want to worry about whether the air is clean, whether there are insect problems or whether the school’s cleaning supplies could cause an asthma attack.</p>
<p>But a research collaborative, of which I’m a member, has found that schools <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cppeds.2023.101407">might not be ready</a> to protect students from environmental contaminants.</p>
<p>I’m an <a href="https://entomology.tamu.edu/people/hurley-janet/">extension specialist</a> focused on pest management. I’m working with a cross-disciplinary team to improve compliance with environmental health standards, and we’ve found that schools across the nation <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cppeds.2023.101407">need updates</a> in order to meet minimum code requirements.</p>
<p>Everything from a school’s air and water quality to the safety of the pesticides and cleaning chemicals used there determine the safety of the learning environment. Environmental health standards can help a school community ensure each potential hazard is accounted for.</p>
<h2>Air, water and food quality</h2>
<p>So, what aspects of the school environment and student health need attention? For one, the air students and teachers breathe every day.</p>
<p>Understanding and controlling <a href="https://www.epa.gov/indoor-air-quality-iaq/indoor-pollutants-and-sources">common pollutants indoors</a> can improve the indoor air quality and reduce the <a href="https://www.epa.gov/report-environment/indoor-air-quality#health">risk of health concerns</a>. Even small things like dust and dander, <a href="https://extension.psu.edu/asthma-pests-and-pesticides">dead insects</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11869-017-0536-2">artificial scents</a> used to cover up smells like mold and mildew can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2021.11559">trigger asthma</a> and allergies. </p>
<p>Improving ventilation, as well as a school’s air flow and filtration, can help protect building occupants from respiratory infections and maintain a healthy indoor environment. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aeaoa.2022.100152">Ventilation systems</a> bring fresh, outdoor air into rooms, filter or disinfect the air in the room and improve how often air flows in and out of a room. </p>
<p>Upgrading ventilation in school buildings can improve air quality and reduce potential contaminants, including viral particles, in indoor spaces. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549412/original/file-20230920-23-si31ya.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A white ceiling with a flourescent light and a large, rectangular vent." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549412/original/file-20230920-23-si31ya.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549412/original/file-20230920-23-si31ya.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549412/original/file-20230920-23-si31ya.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549412/original/file-20230920-23-si31ya.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549412/original/file-20230920-23-si31ya.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549412/original/file-20230920-23-si31ya.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549412/original/file-20230920-23-si31ya.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Proper ventilation in schools can reduce pathogen spread and common allergy triggers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/air-conditioning-return-channel-aluminum-grille-on-royalty-free-image/1472415038?phrase=indoor+air+quality&adppopup=true">Penpak Ngamsathain/Moment</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It may seem like maintaining proper food safety and drinking-water quality would be common practices. But many schools do have <a href="https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-18-382">some level of lead contamination</a> in their food and water. </p>
<p>In 1991, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency published a regulation, known as the <a href="https://www.epa.gov/dwreginfo/lead-and-copper-rule">lead and copper rule</a>, to minimize lead and copper in drinking water. The <a href="https://www.epa.gov/ground-water-and-drinking-water/revised-lead-and-copper-rule">EPA’s 2021 revised lead and copper rule</a> aims to reduce the risks of childhood lead exposure by focusing on schools and child care facilities and conducting outreach. </p>
<p>But in December 2022, a team of scientists published a report on <a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.estlett.1c00845">lead and copper levels in drinking water</a>, and they found evidence that lead is still showing up in drinking water in Massachusetts schools. <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/lead-poisoning-and-health">No amount of lead</a> is safe to have in the water. </p>
<p>To combat contamination and ensure safe food and water, the Food and Drug Administration overhauled the <a href="https://www.fda.gov/food/guidance-regulation-food-and-dietary-supplements/food-safety-modernization-act-fsma">Food Safety Modernization Act</a> in 2016. This act has transformed the nation’s food safety system by shifting the focus from responding to foodborne illnesses to preventing them. It gives local health officials more authority to oversee and enforce supply chain safety. </p>
<p>Per <a href="https://www.fda.gov/food/guidance-regulation-food-and-dietary-supplements/food-safety-modernization-act-fsma">these new regulations</a>, every school cafeteria must be inspected by the local registered sanitarian at least twice a year to meet the minimum standards for their state and federal guidelines. </p>
<p>These inspections now include looking for entry points that might allow mice or rats to come in, finding areas with moisture buildup where flies, roaches or other insects can breed, and determining whether storage rooms are properly sanitized. </p>
<h2>Integrated pest management</h2>
<p>Even if a school has clean air, water and food, it still may not meet all the required <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/black-school-districts-funding-state-budgets-students-impact/">health standards</a>. Many schools have insect infestations, and many combat these pest problems with harsh chemicals when there’s a simpler solution. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.epa.gov/ipm">Integrated pest management</a> is an <a href="https://www.epa.gov/safepestcontrol/integrated-pest-management-ipm-principles#how_ipm-programs">environmentally sensitive approach</a> to pest management. Known as IPM, it combines commonsense practices like keeping doors and windows closed and making sure no food is left in classrooms overnight with other ways to help prevent pests from coming in. </p>
<p>IPM programs consider the pests’ life cycles and their larger environment, as well as all the available pest control methods, to manage pest infestations economically and scientifically.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.epa.gov/ipm/information-pests-schools-and-their-control">Common pests in schools</a> include ants, cockroaches and bedbugs. Ants enter looking for food, and cockroaches can travel in with backpacks or enter through small openings under doors or cracks in the seals around a window. Mice, cockroaches and ants can come into a kitchen or bathroom from plumbing pipes that aren’t properly sealed. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549410/original/file-20230920-27-m8uzzr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A cockroach standing on a white door trim facing downwards." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549410/original/file-20230920-27-m8uzzr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549410/original/file-20230920-27-m8uzzr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549410/original/file-20230920-27-m8uzzr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549410/original/file-20230920-27-m8uzzr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549410/original/file-20230920-27-m8uzzr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549410/original/file-20230920-27-m8uzzr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549410/original/file-20230920-27-m8uzzr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cockroaches can lurk in custodial closets and near drains at schools.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/cockroach-crawling-upside-down-on-the-wall-royalty-free-image/1330806808?phrase=cockroach">Narakhon Somsavangwong/iStock</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>In the fall, cockroaches reside in custodial closets, kitchens and other areas where floor drains might be. These bugs use the sewer drains to move about, so an IPM approach might include making sure the drains have plenty of water flooding through them and clearing out organic matter that the cockroaches might feed on. </p>
<h2>Green cleaning</h2>
<p>School administrators also determine what products to use for pest control and cleaning. With the intent to prioritize the safety of both the people inside the building and the environment, some schools have adopted a “<a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2021/09/210901090100.htm">green cleaning</a>” approach. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2015-09/documents/green-clean.pdf">Green cleaning</a> uses safer – or less harsh – chemical and pesticide products, since <a href="https://doi.org/10.1164/rccm.200612-1793OC">studies have found</a> that the repeated use of harsh chemicals indoors can lead to chronic health effects later in life for anyone directly exposed. </p>
<p>Products that contain ingredients like <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/hydrogen-peroxide/default.html">hydrogen peroxide</a>, <a href="https://www.acs.org/molecule-of-the-week/archive/c/citric-acid.html">citric acid</a> and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK493181/">isopropyl alcohol</a> are generally safer than products that <a href="https://www.chemicalsafetyfacts.org/chemicals/chlorine/">contain chlorine</a> <a href="https://www.acs.org/molecule-of-the-week/archive/a/ammonia.html">or ammonia</a>. </p>
<p>But the school’s job isn’t done, even after the infestation has been dealt with. Schools need a plan to manage their pollutants long term – these pollutants might be cleaning chemicals and pesticides or chemicals used in science classes. Preserving the school’s air quality requires a plan for storage and disposal of these materials. But finding the funds to correctly dispose of legacy chemicals can challenge already thin budgets. </p>
<p>Over the past decade, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention has worked with a variety of groups to develop the <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/healthyschools/index.htm">Whole School, Whole Community, Whole Child</a> initiative. This approach pulls together professionals, community leaders, parents and others to support evidence-based policies and practices. </p>
<p>The initiative has also led some states to develop <a href="https://www.dshs.texas.gov/texas-school-health/texas-school-health-advisory-committee-tshac/school-health-advisory-councils">school health advisory councils</a> that work with state departments of education and health to assist their local school districts with managing the indoor environment and student health.</p>
<p>When the school building is safe, students and educators are more able to get down to the business of learning, undistracted.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/211018/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Janet Hurley does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>For students to learn in a safe, healthy environment, school administrators must deal with a myriad of potential environmental contaminants, from allergens to cockroaches.Janet Hurley, Extension Program Specialist, Texas A&M UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2102462023-09-01T12:43:36Z2023-09-01T12:43:36ZNorth America’s summer of wildfire smoke: 2023 was only the beginning<p>Canada’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/yellowknife-and-kelowna-wildfires-burn-in-what-is-already-canadas-worst-season-on-record-211817">seemingly endless wildfires</a> in 2023 introduced millions of people across North America to the health hazards of wildfire smoke. While Western states have contended with smoky fire seasons for years, the air quality alerts across the U.S. Midwest and Northeast this summer reached <a href="https://www.epa.gov/outdoor-air-quality-data/air-data-daily-air-quality-tracker">levels never seen there before</a>.</p>
<p>The smoke left the air so unhealthy in Philadelphia on June 7, 2023, that the Phillies-Detroit Tigers Major League Baseball <a href="https://www.reuters.com/sports/mlb-wnba-nwsl-games-postponed-due-poor-air-quality-us-2023-06-07/">game was postponed</a>. That same week, New York City residents hunkered down indoors for several days as a smoky haze hung over the city, turning the skies orange and exposing millions of people to the worst air quality in the world.</p>
<p>Smoke also drifted into the Midwest, triggering the highest air quality index levels in the Chicago area in at least 24 years, forcing the cancellation of numerous summer activities and leaving residents with raspy voices. In several states, people woke up to smoky skies day after day.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A young man rides a rental bike along Chicago's Lake Michigan shore with smoke obscuring the view of the city skyline in the background." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/545610/original/file-20230830-29-xqvrh9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/545610/original/file-20230830-29-xqvrh9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545610/original/file-20230830-29-xqvrh9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545610/original/file-20230830-29-xqvrh9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545610/original/file-20230830-29-xqvrh9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545610/original/file-20230830-29-xqvrh9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545610/original/file-20230830-29-xqvrh9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Chicago was under air quality alerts several times during the summer of 2023 as wildfire smoke blew in from Canada.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/wildfire-smoke-clouds-the-skyline-on-june-28-2023-in-news-photo/1503491525">Scott Olson/Getty Images</a></span>
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<p>The pressing question on many people’s minds: “Is this the new normal?” From <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=CKRhPGIAAAAJ&hl=en">our perspective as</a> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=MHbvpzAAAAAJ&hl=en">air quality</a> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=QdkDnPgAAAAJ&hl=en">scientists</a>, we think the answer is likely “yes.”</p>
<h2>Global warming means more fires</h2>
<p>The wildfire smoke of 2023 highlights an emerging air quality trend. The U.S. had seen <a href="https://www.epa.gov/air-trends/particulate-matter-pm25-trends">decades of falling levels</a> of fine particulate matter pollution, PM2.5, thanks to environmental regulations and cleaner engines, factories and power plants. But wildfires’ contribution to air pollution is increasing again, resulting in flat or rising levels of air pollution in much of the country.</p>
<p>Climate models predicted this reality as global temperatures rise. Hotter, drier conditions, coupled with dry grasses and underbrush that accumulated over decades of fire suppression, have made large wildfires more common. Computer simulations of the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1112839109">future in a warming climate</a> show more smoky days, higher smoke concentrations, larger burned areas and higher emissions – which further <a href="https://doi.org/10.1139/er-2013-0041">fuel climate change</a>.</p>
<p><iframe id="EtQZH" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/EtQZH/3/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>While prescribed fire and forest thinning can help reduce the number and intensity of fire outbreaks, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.12.086">smoke exposure</a> is still likely to increase because of the increases in burned area anticipated as a result of large-scale shifts in temperature and moisture.</p>
<p>In short, people will need to learn to live with wildfire smoke. It won’t be every year, but we’re likely to see summers like 2023 more often.</p>
<p>Fortunately, there are several <a href="https://www.airnow.gov/wildfire-smoke-guide-publications/">tools and strategies for managing</a> a smokier future.</p>
<h2>Preparing for smoky days</h2>
<p>Managing the risk of wildfire smoke starts with making smart personal choices.</p>
<p>Think of smoke waves like heat waves: They’re easier to face if you’re prepared and know they’re coming. That means <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2023/06/07/best-air-quality-apps-wildfire-smoke/">paying attention to forecasts</a> and having face masks, air monitors and clean-air shelters available.</p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/wildfire-smoke-can-harm-human-health-even-when-the-fire-is-burning-hundreds-of-miles-away-a-toxicologist-explains-why-206057">Inhaling PM2.5 and the chemicals</a> in wildfire smoke can exacerbate asthma, worsen existing respiratory and cardiac problems and leave people more susceptible to respiratory infection. People caring for individuals <a href="https://theconversation.com/extreme-heat-and-air-pollution-can-be-deadly-with-the-health-risk-together-worse-than-either-alone-187422">sensitive to smoke</a>, such as young children <a href="https://theconversation.com/extreme-heat-is-particularly-hard-on-older-adults-an-aging-population-and-climate-change-put-ever-more-people-at-risk-210049">and older adults</a>, will need to plan for their needs in particular.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A baseball player standing beside the field adjusts a black mask over his face." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/544875/original/file-20230826-29778-8y1qhv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/544875/original/file-20230826-29778-8y1qhv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544875/original/file-20230826-29778-8y1qhv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544875/original/file-20230826-29778-8y1qhv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544875/original/file-20230826-29778-8y1qhv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544875/original/file-20230826-29778-8y1qhv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/544875/original/file-20230826-29778-8y1qhv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Pittsburgh Pirates center fielder Andrew McCutchen wore a face mask to protect against smoke in the air during a Pirates-Padres game on June 29, 2023, in Pittsburgh.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/andrew-mccutchen-of-the-pittsburgh-pirates-puts-on-a-mask-news-photo/1508118494">Nick Cammett/Diamond Images via Getty Images</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>To prepare, read up on the risks and warning signs from public health professionals. Living with wildfire smoke may mean using air filtration devices, wearing N95 or KN95 masks on bad air days, modifying outdoor commuting patterns and activity schedules and changing household ventilation choices.</p>
<h2>What schools and communities can do</h2>
<p>Living with smoke will also require changes to how schools, businesses, apartment buildings and government buildings operate.</p>
<p>Schools can start with <a href="https://www.cde.ca.gov/ls/ep/documents/airqualityguidance.pdf">setting a threshold</a> for canceling outdoor activities and making sure staff are ready to meet the needs of kids with asthma.</p>
<p>Building managers may need to rethink air filtration and ventilation and deploy air quality sensors. Communities will also need contingency plans for festivals and recreation venues, as well as rules for business to protect outdoor workers.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A school employee wearing a face mask and T-shirt with a big " src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/545608/original/file-20230830-15-p2h5n9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/545608/original/file-20230830-15-p2h5n9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=387&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545608/original/file-20230830-15-p2h5n9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=387&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545608/original/file-20230830-15-p2h5n9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=387&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545608/original/file-20230830-15-p2h5n9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=487&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545608/original/file-20230830-15-p2h5n9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=487&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545608/original/file-20230830-15-p2h5n9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=487&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Many schools installed better air filters and classroom air purifiers during spikes in the COVID-19 pandemic. Those measures may be necessary against smoky days in the future.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/eastern-h-s-custodian-raymond-woodfork-shows-tour-news-photo/1231802348">Michael S. Williamson/The Washington Post via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Decisions on how to deal with smoke can be complicated. For example, selecting an air purifier <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/ina.13163">can be a daunting task</a>, with over 900 products on the market. The effectiveness of different smoke management interventions are not well known and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD013441.pub2">can vary</a> depending on small implementation details, such as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1029/2021GH000482">how a mask fits</a> the wearer’s face, whether exterior doors and windows seal tightly and whether filters are installed properly and are replaced often enough.</p>
<h2>Improving smoke monitoring and forecasting</h2>
<p>The U.S. has an extensive air quality monitoring and forecasting system to help provide some early warning. It uses ground-based air quality monitors, satellite remote sensing systems to detect smoke and fires and <a href="https://fireaq.uiowa.edu">computer systems</a> that <a href="https://portal.airfire.org">tie observations together</a> with wind, <a href="https://fluid.nccs.nasa.gov/wxmaps/chem2d/?region=nam,">chemistry</a> and <a href="https://digital.mdl.nws.noaa.gov/airquality/?element=ozone01_bc&mapcenter=-96.00%2C40.00&mapzoom=5&subregion=CONUS&region=CONUS">weather</a>. These are supplemented by <a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/research/news/highlights/continued-success-u.s.-interagency-wildland-fire-air-quality-response-program">expert guidance</a> from meteorologists.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534612/original/file-20230628-19-5wd03e.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A map of North America shows wildfire smoke from fires in Alberta and Ontario, Canada, detected strongly with poor air quality in the Great Lakes region, Northeast and Midwestern U.S." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534612/original/file-20230628-19-5wd03e.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534612/original/file-20230628-19-5wd03e.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534612/original/file-20230628-19-5wd03e.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534612/original/file-20230628-19-5wd03e.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534612/original/file-20230628-19-5wd03e.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534612/original/file-20230628-19-5wd03e.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534612/original/file-20230628-19-5wd03e.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Smoke from wildfires in Canada was forecast across a large part of the U.S. on June 28, 2023. Dark purple dots indicate hazardous air quality; red is unhealthy; orange is unhealthy for sensitive groups; and yellow indicates moderate risk.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://fire.airnow.gov/">AirNow.gov</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>However, for average people trying to make decisions about the safety of outdoor activities, the current forecasting system is wanting. This is especially true when smoke blows in from fires far away, or when rapidly changing smoke emission rates and complex wind patterns lead to conflicting forecasts and advisories.</p>
<p>A few key improvements would go a long way for <a href="https://wpo.noaa.gov/improving-wildfire-prediction-with-convection-allowing-models/">practical decision making</a> around wildfire smoke, like whether to delay the start of soccer practice:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Knowledge of how fires evolve hour by hour can improve the smoke estimates going into the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1071%2Fwf18204">forecast models</a>. </p></li>
<li><p>Providing smoke forecasts at neighborhood scale can better inform individuals and cities of pending risks. </p></li>
<li><p>More accurate 10-day forecasts would allow communities to plan. </p></li>
<li><p>Merging seasonal weather forecasts of precipitation, humidity and winds with satellite assessments of fuel conditions could enhance emergency planning for firefighters to help anticipate which regions and periods present the highest risks of fire and smoke.</p></li>
</ul>
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/544874/original/file-20230826-15-1jljmc.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1"><figcaption>Satellite data tracks black carbon from wildfire smoke moving into the U.S. Northeast, June 3-8, 2023. <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/151442/hazardous-air-chokes-northeastern-states">NASA Earth Observatory video by Lauren Dauphin</a></figcaption></figure>
<p>Maintaining a strong air quality monitoring network is also important. State and local government agencies have reduced the <a href="https://www.gao.gov/assets/gao-21-38.pdf">number of ground monitors by about 10%</a> from its peak in 2001. Smoke estimates from satellites and low-cost portable sensors can help, but they work best when they can be cross-calibrated to a well-maintained network of high-accuracy monitors.</p>
<h2>We still have a lot to learn</h2>
