tag:theconversation.com,2011:/au/topics/brain-communication-6140/articlesbrain communication – The Conversation2016-08-05T01:31:34Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/614772016-08-05T01:31:34Z2016-08-05T01:31:34ZWhy it’s hard for adults to learn a second language<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/133176/original/image-20160804-473-32tg9n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">What makes some individuals good at learning languages?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-189291665/stock-photo-four-smiley-fingers-on-a-blackboard-saying-hello-in-english-french-chinese-and-spanish.html?src=krP6IKDXD-q2R3ZjJ93tPw-1-68">Language image www.shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>As a young adult in college, I decided to learn Japanese. My father’s family is from Japan, and I wanted to travel there someday. </p>
<p>However, many of my classmates and I found it difficult to <a href="http://www.jimflege.com/files/Flege_Yeni-Komshian_age_constraints_JML_1999.pdf">learn a language in adulthood</a>. We struggled to connect new sounds and a dramatically different writing system to the familiar objects around us. </p>
<p>It wasn’t so for everyone. There were some students in our class who were able to acquire the new language much more easily than others. </p>
<p>So, what makes some individuals “good language learners?” And do such individuals have a “second language aptitude?” </p>
<h2>What we know about second language aptitude</h2>
<p>Past research on second language aptitude has focused on how people perceive sounds in a particular language and on more general cognitive processes such as <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/lang.12011/full">memory and learning abilities</a>. Most of this work has used paper-and-pencil and computerized tests to determine language-learning abilities and predict future learning. </p>
<p>Researchers have also studied brain activity as a way of measuring linguistic and cognitive abilities. However, much less is known about how brain activity predicts second language learning. </p>
<p>Is there a way to predict the aptitude of second language learning?</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/133177/original/image-20160804-484-gs32u4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/133177/original/image-20160804-484-gs32u4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/133177/original/image-20160804-484-gs32u4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/133177/original/image-20160804-484-gs32u4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/133177/original/image-20160804-484-gs32u4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/133177/original/image-20160804-484-gs32u4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/133177/original/image-20160804-484-gs32u4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">How does brain activity change while learning languages?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-135434942/stock-photo-road-map-of-the-mind-conceptual-image-roads-and-streets-making-up-a-human-brain.html?src=HJ_bIcrDLDdPd8lCaWQHdg-1-43">Brain image via www.shutterstock.com</a></span>
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<p>In a 2016 study, <a href="http://ilabs.washington.edu/institute-faculty/bio/i-labs-chantel-prat-phd">Chantel Prat</a>, associate professor of psychology at the Institute for Learning and Brain Sciences at the University of Washington, and I <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0093934X15300833">explored how</a> brain activity recorded at rest – while a person is relaxed with their eyes closed – could predict the rate at which a second language is learned among adults who spoke only one language.</p>
<h2>Studying the resting brain</h2>
<p>Resting brain activity is thought to reflect the organization of the brain and it has been linked to <a href="http://ac.els-cdn.com/0013469469901886/1-s2.0-0013469469901886-main.pdf?_tid=3db84b64-583d-11e6-a78e-00000aab0f27&acdnat=1470093253_56e73e470a62523073ba880ee7061a7d">intelligence</a>, or the general ability used to reason and problem-solve.</p>
<p>We measured brain activity obtained from a “resting state” to predict individual differences in the ability to learn a second language in adulthood.</p>
<p>To do that, we recorded five minutes of eyes-closed resting-state electroencephalography, a method that detects electrical activity in the brain, in young adults. We also collected two hours of paper-and-pencil and computerized tasks.</p>
<p>We then had 19 participants complete eight weeks of French language training using a computer program. This software was developed by the U.S. armed forces with the goal of getting military personnel functionally proficient in a language as quickly as possible. </p>
<p>The software combined reading, listening and speaking practice with game-like virtual reality scenarios. Participants moved through the content in levels organized around different goals, such as being able to communicate with a virtual cab driver by finding out if the driver was available, telling the driver where their bags were and thanking the driver.</p>
<p>Here’s a video demonstration:</p>
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<p>Nineteen adult participants (18-31 years of age) completed two 30-minute training sessions per week for a total of 16 sessions. After each training session, we recorded the level that each participant had reached. At the end of the experiment, we used that level information to calculate each individual’s learning rate across the eight-week training.</p>
<p>As expected, there was large variability in the learning rate, with the best learner moving through the program more than twice as quickly as the slowest learner. Our goal was to figure out which (if any) of the measures recorded initially predicted those differences.</p>
<h2>A new brain measure for language aptitude</h2>
<p>When we correlated our measures with learning rate, we found that patterns of brain activity that have been <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0093934X03000671">linked to linguistic processes</a> predicted how easily people could learn a second language.</p>