<p>More effective adaptations to smoke will require more research to better understand the factors that make some people <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.6b06200">more vulnerable to harm from smoke</a>, the effects of cumulative impacts of exposures to environmental stressors and smoke over the life span, and the efficacy and cost-effectiveness of adaptations. </p>
<p>For example, clean-air shelters – the equivalent to a cooling center during extreme heat – are gaining attention, but there is only limited guidance on what constitutes a clean-air shelter and where and when they would be used. A 2023 Government Accountability Office report <a href="https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-23-104723">called for better coordination</a> to help target resources where they can be most effective.</p>
<p>Living with smoke is emerging as a new reality. Next-generation tools need to be both clear and resilient to the compound hazards that develop when smoke <a href="https://theconversation.com/extreme-heat-and-air-pollution-can-be-deadly-with-the-health-risk-together-worse-than-either-alone-187422">hits simultaneously with other challenges</a>, such as extreme heat.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/210246/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Charles O. Stanier receives funding from the National Science Foundation. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gregory Carmichael receives funding from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Peter S. Thorne receives funding from the U.S. National Institutes of Health and the Burroughs Wellcome Fund. </span></em></p>Thick smoke pouring in from Canada’s wildfires canceled baseball games and pushed air quality in major US cities to the worst in the world.Charles O. Stanier, Professor of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, University of IowaGregory Carmichael, Professor of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, University of IowaPeter S. Thorne, University of Iowa Distinguished Chair, Professor of Environmental Health, University of IowaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2114112023-08-27T13:32:37Z2023-08-27T13:32:37ZWildfire smoke is an increasing threat to Canadians’ health<iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/wildfire-smoke-is-an-increasing-threat-to-canadians-health" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p><a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/environmental-indicators/air-pollutant-emissions.html">Air quality in Canada has improved</a> over the past several decades, and <a href="https://www.stateofglobalair.org/sites/default/files/documents/2022-09/soga-2020-report.pdf">Canada’s air is among the cleanest in the world</a>. But that progress is threatened by smoke from wildfires, which are becoming <a href="https://doi.org/10.4236/jep.2018.95028">more frequent and more intense with climate change</a>. </p>
<p>Canada’s 2023 wildfire season is <a href="https://ciffc.net/statistics">the worst on record</a>, with more than 5,800 reported fires and over 15 million hectares burned to date. </p>
<p>Globally, <a href="https://www.stateofglobalair.org/sites/default/files/documents/2022-09/soga-2020-report.pdf">air pollution is a leading cause of death and disease</a>. One of the best indicators of health risk from air pollution is the concentration of very small particles called PM2.5 (which stands for particulate matter smaller than 2.5 micrometres). </p>
<p>PM2.5 particles can deposit deep in the lungs and long-term exposure can <a href="https://www.stateofglobalair.org/sites/default/files/documents/2022-09/soga-2020-report.pdf">cause a wide range of health effects including respiratory and cardiovascular disease, diabetes, lung cancer and pregnancy complications</a>. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abo3381">Health effects can occur even at low concentrations</a>, including those below current <a href="https://ccme.ca/en/air-quality-report#slide-7">Canadian Ambient Air Quality Standards</a>.</p>
<p>Wildfires produce enormous quantities of PM2.5 and several other hazardous pollutants. Wildfire smoke can travel long distances, <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2023/06/06/us/new-york-air-pollution-canada-wildfires-climate/index.html">exposing large populations — both close to and far away from fires — to very high concentrations of pollution</a>. </p>
<h2>The health impact of wildfire smoke</h2>
<p>The pollution mixture and chemical composition of wildfire smoke is often different from the pollution emitted by other sources, and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2023.3300">these differences may influence toxicity</a>. The toxicity of wildfire smoke also <a href="https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP2200">depends on the type of vegetation and burning conditions</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s40726-023-00272-9">may change as the smoke “ages” in the atmosphere</a>. This underscores the need to distinguish the health impacts of wildfire smoke from the impacts of other pollution sources. </p>
<p>Evidence linking wildfire smoke with adverse health effects has been accumulating for years and the notion that wildfire smoke is “natural,” and therefore less harmful than other types of air pollution, is not supported by the evidence. </p>
<p>Most studies have evaluated the relationships between daily changes in smoke levels and indicators of health such as emergency department visits, hospital admissions or deaths. </p>
<p>There is strong evidence that these “acute” exposures to wildfire smoke <a href="https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1409277">increase the risk of respiratory illness and death</a>, and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s12989-020-00394-8">evidence of effects on the cardiovascular system</a> is also growing. Older adults, people living in low-income areas, and those with asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), heart disease and other chronic conditions <a href="https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMsr2028985">are most susceptible</a>. </p>
<p>The health effects of wildfire smoke likely extend beyond the lungs and heart. Recent studies indicate that exposure during pregnancy may increase the risks of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2021.111872">preterm birth</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41370-020-00267-4">decreased birth weight</a>. Smoke may also <a href="https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP10498">reduce attention measured on cognitive tests</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2023.3300">increase dementia risk</a>. </p>
<p>More studies are needed, but these effects could have important implications for health during vulnerable stages of life. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2023.121041">Much less is known about the impacts of exposure to wildfire smoke over longer durations or from multiple episodes</a>. As more Canadians are exposed to smoke, and as the duration of the forest fire season increases, it will be critical to understand the long-term health impacts of repeated smoke exposure, especially among the most at-risk populations. </p>
<h2>Strategies to protect health</h2>
<p>Unlike <a href="https://doi.org/10.5772/9751">anthropogenic sources</a> of air pollution, emissions of wildfire smoke cannot be readily controlled at the source. But there are strategies that individuals and communities can use to reduce exposure and health risks. </p>
<p>Before fires begin, <a href="https://www.airnow.gov/publications/wildfire-smoke-guide/wildfire-smoke-a-guide-for-public-health-officials/">those with chronic conditions can discuss strategies for managing their health with their health-care providers, and ensure access to necessary medications</a>. During smoke events, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1104447">staying indoors can be beneficial</a> because buildings reduce exposure to outdoor-generated pollution when windows and doors are closed. </p>
<p>Correctly sized portable HEPA filter air cleaners can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2018.11.058">reduce indoor PM2.5 by as much as 80 per cent</a>. And well-fitting <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s40572-020-00296-z">N95 respirators (or comparable respirators designed and certified for occupational use) can reduce PM2.5 exposure</a> when outdoors or in transit. The <a href="https://weather.gc.ca/airquality/pages/index_e.html">Air Quality Health Index</a> and <a href="https://weather.gc.ca/firework/">smoke forecasts</a> can help Canadians decide when these strategies are needed.</p>
<p>These strategies also have limitations. For example, the recommendation to stay indoors assumes that individuals have stable and safe housing. It is also complicated by heat, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1097/ee9.0000000000000189">a major threat to health</a> that may <a href="https://doi.org/10.1164/rccm.202204-0657oc">amplify the effects of PM2.5</a>. </p>
<p>Portable air filters are prohibitively expensive for some families, they do not remove the gases found in wildfire smoke, and they will be less effective for those who spend time in other locations, such as outdoor workers. High quality respirators may be unavailable in some communities, may cause discomfort and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s40572-020-00296-z">a good facial fit will be impossible for many children and some adults</a>. </p>
<p>Government and public health agencies can help to offset some of these limitations and ensure more equal protection from smoke by providing <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2022.773428">accessible and clear messages to the public</a> and <a href="https://www.airnow.gov/publications/wildfire-smoke-guide/wildfire-smoke-a-guide-for-public-health-officials/">establishing clean air shelters in libraries, schools and other public buildings</a>. </p>
<p>Multiple overlapping strategies are needed to mitigate the health impacts of Canada’s worsening wildfires.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/211411/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ryan Allen has used portable air cleaners purchased at a discounted rate from Woongjin-Coway in his research.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stephanie Cleland does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The notion that wildfire smoke is ‘natural,’ and therefore less harmful than other types of air pollution, is not supported by the evidence. Wildfire smoke has been linked to adverse health effects.Ryan W. Allen, Professor, Faculty of Health Sciences, Simon Fraser UniversityStephanie Cleland, Assistant Professor, Faculty of Health Sciences, Simon Fraser UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2101702023-08-09T12:32:17Z2023-08-09T12:32:17ZAI can help forecast air quality, but freak events like 2023’s summer of wildfire smoke require traditional methods too<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541336/original/file-20230805-83673-xiqg41.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3494%2C2331&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Thick smoke rolling in from Canada's 2023 wildfires was a wakeup call for several cities.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/people-wear-masks-as-they-wait-for-the-tramway-to-roosevelt-news-photo/1258511415">Eduardo Munoz Alvarez/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Wildfire smoke from <a href="https://twitter.com/_HannahRitchie/status/1685583683707682816">Canada’s extreme fire season</a> has left a lot of people thinking about air quality and wondering what to expect in the days ahead.</p>
<p>All air contains gaseous compounds and small particles. But as air quality gets worse, these gases and particles can <a href="https://theconversation.com/extreme-heat-and-air-pollution-can-be-deadly-with-the-health-risk-together-worse-than-either-alone-187422">trigger asthma</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/wildfire-smoke-can-harm-human-health-even-when-the-fire-is-burning-hundreds-of-miles-away-a-toxicologist-explains-why-206057">exacerbate heart and respiratory problems</a> as they enter the nose, throat and lungs and even circulate in the bloodstream. When wildfire smoke turned New York City’s skies orange in early June 2023, <a href="https://gothamist.com/news/nyc-hospitals-saw-twice-as-many-asthma-er-visits-as-bad-air-blanketed-city">emergency room visits</a> for asthma doubled.</p>
<p>In <a href="https://www.airnow.gov/">most cities</a>, it’s easy to find a daily <a href="https://www.lung.org/clean-air/outdoors/air-quality-index">air quality index score</a> that tells you when the air is considered unhealthy or even hazardous. However, predicting air quality in the days ahead isn’t so simple.</p>
<p>I work on air quality forecasting as a <a href="https://cee.utk.edu/people/joshua-s-fu/">professor of civil and environmental engineering</a>. Artificial intelligence has improved these forecasts, but research shows it’s much more useful when paired with traditional techniques. Here’s why:</p>
<h2>How scientists predict air quality</h2>
<p>To predict air quality in the near future – a few days ahead or longer – scientists generally rely on two <a href="https://www.airnow.gov/aqi/aqi-basics/using-air-quality-index/#forecasts">main methods</a>: a <a href="https://www.airnow.gov/sites/default/files/2020-06/aq-forecasting-guidance-1016.pdf">chemical transport model</a> or a machine-learning model. These two models generate results in totally different ways.</p>
<p>Chemical transport models use lots of known chemical and physical formulas to calculate the presence and production of air pollutants. They use data from emissions inventories reported by local agencies that list pollutants from known sources, such as wildfires, traffic <a href="https://www.epa.gov/air-emissions-inventories/2020-nei-supporting-data-and-summaries">or factories</a>, and data from meteorology that provides atmospheric information, such as wind, precipitation, temperature and solar radiation.</p>
<p>These models simulate the flow and chemical reactions of the air pollutants. However, their simulations involve multiple variables with huge uncertainties. Cloudiness, for example, changes the incoming solar radiation and thus the photochemistry. This can make the results less accurate.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541950/original/file-20230809-15-9ddhgg.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A map shows many yellow dots through the Midwest. in particular, where wildfire smoke has been blowing in from Canada." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541950/original/file-20230809-15-9ddhgg.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541950/original/file-20230809-15-9ddhgg.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=404&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541950/original/file-20230809-15-9ddhgg.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=404&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541950/original/file-20230809-15-9ddhgg.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=404&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541950/original/file-20230809-15-9ddhgg.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=508&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541950/original/file-20230809-15-9ddhgg.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=508&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/541950/original/file-20230809-15-9ddhgg.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=508&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The EPA’s AirNow air pollution forecasts use machine learning. During wildfire events, a smoke-transport and dispersion model helps to simulate the spread of smoke plumes. This map is the forecast for Aug. 9, 2023. Yellow indicates moderate risk; orange indicates unhealthy air for sensitive groups.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://gispub.epa.gov/airnow/index.html">AirNow.gov</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Machine-learning models instead learn patterns over time from historical data to predict future air quality for any given region, and then apply that knowledge to current conditions to predict the future. </p>
<p>The downside of machine-learning models is that they do not consider any chemical and physical mechanisms, as chemical transport models do. Also, the accuracy of machine-learning projections under extreme conditions, such as heat waves or wildfire events, can be off if the models weren’t trained on such data. So, while machine-learning models can show where and when high pollution levels are most likely, such as during rush hour near freeways, they generally cannot deal with more random events, like wildfire smoke blowing in from Canada. </p>
<h2>Which is better?</h2>
<p>Scientists have determined that neither model is accurate enough on its own, but using the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2022.118961">best attributes of both</a> models together <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2023.107969">can help better predict the quality</a> of the air we breathe. </p>
<p>This combined method, known as the machine-learning – measurement model fusion, or ML-MMF, has the ability to provide science-based predictions with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2023.107969">more than 90% accuracy</a>. It is based on known physical and chemical mechanisms and can simulate the whole process, from the air pollution source to your nose. Adding satellite data can help them inform the public on both air quality safety levels and the direction pollutants are traveling with greater accuracy. </p>
<p>We recently <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2023.107969">compared predictions from all three models</a> with actual pollution measurements. The results were striking: The combined model was 66% more accurate than the chemical transport model and 12% more accurate than the machine-learning model alone.</p>
<p>The chemical transport model is still the most common method used today to predict air quality, but applications with machine-learning models are becoming more popular. The regular <a href="https://gispub.epa.gov/airnow/index.html">forecasting method</a> used by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s <a href="https://www.airnow.gov/">AirNow.gov</a> relies on machine learning. The site also compiles air quality forecast results from state and local agencies, most of which use <a href="https://www.epa.gov/cmaq">chemical transport</a> <a href="https://www.camx.com/">models</a>.</p>
<p>As information sources become more reliable, the combined models will become more accurate ways to forecast hazardous air quality, particularly during unpredictable events like wildfire smoke.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/210170/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Joshua S. Fu received funding from U. S. EPA for wildfire and human health studies. </span></em></p>Air quality forecasting is getting better, thanks in part to AI. That’s good, given the health impact of air pollution. An environmental engineer explains how systems warn of incoming smog or smoke.Joshua S. Fu, Chancellor's Professor in Engineering, Climate Change and Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of TennesseeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2078792023-07-05T21:06:31Z2023-07-05T21:06:31ZFresh air has long been seen as important for our health, even if we haven’t always understood why<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/535667/original/file-20230704-24289-i8a98e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=23%2C419%2C5152%2C3026&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Getting some fresh air has long been viewed as an important part of staying in good health. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The New Brunswick legislature recently passed a motion to improve indoor air quality in the province’s public buildings “<a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/new-brunswick/new-brunswick-clean-air-quality-public-buildings-covid-19-liberal-motion-passed-1.6870983">to reduce the spread of airborne illnesses, such as COVID-19</a>.”</p>
<p>There are many ways to improve the air we breathe indoors, including <a href="https://aghealth.ucdavis.edu/news/corsi-rosenthal-box-diy-box-fan-air-filter-covid-19-and-wildfire-smoke">filtration</a> and ventilation: bring fresh air in, send <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/publications/healthy-living/carbon-dioxide-home.html">exhaled air and contaminants</a> out. And we have <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/we-need-to-improve-indoor-air-quality-here-rsquo-s-how-and-why/">good reasons</a> for looking at indoor air quality. </p>
<p>From <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/air-quality-health-index/wildfire-smoke.html">wildfire smoke</a>, to industrial <a href="https://apnews.com/article/business-india-smog-new-delhi-gun-politics-2798027680d388b3aa49acb2193f6750">pollution</a>, many of us have felt the impacts of poor air quality and turned to air filters and respirators to cope. </p>
<p>The White House held a summit last year on <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2022/10/12/readout-of-the-white-house-summit-on-improving-indoor-air-quality/">improving indoor air quality</a> to reduce the transmission of COVID-19. This September, there will be a <a href="https://site.genevahealthforum.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=30">similar meeting in Europe</a> organized by the World Health Organization. </p>
<p>How new is all this? Well, it is and it isn’t. Eighteenth-century physicians were big advocates for ventilation as a way of reducing the transmission of contagious diseases, though not entirely for sound reasons.</p>
<h2>Ventilation and eighteenth-century medicine</h2>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/535625/original/file-20230704-21-9g7ccz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An engraving showing old ventilators." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/535625/original/file-20230704-21-9g7ccz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/535625/original/file-20230704-21-9g7ccz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=811&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535625/original/file-20230704-21-9g7ccz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=811&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535625/original/file-20230704-21-9g7ccz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=811&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535625/original/file-20230704-21-9g7ccz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1020&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535625/original/file-20230704-21-9g7ccz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1020&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535625/original/file-20230704-21-9g7ccz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1020&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An 1817 engraving showing ventilators by W. Lowry.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Wellcome Collection)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>I teach about eighteenth-century <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108632218.005">literature and medical writing in the British Isles</a>. In the 1700s, British physicians took advantage of new scientific approaches but had little technology to see what was going on. </p>
<p>They believed that most contagious illnesses spread through smelly decaying matter, or miasma, from rotting food, sick bodies and so on. This is called “<a href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/education/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/miasma-theory">miasma theory</a>,” and it was eventually replaced by <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/germ-theory">germ theory</a>. </p>
<p>Miasma theory meant that physicians associated bad smells with disease. But they also had the evidence of their eyes. Eighteenth-century physicians saw diseases spreading easily in crowded, poorly ventilated structures, from ships and jails to the homes of the poor. Ventilation made sense as a way to make people safer: blow out the bad air. It also seemed to make a difference when they used it.</p>
<p>So <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/03605310490500509">they acted</a>. In 1756, the British Navy ordered the installation of <a href="https://www.joehistorian.com/blog/2021/8/19/dr-hales-ventilator-and-the-seven-years-war">recently invented ventilators on ships</a>. A naval hospital required “<a href="https://wellcomecollection.org/works/yhkner4g/items?canvas=43">doors and windows to be opened for the purposes of ventilation</a>.” In 1802, the British parliament passed legislation requiring factories to have enough “<a href="https://oem.bmj.com/content/oemed/30/2/118.full.pdf">Windows and Openings…to insure a proper Supply of Fresh Air</a>.”</p>
<h2>Outbreaks in the Navy</h2>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/535624/original/file-20230704-9037-kx5ryw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An old engraving on a man in an 18th century outfit." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/535624/original/file-20230704-9037-kx5ryw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/535624/original/file-20230704-9037-kx5ryw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=780&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535624/original/file-20230704-9037-kx5ryw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=780&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535624/original/file-20230704-9037-kx5ryw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=780&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535624/original/file-20230704-9037-kx5ryw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=981&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535624/original/file-20230704-9037-kx5ryw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=981&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535624/original/file-20230704-9037-kx5ryw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=981&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A 1796 engraving of Thomas Trotter by English artist Daniel Orme.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Wikimedia)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In his 1797 book on naval medicine, physician and poet Thomas Trotter drew on his extensive experience at sea. He questioned both <a href="https://wellcomecollection.org/works/yhkner4g/items?canvas=199">miasma</a> and <a href="https://wellcomecollection.org/works/yhkner4g/items?canvas=194">germ theory</a>.</p>
<p>However, Trotter partly agreed with miasma theory. He was convinced that many contagious diseases, including smallpox, were spread by “<a href="https://wellcomecollection.org/works/yhkner4g/items?canvas=189">the exhalations of the sick</a>.” </p>
<p>We now know that smallpox was <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/laboratory-biosafety-biosecurity/pathogen-safety-data-sheets-risk-assessment/variola-virus.html">spread via respiratory droplets or fine-particle aerosol</a>. Trotter was basically right about the pathway for smallpox transmission — and a few other diseases — even though he was very wrong about how.</p>
<p>Eighteenth-century physicians had successes with the partial information they had. Trotter explains how they ended an outbreak of a “malignant fever” on a navy ship in 1791. They quarantined the sick, fumigated the vessel and “<a href="https://wellcomecollection.org/works/yhkner4g/items?canvas=449">the ventilators worked unremittingly day and night</a>.” </p>
<h2>Ventilation spreads</h2>
<p>These ideas spread widely beyond medical circles through literature and kept spreading after germ theory. Writers paid a lot of attention to “exhalations.” In his 1744 poem on health, John Armstrong wrote, “<a href="https://quod.lib.umich.edu/e/evans/N04464.0001.001/1:2?rgn=div1;view=fulltext">It is not air / That from a thousand lungs reeks back to thine</a>.” Dozens of poets repeated phrases such as “infectious breath,” from <a href="https://xtf.lib.virginia.edu/xtf/view?docId=chadwyck_ep/uvaGenText/tei/chep_1.1872.xml;chunk.id=d35;toc.depth=1;toc.id=d3;brand=default">Thomas Carew</a> to <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/29222/29222-h/29222-h.htm">Thomas Godfrey</a> and <a href="https://xtf.lib.virginia.edu/xtf/view?docId=chadwyck_ep/uvaGenText/tei/chep_3.0930.xml;chunk.id=d456;toc.depth=1;toc.id=d383;brand=default;query=neglected%20child#1">more</a>. </p>
<p>Like eighteenth-century doctors, nineteenth-century writers promoted ventilation and fresh air. In fiction, Jane Austen had her characters “<a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/121/121-h/121-h.htm">breathing fresh air</a>,” while Lady Morgan complained about “<a href="https://broadviewpress.com/product/the-obriens-and-the-oflahertys/#tab-description">thickly populated and ill ventilated</a>” streets helping to spread disease.</p>
<p>Some famous poets wrote about air so much that American literary critic M.H. Abrams remarked, “<a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4333734">That the poetry of Coleridge, Wordsworth, Shelley, [and] Byron should be so thoroughly ventilated is itself noteworthy</a>.”</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/535627/original/file-20230704-24289-cwk6cv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=14%2C298%2C9475%2C6018&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A ventilation duct on a ceiling." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/535627/original/file-20230704-24289-cwk6cv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=14%2C298%2C9475%2C6018&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/535627/original/file-20230704-24289-cwk6cv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535627/original/file-20230704-24289-cwk6cv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535627/original/file-20230704-24289-cwk6cv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535627/original/file-20230704-24289-cwk6cv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535627/original/file-20230704-24289-cwk6cv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535627/original/file-20230704-24289-cwk6cv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">From wildfire smoke to pollution, many of us have felt the impacts of poor air quality and turned to air filters and ventilation to cope.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Ventilation comes back</h2>
<p>By the 1840s, the public health debate was turning to <a href="https://victorianweb.org/periodicals/punch/publichealth/7.html">cleaner water</a>, as germ theory began to take hold. But advances in germ theory couldn’t erase the benefits of breathing fresh air from the public consciousness. Around 1850, journalist Henry Mayhew interviewed one Londoner who <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/55998/pg55998-images.html">said the following</a> about the city’s cheap housing: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“Nothing can be worse to the health than these places, without ventilation, cleanliness, or decency, and with forty people’s breaths perhaps mingling together in one foul choking steam of stench.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>In 1859, Florence Nightingale helped revive ventilation in healthcare. In her book <em>Notes on Nursing</em>, she emphasized, “<a href="https://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/nightingale/nursing/nursing.html">The air within as pure as the air without</a>.” </p>
<p>Fresh air was seen as critical during the 1918-1920 influenza pandemic as well. People were encouraged to <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-08-05/the-curious-history-of-steam-heat-and-pandemics">keep windows open</a> and move events outdoors, <a href="https://www.influenzaarchive.org/cities/city-sanfrancisco.html">including court proceedings</a>.</p>
<p>Now, <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/diseases/2019-novel-coronavirus-infection/health-professionals/main-modes-transmission.html">another pandemic</a> has got us talking about the importance of fresh air. The difference is this time we have better tools to measure and improve indoor air quality, and a much better understanding of why fresh air is good for us.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/207879/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Julia M. Wright receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. </span></em></p>Eighteenth-century writers worried about “infectious air,” so they opened windows and built ventilation systems to bring fresh air indoors.Julia M. Wright, George Munro Chair in Literature and Rhetoric, Dalhousie UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2073952023-06-09T20:27:12Z2023-06-09T20:27:12ZWildfire smoke FAQ: What’s happening with air quality right now and why? What are the risks? How do I protect myself short-term? What about long-term protection? Is this the ‘new normal?’<p>With wildfire smoke affecting most of North America, what are the best ways to minimize the health impacts of air pollution under climate change? Here are answers to some key questions about the ongoing air quality problems.</p>
<h2>What is happening with air quality right now?</h2>
<p>Many North Americans have never experienced local air quality as bad as it’s been this week. The <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-65856819">air quality has been poor across the most densely populated regions</a> in Canada and the United States. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.2c02934">Based on analysis starting in 2006</a>, the average U.S. population exposure to wildfire smoke is one of the highest estimated, and the highest over the eastern U.S. Air pollution levels, measured by the <a href="http://www.airqualityontario.com/aqhi/">Air Quality Health Index</a> in Canada, and the Air Quality Index in the U.S., have been considered high risk across much of Canada, and the eastern U.S. </p>
<h2>What is causing the poor air quality?</h2>
<p>Climate change is contributing to <a href="https://agriculture.canada.ca/en/agricultural-production/weather/canadian-drought-monitor/current-drought-conditions">unusually hot, dry weather</a> recently experienced over much of Canada. This <a href="https://cwfis.cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/maps/fw?type=fwi">creates conditions</a> that foster haze, smog and wildfires. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://firesmoke.ca/forecasts/current/">number and extent of fires burning</a>, and prevailing winds, means that the vast majority of Canadians across the country have been at least somewhat impacted by wildfire smoke this week. Winds are pushing smoke from western fires eastward across the north and Prairies. They have, during the worst air quality, swept smoke from fires in Québec directly into the most densely populated regions of the continent, contributing to <a href="https://heatmap.news/climate/wildfire-smoke-2023-worst-history">record-breaking pollution </a>in New York. </p>
<p>Those living nearest to the fires are affected by high levels of <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/publications/healthy-living/wildfire-smoke-health.html#wildfire">harmful particles and gases</a> directly emitted by the fires. Those in downwind regions are also affected, as small particles stay suspended in air for days, and hot gases from the fires cool and condense into even more particles, forming haze and smog. </p>
<h2>What are the risks to us?</h2>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531188/original/file-20230609-686-5ze7u2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="People on benches with a bridge and city view with haze in the background" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531188/original/file-20230609-686-5ze7u2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531188/original/file-20230609-686-5ze7u2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531188/original/file-20230609-686-5ze7u2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531188/original/file-20230609-686-5ze7u2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531188/original/file-20230609-686-5ze7u2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531188/original/file-20230609-686-5ze7u2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531188/original/file-20230609-686-5ze7u2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">People on the East River promenade are framed by the hazy Brooklyn waterfront skyline and the Manhattan bridge on June 8 in New York. Smoke from Canadian wildfires is affecting air quality in some of the most densely populated areas of North America.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Mary Altaffer)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The unhealthy levels of pollution we have now can impact our daily activities or affect travel due to poor visibility and haze. The current estimated cost of air pollution in Canada is $120 billion per year. The worst impacts are to human health. <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/publications/healthy-living/health-impacts-air-pollution-2021.html">Health Canada</a> estimates that air pollution is linked to more than 15,000 premature deaths in Canada every year.</p>
<p>Wildfire smoke, specifically, can cause throat irritation, coughing, headaches and can affect lung function even in healthy children. It is <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1409277">linked to acute respiratory symptoms</a> for people with asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Visits to doctors, emergency departments, and hospitalizations will increase. </p>
<h2>What can we do to protect ourselves in the short term?</h2>
<p>People can help protect themselves by paying attention to <a href="https://weather.gc.ca/airquality/pages/index_e.html">air quality alerts</a> and follow <a href="https://www.airnow.gov/sites/default/files/2021-03/air-quality-guide_pm_2015_0.pdf">associated guidance</a>. This guidance <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/air-quality-health-index/wildfire-smoke.html">typically involves reducing exposure</a> by limiting time outdoors when pollution is severe, especially for vigorous physical activity. </p>
<p>We need more evidence on who is most susceptible groups to wildfire smoke, specifically. However, based on evidence of the effects of air pollution, children, the elderly, pregnant women, and people with asthma and COPD, among others, should follow guidance for sensitive groups, which may mean remaining indoors. </p>
<p>Outdoor air can also get inside, especially in leaky homes with open doors and windows. When inside, keep your doors and windows closed, and run filtration, such as a central HVAC or heat pump system with an air filter, or run an indoor air purifier. Keep indoor air clean by reducing sources of smoke from tobacco, wood fireplaces, cooking and candles. When outside, wearing a well-fitting N95 mask offers protection from <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41370-020-00267-4">smoke particles</a>, but will not filter out harmful gases. </p>
<h2>What can we do to protect ourselves in the long term?</h2>
<p>My own research has shown that fighting climate change per our global agreement will help <a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.8b05094">reduce the rise</a> in air pollution. So will further reductions in other sources of air pollution, along with wildfire management strategies. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/wildfire-preparedness-and-response-must-include-planning-for-unhoused-people-and-other-vulnerable-populations-206851">Wildfire preparedness and response must include planning for unhoused people and other vulnerable populations</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Given, however, that wildfires — and days with poor air quality — will continue, we should also protect our most vulnerable with access to clean indoor environments. Outdoor air pollution unfairly affects <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abf4491">racialized</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0192461">socio-economically disadvantaged</a> communities, which also have lower access to shelter that keeps polluted air out. </p>
<h2>Is this a ‘new normal?’</h2>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531190/original/file-20230609-19-ynrpsy.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A cityscape across water, obscured by smoky haze" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531190/original/file-20230609-19-ynrpsy.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531190/original/file-20230609-19-ynrpsy.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=404&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531190/original/file-20230609-19-ynrpsy.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=404&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531190/original/file-20230609-19-ynrpsy.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=404&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531190/original/file-20230609-19-ynrpsy.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=508&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531190/original/file-20230609-19-ynrpsy.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=508&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531190/original/file-20230609-19-ynrpsy.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=508&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Delta Hotels Bessborough in Saskatoon is photographed through thick smoke from wildfires burning across the Prairies on May 20.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Heywood Yu</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Climate change has already played a role in rising wildfire risks over the last <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/chapter/chapter-11/">century</a>. Those risks are projected to further increase over parts of North America. Canadian research suggests that the conditions causing unmanageable wildfires <a href="https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aa7e6e">could more than double some risks</a> in parts of the country this century, including those currently experiencing fires. </p>
<p>Further, climate change is known to increase air pollution, both <a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5b01324">average</a>, and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1029/2021JD035985">extremes</a> levels. We can hope this will not be a new normal, but, to prevent that, we need to act to reduce these risks. </p>
<h2>What can we learn from this moment?</h2>
<p>This moment shows the risks we face if we do not address climate change and air quality together. We have made <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-021-01468-9">major gains in air quality</a> in North America over the last fifty years thanks to significant reductions in emissions of air pollutants. However, those reductions are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.8b05094">at risk</a> from the worsening effects of climate change.</p>
<p>This moment also shows the clear and tangible impacts of climate change on our health. Research, including <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate2342">a study I co-authored</a>, has shown that policy to fight climate change has big benefits for air quality, and those benefits alone can exceed the entire cost of a climate policy. Climate change is also a local health issue, and the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(15)60854-6">greatest opportunity</a> to equitably improve health of this century.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/207395/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rebecca Kaarina Saari receives funding from the Natural Science and Engineering Research Council of Canada, the Tri-Agency Institutional Programs, and the Royal Bank of Canada. </span></em></p>Answers to some of the most common questions about wildfire smoke, health risks and the air quality situation affecting most of North America.Rebecca Kaarina Saari, Associate Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of WaterlooLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2068512023-06-05T19:34:17Z2023-06-05T19:34:17ZWildfire preparedness and response must include planning for unhoused people and other vulnerable populations<iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/wildfire-preparedness-and-response-must-include-planning-for-unhoused-people-and-other-vulnerable-populations" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>The 2023 Canadian wildfire season is off to a roaring start. In Alberta, there have been more than 560 wildfires so far — <a href="https://www.arcgis.com/apps/dashboards/8d86d267dcf44ad085a11939186f3d3a">the highest recorded number of fires since 2018</a>, and the season has only just begun. Tens of thousands of residents have been evacuated and a <a href="https://www.alberta.ca/emergency.aspx">state of emergency</a> was declared across the province. </p>
<p>Wildfires are not new to the region. The <a href="https://open.alberta.ca/dataset/7cc619bd-56ce-488e-b007-cada28430589/resource/6c6560d3-0a8e-4550-b1d1-86e58409dea2/download/2016horseriverwildfirereview-mar2017.pdf">2016 Horse River/Fort McMurray Wildfire</a> was the worst wildfire and most costly disaster in recent Canadian history. Meanwhile, on the opposite side of the country, <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/americas/why-are-wildfires-raging-canadas-eastern-nova-scotia-province-2023-06-02/">Nova Scotia has already experienced a historic 200 wildfires</a>, resulting in a local <a href="https://beta.novascotia.ca/programs-and-services/state-emergency">state of emergency</a> in Halifax Regional Municipality and more than 25,000 displaced residents. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-wildfires-affect-climate-change-and-vice-versa-158688">How wildfires affect climate change — and vice versa</a>
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<p>As public health and disaster management scholars, our research focuses on how best to support the health of vulnerable populations in adverse situations, including through disasters, political challenges and geographic isolation. We have been devastated watching news coverage of the recent wildfires, including in one of our home provinces. However, we are not shocked. </p>
<p>With the impacts of climate change, wildfires in Canada will continue to intensify in strength and frequency. Enclosed shelter is paramount in reducing exposure to wildfire smoke. Yet, what happens to the <a href="https://www.homelesshub.ca/about-homelessness/homelessness-101/how-many-people-are-homeless-canada">nearly 35,000 unhoused Canadians</a> on any given night who cannot easily evacuate or shelter indoors? </p>
<h2>Impact on the unhoused</h2>
<p>Research suggests that unhoused people are most vulnerable in disasters as <a href="https://search.informit.org/doi/pdf/10.3316/ielapa.657064282083772">they are often the first to experience them</a> and <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13753-019-00228-y">often do not have the ability to prepare</a> or alleviate their risks. In particular, studies show unhoused people’s disproportionate risks to health during <a href="https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2021.306557">heat events</a> <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/isee.2022.O-OP-116">and wildfire</a> due to limited access to appropriate shelter. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/as-we-fight-the-alberta-and-b-c-wildfires-we-must-also-plan-for-future-disasters-205818">As we fight the Alberta and B.C. wildfires, we must also plan for future disasters</a>
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<p>Many unhoused people have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fjcop.22653">pre-existing health issues that can be worsened during disasters</a>. These include substance use disorder, mental illness and chronic conditions. For people with a substance use disorder, there can be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.7028">significant disruptions to accessing treatment medications and inequities in opioid-related deaths</a> in communities vulnerable to disasters. </p>
<p>Even for unhoused people outside of evacuated communities, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-020-00483-1">poor air quality caused by wildfire smoke can cause heat stroke, dehydration and respiratory illness</a>. </p>
<p>Despite these unique harms, unhoused people have <a href="https://search.informit.org/doi/pdf/10.3316/ielapa.657064282083772">limited access to resources and supports</a> that facilitate evacuation and post-disaster recovery. Both Alberta and Nova Scotia have relied on <a href="https://www.alberta.ca/emergency.aspx#jumplinks-7">the use of emergency alerts</a>, yet many unhoused people do not have access to technology for emergency alerts and are not eligible for <a href="https://www.alberta.ca/emergency.aspx?gclid=CjwKCAjwscGjBhAXEiwAswQqNEwrdKlEbH5Y7isYACe19_G8d6UG_nNV0LkbwtLYSwO0onHrv2RCSxoCfisQAvD_BwE#financialsupports">disaster relief support</a>. </p>
<p>Evacuation centres are open to all, yet <a href="https://www.samhsa.gov/dtac/disaster-planners/homelessness">stigma</a> and <a href="https://nhchc.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/disasterbrief092014.pdf">mistrust of authorities</a> can prevent access for the unhoused. Furthermore, research shows that authorities <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/15327086221130317">tend to provide more support for those who have lost their housing due to wildfires than those who were previously unhoused</a>. </p>
<h2>Planning for unique risks</h2>
<p>As many Canadian provinces are currently experiencing, extreme heat and wildfires are increasing in frequency and intensity. </p>
<p>Loss of housing and infrastructure compounds an already fragile housing environment, especially for renters and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-018-3556-9">Indigenous populations</a>. <a href="https://policyalternatives.ca/sites/default/files/uploads/publications/BC%20Office/2016/05/CCPA-BC-Affordable-Housing.pdf">A lack of affordable housing</a>, aggravated by disasters, further reduces the likelihood that people living precariously will secure permanent housing, which would better protect them during future wildfire seasons. </p>
<p>Although cooling centres open during extreme heat, <a href="https://www.edmonton.ca/programs_services/emergency_preparedness/extreme-weather">there are few respite centres during periods of low air quality</a>, particularly in the evening. Looking at other provinces, <a href="https://www.bchousing.org/sites/default/files/media/documents/Extreme-Heat-Response-Action-Plan%2B2022.pdf">Housing BC</a> and <a href="https://endhomelessnesswinnipeg.ca/wp-content/uploads/202206-Homelessness-Emergency-Response-Plan.pdf">End Homelessness Winnipeg</a> are working towards ensuring unhoused people are supported during extreme heat and wildfire smoke. However it is unclear how unhoused populations are being helped during the current wildfires. </p>
<p>Our concern as researchers is that there is an alarming lack of international, national and provincial plans or guidelines that consider the unique risks and needs of unhoused populations during wildfires. </p>
<p>What is apparent is that response <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fjcop.22653">often falls on service providers</a> who support the unhoused, despite adequate housing being <a href="https://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures/sr-housing/human-right-adequate-housing">an international human right</a> that should be the responsibility of the government. </p>
<h2>Support during disasters</h2>
<p>It is imperative for all levels of the Canadian government to consider how to best support unhoused people during disasters. </p>
<p>Looking at <a href="https://www.samhsa.gov/dtac/disaster-planners/homelessness">international responses to other disasters</a>, promising practices include trauma-informed and addictions/mental health training for emergency responders and evacuation personnel, outreach services, <a href="https://www.listoscalifornia.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/508_LIS_128_092820_DGH_4pp_web_dAf.pdf">developing inclusive materials for preparedness and response</a> (for example, flyers and handouts), providing inclusive low-barrier evacuation spaces, and <a href="https://nhchc.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/disasterbrief092014.pdf">dedicating resources to post-disaster recovery and support for the unhoused</a>. </p>
<p>Most importantly, any response must involve a co-ordinated partnership between community organizations, the government and those with the experience of being unhoused.</p>