<p>Patterns of activity over the right side of the brain predicted upwards of 60 percent of the differences in second language learning across individuals. This finding is consistent with previous research showing that <a href="http://journals.lww.com/neuroreport/Abstract/1997/12010/Anatomical_variability_in_the_cortical.30.aspx">the right half of the brain</a> is more frequently used with a second language.</p>
<p>Our results suggest that the majority of the language learning differences between participants could be explained by the way their brain was organized before they even started learning.</p>
<h2>Implications for learning a new language</h2>
<p>Does this mean that if you, like me, don’t have a “quick second language learning” brain you should forget about learning a second language? </p>
<p>Not quite.</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/133178/original/image-20160804-473-1aro24p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/133178/original/image-20160804-473-1aro24p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/133178/original/image-20160804-473-1aro24p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/133178/original/image-20160804-473-1aro24p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/133178/original/image-20160804-473-1aro24p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/133178/original/image-20160804-473-1aro24p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/133178/original/image-20160804-473-1aro24p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Language learning can depend on many factors.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-434124805/stock-photo-asian-kid-learning-english-in-classroom.html?src=2roCgcubbDGRVq3TrBTFhw-1-52">Child image via www.shutterstock.com</a></span>
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<p>First, it is important to remember that 40 percent of the difference in language learning rate still remains unexplained. Some of this is certainly related to factors like attention and motivation, which are known to be reliable predictors of learning in general, and of <a href="http://web3.apiu.edu/researchfile/Research%20Materials/Teaching%20Method%20and%20Student%20English%20Learning%20Performance/Student%20learning%20attitudes%20or%20motivation/Attitudes,%20motivation%20and%20second%20language%20learning.pdf">second language learning in particular</a>.</p>
<p>Second, we know that people can change their resting-state brain activity. So training may help to <a href="http://ac.els-cdn.com/S0149763413002248/1-s2.0-S0149763413002248-main.pdf?_tid=b2641376-5a86-11e6-8931-00000aab0f01&acdnat=1470344704_0174549f303f0fa340e3b867668a229a">shape the brain</a> into a state in which it is more ready to learn. This could be an exciting future research direction. </p>
<p>Second language learning in adulthood is difficult, but the benefits are large for those who, like myself, are motivated by the desire to communicate with others who do not speak their native tongue.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/61477/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>This project was funded by a grant from the Office of Naval Research (ONRBAA13-003) entitled “Training the Mind and Brain: Investigating Individual Differences in the Ability to Learn and Benefit Cognitively from Language Training.”</span></em></p>Researchers have found that some individuals have a ‘language aptitude,’ which depends on how their brain is organized.Brianna Yamasaki, Ph.D. Student, University of WashingtonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/379262015-03-08T19:02:30Z2015-03-08T19:02:30ZBrain-to-brain interfaces: the science of telepathy<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/73904/original/image-20150305-17450-1ygf48v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">All he needs is the right equipment and he might actually be able to transmit thoughts.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/topastrodfogna/5418451488/in/photolist-9eF59s-9fby7Q-ak6KSN-9g4UNr-e8QvUY-dSdSdZ-pt8565-7AFUSU-9fNYRo-qw1XtJ-6ZYgPV-p4r6KK-5swUzG-4rW8RE-4rW8Mf-4rW8Cw-pkWd1c-pkUwQY-pnfuzP-p63teu-6Cm53Z-4uJWJW-6z6KEg-4mAm4x-snvge-p5NA9Q-p63sNu-p62vTv-p62vxa-i9HWER-i9JpcM-4mEpbA-9YReYf-4mAkPi-4mAkeR-4mEpsq-4mAk6p-4mEpmE-4mEpCC-4mEoSw-4mEpxd-4mEp4h-4mEoiE-4mEo6Y-4mAkp2-4mAmxZ-4mAjP8-4mAkjP-4mEoLf-4mEo3u">Mauro Sartori/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Have you ever wondered what it would be like to walk a mile (or 1.6 kilometres) in somebody else’s shoes? Or have you ever tried to send a telepathic message to a partner in transit to “pick up milk on your way home”? </p>
<p>Recent advances in brain-computer interfaces are turning the science fantasy of transmitting thoughts directly from one brain to another into reality. </p>
<p>Studies published in the last two years have reported direct transmission of brain activity <a href="http://www.nature.com/srep/2013/130228/srep01319/full/srep01319.html">between two animals</a>, <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0111332">between two humans</a> and even between a <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0060410">human and a rat</a>. These “brain-to-brain interfaces” (BBIs) allow for direct transmission of brain activity in real time by coupling the brains of two individuals. </p>
<p>So what is the science behind this?</p>
<h2>Reading the brainwaves</h2>
<p>Brain-to-brain interface is made possible because of the way brain cells communicate with each other. Cell-to-cell communication occurs via a process known as <a href="http://www.columbia.edu/cu/psychology/courses/1010/mangels/neuro/transmission/transmission.html">synaptic transmission</a>, where chemical signals are passed between cells resulting in electrical spikes in the receiving cell.</p>
<p>Synaptic transmission forms the basis of all brain activity, including motor control, memory, perception and emotion. Because cells are connected in a network, brain activity produces a synchronised pulse of electrical activity, which is called a “brain wave”. </p>