<p>We need to better prepare for Canada’s wildfire season by including high risk and extremely marginalized populations, such as those who are unhoused, in emergency management plans and practices. Greater consideration of high-risk populations will ensure no one gets left behind.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/206851/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Holly Mathias receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) Vanier Canada Graduate Program and the University of Alberta. She is a member of the Canadian Students for Sensible Drug Policy - Edmonton Chapter. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ashleigh Rushton receives funding from the Canadian Immunization Research Network (CIRN) and the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR). </span></em></p>There is an alarming lack of disaster preparedness plans in Canada that consider the unique risks and needs of unhoused people during wildfires.Holly Mathias, PhD student, School of Public Health, University of AlbertaAshleigh Rushton, Postdoctoral Fellow, Health Sciences, University of The Fraser ValleyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2060572023-05-22T12:26:52Z2023-05-22T12:26:52ZWildfire smoke can harm human health, even when the fire is burning hundreds of miles away – a toxicologist explains why<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534623/original/file-20230628-27-qecwmv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=24%2C66%2C4001%2C2728&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Wildfire smoke filled the air at Chicago's Wrigley Field on June 27, 2023.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/CanadaWildfiresAirQualityGreatLakesBaseball/e86f2c376cb040da87a614b0abdb8861/photo">AP Photo/Kim Johnson</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>Smoke from <a href="https://www.ciffc.ca/">more than 100 wildfires</a> burning across Canada has been rolling into North American cities far from the flames. New York City, Denver, Chicago, Minneapolis and Detroit each made the list of the <a href="https://www.iqair.com/us/world-air-quality-ranking">most polluted cities in the world</a> at times in May and June 2023 because of the fires. The smoke has triggered air quality alerts in several states.</em></p>
<p><em>We asked <a href="https://www.umt.edu/biomedical-pharmaceutical-sciences/people/faculty.php?ID=1345">Chris Migliaccio</a>, a toxicologist at the University of Montana who studies the impact of wildfire smoke on human health, about the health risks people can face when smoke blows in from distant wildfires.</em></p>
<h2>What’s in wildfire smoke that’s a problem?</h2>
<p>When we talk about air quality, we often talk about PM2.5. That’s particulate matter 2.5 microns or smaller – small enough that it can travel deep into the lungs.</p>
<p>Exposure to PM2.5 from smoke or other air pollution, such as vehicle emissions, can exacerbate health conditions like asthma and reduce lung function in ways that can worsen existing respiratory problems and even heart disease.</p>
<p>But the term PM2.5 only tells you about size, not composition – what is burning can make a significant difference in the chemistry.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534612/original/file-20230628-19-5wd03e.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A map of North America shows wildfire smoke from fires in Alberta and Ontario, Canada, detected strongly with poor air quality in the Great Lakes region, Northeast and Midwestern U.S." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534612/original/file-20230628-19-5wd03e.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534612/original/file-20230628-19-5wd03e.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534612/original/file-20230628-19-5wd03e.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534612/original/file-20230628-19-5wd03e.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534612/original/file-20230628-19-5wd03e.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534612/original/file-20230628-19-5wd03e.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534612/original/file-20230628-19-5wd03e.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Smoke from wildfires in Canada was detected across a large part of the U.S. on June 28, 2023. Dark purple dots indicate hazardous air quality. Light purple indicates very unhealthy air; red is unhealthy; orange is unhealthy for sensitive groups; and yellow indicates moderate risk. AirNow.gov.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://fire.airnow.gov/">AirNow.gov</a></span>
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<p>In the northern Rockies, where I live, most fires are fueled by vegetation, but <a href="https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP3450">not all vegetation is the same</a>. If the fire is in the wildland urban interface, manufactured fuels from homes and vehicles may also be burning, and that’s going to <a href="https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/26460/the-chemistry-of-fires-at-the-wildland-urban-interface">create its own toxic chemistry</a>, as well. Chemists often talk about <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/climateandhealth/effects/wildfires.htm">volatile organic compounds</a>, (VOCs), carbon monoxide and PAHs, or <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/biomonitoring/PAHs_FactSheet.html">polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons</a> produced when biomass and other matter burns having the potential to harm human health.</p>
<h2>How does inhaling wildfire smoke harm human health?</h2>
<p>If you have ever been around a campfire and got a blast of smoke in your face, you probably had some irritation. With exposure to wildfire smoke, you might get some irritation in the nose and throat and maybe <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2021GH000578">some inflammation</a>. If you’re healthy, your body for the most part will be able to handle it. </p>
<p>As with a lot of things, the dose makes the poison – almost anything can be harmful at a certain dose.</p>
<p>Generally, cells in the lungs called <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK513313/">alveolar macrophages</a> will pick up the particulates and clear them out – at reasonable doses. It’s when the system gets overwhelmed that you can have a problem.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Illustration of a small section of lungs showing the alveoli and, within the alveoli, a close up of a microphage" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527320/original/file-20230519-27-a7wgjx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527320/original/file-20230519-27-a7wgjx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=914&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527320/original/file-20230519-27-a7wgjx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=914&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527320/original/file-20230519-27-a7wgjx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=914&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527320/original/file-20230519-27-a7wgjx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1148&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527320/original/file-20230519-27-a7wgjx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1148&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527320/original/file-20230519-27-a7wgjx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1148&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Where macrophages are found in alveoli, the tiny air sacs in the lungs.</span>
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<p>One concern is that smoke can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-31459-6">suppress macrophage function</a>, altering it enough that you become more susceptible to respiratory infection. A colleague who looked at lag time in the effect of wildfire smoke exposure found an <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2020.105668">increase in influenza cases after a bad fire season</a>. Studies in developing countries have also found increases in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2022.119055">respiratory infections</a> with people who are <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/thx.2010.147884">cooking on open fires</a> in homes.</p>
<p>The stress of an inflammatory response can also exacerbate existing health problems. Being exposed to wood smoke won’t independently cause someone to have a heart attack, but if they have underlying risk factors, such as significant plaque buildup, the added stress can increase the risk.</p>
<p>Researchers are also studying potential <a href="https://theconversation.com/breathing-wildfire-smoke-can-affect-the-brain-and-sperm-as-well-as-the-lungs-166548">effects on the brain</a> and <a href="https://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/doi/full/10.1289/EHP10498">nervous system</a> from <a href="https://www.epa.gov/isa/integrated-science-assessment-isa-particulate-matter">inhaled particulate matter</a>.</p>
<h2>When smoke blows over long distances, does its toxicity change?</h2>
<p>We know that the chemistry of wildfire smoke changes. The longer it’s in the atmosphere, the more the <a href="https://theconversation.com/wildfire-smoke-changes-dramatically-as-it-ages-and-that-matters-for-downwind-air-quality-heres-what-we-learned-flying-through-smoke-plumes-151671">chemistry will be altered</a> by ultraviolet light, but we still have <a href="http://doi.org/10.1016/j.etap.2017.08.022">a lot to learn</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A woman walks past the New York Stock Exchange building in the Wall Street district of New York. The sky is yellow-orange with wildfire smoke, a sky color common in apocalyptic films." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534624/original/file-20230628-17-7l230z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534624/original/file-20230628-17-7l230z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534624/original/file-20230628-17-7l230z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534624/original/file-20230628-17-7l230z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534624/original/file-20230628-17-7l230z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534624/original/file-20230628-17-7l230z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534624/original/file-20230628-17-7l230z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Wildfire smoke from Canada turned the skies in New York City an apocalyptic shade of orange on June 7, 2023.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/CanadaWIldfiresPhotoGallery/1601ea44e9bb4515ba755b4f6a7d5fa9/photo">AP Photo/J. David Ake</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>Researchers have found that there seems to be a higher level of oxidation, so oxidants and free radicals are being generated the longer smoke is in the air. The specific health effects aren’t yet clear, but there’s some indication that more exposure leads to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/8416763">greater health effects</a>.</p>
<p>The supposition is that more <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/research-and-innovation/en/horizon-magazine/four-times-more-toxic-how-wildfire-smoke-ages-over-time">free radicals are generated</a> the longer smoke is exposed to UV light, so there’s a greater potential for health harm. A lot of that, again, comes down to dose.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="The city skyline disappears as the viewer looks farther into the haze, which is coming from wildfire smoke." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534619/original/file-20230628-17-fz8urj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534619/original/file-20230628-17-fz8urj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534619/original/file-20230628-17-fz8urj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534619/original/file-20230628-17-fz8urj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534619/original/file-20230628-17-fz8urj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534619/original/file-20230628-17-fz8urj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534619/original/file-20230628-17-fz8urj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Haze from wildfire smoke envelopes the Minneapolis skyline on June 14, 2023.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/CanadianWildfiresAirQuality/4dedf9a42ab04009a3f199e415fb66b1/photo">AP Photo/Abbie Parr</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Chances are, if you’re a healthy individual, going for a bike ride or a hike in light haze won’t be a big deal, and your body will be able to recover. </p>
<p>If you’re doing that every day for a month in wildfire smoke, however, that raises more concerns. I’ve worked on studies with residents at Seeley Lake in Montana who were exposed to hazardous levels of PM2.5 from wildfire smoke for 49 days in 2017. We found a <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics8030053">decrease in lung function a year later</a>. No one was on oxygen, but there was a significant drop.</p>
<p>This is a relatively new area of research, and there’s still a lot we’re learning, especially with the increase in wildfire activity as the planet warms.</p>
<h2>What precautions can people take to reduce their risk from wildfire smoke?</h2>
<p>If there is smoke in the air, you want to decrease your exposure. </p>
<p>Can you completely avoid the smoke? Not unless you’re in a hermetically sealed home. The PM levels aren’t much different indoors and out unless you have a really good HVAC system, such as those with <a href="https://www.epa.gov/indoor-air-quality-iaq/what-merv-rating">MERV 15 or better filters</a>. But going inside decreases your activity, so your breathing rate is slower and the amount of smoke you’re inhaling is likely lower.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A satellite animation shows smoke moving from fires in Alberta across Canada and into New England." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527359/original/file-20230521-119053-ul9mif.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527359/original/file-20230521-119053-ul9mif.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527359/original/file-20230521-119053-ul9mif.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527359/original/file-20230521-119053-ul9mif.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527359/original/file-20230521-119053-ul9mif.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527359/original/file-20230521-119053-ul9mif.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527359/original/file-20230521-119053-ul9mif.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A satellite captures wildfire smoke on May 16, 2023.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.earthdata.nasa.gov/worldview/worldview-image-archive/canada-fires-16-may-2023">NASA EarthData</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We also tend to advise people that if you’re in a susceptible group, such as those with asthma, create a safe space at home and in the office with a high-level stand-alone air filtration system to create a space with cleaner air.</p>
<p>Some <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41370-020-00267-4">masks can help</a>. It doesn’t hurt to have a high-quality N95 mask. Just wearing a cloth mask won’t do much, though.</p>
<p>Most <a href="https://www.airnow.gov/">states have air quality monitors</a> that can give you a sense of how bad the air quality is, so check those sites and act accordingly.</p>
<p><em>This article was updated June 28, 2023, with smoke in Chicago, Minneapolis and Detroit and the latest map of smoke conditions.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/206057/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Christopher T. Migliaccio has received funding from the NIH and HRSA for his work in wood smoke health effects.
. </span></em></p>Fires in Canada have sent smoke across several US states, leaving cities including New York, Chicago and Denver with some of the worst air quality in the world – even far from the flames.Christopher T. Migliaccio, Research Associate Professor in Toxicology, University of MontanaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2023742023-04-21T14:53:29Z2023-04-21T14:53:29ZCooking pollutes your home and increases your health risks – but better ventilation will help<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520518/original/file-20230412-26-e1qwvo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=12%2C51%2C8531%2C5636&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Cooking can generate harmful indoor air pollutants.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/shocked-young-woman-looking-cooking-pot-792865270">Andrey Popov/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Most of us will spend more than <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/7500165">two-thirds of our lives</a> at home. But even indoors, <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/household-air-pollution-and-health">many people</a> will still be exposed to dangerous levels of air pollution – much of it resulting from cooking. </p>
<p>Food that is burned, seared or braised during cooking can produce tiny particles called particulate matter (PM2.5). Even food residue that collects in the oven or on the hob generates fine particles when burned. <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.0c00740">Research</a> finds that you could be exposed to around three times more particulate matter while preparing a roast dinner than if you were to walk through India’s polluted capital, New Delhi. </p>
<p>When inhaled, these particles can <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9491465/">affect the heart and lungs</a>, worsening asthma symptoms and contributing to reduced lung function and airways irritation, and increasing the risk of a heart attack. In 2019, roughly <a href="https://www.stateofglobalair.org">2.3 million deaths</a> worldwide were caused by long-term exposure to household air pollution.</p>
<p>Many countries are retrofitting their housing stock as a way of <a href="https://www.seai.ie/data-and-insights/seai-statistics/key-statistics/residential/">reducing carbon emissions</a>. The Irish government, for example, has pledged to <a href="https://www.seai.ie/home-energy/building-energy-rating-ber/understand-a-ber-rating/">retrofit half a million homes</a> by the end of the decade. Retrofitting homes offers millions of people the opportunity to both <a href="https://velcdn.azureedge.net/-/media/com/healthy-homes-barometer/hhb-2022/velux-hhb-report-2022.pdf">improve indoor air quality and reduce energy use</a>. </p>
<p>However, as retrofitting makes homes more airtight, ventilation needs to be properly managed and cannot depend solely on air leaking into the building to dilute concentrations of air pollutants. Without appropriate ventilation, the pollutants produced when cooking could be <a href="https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/5/4/e007298">prevented from escaping</a> into the atmosphere.</p>
<p>Homes in western Europe have long relied on natural ventilation, so the move towards airtight homes requires some life adjustments from their occupants.</p>
<h2>Ventilating our homes</h2>
<p>As part of retrofitting, homes will often have mechanical ventilation systems installed. This could be as simple as a cooker hood in the kitchen or an exhaust fan in the bathroom. But some homes will instead be equipped with a full service heating, ventilation and air conditioning system that takes in and cleans outside air, before cooling or heating it. </p>
<p>A cooker hood is a canopy that covers the cooking area with a built-in fan, sucking air through a series of filters before venting it outside. Using your cooker hood is one of the most effective ways to reduce your exposure to particulate matter while cooking. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360132321008441">Research</a> finds that you could be exposed to around 90% less PM2.5 when cooking with a hood than without air extraction.</p>
<p>However, user behaviour can limit their effectiveness and the ability of the ventilation system to work correctly. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="The interior of a kitchen with the cooker hood in the centre." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520522/original/file-20230412-28-6fv3pd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520522/original/file-20230412-28-6fv3pd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520522/original/file-20230412-28-6fv3pd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520522/original/file-20230412-28-6fv3pd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520522/original/file-20230412-28-6fv3pd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520522/original/file-20230412-28-6fv3pd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520522/original/file-20230412-28-6fv3pd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A cooker hood reduces your exposure to PM2.5 while cooking.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/modern-clean-interior-kitchen-cooking-utensils-1160689231">Andriy Blokhin/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Risks remain</h2>
<p>Last year, we <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360132322004723">surveyed</a> 14 Irish homes that had been retrofitted at least 12 months earlier. We found that cooker hoods that meet the appropriate regulations are still often not used as intended. </p>
<p>We also found that half the homeowners surveyed did not understand how to use their ventilation system correctly. They said the main reason for this was a poor handover process, with information on how to operate these systems deemed to be insufficient. </p>
<p>Our study revealed that 70% of the homeowners surveyed were unaware of how to maintain their home’s ventilation system to ensure it continued to work effectively. A lack of maintenance can cause the ventilation system to become noisy and may reduce people’s willingness to use it. </p>
<p>Most homeowners were unaware of the sources and health risks of indoor particulate matter exposure and how this was related to cooking. It is a longstanding concern that occupants <a href="https://www.cpsc.gov/Safety-Education/Safety-Guides/Home/The-Inside-Story-A-Guide-to-Indoor-Air-Quality">need to be better informed</a> about the risks of indoor air pollution. </p>
<h2>How to reduce your exposure when cooking</h2>
<p>There are, however, several simple tips that people should follow to reduce their exposure to poor air quality when cooking. </p>
<p>Food residue that is stuck on the hob will start to burn <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360132321008441">as soon as the hob is turned on</a>. Your exposure to airborne particles will therefore increase as soon as you begin cooking. </p>
<p>So, if you have a cooker hood, turn it on before you start cooking and leave it running for 10–15 minutes after you stop. This way, the concentration of particulate matter is unlikely to rise to unsafe levels and will dissipate quickly once you have finished cooking. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A picture of a dirty hob." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520524/original/file-20230412-26-1i8t9k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520524/original/file-20230412-26-1i8t9k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=413&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520524/original/file-20230412-26-1i8t9k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=413&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520524/original/file-20230412-26-1i8t9k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=413&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520524/original/file-20230412-26-1i8t9k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=519&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520524/original/file-20230412-26-1i8t9k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=519&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520524/original/file-20230412-26-1i8t9k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=519&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Food residue that is stuck on the hob will start to burn as soon as the hob is turned on.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/close-very-dirty-ceramic-kitchen-stove-1053320747">cunaplus/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The cooker hood removes particles generated from the back rings of a hob more easily than from the front rings, where more pollutants can escape into the room. Using the back burners or cooker rings is therefore an effective way of reducing your exposure to harmful indoor air pollutants. </p>
<p>You can even pair your cooker hood with PM2.5 sensors to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378778823001627">reduce your exposure further</a>. These sensors provide alerts on pollutant levels and allow smart control of the hood, so it is switched on at specific times, for example, or when PM2.5 levels reach a certain threshold. </p>
<p>It is equally important to have your cooker hood inspected and maintained annually by the installers. Like servicing your car or boiler, getting your ventilation system maintained each year will ensure it continues to work effectively.</p>
<p>Cooking at home can increase our exposure to harmful air pollutants. In energy efficient homes, people need to be informed about how best to use their mechanical ventilation system to avoid such exposure. Adjusting to these systems will take some time, but through some simple tips and <a href="https://www.gov.ie/pdf/?file=https://assets.gov.ie/234808/63f05795-f067-41c0-a559-b8ab030f0297.pdf#page=null">information</a>, we can reduce our exposure.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/202374/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Asit Kumar Mishra is funded by Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland. He is a member of International Society of Indoor Air Quality and Climate and the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Marie Coggins received funding from the Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland (SEAI) - 2018 National Energy Research, Development & Demonstration Funding Programme. Radon monitoring in the same research project, was funded by the Irish Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The project team would like to thank the homes who participated in this study. Coggins is an Irish representative and board member on the International Energy Agencies, Technology collaboration Programme - Annex 5, Air Infiltration and Ventilation Centre (AIVC).</span></em></p>We’re all exposed to harmful air pollution when cooking – but retrofitting our homes to save energy may complicate matters.Asit Kumar Mishra, Postdoctoral Researcher, University of GalwayMarie Coggins, Senior lecturer in Exposure Science, University of GalwayLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2021972023-04-11T01:41:55Z2023-04-11T01:41:55ZOwning houseplants can boost your mental health – here’s how to pick the right one<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518448/original/file-20230330-390-mpih7w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=49%2C0%2C5472%2C3637&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Some houseplants are better than others at lifting our spirits.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/woman-buying-flowers-pushing-shopping-cart-2240764423">adriaticfoto/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In both <a href="https://academic.oup.com/bjd/article/164/4/848/6642849">Europe</a> and the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11477521/">US</a>, people spend up to 90% of their time indoors. But spending so much time inside can have consequences for your mental health. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/depression">World Health Organization</a> estimates that 5% of adults globally suffer from depression. Stress, depression and anxiety also accounted for <a href="https://www.hse.gov.uk/statistics/dayslost.htm">55% of all working days lost</a> in the UK during the year 2021-22. Small improvements in our mental health can bring significant personal and financial rewards. </p>
<p>For those of us who are stuck inside all day, houseplants are an easy way of connecting with nature. This is particularly true for young people, many of whom may lack access to a garden. </p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Quarter life, a series by The Conversation" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><em><strong><a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/quarter-life-117947?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=UK+YP2022&utm_content=InArticleTop">This article is part of Quarter Life</a></strong>, a series about issues affecting those of us in our twenties and thirties. From the challenges of beginning a career and taking care of our mental health, to the excitement of starting a family, adopting a pet or just making friends as an adult. The articles in this series explore the questions and bring answers as we navigate this turbulent period of life.</em></p>
<p><em>You may be interested in:</em></p>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-doomism-is-bad-storytelling-hope-is-much-more-effective-at-triggering-action-202401">Climate doomism is bad storytelling – hope is much more effective at triggering action</a></em></p>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-rewire-your-brain-to-feel-good-on-mondays-199236">How to rewire your brain to feel good on Mondays</a></em></p>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/taking-a-mental-health-day-can-be-good-for-you-heres-how-to-make-the-most-of-one-186493?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=UK+YP2022&utm_content=InArticleTop?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=UK+YP2022&utm_content=InArticleTop">Taking a mental health day can be good for you – here’s how to make the most of one</a></em></p>
<hr>
<p>Indoor plants have several mental and physical health benefits. <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/19/12/7454">Research</a> has linked houseplants to reduced stress, lower blood pressure and an improved state of mind. And office environments with plants have been associated with <a href="https://journals.ashs.org/hortsci/view/journals/hortsci/43/1/article-p183.xml">higher job satisfaction</a> and <a href="https://journals.ashs.org/horttech/view/journals/horttech/10/1/article-p46.xml?tab_body=pdf">reduced health complaints</a>.</p>
<p>Houseplants make us feel good due to our <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=GAO8BwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP6&dq=biophilic+hypothesis&ots=pmuhMDJYpY&sig=Isej07-3fU9I1po3uX4k9UoANgI&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=biophilic%20hypothesis&f=false">inherent desire to connect with nature</a>, and because we consider the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/col.20597">green colours</a> of most houseplants to be calming. Adding just a single plant can brighten up a dull space and boost your mood. But which should you choose?</p>
<h2>Lush greenery</h2>
<p>Last year, with colleagues from the University of Reading and the <a href="https://www.rhs.org.uk/?utm_source=google&utm_medium=cpc&utm_campaign=17599895670&utm_adgroup=136955025566&utm_term=royal%20horticultural%20society&utm_content=606881667002&gclid=CjwKCAjw5pShBhB_EiwAvmnNV_qUwNLOrsD3tEjHXSaMKiNnY6T0tJU9zURAIIgo-u5O5csx52SepRoCOYMQAvD_BwE&gclsrc=aw.ds">Royal Horticultural Society</a>, I investigated the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360132322003882#bib41">psychological responses</a> of 520 people to the appearance of different houseplants through an online photo-questionnaire. Participants viewed 12 photographs of plants in various different shapes, and answered questions based on their opinion of the plant’s appearance. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517263/original/file-20230323-28-apwr4h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="The houseplants assessed by study participants." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517263/original/file-20230323-28-apwr4h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517263/original/file-20230323-28-apwr4h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=288&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517263/original/file-20230323-28-apwr4h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=288&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517263/original/file-20230323-28-apwr4h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=288&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517263/original/file-20230323-28-apwr4h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=362&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517263/original/file-20230323-28-apwr4h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=362&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517263/original/file-20230323-28-apwr4h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=362&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The houseplants assessed by study participants.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">Jenny Berger</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The participants identified their favourite and least-favourite plant. They then used scales comprising six pairs of contrasting adjectives to score different aspects of each plant’s appearance. They also rated how beneficial they perceived each plant to be for wellbeing and air quality. </p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518440/original/file-20230330-14-h3qw7u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A pothos plant on a wooden shelf." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518440/original/file-20230330-14-h3qw7u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518440/original/file-20230330-14-h3qw7u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518440/original/file-20230330-14-h3qw7u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518440/original/file-20230330-14-h3qw7u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518440/original/file-20230330-14-h3qw7u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518440/original/file-20230330-14-h3qw7u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518440/original/file-20230330-14-h3qw7u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Pothos (pictured), weeping fig and palm delivered the greatest sense of wellbeing to participants.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/beautiful-satin-pothos-plant-on-wooden-1318173557">Rattiya Lamrod/Shutterstock</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>The eight plant species included in our study were: <a href="https://www.thespruce.com/grow-weeping-fig-indoors-1902440">weeping fig</a>, <a href="https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/16430/sansevieria-trifasciata/details">mother-in-law’s tongue</a>, <a href="https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/types/cacti-succulents/houseplants">cactus</a>, <a href="https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/119598/maranta-leuconeura/details">prayer plant</a>, <a href="https://www.thespruce.com/grow-asplenium-nidus-ferns-1902716">bird’s nest fern</a>, <a href="https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/32104/epipremnum-pinnatum-aureum/details">golden pothos</a> (or devil’s ivy), <a href="https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/31916/dracaena-marginata-(v)/details">dragon tree</a>, and <a href="https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/types/trees/palms-exotic">palm</a> – both as a healthy and neglected plant. Each of these plants are found in homes and offices throughout the UK.</p>
<p>Overall, participants perceived that all green and healthy plants would benefit their wellbeing. But three plants in particular – pothos, weeping fig and palm – were believed to deliver the greatest sense of wellbeing. These benefits improved as plant attractiveness increased. In contrast, unhealthy plants were perceived negatively. </p>
<p>Our findings suggest that plants with lush green leaves, high leaf area and dense canopies are likely to give the biggest boost to your wellbeing. People also believe that these plants will provide greater benefits to air quality. </p>
<p>So, to keep plants looking attractive, consider purchasing those that are easy to maintain such as mother-in-law’s tongue, <a href="https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/19185/zamioculcas-zamiifolia/details">zamioculcas zamiifolia</a> (commonly called the ZZ plant), pothos, or a <a href="https://www.rhsplants.co.uk/bomcard/_/chlorophytum/chlorophytum-comosum-variegatum-spider-plant-and-pot-cover-combination/classid.2000028188/">spider plant</a>. These can all tolerate a range of conditions and require little watering. </p>
<h2>Leaf shape</h2>
<p><a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01759.x?journalCode=pssa">Psychological studies</a> have shown that curved objects elicit positive emotions in humans. Our research demonstrates that these outcomes also apply to houseplants.</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518444/original/file-20230330-21-ias6u3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A dracaena flower in a ceramic pot standing on a table." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518444/original/file-20230330-21-ias6u3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518444/original/file-20230330-21-ias6u3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518444/original/file-20230330-21-ias6u3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518444/original/file-20230330-21-ias6u3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518444/original/file-20230330-21-ias6u3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518444/original/file-20230330-21-ias6u3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518444/original/file-20230330-21-ias6u3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">The dragon tree was less preferred by participants.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/dracaena-flower-ceramic-pot-stands-on-2023017578">Elena Medoks/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>Plants with rounded leaves such as weeping fig and pothos, or palm with its gentle arching canopy shape, were seen by participants of our study to be more beautiful and relaxing. Some plants, including palm, also evoked happy memories. This is because they are often associated with holidays or tropical destinations.</p>
<p>Plants with spikes, narrow pointed leaves and sparse canopies, such as cactus and dragon tree, were less preferred. This is possibly due to the association of sharp edges with danger. </p>
<p>However, sharp features can sometimes be advantageous. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0272494416300330">One study</a> shows that houses surrounded by sharp-leafed plants were more expensive and evaluated as safer than houses surrounded by round-leafed plants.</p>
<h2>What do you want from your plants?</h2>
<p>Ultimately, the right houseplant for you depends on what you need it for and your room’s conditions.</p>
<p>Humans generally prefer looking at shapes which the brain can <a href="https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/35428/chapter-abstract/303190946?redirectedFrom=fulltext">recognise quickly and process easily</a>. When seeking a calming effect, choose plants that are sufficiently interesting to attract your attention – such as the pothos with its trailing vines – but select plants with striking patterns and bold colours in smaller numbers.</p>
<p>Plants with a dramatic appearance would be more appropriate as “feature plants”, to generate a focal point. Grouping different plant shapes and colours together in arrangements can further generate interest, while choosing decorative pots or planters can enhance the effect even more.</p>
<p>When deciding on the number of plants required for maximum benefit, more is not necessarily better – a single, carefully chosen houseplant may be all we need to lift our mood. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S027249440290232X">Research from Japan</a> found that the presence of leafy plants can enhance creativity in workplace tasks. But, if you are undertaking a task that requires focused attention, too many plants may prove a distraction.</p>
<p>Houseplants can benefit our mental health. But when choosing between plants, their appearance matters. For the biggest boost to your wellbeing, key aspects to consider are physical appearance, interestingness, beauty, and how healthy the plant looks. Keeping your plants green and healthy will help lift your spirits, so choose plants suited to your space that you can maintain easily.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/202197/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jenny Berger does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Houseplants can lift our spirits – but not all plants have the same effect.Jenny Berger, Post-Doctoral researcher, University of ReadingLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2018132023-03-20T17:29:02Z2023-03-20T17:29:02ZAir pollution can increase the risk of COVID infection and severe disease – a roundup of what we know<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516084/original/file-20230317-18-5ji4kc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=5%2C0%2C3465%2C2237&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/factory-pipe-polluting-air-against-sunset-428369278">Tatiana Grozetskaya/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The early part of the COVID pandemic led to a <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2006853117">significant reduction in air pollution</a> in many parts of the world. With lockdowns, travel restrictions and decreased economic activity, there was a noticeable drop in the emission of air pollutants, such as nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) and particulate matter (PM) that is fine enough to be inhaled.</p>
<p>Changes in air pollution <a href="https://aiche.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ep.13672">varied</a> depending on the location and the type of pollutant, but reductions were particularly noticeable in cities and industrial areas, where emissions from transport and industrial activities are typically high. In many areas though, air pollution levels <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212095520304387">quickly increased again</a> as restrictions eased and activity resumed.</p>
<p>Along with having harmful effects on the environment, it’s well established that air pollution can have <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ambient-(outdoor)-air-quality-and-health">negative effects on human health</a>, including increasing the risk of respiratory and heart problems and cancers. Emerging research suggests air pollution may also <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/health-matters-air-pollution/health-matters-air-pollution">affect the brain</a> and be linked to certain developmental issues in babies. The severity of these health effects can depend on the type and concentration of pollutants, as well as individual factors that affect a person’s susceptibility.</p>
<p>While there has been much focus on the way the pandemic affected air quality, it has also become apparent that air quality affects COVID risk – both in terms of the likelihood of contracting COVID and <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/media/imperial-college/medicine/sph/environmental-research-group/ReportfinalAPCOVID19_v10.pdf">how sick people get</a> with the infection.</p>
<h2>How does air quality increase COVID risk?</h2>
<p>Research has shown that long-term exposure to air pollution, particularly fine particulate matter under 2.5 micrometres (PM2.5) and NO₂, may increase the <a href="https://oem.bmj.com/content/79/3/192">risk of COVID infection</a>, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8662216/">hospitalisation</a>, and <a href="https://www.atsjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1164/rccm.202104-0845OC">death</a>. </p>
<p>A study in England, for example, showed long-term exposure to PM2.5 and NO₂ is associated with <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0269749120365489?via%3Dihub">12% and 5% increases</a> in COVID cases, respectively, for every additional microgram of PM2.5 or NO₂ per cubic metre of air.</p>
<p>One of the primary ways that air pollution may increase the risk of COVID is by weakening the respiratory system’s defences against viral infections. We know long-term exposure to fine particulate matter that is inhaled can <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28887033/">reduce the lungs’ immune responses</a> and cause damage to them, which can make people <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969715303442?via%3Dihub">more vulnerable to respiratory infections</a> like COVID.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/long-covid-linked-to-air-pollution-exposure-in-young-adults-new-study-201217">Long COVID linked to air pollution exposure in young adults – new study</a>
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<p>Air pollution can also impact the immune system’s ability to fight off viral infections. Exposure to particulate matter, such as PM2.5, has been linked to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006291X17317722">increased levels of cytokines</a> and inflammation in the body. </p>
<p>Cytokines are signalling molecules that help the immune system fight infections. But high levels can cause a “cytokine storm”, where the immune system overreacts and attacks healthy cells in addition to the virus. Cytokine storms have been associated with <a href="https://virologyj.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12985-022-01814-1">severe COVID</a> and a higher likelihood of dying from the disease. </p>
<p>And notably, COVID binds to <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-the-ace2-receptor-how-is-it-connected-to-coronavirus-and-why-might-it-be-key-to-treating-covid-19-the-experts-explain-136928">ACE2 receptors</a> to enter a cell. In studies of animals, PM2.5 exposure has been linked to a significant increase in ACE2 receptors. PM2.5 may therefore increase the probability of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7345938/">COVID entering cells</a> in humans.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A crowd of people walking a New York street wearing masks." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516089/original/file-20230317-386-adia4k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516089/original/file-20230317-386-adia4k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=316&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516089/original/file-20230317-386-adia4k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=316&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516089/original/file-20230317-386-adia4k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=316&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516089/original/file-20230317-386-adia4k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516089/original/file-20230317-386-adia4k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516089/original/file-20230317-386-adia4k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">There are a variety of factors which could explain why air pollution increases COVID risk.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/new-york-circa-january-2021-crowd-1890321925">blvdone/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>Further, air pollution may increase the severity of COVID symptoms by exacerbating underlying health conditions. Exposure to air pollution has been linked to <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/health-matters-air-pollution/health-matters-air-pollution">increased rates</a> of conditions such as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1043276015000843?casa_token=N2D8-T3GGz4AAAAA:xL0-n0uPjDRpZ49t8c-sLumAIp22CCJs0LtbantlVi2iMMAp2kt6jpgMna3euFWLIeVcSl0">diabetes</a> and <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(16)30375-0/fulltext">heart disease</a>, which have been identified as <a href="https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/11/5/e044684">risk factors for severe COVID</a>.</p>
<p>Air pollution may also increase COVID transmission rates by acting as a carrier for the virus. Researchers continue to debate the potential of respiratory droplets from infected people <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7345938/">attaching to particulate matter</a> in the air and travelling long distances, potentially increasing the virus’s spread. </p>
<h2>How can I reduce exposure to air pollutants?</h2>
<p>With all this in mind, reducing air pollution levels may be an important strategy for <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7345938/">mitigating the impact of COVID</a> and protecting public health.</p>
<p>This requires a combination of individual actions and collective efforts to address the sources of pollution. There are several ways you can decrease your and others’ exposure to air pollution, including:</p>
<p><strong>Limit outdoor activity during high-pollution days.</strong> <a href="https://uk-air.defra.gov.uk">Check air quality forecasts</a> and limit outdoor activities on “high” days. Try to go outside at times of the day when pollution levels are lower, such as early morning or late evening.</p>
<p><strong>Think about your mode of transport.</strong> Using public transport, walking or riding a bike <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140673607612549">instead of driving</a> can help to reduce pollution levels. If you do drive, try to carpool or use an electric or hybrid vehicle.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/wuhans-lockdown-cut-air-pollution-by-up-to-63-new-research-138084">Wuhan's lockdown cut air pollution by up to 63% – new research</a>
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<p><strong>Use indoor air filters.</strong> Having air filters in your home can help reduce indoor pollution levels. Hepa filters <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4587002/">can remove many pollutants</a>, including fine particulate matter. Further, the use of Hepa air systems can successfully filter <a href="https://academic.oup.com/cid/article/75/1/e97/6414657">COVID virus particles</a> from the air.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/201813/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Samuel J. White advises on air quality and receives funding from Fédération Equestre Internationale.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Philippe B. Wilson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Air pollution can increase COVID risk by weakening our immune defences and exacerbating underlying health conditions.Samuel J. White, Senior Lecturer in Genetic Immunology, Nottingham Trent UniversityPhilippe B. Wilson, Professor of One Health, Nottingham Trent UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1992212023-02-08T06:05:58Z2023-02-08T06:05:58ZChess players perform worse when air quality is poor – and other high-skilled workers could be affected too<p>Humans are exposed to air pollution almost everywhere. The <a href="https://www.who.int/">World Health Organization</a> estimate that 99% of the world’s population breathe in polluted air each day. Chess players competing indoors are no exception – and it can affect their performance.</p>
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<p><em>You can listen to more articles from The Conversation, narrated by Noa, <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/audio-narrated-99682">here</a>.</em></p>
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<p>A <a href="https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/epdf/10.1287/mnsc.2022.4643">recent study</a> conducted by researchers from <a href="https://www.maastrichtuniversity.nl/">Maastricht University</a> (Netherlands) and the <a href="https://www.mit.edu/">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> (USA) analysed the quality of chess moves across multiple German chess tournaments. They found that chess experts perform worse when there is more particulate matter (PM2.5) in the air. </p>
<p>Some of the threats air pollution poses to human health are already known. For example, bad air <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/pdfs/journals/lanpub/PIIS2468-2667(16)30023-8.pdf">increases the risk</a> of suffering heart disease, strokes and certain cancers. But the recent research implies that poor air quality may be linked to a reduction in cognitive functioning.</p>
<p>This carries implications for anyone who makes decisions under pressure in polluted areas and may increase the global economic cost associated with air pollution. The <a href="https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/36501">World Bank</a> estimates this cost to be US$8.1 trillion (£6.7 trillion) each year.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/london-underground-polluted-with-particles-small-enough-to-enter-the-human-bloodstream-new-research-196600">London Underground polluted with particles small enough to enter the human bloodstream -- new research</a>
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<h2>Keeping air pollution in check</h2>
<p>The researchers studied the performance of 121 chess players across three separate tournaments between 2017 and 2019. They assessed more than 30,000 chess moves using computer software which identified optimal decisions and flagged significant errors.</p>
<p>A range of factors can interfere with a player’s performance. These include traffic noise, temperature and air pollutants including PM2.5 and CO₂. The authors investigated the impact of each and ruled out every factor apart from PM2.5.</p>