<p>Brain waves change according to the cognitive processes that the brain is currently working through and are characterised by the time-frequency pattern of the up and down states (oscillations). </p>
<p>For example, there are brainwaves that are characteristic of the different <a href="http://science.howstuffworks.com/life/inside-the-mind/human-brain/dream2.htm">phases of sleep</a>, and patterns characteristic of various states of awareness and consciousness. </p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/73909/original/image-20150305-17448-1ubkmdx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/73909/original/image-20150305-17448-1ubkmdx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/73909/original/image-20150305-17448-1ubkmdx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/73909/original/image-20150305-17448-1ubkmdx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/73909/original/image-20150305-17448-1ubkmdx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=529&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/73909/original/image-20150305-17448-1ubkmdx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=529&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/73909/original/image-20150305-17448-1ubkmdx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=529&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">An example of brainwaves that appear during one of the stages of sleep.</span>
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<p>Brainwaves are detected using a technique known as electroencephalography (<a href="http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003931.htm">EEG</a>), where a swimming-cap like device is worn over the scalp and electrical activity detected via electrodes. The pattern of activity is then recorded and interpreted using computer software. </p>
<p>This kind of brain-machine interface forms the basis of neural prosthesis technology and is used to <a href="http://www.ninds.nih.gov/research/npp/index.htm">restore brain function</a>. This may sound far-fetched, but neural prostheses are actually commonplace, just think of the <a href="http://www.cochlear.com/wps/wcm/connect/au/home/understand/hearing-and-hl/hl-treatments/cochlear-implant">Cochlear implant</a>! </p>
<h2>Technical telepathy</h2>
<p>The electrical nature of the brain allows not only for sending of signals, but also for the receiving of electrical pulses. These can be delivered in a non-invasive way using a technique called transcranial magnetic stimulation (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcranial_magnetic_stimulation">TMS</a>). </p>
<p>A TMS device creates a magnetic field over the scalp, which then causes an electrical current in the brain. When a TMS coil is placed over the motor cortex, the motor pathways can be activated, resulting in movement of a limb, hand or foot, or even a finger or toe. </p>
<p>Scientists are now working on ways to sort through all the noise in brainwaves to uncover specific signals that can then be used to create an artificial communication channel between animals. </p>
<p>The first demonstration of this was in a 2013 study where a pair of rats were connected through a BBI to perform a behavioural task. The connection was reinforced by giving both rats a reward when the receiver rat performed the task correctly. </p>
<p>Hot on the heels of this study was a demonstration that a human could control the tail movements of a rat via BBI. </p>
<p>We now know that BBIs can work between humans too. By combining EEG and TMS, scientists have transmitted the thought of moving a hand from one person to a separate individual, who actually moved their hand. The BBI works best when both participants are conscious cooperators in the experiment. In this case, the subjects were engaged in a computer game.</p>
<h2>Thinking at you</h2>
<p>The latest advance in human BBIs represents another leap forward. This is where <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0105225">transmission of conscious thought</a> was achieved between two human beings in August last year. </p>
<p>Using a combination of technologies – including EEG, the Internet and TMS – the team of researchers was able to transmit a thought all the way from India to France. </p>
<p>Words were first coded into binary notation (i.e. 1 = “hola”; 0 = “ciao”). Then the resulting EEG signal from the person thinking the 1 or the 0 was transmitted to a robot-driven TMS device positioned over the visual cortex of the receiver’s brain. </p>
<p>In this case, the TMS pulses resulted in the perception of flashes of light for the receiver, who was then able to decode this information into the original words (hola or ciao). </p>
<p>Now that these BBI technologies are becoming a reality, they have a huge potential to impact the way we interact with other humans. And maybe even the way we communicate with animals through direct transmission of thought. </p>
<p>Such technologies have obvious ethical and legal implications, however. So it is important to note that the success of BBIs depends upon the conscious coupling of the subjects. </p>
<p>In this respect, there is a terrific potential for BBIs to one day be integrated into psychotherapies, including <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/cbt">cognitive behavioural therapy</a>, learning of motor skills, or even more fantastical situations akin to remote control of robots on distant planets or Vulcan-like mind melds a la Star Trek.</p>
<p>Soon, it might well be possible to really experience walking a mile (or a kilometre) in another person’s shoes.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/37926/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kristyn Bates receives funding from The Raine Medical Research Foundation and The Neurotrauma Research Program (Western Australia).</span></em></p>Technology is making it possible to communicate thought directly from one brain to another.Kristyn Bates, Research Assistant Professor in Neuroscience, The University of Western AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.