<p>Each tournament lasted eight weeks, so by measuring PM2.5 concentrations inside the tournament venue it was possible to determine how variations in air quality were related to changes in player performance. Throughout the tournaments, concentrations of PM2.5 varied from 14 to 70 micrograms (μg) per cubic metre of air. Exposure to such concentrations is common in many cities around the world and is classified as moderate to unhealthy by the US <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2016-04/documents/2012_aqi_factsheet.pdf">Environmental Protection Agency</a>.</p>
<p>For a modest increase in PM2.5 (10 μg per cubic metre of air), chess players were 26.3% more likely to make an error. The computer analysis judged the errors they made were 10.8% worse that an optimal move would have been. </p>
<p>But the impact of air quality on play increased when players were under more pressure. The tournaments required 40 moves to be made within 110 minutes, which induced higher time pressure in the game’s later stages. For the same increase in PM2.5, chess players made larger errors later in the game. In the final ten moves, when maximum concentration is needed, the size of the errors increased by 20.2% for players in the lowest quality air compared with players in normal air.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="People play chess at a chess tournament." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508507/original/file-20230206-19-ostvv5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508507/original/file-20230206-19-ostvv5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=340&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508507/original/file-20230206-19-ostvv5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=340&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508507/original/file-20230206-19-ostvv5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=340&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508507/original/file-20230206-19-ostvv5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508507/original/file-20230206-19-ostvv5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508507/original/file-20230206-19-ostvv5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Chess players made larger errors under time pressure.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/soller-mallorca-spain-march-24-2018-1090257839">zixia/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Making us less intelligent</h2>
<p>The idea that cleaner air leads to sharper thinking among chess players is consistent with growing evidence linking air quality to short-term cognitive performance.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00036846.2016.1139679?casa_token=o253PShsRqQAAAAA%3ALlX2254mq0jSl16U8qyeWqVVsUnleosz5HTN0c7f6mT_LKtjhlqFOPwlA636hLxmBVN8IFVfVA93hg">Analysis</a> of daily air pollution data in China revealed a negative relationship between air quality and stock returns from 2005 to 2014. This effect was weaker for companies which had taken measures to address poor air quality. The authors of the study linked poor air quality to creating a depressed mood among investors. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-44561-0">Research</a> that I co-authored in 2016 into the effects of short-term indoor and outdoor PM2.5 exposure also revealed that exposure to burning candles and commuter traffic negatively impacts cognitive functioning. The participants took three cognitive tests both before and after an hour of PM2.5 exposure and performed significantly worse on average in the post-exposure testing. </p>
<p>Epidemiological evidence also suggests that <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0013935122016899?via%3Dihub">exposure to high levels</a> of air pollution at critical points in a person’s life (particularly at a young age) can be detrimental to brain health and lead to dementia or Alzheimer’s disease later in life. </p>
<p>While the factors affecting cognition and dementia are not yet fully understood, this evidence met many of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bradford_Hill_criteria">Bradford Hill guidelines</a> for causality. These criteria evaluate epidemiological evidence to determine whether there is a causal relationship.</p>
<p>Technology is changing the global labour market and jobs are becoming increasingly sophisticated as a result. Between 1995 and 2015, the proportion of high-skilled occupations as a share of total employment <a href="https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/empl_outlook-2017-7-en/index.html?itemId=/content/component/empl_outlook-2017-7-en">increased</a> by roughly 5% in North America and almost 8% across Europe. At the same time, the share of middle-skilled occupations in total employment declined in both regions.</p>
<p>But those who work in high-tech industries such as data science are also required to make complex decisions under pressur. The workplace performance of these professionals will likely also be affected by poor air quality. Chess experts, who are <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1525/si.2003.26.2.263">studied</a> for their ability to make complex decisions under stressful conditions could therefore be the canary in the coal mine for workplace productivity among highly skilled professionals. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A man sitting at a desk with his head in his hands." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508508/original/file-20230206-25-70igw1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508508/original/file-20230206-25-70igw1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508508/original/file-20230206-25-70igw1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508508/original/file-20230206-25-70igw1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508508/original/file-20230206-25-70igw1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508508/original/file-20230206-25-70igw1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508508/original/file-20230206-25-70igw1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Those who work in high-tech industries are required to use the skills demanded of chess players.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/frustrated-middle-aged-businessman-sitting-office-146587283">sirtravelalot/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Air pollution poses such a threat to strategic thinking under pressure that chess players often <a href="https://mumbaimirror.indiatimes.com/sport/others/magnus-carlsen-wesley-so-and-hikaru-nakamura-back-for-airthings-masters/articleshow/79739284.cms?utm_source=contentofinterest&utm_medium=text&utm_campaign=cppst">monitor the air quality</a> of their surroundings. But the mechanism through which air pollution affects their (and everyone else’s) cognition remains largely unclear. Research must determine precisely which pollutants are most damaging to cognitive health so that a global recognised safe air quality level can be established.</p>
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<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
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<p><strong><em>Don’t have time to read about climate change as much as you’d like?</em></strong>
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<hr><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/199221/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Francis Pope receives funding from ‘Hazard Identification Platform to Assess the Health Impacts from Indoor and Outdoor Air Pollutant Exposures, through Mechanistic Toxicology’ grant funded by the UK Natural Environment Research Council (NERC, NE/W002035/1). </span></em></p>Air pollution causes chess players to make more errors – this may have implications for high-skilled professionals.Francis Pope, Professor of Atmospheric Sciences, University of BirminghamLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1909132023-01-08T19:00:34Z2023-01-08T19:00:34ZToo many smelly candles? Here’s how scents impact the air quality in your home<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485241/original/file-20220919-16-7qpetf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=20%2C87%2C4453%2C3098&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/person-lighting-a-candle-using-a-lighter-6633761/">Karolina Grabowska/Pexels</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>There’s nothing wrong with wanting your home to smell nice and fresh – and from candles to diffusers, there’s no shortage of home scent products to help you achieve that.</p>
<p>But having rampant fragrances in our indoor air can dramatically impact air quality, coming with a host of potential problems.</p>
<h2>Indoor air quality is a going concern</h2>
<p>People in high- and middle-income countries <a href="https://journal.nzma.org.nz/journal-articles/indoor-air-quality-largely-neglected-and-in-urgent-need-of-a-refresh">spend 85-90%</a> of their time indoors. An average person inhales up to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537306/">20,000 litres of air daily</a>, and exposure to air pollutants in stagnant air indoors can pose risks to our <a href="https://www.epa.gov/report-environment/indoor-air-quality">health and wellbeing</a>, causing symptoms such as eye irritation, respiratory issues and even headaches.</p>
<p>According to the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), levels of indoor air pollutants are typically <a href="https://www.epa.gov/indoor-air-quality-iaq">more than three times higher</a> than outdoors.</p>
<p>Sources of indoor pollution can be many: cooking, heating, scented cleaning products, and also the products we use to deodorise our living or working spaces – whether they’re candles, diffusers, room sprays, gels, beads or other products.</p>
<p>The sole purpose of home scents is to make the air smell nice. This means we’re intentionally releasing a mix of chemicals in an indoor environment and potentially lowering the indoor air quality.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/common-products-like-perfume-paint-and-printer-ink-are-polluting-the-atmosphere-91914">Common products, like perfume, paint and printer ink, are polluting the atmosphere</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Meet the VOCs</h2>
<p>Air fresheners emit <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2016.11.009">more than 100 different chemicals</a>, including volatile organic compounds (VOCs). These are airborne chemicals that include wide classes of organic compounds: terpenes such as limonene (lemon scent), alpha-pinene (smell of pine trees), and beta-pinene; solvents such as ethanol, formaldehyde, benzene, toluene and xylene, and many other compounds.</p>
<p>These VOCs will react with ozone and other indoor oxidants to generate a range of oxidation products, which are potentially toxic molecules. The level of exposure and concentration <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2013.08.002">determines the potential toxicity</a>.</p>
<p>Fragrances and ozone can also generate pollutants such as formaldehyde, acetaldehyde and free radicals, all classified as toxic or hazardous by agencies <a href="https://www.epa.gov/haps/health-effects-notebook-hazardous-air-pollutants">such as the EPA</a>.</p>
<p>The type and amount of pollutants created by your home fragrance will depend on many factors, such as the type of product (does it burn or is it a vapour?), its composition (although ingredients aren’t always known), and the indoor air itself.</p>
<p>All air freshener types produce <a href="https://www.yourhome.gov.au/live-adapt/indoor-air-quality#:%7E:text=Air%20fresheners%2C%20cleaning%20sprays%2C%20polishes%2C%20spray%20deodorants%2C%20and%20other%20toiletries%20are%20major%20sources%20of%20VOCs%20and%20should%20not%20be%20used%20excessively%20in%20nonventilated%20areas">high emissions of volatile organic compounds</a> in some settings. <em>How</em> scents are delivered into the space is reported to be less important for emissions than the composition of the scent in question.</p>
<p>Legally, the chemicals used in air fresheners <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-08-24/who-regulates-air-fresheners/10156426#:%7E:text=%22There%20is%20no%20law%20anywhere,exposed%20to%2C%22%20she%20said.">do not have to be disclosed</a>. Studies have found vast variation in what gets disclosed on the label.</p>
<p>Apart from fragrance compounds, a home scent can also emit solvents such as ethanol and iso-propanol, or dipropylene glycol and tens of others. Odourless solvents are of specific concern as it is difficult for a consumer to predict the impact and to be aware of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1352231014008796">higher concentrations present in the air</a>.</p>
<p>Notably, manufacturers of scents can use the words “fragrance”, “perfume” and “essential oil” in the list of ingredients without specifying which chemicals are used to form the fragrance.</p>
<p>Typically, it can be tens or hundreds of different chemicals that were not disclosed.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="an amber coloured diffuser with several wooden sticks on a windowsill" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490827/original/file-20221020-16-a4hkfz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490827/original/file-20221020-16-a4hkfz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490827/original/file-20221020-16-a4hkfz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490827/original/file-20221020-16-a4hkfz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490827/original/file-20221020-16-a4hkfz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490827/original/file-20221020-16-a4hkfz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490827/original/file-20221020-16-a4hkfz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Apart from scent, home fragrances like diffusers also contain various solvents.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">H_Ko/Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>‘Green’ isn’t always better either</h2>
<p>Even when the ingredients <em>are</em> listed on the label, it doesn’t mean the product is entirely off the hook.</p>
<p>For example, consumers can be easily misled by labels such as “green”, “organic” or “natural” on their products, also known as <a href="https://theconversation.com/greenwashing-how-ads-get-you-to-think-brands-are-greener-than-they-are-and-how-to-avoid-falling-for-it-183169">greenwashing</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/greenwashing-can-you-trust-that-label-2116">Greenwashing: can you trust that label?</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>There is generally a lack of awareness that the scents marketed as green or organic <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11869-015-0327-6">release similar amounts</a> of potentially hazardous materials into the air as other products, as there’s no regulation on what can be labelled “green”.</p>
<p>For example, essential oils are natural aromatic compounds but, once released into the air, can form nanoparticles and pollutants such as formaldehyde, a known carcinogen.</p>
<h2>Keeping it fresh</h2>
<p>Our ubiquitous exposure to fragranced products, even at low levels, has been associated with <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11869-016-0442-z">various adverse health effects</a>. In a study across the United States, Australia, Sweden and the United Kingdom, <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11869-019-00672-1">32.2% of people</a> were reported to have a sensitivity to fragrance. In those who are sensitive, fragrances are a risk factor for asthma and <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15562635/">headaches</a>. </p>
<p>All this doesn’t mean you must throw your scented candles in the bin. But using them in moderation is highly advisable if you care about the overall quality of your indoor air.</p>
<p>Although there is no safe threshold for exposure to particulate matter (such as soot) and VOCs, burning soy, beeswax or other non-paraffin candles in a moderate way – along with proper ventilation and/or indoor air filtration – should be considered <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yrtph.2014.02.010">generally safe</a>.</p>
<p>That said, removing air fresheners, fragrances and scented candles will likely improve your indoor air quality overall. It will also make your living space safer for your family, pets and friends.</p>
<p>Some other measures you may consider to make your indoor environment cleaner and healthier are frequently ventilating spaces, using vacuum cleaners with HEPA filters, using air purifiers, surrounding yourself with greenery, and cleaning regularly.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-cant-afford-to-ignore-indoor-air-quality-our-lives-depend-on-it-87329">We can't afford to ignore indoor air quality – our lives depend on it</a>
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</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/190913/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Svetlana Stevanovic receives funding from the Australian Research Council and research and industry partners such as CO2 CRC, Hyzon Motors and others. All my work is associated with the characterisation of airborne materials and complies with the research ethics and scientific research integrity code. I do not have any funding related to the scent or candle industries. </span></em></p>Indoor air quality is affected by many things – and intentionally releasing a mix of chemicals is high on the list.Svetlana Stevanovic, Senior Lecturer in Environmental Engineering, Deakin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1966002022-12-19T16:39:25Z2022-12-19T16:39:25ZLondon Underground polluted with particles small enough to enter the human bloodstream – new research<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501579/original/file-20221216-17-ukf8o7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=8%2C0%2C5455%2C3628&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Roughly 2 million people use the London Underground each day.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/london-november-14-2018-train-arriving-1235340622">Tom Eversley/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The London Underground is key to the functioning of England’s capital city. Roughly <a href="https://www.london.gov.uk/your-commute?">2 million people</a> use it each day. But it is <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160412019313649#b0120">polluted</a> with small particulate matter from heavy metals, including iron oxide, that may be damaging to human health. </p>
<p>These particles range in size, but so-called <a href="https://www.blf.org.uk/taskforce/data-tracker/air-quality/pm25">PM2.5</a> particles are typically less than two and a half micrometres (2,500 nanometres) in diameter and can cause asthma, lung cancer, cardiovascular diseases and neurological problems. If it was classified as an outdoor environment, concentrations of particulate matter on the underground would exceed the <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ambient-(outdoor)-air-quality-and-health">air quality limits</a> set by the World Health Organisation.</p>
<p>My colleagues and I recently conducted <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-24679-4">research</a> at ten underground stations across seven different lines: the Northern, Piccadilly, Victoria, District, Bakerloo, Jubilee and Central. We found that users of the London Underground may be inhaling more airborne particles than previously recorded. </p>
<p>The majority of these particles are also smaller than those identified by previous research and represent a particularly <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00038-019-01202-7">serious health concern</a> for humans. Between 60% and 70% of the iron-bearing particles sampled were 0.02 micrometres (20 nanometres) or less in diameter. Particles of this size can pass from the lungs into the bloodstream.</p>
<h2>Magnetic particles</h2>
<p>Metallic particulate matter is <a href="https://oem.bmj.com/content/62/6/355">generated</a> in underground rail systems through interaction between brakes, wheels and rails. Poorly ventilated platforms and tunnels then mean that underground users are exposed to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1352231010002852?via%3Dihub">high concentrations</a> of these particles.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501580/original/file-20221216-11-8bg4cj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A woman seated and scrolling through her phone while a train moves past in the background." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501580/original/file-20221216-11-8bg4cj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501580/original/file-20221216-11-8bg4cj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501580/original/file-20221216-11-8bg4cj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501580/original/file-20221216-11-8bg4cj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501580/original/file-20221216-11-8bg4cj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501580/original/file-20221216-11-8bg4cj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501580/original/file-20221216-11-8bg4cj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Poor ventilation means Underground users are exposed to high concentrations of airborne particulates.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/young-woman-wearing-protective-face-mask-2100516343">DavideAngelini/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But as many of these particulates are metallic, they have magnetic properties. The underground is therefore a suitable location to test whether magnetism can be an effective method for monitoring airborne particulate pollution.</p>
<p>Our study employed magnetic and microscopic techniques including magnetic fingerprinting, 3D imaging and nanoscale microscopy. These methods represent a cost-effective way of characterising the harmful particulate matter in underground transport systems.</p>
<p>Traditional methods instead involve recording the concentration of bulk particles, such as <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/air-quality-statistics/concentrations-of-particulate-matter-pm10-and-pm25">PM2.5</a>, by mass or volume – for example, in micrograms per cubic metre. Yet the fine particles that we identified weigh very little and may be too small to be detected using such a metric.</p>
<p>Examination of these fine particles under a microscope also revealed that they naturally clump together and give the appearance of larger particles. This means that traditional monitoring methods may not account for the true abundance of these smaller and potentially more harmful particles.</p>
<h2>Mitigation routes</h2>
<p>Our study also revealed that these fine particles have likely been present in the underground for months or years, but further research is needed to obtain a more accurate estimate.</p>
<p>The chemical structure of iron oxide moves through phases depending on its exposure to air. We recorded concentrations of highly oxidised iron-rich particulate matter. This suggests that the particulates have been exposed to prolonged low temperature contact with oxygen and makes it unlikely that they were freshly generated but instead circulated over time.</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501849/original/file-20221219-12-122a43.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A busy underground train platform with passengers about to board a train." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501849/original/file-20221219-12-122a43.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501849/original/file-20221219-12-122a43.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501849/original/file-20221219-12-122a43.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501849/original/file-20221219-12-122a43.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501849/original/file-20221219-12-122a43.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501849/original/file-20221219-12-122a43.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501849/original/file-20221219-12-122a43.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Air quality is up to 40% worse on platforms than in ticket halls.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/london-uk-october-6-2018-passengers-1197949861">Matthew Ashmore/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These particles will settle over time but are lifted into the air again as trains move through underground tunnels and arrive at platforms. We found that the air quality on some platforms is up to 40% worse than in ticket halls as a result.</p>
<p>But a set of systematic mitigation measures can be used to limit the recirculation of old particles. These measures include the periodic removal of accumulated dust from underground tunnels and the regular cleaning of tracks, which at present are cleaned solely for operational reasons and not in the interest of public health. </p>
<p>Another strategy would be to install magnetic filters in ventilation shafts to trap magnetic particles before they come into contact with humans. This strategy has been trialled in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/es404502x">Seoul’s subway system</a> in South Korea. Using a 60Hz fan frequency and double magnetic filters, 46% of the PM2.5 particles were successfully removed from a subway tunnel. This decreased, however, to 38% for smaller particles.</p>
<h2>Understanding the risk</h2>
<p>There is conflicting evidence over whether particulate matter pollution in underground train systems is in fact more dangerous than exposure to outdoor air pollution. More definitive toxicological research is needed to evaluate the impact of airborne particulates on human health.</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501581/original/file-20221216-27-i3bmwd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A queue of road traffic pouring exhaust fumes into the cold sky." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501581/original/file-20221216-27-i3bmwd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501581/original/file-20221216-27-i3bmwd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501581/original/file-20221216-27-i3bmwd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501581/original/file-20221216-27-i3bmwd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501581/original/file-20221216-27-i3bmwd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501581/original/file-20221216-27-i3bmwd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501581/original/file-20221216-27-i3bmwd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">It is unclear whether exposure to airborne particles in underground rail systems is more dangerous than outdoor air pollution.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/pollution-exhaust-cars-city-winter-smoke-1301806378">NadyGinzburg/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Research into the health impacts of exposure to air in underground rail systems shows mixed results. <a href="https://www.sjweh.fi/show_abstract.php?abstract_id=1142">Toxicological testing</a> of particulate matter in the Stockholm subway system in 2005 concluded that subway drivers were no more likely to suffer a heart attack than other manual workers in the city.</p>
<p>But more recent <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352396422002444">laboratory studies</a>, using particles from the London Underground’s Bakerloo and Jubilee lines, indicate that users are susceptible to pneumococcal infection (including pneumonia and bloodstream infections). Further research in Stockholm found that the air on the subway is <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/tx049723c">40-80 times</a> more damaging to human DNA compared with the air in an urban street environment.</p>
<p>Our characterisation of the London Underground’s particulate matter pollution complements traditional monitoring. Detailing the size, structure and chemical composition of particulate matter will better enable health experts and toxicologists to limit any potential health impacts associated with travelling on the underground.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/196600/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hassan Aftab Sheikh receives funding from Cambridge Trust</span></em></p>New research reveals that the London Underground is polluted with small particles which may carry negative health effects for humans.Hassan Aftab Sheikh, PhD Researcher in Earth Sciences, University of CambridgeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1962392022-12-09T11:30:18Z2022-12-09T11:30:18Z70 years on from London’s Great Smog, we still need cleaner air to protect health<p>London’s Great Smog of December 1952 was the largest in a series of “pea soupers” which brought normal activity to a halt across the capital. The smog lasted from December 5 to December 9 and led to a large spike in hospital admissions and as many as <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3434786#metadata_info_tab_contents">12,000 deaths</a>.</p>
<p>Pollution episodes like this one were driven by smoke from burning coal in city centres to generate power and heat homes (as recently as the 1980s power plants were still found right in the centre of London). This was then exacerbated by cold and windless winter weather: smoke + fog = smog. This was a very visible challenge. The ensuing <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/Eliz2/4-5/52/enacted">Clean Air Acts</a> focused on removing these key pollutant sources to make the air cleaner.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/499797/original/file-20221208-7255-9vw3eu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Large building with tall chimney beside a river" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/499797/original/file-20221208-7255-9vw3eu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/499797/original/file-20221208-7255-9vw3eu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499797/original/file-20221208-7255-9vw3eu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499797/original/file-20221208-7255-9vw3eu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499797/original/file-20221208-7255-9vw3eu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499797/original/file-20221208-7255-9vw3eu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499797/original/file-20221208-7255-9vw3eu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Bankside Power Station. Or, at it’s now known, the Tate Modern.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Neil Lang / shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The air we breathe today looks, and is, much cleaner than in 1952 but is still not clean enough. Poor air quality still contributes to somewhere between <a href="https://www.rcplondon.ac.uk/projects/outputs/every-breath-we-take-lifelong-impact-air-pollution">26,000 and 38,000 early deaths each year</a> in the UK, mostly through impacts on circulatory and respiratory health. The resultant costs to healthcare and business have been said to amount to <a href="https://www.rcplondon.ac.uk/projects/outputs/every-breath-we-take-lifelong-impact-air-pollution">£20 billion</a> every year. This does not include the costs of reduced quality of life or health conditions where links to pollutant exposure have emerged in recent years (including <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/air-pollution-cognitive-decline-and-dementia">cognitive decline and dementia</a>). </p>
<p>Pregnant women, children and the elderly are more vulnerable to harm, even if their exposure is the same as other population groups. Most health harms are caused by long-term exposure to fine particles (so-called PM2.5) – less than 30 times the diameter of a human hair and invisible to the naked eye.</p>
<p>The latest UK <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/chief-medical-officers-annual-report-2022-air-pollution">Chief Medical Officer’s Annual Report</a> suggests we need to go further to reduce air pollution and protect health. Importantly, the report highlights advances in our knowledge of the sources, distribution and health impacts of air pollution which can inform evidence-based actions. </p>
<h2>What we now know</h2>
<p>Although the health risks of pollution were recognised early in the industrial revolution (gravestones in the early 19th century reported “<a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Great-Smog-of-London">fog-related deaths</a>”) our understanding of these harms has advanced in recent decades. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500004/original/file-20221209-33096-qh64s7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Smoggy monument" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500004/original/file-20221209-33096-qh64s7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500004/original/file-20221209-33096-qh64s7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=567&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500004/original/file-20221209-33096-qh64s7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=567&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500004/original/file-20221209-33096-qh64s7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=567&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500004/original/file-20221209-33096-qh64s7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=712&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500004/original/file-20221209-33096-qh64s7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=712&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500004/original/file-20221209-33096-qh64s7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=712&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Nelson’s Column disappears into the smog, December 1952.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">N T Stobbs / wiki</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Now, 70 years on from the London smogs, we know that health harms exist <a href="https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/345329">even at low pollutant levels</a> and that there is no “safe” level of PM2.5 exposure. We also now understand the relative contribution of different pollutant sources to ambient pollution, including road transport, industry and agriculture (due to ammonia emitted from manure and fertiliser). We are also able to better determine where pollutants originated, enabling targeted approaches to reducing them at source. The report also recognises major gaps in our knowledge, including air pollution in indoor environments.</p>
<p>The Chief Medical Officer’s report sets out a need to focus air quality improvements on the places where people live, work and study. This approach recognises that many of these are public spaces, both indoors and outdoors. People there are exposed to air pollution but can do little about it individually, so society needs to act.</p>
<p>Outdoors, the report recommends continuing electrification of transport and technical measures targeting emissions from heavy goods vehicles and car brakes and tyres wearing down (which, perhaps surprisingly, is now a <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/jun/03/car-tyres-produce-more-particle-pollution-than-exhausts-tests-show">bigger source of particle pollution</a> than exhausts). </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/499816/original/file-20221208-12481-cfpord.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A worn down car tyre" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/499816/original/file-20221208-12481-cfpord.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/499816/original/file-20221208-12481-cfpord.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499816/original/file-20221208-12481-cfpord.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499816/original/file-20221208-12481-cfpord.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499816/original/file-20221208-12481-cfpord.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499816/original/file-20221208-12481-cfpord.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499816/original/file-20221208-12481-cfpord.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Car tyres are a major source of particle pollution.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Nitiphonphat / shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Industrial emissions have fallen substantially, but those from agriculture have not: simple changes in fertilisation approaches are needed. Town planning should support reducing air pollution concentrations and exposure and encourage travel on foot and by bike. In urban areas, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/dec/08/eco-wood-burners-produce-450-times-more-pollution-than-gas-heating-report">burning wood</a> can worsen local air quality. Indoors, the optimal balance between ventilation, energy use and heat loss is a priority for reducing air pollution, preventing respiratory infections and achieving net zero.</p>
<p>Our work in the West Midlands is an example of how these advances can support evidence-based clean air solutions. For example, our <a href="https://wm-air.org.uk/">research</a> quantifies “real-world” pollutants emitted from vehicles while being driven on Birmingham’s roads, as opposed to being tested in a laboratory that simulates driving conditions. We can also identify the chemical fingerprint of particles in the air to quantify these different sources. We can simulate future air quality changes expected from a given policy, such as specific traffic changes, and <a href="https://wm-air.org.uk/project/health/">calculate the health benefits</a> in terms of deaths and disease diagnoses avoided among a given population. </p>
<h2>New air quality targets</h2>
<p>Exactly 70 years on from the deadly London smog, we are again on the verge of new legislation to protect people from the harms of air pollution. The Environment Act 2021 enables the government to set new targets for <a href="https://uk-air.defra.gov.uk/library/air-quality-targets">outdoor pollution levels</a>. If sufficiently ambitious, the new targets should balance improvements in the most polluted areas with achieving some benefit for everyone, even if air quality already meets the threshold value.</p>
<p>We now have an opportunity to improve air quality and health through policy choices informed by evidence. Many of these policies will also deliver benefits for the climate, since many air pollution sources involve burning fossil fuels. However, while reducing carbon emissions is a global challenge, air pollution is less dependent on action taken elsewhere. In many cases it doesn’t really matter what the next country or even the next town is doing – the benefits of local actions in terms of human health, reduced inequality and improved lives are clear.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/196239/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Suzanne Bartington receives funding from the National Institute for Health and Care Research, Natural Environment Research Council and Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>William Bloss receives funding from the Natural Environment Research Council.</span></em></p>A new report by the UK’s Chief Medical Officer sets out what must happen.Suzanne Bartington, Clinical Research Fellow in Environmental Health, University of BirminghamWilliam Bloss, Professor of Atmospheric Science, University of BirminghamLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1944262022-11-17T21:07:33Z2022-11-17T21:07:33ZFIFA World Cup: With climate change, will there still be a soccer World Cup in 2100?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495130/original/file-20221114-18-bkw748.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=15%2C45%2C5021%2C3307&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The 2022 FIFA World Cup, beginning on Nov. 20, will be held in Qatar.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Many major sports gatherings have been rocked by extreme weather events in recent years. A <a href="https://www.rugbyworldcup.com/2019/news/505639/typhoon-hagibis%20-les-matches-affectes">typhoon forced the postponement of several matches</a> during the 2019 Rugby World Cup in Japan. <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/06/sports/Australian-Open-fire.html">The air became unbreathable during the 2020 Australian Tennis Open</a> because of bush fires. <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2019/oct/16/tokyo-olympics-marathon-switched-north-sapporo-cooler-climate-athletics">The Olympic Marathon was relocated</a> further north to escape the oppressive heat in Tokyo. And the situation is similar for the <a href="https://www.npr.org/2022/01/21/1074872876/could-the-world-become-too-warm-to-hold-winter-olympics">Winter Olympics, whose future is uncertain</a>.</p>
<p>The soccer world won’t be spared.</p>
<p>Beginning on Nov. 20, the best national teams, <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/sports/soccer/worldcup/fifa-world-cup-japan-friendly-chris-jones-1.6654673">including Canada’s</a>, will gather in Qatar to compete in the 22<sup>th</sup> edition of the soccer World Cup. For the first time in its history, the event – which has been the target of <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/sports/soccer/lgbtq-fans-world-cup-fear-1.6645662">social and environmental criticism</a> – will be held at the end of autumn due to the high temperatures that affect the country during the summer, and which could affect the health of spectators and athletes.</p>
<p>Will there still be a soccer World Cup in 2100? What impact is pollution having on player performance? Will we have to choose between our love of soccer and the fight against climate change?</p>
<p>As researchers in physical activity sciences, we are proposing to shed some light on the impacts of climate change on the future of soccer.</p>
<h2>Soccer: Victim of, or contributor to climate change?</h2>
<p>The combination of historical data and current emission scenarios reveals that rising sea levels, intensified heat waves, increased risk of <a href="https://e360.yale.edu/features/the-age-of-megafires-the-world-hits-a-climate-tipping-point">megafires</a>, floods and deteriorating air quality <a href="https://www.rapidtransition.org/resources/playing-against-the-clock/">all pose major threats to both amateur and professional soccer</a>. However, soccer is not just a victim of climate change. It is also a significant contributor to it, as demonstrated by the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0959652619312181?via%3Dihub">annual carbon footprint of Premier League (English Football Championship) players, estimated at 29 tonnes of CO₂ equivalent</a> – and that is just for the travel entailed.</p>
<p>This is nearly three times the annual carbon footprint of UK citizens, and far exceeds the <a href="https://en.2tonnes.org">global target of two tonnes per person</a>, set to meet the commitments of the Paris Agreement (COP21).</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485611/original/file-20220920-3560-c12wfn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485611/original/file-20220920-3560-c12wfn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485611/original/file-20220920-3560-c12wfn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485611/original/file-20220920-3560-c12wfn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485611/original/file-20220920-3560-c12wfn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485611/original/file-20220920-3560-c12wfn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485611/original/file-20220920-3560-c12wfn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Interruption of a match in Brazil due to fire, 2019.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">YouTube screenshot</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Heat, weather and flooding: What are the impacts on the practice?</h2>
<p>In the short term, the concerns are mainly about <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17430437.2021.1984426">low air quality and heat</a>, which could <a href="https://wires.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/wcc.760">affect the health of spectators, sports workers and athletes, as well as their performance</a>. Some sports associations such as <a href="https://www.mlssoccer.com/">Major League Soccer (MLS)</a> or <a href="https://albertasoccer.com/">Alberta Soccer</a> in Canada have already established safety thresholds to regulate holding events <a href="https://www.mlssoccer.com/news/how-mls-measures-and-manages-extreme-heat-conditions-matches#:%7E:text=If%20the%20WBGT%20temperature%20reads,is%20safe%20to%20do%20so">during hot weather events</a> and <a href="https://albertasoccer.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/Alberta-Soccer-Air-Quality-Monitoring-Guidelines-November-2016.pdf">pollution peaks</a>.</p>
<p>Since it is estimated that these conditions will become more frequent in the near future (the <a href="https://climateatlas.ca/map/canada/plus30_2060_85#lat=52.04&lng=-108.1&z=9">mercury is expected to exceed 30°C</a> on more than 50 days per year in several Canadian cities, including Montreal and Toronto, by 2050-2080), it is possible to estimate a greater number of postponements and cancellations of practices and games. There is also the potential impact of fires on infrastructure and the deterioration of natural grass fields due to drought and summer watering restrictions. These fields could also be affected by increasingly harsh winter conditions.</p>
<p>A 2013 study in England already reported a <a href="https://www.sportandrecreation.org.uk/news/industry/alliance-survey-bad-weather-and-lack-of-facil">loss of three to 13 weeks of use of some natural pitches due to more intense rainfall</a>. In the longer term, rising oceans and more frequent flooding are likely to pose a temporary or permanent threat to clubs’ operations, jeopardizing the future of soccer in some parts of the world if greenhouse gas emissions <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/">follow their current trend</a>.</p>
<p>According to a report based on modelling, by 2016 the <a href="https://www.rapidtransition.org/resources/playing-against-the-clock/">stadiums of 23 professional teams in England could face partial or total flooding in every season</a>. Such events have already occurred in <a href="https://www.espn.com/soccer/league-name/story/2076173/headline">Montpellier, France (2014)</a> and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/football/2015/dec/09/carlisle-united-community-rallies-round-flood-hit-football-club">Carlisle, England (2015)</a>, rendering the grounds unusable for several months.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491937/original/file-20221026-4274-y3g6d9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Men carrying boards wade on a flooded soccer field" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491937/original/file-20221026-4274-y3g6d9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491937/original/file-20221026-4274-y3g6d9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491937/original/file-20221026-4274-y3g6d9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491937/original/file-20221026-4274-y3g6d9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491937/original/file-20221026-4274-y3g6d9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491937/original/file-20221026-4274-y3g6d9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491937/original/file-20221026-4274-y3g6d9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Men carrying boards wade on a flooded soccer field in the Jukyty neighbourhood of Asuncion, Paraguay, on April 4, 2019. More than 20,000 people were evacuated after torrential rains caused extensive flooding.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Jorge Saenz)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In some contexts, synthetic fields offer an interesting alternative when a natural field is unavailable or too degraded; moreover, they can be used over a longer period of the year. However, data show that these fields are prone to create heat islands, with a <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1754337114553692">surface temperature that can be 12°C to 22°C higher than the temperature of a natural grass</a>. This level of temperature increases the heat stress experienced by athletes and, therefore, augments risks to their health and performance. The same is true for the health of referees, coaches and audience members.</p>
<h2>Impacts on player health and performance</h2>
<p>Air pollution negatively impacts the <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/18/24/12928">quantity and quality of passes</a>, <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/18/24/12928">distance travelled and high intensity efforts</a> of professional players. Peak pollution could even drastically reduce the number of goals scored during games.</p>
<p>There is empirical evidence observed for several decades that the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1612197X.2014.888245">chances of winning are higher when playing at home</a>. In a polluted city, this increase is <a href="https://ideas.repec.org/a/sae/jospec/v23y2022i3p277-300.html">accentuated when the opposing team comes from a less polluted city</a>. Why? Because the host team is used to a higher average air pollution, and therefore its performance is less affected.</p>
<p>Heat and dehydration can also affect the performance of the athletes and, consequently, the quality of the games and the show offered. Yet, <a href="https://bjsm.bmj.com/content/49/9/609">analyses of the 2014 World Cup matches in Brazil suggest</a> that the quality of play was not affected by the oppressive heat. However, these results should be interpreted cautiously, as <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19807723/">elite athletes generally tolerate heat and dehydration better than untrained individuals</a>.</p>
<p>So, it is possible that amateur athletes, or older players with specific health conditions will experience more adverse health and effects on their performance.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491752/original/file-20221025-14-pypzme.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="women's soccer team in Japan -- players drink water" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491752/original/file-20221025-14-pypzme.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491752/original/file-20221025-14-pypzme.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491752/original/file-20221025-14-pypzme.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491752/original/file-20221025-14-pypzme.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491752/original/file-20221025-14-pypzme.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491752/original/file-20221025-14-pypzme.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491752/original/file-20221025-14-pypzme.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Japan’s women’s soccer team players hydrate during training on the eve of the match between Japan and New Zealand at the Women’s World Cup in Bochum, Germany, on June 26, 2011.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Martin Meissner)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Urgent need for change: From reactive to proactive</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2021/03/forest-green-rovers-coffee-kit-soccer-recycled-sustainability/">With its scale and ability to reach a wide audience, soccer can play a major role in the current ecological transition</a>, including through climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies.</p>
<p>The Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) was one of the first international sports federations to commit to the <a href="https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/Sports_for_Climate_Action_Declaration_and_Framework.pdf">United Nations Sports for Climate Action Framework</a>, by developing <a href="https://digitalhub.fifa.com/m/a6e93d3f1e33b09/original/FIFA-Climate-Strategy.pdf">its own climate strategy</a>. Concretely, FIFA has established several initiatives that revolve around three main objectives: 1) making soccer ready for climate action; 2) protecting iconic tournaments from the negative impacts of climate change; and 3) ensuring the development of resilient soccer.</p>
<p>In the wake of this, in order to mitigate the impacts of climate change on its operations, the soccer world will very quickly have to move from a reactive to a proactive approach, by putting actions in place:</p>
<ul>
<li><p><a href="https://www.rapidtransition.org/resources/sweat-not-oil-why-sports-should-drop-advertising-and-sponsorship-from-high-carbon-polluters/">Banning fossil fuel sponsors</a>;</p></li>
<li><p><a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1021/acs.est.1c03422">Reorganizing competitions</a> to reduce travel for athletes and fans by requiring national professional leagues to recommend <a href="https://www.euractiv.com/section/health-consumers/news/french-football-clubs-revisit-transport-modes-in-bid-to-reduce-carbon-footprint/">train travel</a> for short trips;</p></li>
<li><p>Encouraging <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2019.02.016">public or shared transportation</a> for fans and amateur athletes;</p></li>
<li><p>Reducing the vulnerability of players and spectators by adapting regulations and activities: More frequent training breaks, possibility of making more changes during games, revision of the rules concerning the duration of games in case of a tie, moving games to cooler times of the day.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Since soccer is not the only sport that is both a victim of, and an actor in climate change, urgent action by the sporting community as a whole is needed to continue to play safely and enjoyably.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/194426/count.gif" alt="La Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Thomas Deshayes received funding from the Fonds de Recherche du Québec - Santé for his PhD.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bernard Paquito has received funding from the Fonds de Recherche du Québec - Santé and the Quebec Breast Cancer Foundation.</span></em></p>As the FIFA World Cup kicks off, researchers take a look at the impact of climate change on the future of soccer.Thomas Deshayes, Chercheur postdoctoral en sciences de l'activité physique, Université de Sherbrooke Paquito Bernard, Professeur, Université du Québec à Montréal (UQAM)Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1915812022-11-09T14:13:07Z2022-11-09T14:13:07ZCrime is lower when cities are greener: evidence from South Africa supports the link<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491269/original/file-20221024-19-ig161m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5084%2C3389&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Investment in public parks can help reduce crime. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/western-cape-south-africa-man-wearing-protective-clothing-news-photo/1219978375?phrase=gardens%20and%20public%20parks%20in%20south%20africa&adppopup=true">Peter Titmuss/Education Images/Universal Images Group via Getty Images.</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>South Africa’s population is urbanising at a rapid pace. The sheer rate of change poses challenges to planning for sustainable and liveable cities.</p>
<p>Part of what make cities work is having green spaces, such as parks, sports fields, nature trails and street trees. These provide many social, ecological and economic <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160412018331751?via%3Dihub">benefits</a>. Research from multiple countries such as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1618866713001350?casa_token=pwYnNL6ExSoAAAAA:Y-VhMZ6qhTz7pHzmIUCZAKX2dYtbrH_fm8SipbLilGnxEKmulM6hDHG2vVnnR7aMMf1M6VTVdQ">Australia</a>, China, Finland, India, the <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/16/24/5119">US</a> and South Africa has shown this.</p>
<p>Aside from looking good and providing recreation, urban green spaces improve air quality, physical and mental health, and regulate storm water flows. They counteract urban heat islands, store carbon and create jobs.</p>
<p>Some communities nevertheless oppose urban greening efforts because they fear that green spaces and street trees provide places for <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1618866713001350">criminals to hide</a>. Such fears are not unique to South Africa and have been reported from cities in both developed and developing countries.</p>
<p>A great deal of research has been done on urban greening and its association with crime levels. But most of these studies have been conducted in Europe and North America, which are very different socially and economically to developing countries and have markedly lower rates of crime. </p>
<p>We <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S004896972201097X">conducted research</a> to complement the evidence from the global north. Our study is the first ever national level analysis of the relationship between various measures of urban greenness and three different classes of crime: property, violent and sexual crimes. </p>
<p>Our findings, based on research in South Africa, lend further credence to calls for urban greening to be adopted as a major strategy in cities – for both environmental sustainability, as well as social sustainability.</p>
<h2>Drilling down</h2>
<p>We used 10 years of precinct-level crime statistics in South Africa to test the hypothesis that green space is associated with reduced crime rates. South Africa has one of the highest crime rates in the <a href="https://www.gallup.com/analytics/322247/gallup-global-law-and-order-report-2020.aspx">world</a>, making it an important test of the relationship between urban greening and crime. </p>
<p>Using the broadest greenness measure – total green space – the results of this national-scale study corroborate many <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/16/24/5119">previous studies</a> from the global north indicating that greener neighbourhoods have significantly lower rates of violent and property crimes. Thus, the relationship reported in other countries and contexts appears to be robust in even a relatively high crime context like South Africa. </p>
<p>To gauge the relationship <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S004896972201097X">in South Africa</a> we used several measures of urban greenness, several different crime categories, and a national analysis.</p>
<p>We obtained crime statistics per police precinct (there are 1,152 police precints) between 2010 and 2019 from the South African Police Service and aggregated them into property, violent and sexual crimes (expressed as per 100,000 citizens for each police precinct). </p>
<p>We then used remote sensing to calculate the total area of green space per precinct, the proportional (percentage) cover of trees, and the average distance to the closest formal or informal park.</p>
<p>We found that greener areas had lower rates of both violent and property crimes. But there was no relationship with the rate of sexual crimes. A more mixed picture was revealed when considering tree cover specifically, where property crime was higher with more tree cover, but violent crimes were fewer. </p>
<p>However, property crimes were higher in locations close to public parks and sites with more trees. </p>
<p>Proximity to parks showed no relationship with the rates of violent or sexual crimes. </p>
<p>The concentration of property crimes in neighbourhoods with more trees and parks can be explained by such areas typically being where more affluent households are found.</p>
<p>But well-maintained public parks, and those with fencing, lighting, playing fields and some sort of security show lower crime levels in adjacent areas than poorly maintained parks or those <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0022427816666309?casa_token=bVeZkvibpZcAAAAA%3ADXzO3-2POkIM96kbujiRf3DE_KmvWZGjR0owrGsu2ClZQiJr3bdV6RYsdhs-R8d_SiWkpaMvYrMx">lacking basic facilities</a>.</p>
<h2>What needs to be done</h2>
<p>These findings add further impetus to arguments for urban planners and decision-makers in South Africa (and similar contexts) to be more proactive and ambitious in including and integrating urban green spaces and trees into urban developments. </p>
<p>Planners and authorities often downplay such calls because they are viewed as coming from an environmental lobby, and because – they say – there are more pressing economic and social development <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0264837714001501?casa_token=_ZixOjEqP4sAAAAA:0LkAd_dHkAXGoUMgJmX_nkxHtxO8Na0i5J1O23SvXIauJ3vap3uiAEtfYFB0Kn3JPcXTRmk48Q">needs</a>. </p>
<p>But this research shows that benefits of urban greening extend well beyond an environmental agenda. They embrace social inclusivity and sustainability too, alongside the well-established public health benefits. </p>
<p>Urban greening, therefore, needs to be one of the foremost considerations in urban planning and development in the country. It also requires budgets, expertise and strategies beyond the planning phase to allow for regular tree and green space maintenance that keeps them functional and attractive to local citizens. </p>
<p>The research also supports calls for urban greening to be <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/21665095.2021.1950019">integrated</a> into any holistic crime prevention strategy. </p>
<p><em>Lizzette Lancaster, Manager: Crime and Justice Information Hub, Institute of Security Studies, Pretoria, South Africa, contributed to this article.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/191581/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Charlie Shackleton receives funding from the national Research Foundation (South Africa). </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrew Faull is affiliated with the Institute for Security Studies (ISS) and receives funding from the Hanns Seidel Foundation.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gregory Breetzke, Ian Edelstein, and Zander Venter do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>People may think that green spaces often hide criminals. On the contrary, there is evidence they contribute to reducing crime.Charlie Shackleton, Professor & Research Chair in Interdisciplinary Science in Land and Natural Resource Use for Sustainable Livelihoods, Rhodes UniversityAndrew Faull, Research Associate at UCT's Centre of Criminology, Consultant at the Institute for Security Studies (ISS), University of Cape TownGregory Breetzke, Associate Professor, Department of Geography, Geoinformatics and Meteorology, University of PretoriaIan Edelstein, Researcher, University of Cape TownZander Venter, Spatial ecologist, The Norwegian Institute for Nature ResearchLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1811372022-11-09T13:39:20Z2022-11-09T13:39:20ZEnvironmental justice has the White House’s attention, building on 40 years of struggle – but California suggests new funding won’t immediately solve deeply entrenched problems<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490208/original/file-20221017-15096-1khxm3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=15%2C46%2C5176%2C3409&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Smokestacks in the Los Angeles neighborhood of Wilmington.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/residential-houses-next-to-oil-refinery-at-wilmington-news-photo/129370063?phrase=Latinos hazardous waste&adppopup=true">Citizen of the Planet/Education Images/Universal Images Group via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>A new office within the Environmental Protection Agency is bringing increased attention to a once-obscure concept: environmental justice.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.epa.gov/perspectives/epas-new-office-environmental-justice-and-external-civil-rights-moment-history">The Office of Environmental Justice and External Civil Rights</a> will distribute funds designated to help communities that are systematically overexposed to air pollution, contaminated water and other environmental harms. The money – <a href="https://insideclimatenews.org/todaysclimate/inflation-reduction-act-commits-just-47-billion-to-environmental-justice-activists-say/">between US$45 billion</a> and <a href="https://www.epa.gov/perspectives/inflation-reduction-act-big-deal-people-and-planet">$60 billion</a>, depending on whom you ask – was authorized as part of the <a href="https://www.congress.gov/bill/117th-congress/house-bill/5376/text">Inflation Reduction Act</a> enacted in August 2022.</p>
<p>I describe environmental justice as a goal of sustainable, healthy societies in which all people have plentiful access to environmental goods and equitable – but minimal – exposure to environmental risks. The movement coalesced in the late 1970s and the 1980s when working-class and Indigenous communities, along with communities of color, organized across the U.S. against environmental hazards that threatened their health. </p>
<p>My new book, “<a href="https://www.ucpress.edu/book/9780520376984/evolution-of-a-movement">Evolution of a Movement: Four Decades of Environmental Justice Activism in California</a>,” documents this struggle in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/23251042.2020.1848502">California starting in the 1980s</a>. It shows that despite many wins in the state, actual environmental justice remains elusive.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490207/original/file-20221017-15193-xg96n2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A Black man speaks in the foreground, with a white man and an American flag behind him" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490207/original/file-20221017-15193-xg96n2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490207/original/file-20221017-15193-xg96n2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490207/original/file-20221017-15193-xg96n2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490207/original/file-20221017-15193-xg96n2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490207/original/file-20221017-15193-xg96n2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490207/original/file-20221017-15193-xg96n2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490207/original/file-20221017-15193-xg96n2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">EPA Administrator Michael Regan, right, announces in 2022 that the Department of Justice will emphasize enforcement of environmental cases that disproportionately harm marginalized and low-income communities. U.S. Attorney General Merrick Garland stands in the background.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/administrator-michael-regan-speaks-during-a-press-news-photo/1395577821?phrase=environmental%20justice%20EPA&adppopup=true">Win McNamee/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Environmental justice history</h2>
<p>One California group that helped build this movement is <a href="https://az.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/envh10.sci.life.eco.enhdiscrim/environmental-justice-opposing-a-toxic-waste-incinerator/">El Pueblo para el Aire y Agua Limpio</a>, or People for Clean Air and Water. </p>
<p>Based in the small town of Kettleman City in California’s agricultural San Joaquin Valley, El Pueblo’s members were working-class Latinos. From 1988 to 1993, <a href="https://www.ucpress.edu/book/9780520376984/evolution-of-a-movement">they organized against a proposed hazardous waste incinerator</a>. If constructed, the incinerator – the first of its kind in the nation – would have spewed dioxins and other hazardous chemicals. </p>
<p>El Pueblo <a href="https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1991-10-13-mn-1032-story.html">staged protests</a>, spoke at <a href="https://nyupress.org/9780814715376/from-the-ground-up/">public hearings</a> and <a href="https://www.elr.info/sites/default/files/litigation/22.20357.htm">filed lawsuits</a> to prevent the construction of the incinerator. Eventually, their resistance forced the giant firm Chemical Waste Management Inc. to withdraw its proposal. </p>
<p>Tiny Kettleman City’s win was hailed as a <a href="https://nyupress.org/9780814715376/from-the-ground-up/">national victory</a> by other protest groups in similar circumstances. By 1990, these groups came together in a loose national network of people <a href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/Confronting_Environmental_Racism/yVr9lhrrTVwC?hl=en">fighting battles</a> to reduce the <a href="http://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2011.0153">health risks of toxic exposures</a> in poor communities. </p>
<p>This nascent movement filled a need not well addressed by existing environmental groups. Organizations like the Sierra Club and Environmental Defense Fund were composed of mostly white, middle- and upper-class staff and members.</p>
<p>The exclusionary hiring of such groups followed a long history of racism in the U.S. environmental movement. Some early conservation organizations such as the <a href="https://www.savetheredwoods.org/about-us/mission-history/">Save the Redwoods League</a> and the New York Zoological Society – now the <a href="https://www.nycgovparks.org/about/history/zoos/bronx-zoo">Bronx Zoo</a> – had <a href="https://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/environmentalisms-racist-history">roots in the eugenics movements</a> of the late 1800s and early 1900s, though you won’t see it mentioned on their websites.</p>
<p>As author Miles Powell documents in his 2016 book “<a href="https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674971561">Vanishing America</a>,” these early conservationists were motivated in part by a desire to preserve the conditions of the American frontier, where they believed whites had achieved the pinnacle of their innate racial superiority by “taming the wilderness.” </p>
<p>By 1990, formal eugenics policies were largely a thing of the past, but the American environmental movement remained highly segregated. </p>
<p>“The lack of people of color in decision-making positions in your organizations … is also reflective of your histories of racist and exclusionary practices,” wrote 103 activists and community leaders in <a href="https://www.ejnet.org/ej/swop.pdf">a 1990 letter</a> to 10 of the nation’s environmental groups.</p>
<p>The next year, the <a href="https://www.ucc.org/30th-anniversary-the-first-national-people-of-color-environmental-leadership-summit/">First National People of Color Environmental Leadership Summit</a> brought together some 1,100 people from across the U.S., Chile, Mexico and the Marshall Islands to publicize the concepts of <a href="https://www.nypl.org/sites/default/files/holifield_defining_ej_and_environmental_racism.pdf">environmental justice</a> and <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/9781118786352.wbieg0453">environmental racism</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490209/original/file-20221017-7418-m56gir.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A crowd of people with environmental justice signs, standing on stairs" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490209/original/file-20221017-7418-m56gir.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490209/original/file-20221017-7418-m56gir.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490209/original/file-20221017-7418-m56gir.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490209/original/file-20221017-7418-m56gir.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490209/original/file-20221017-7418-m56gir.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=523&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490209/original/file-20221017-7418-m56gir.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=523&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490209/original/file-20221017-7418-m56gir.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=523&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Civil rights leader Benjamin Chavis speaks at the 1991 First National People of Color Environmental Leadership Summit in Washington, D.C.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Michael Dorsey</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>California as model, California as warning</h2>
<p>The movement made early gains in California. There, under grassroots pressure, state legislators started passing environmental justice bills in the early 1990s, though it took years for any governor to <a href="https://digitalcommons.law.ggu.edu/ggulrev/vol31/iss4/6/">sign them into law</a>. </p>
<p>The result is that California today has an array of <a href="https://calepa.ca.gov/envjustice/">environmental justice programs</a>. One directs <a href="https://ww2.arb.ca.gov/sites/default/files/auction-proceeds/cci_annual_report_2022.pdf">billions of dollars</a> from <a href="https://ww2.arb.ca.gov/our-work/programs/cap-and-trade-program">California’s carbon cap-and-trade program</a> back into marginalized communities.</p>
<p>Accordingly, California is widely seen by activists and policymakers as a model for environmental justice. But, in spite of its many advances, researchers <a href="https://www.lung.org/blog/environmental-justice-air-pollution">continue to document</a> race-based inequalities in California residents’ exposure to environmental risks and benefits. </p>
<p>For example, despite El Pueblo’s early anti-incinerator victory and <a href="https://earthjustice.org/our_work/cases/2013/challenging-epa-s-free-pass-for-the-avenal-power-plant">other successes</a>, the <a href="https://data.census.gov/cedsci/profile/Kettleman_City_CDP,_California?g=1600000US0638394">Spanish-speaking</a>, <a href="https://data.census.gov/cedsci/profile/Kettleman_City_CDP,_California?g=1600000US0638394">low-income residents</a> of Kettleman City still breathe in some of the country’s <a href="https://www3.epa.gov/airquality/greenbook/ancl.html">most polluted</a> <a href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/nation/california-has-some-of-the-worst-air-quality-in-the-country-the-problem-is-rooted-in-the-san-joaquin-valley">air</a> and live near the largest hazardous waste landfill in the American West.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/492379/original/file-20221028-61500-lf1bpj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="In a crowded scene, people chant and hold protest signs." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/492379/original/file-20221028-61500-lf1bpj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/492379/original/file-20221028-61500-lf1bpj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492379/original/file-20221028-61500-lf1bpj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492379/original/file-20221028-61500-lf1bpj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492379/original/file-20221028-61500-lf1bpj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492379/original/file-20221028-61500-lf1bpj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492379/original/file-20221028-61500-lf1bpj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Kettleman City residents and supporters protest the expansion of the nearby hazardous waste landfill.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/residents-of-kettleman-city-hold-a-vigil-outside-the-news-photo/566063377">Luis Sinco via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-069X-11-84">Studies</a> show that Californians with <a href="https://ehjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1476-069X-11-84">contaminated drinking water</a> are disproportionately <a href="http://auditor.ca.gov/reports/2021-118/index.html">people of color and the poor</a>. California’s three hazardous waste landfills are located in or near predominantly Latino communities, as are the state’s two <a href="https://earthjustice.org/features/california-municipal-waste-incinerators">waste incinerators</a>. </p>
<p>Activists <a href="https://calmatters.org/environment/2022/01/california-air-quality-environmental-justice-law/">express frustration</a> with the very policies that are supposed to help them. They argue that some of California’s much-vaunted environmental policies are actually bad for poor people and communities of color.</p>
<p>Indeed, researchers have shown that during the early phase of cap-and-trade, some industrial facilities’ air pollution emissions increased instead of decreasing. These facilities were more likely to be in places that had <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosmedicine/article?id=10.1371/journal.pmed.1002604">higher proportions of people of color and the poor</a> than were facilities that reduced their air pollution emissions. </p>
<p>I believe California is better off for its activists’ relentless pursuit of safe, equitable places to live over the past four decades. But the limits of the state’s success show that California should not be seen only as an environmental justice model, but also as a warning of how much more is needed to reverse environmental racism. </p>
<h2>The rest of the nation</h2>
<p>These lessons apply nationwide.</p>
<p>Recent federal actions under the Biden administration, including a <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2022/01/26/fact-sheet-a-year-advancing-environmental-justice/">spate of executive orders</a> made early in his presidency, promise historic levels of funding to address environmental inequalities. Yet advocates question whether even the billions of new dollars promised will be enough to rectify the government’s <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate-environment/2022/09/24/epa-environmental-justice/">“historic neglect” and active discrimination against</a> the communities nationwide that have forever shouldered the bulk of the country’s environmental hazards. </p>
<p>Activists are also <a href="https://www.sierraclub.org/sierra/environmental-justice-advocates-respond-inflation-reduction-act">asking questions</a> about how the money will be distributed. Some of these federal funds will be distributed via grant-making or similar mechanisms even though the poorest places may be least well equipped to fight for federal dollars. In California, such processes have <a href="https://calmatters.org/environment/2017/09/come-hat-hand-californias-green-money/">put the country’s neediest communities in competition with one another</a>.</p>
<p>And, just as California leaders have taken some actions to slow global warming while simultaneously pursuing others that hasten it, the Inflation Reduction Act moves both toward and away from environmental justice. It includes funds to reduce pollution and slow climate change but, <a href="https://apnews.com/article/biden-technology-science-oil-and-gas-industry-climate-environment-28df40ad9ebb33f4447815b6593673b3">under pressure from Democratic Sen. Joe Manchin of West Virginia</a>, it also directs the Department of Interior to go ahead with oil- and gas-drilling lease sales in the Gulf Coast and Alaska that were previously canceled.</p>
<p>Many environmentalists say the bill’s <a href="https://earthjustice.org/brief/2022/what-the-inflation-reduction-act-means-for-climate">benefits outweigh its negative impacts</a>. A national coalition of <a href="https://climatejusticealliance.org/the-inflation-reduction-act-is-not-a-climate-justice-bill/">environmental justice organizations disagrees</a>. These groups say that, once again, the front-line communities living closest to dirty energy infrastructure are being <a href="https://www.npr.org/2022/08/17/1117725655/the-spending-bill-will-cut-emissions-but-marginalized-groups-feel-they-were-sold">sacrificed</a> for political expediency.</p>
<p>Environmental racism is deeply entrenched in American society, and will require far-reaching changes to reverse. The Office of Environmental Justice and External Civil Rights has its work cut out for it.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/181137/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tracy Perkins currently receives or has previously received research funding from: the University of New Hampshire; University of Maryland, Baltimore County; and University of Arizona; the DC Oral History Collaborative; American Sociological Association; and the University of California. She was a 2014 Duke HASTAC Scholar.
</span></em></p>Poor communities of color have spent decades battling US industrial and agricultural pollution. A new EPA office is designed to support their struggle, but history suggests reason for caution.Tracy Perkins, Assistant Professor, School of Social Transformation, Arizona State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.