tag:theconversation.com,2011:/au/topics/breakfast-18281/articlesBreakfast – The Conversation2024-01-03T13:19:03Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2194442024-01-03T13:19:03Z2024-01-03T13:19:03ZWeight loss: why listening to your circadian rhythm may be important<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565755/original/file-20231214-15-b5yrah.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C8%2C5690%2C3779&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Evidence from the field of chrono-nutrition shows that eating more in line with your circadian rhythm may be good for health.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/intermittent-fasting-ketogenic-diet-concept-8hour-1926524876">Chinnapong/ Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When it comes to losing weight, many people want to know what the best diet is. But increasing research shows that when you eat may just as important for your health and weight as what you eat. </p>
<p>The importance of when we eat is tied to our internal 24-hour biological timing system, called the circadian system. This is controlled by a master clock in the brain which helps regulate many metabolic processes in the body – including digestion, the release of hormones, and blood sugar levels, as well as when we sleep, wake up and eat. Regular circadian rhythms (our eating and sleeping times) help to <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/jne.12886">maintain normal body functions</a>.</p>
<p>From a <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32662577/">physiological perspective</a> – for humans and many other mammals, at least – the body is used to us eating when it’s light and sleeping when it’s dark. This is in sync with our circadian rhythm.</p>
<p>Emerging evidence from the field of <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jnc.15246">chrono-nutrition</a> shows that eating more in line with this natural biological rhythm may help boost your health and wellbeing, and potentially help with weight loss. </p>
<h2>Timing your meals</h2>
<p>If you prefer to skip breakfast in favour of eating later in the day, you’re not alone. The majority of <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27327252/">people in the UK</a> consume most of their day’s calories in the evening. But given our body’s preference for daylight, there may be some advantage to eating breakfast – or at least, getting more of our day’s calories into our diets earlier on.</p>
<p>Most evidence from the field of chrono-nutrition suggests eating breakfast regularly may protect against <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5969247/">gaining body fat</a>. Research also shows that eating most of your calories a couple of hours before bedtime may <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell-metabolism/pdfExtended/S1550-4131(22)00397-7">increase hunger</a> and reduce your metabolism to favour fat storage in the body’s fat tissue. Habitually skipping breakfast and eating mostly in the evening is associated with a <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31918985/">greater risk of weight gain</a> as well.</p>
<p>Having irregular mealtimes can also affect your body weight. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyy079">Shift workers</a>, for example, are predisposed to weight gain and metabolic disorders such as type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease and some cancers. It’s been suggested that the reason for this, in part, is circadian misalignment, which is when your sleep and wake cycle is misaligned with your mealtimes. <a href="https://academic.oup.com/pmj/article/94/1117/653/6959223">Jet lag</a> can affect digestion and sleep patterns too.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3763921/">Sleep loss</a> has also been shown to alter food desire – with studies showing that people crave high-calorie foods after a night of poor sleep. This may further result in weight gain.</p>
<p>However, if you’re someone who finds it hard to eat breakfast in the morning, don’t despair. Research by myself and colleagues shows that when it comes to weight loss, the timing of your meals doesn’t affect <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell-metabolism/pdfExtended/S1550-4131(22)00344-8">your ability to lose weight</a> – though early eating may have some advantages. </p>
<p>Our study compared the effect of eating calories predominantly in the morning versus in the evening. In one group, participants ate 45% of their day’s calories at breakfast, 35% at lunch and 20% at dinner. The other group had the opposite eating pattern, with 45% of their day’s calories consumed at dinner.</p>
<p>We found that adults in both groups had similar weight loss regardless of when they ate the bulk of their day’s calories. This result might be particularly reassuring for people who work shifts.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A person eats a healthy breakfast." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565757/original/file-20231214-17-crn595.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565757/original/file-20231214-17-crn595.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565757/original/file-20231214-17-crn595.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565757/original/file-20231214-17-crn595.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565757/original/file-20231214-17-crn595.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565757/original/file-20231214-17-crn595.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565757/original/file-20231214-17-crn595.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Consider putting breakfast back on the menu.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/woman-eating-healthy-morning-meal-breakfast-2313432341">Dulin/ Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>One thing we did find, though, was that eating a big breakfast was most beneficial for appetite control. This may be useful when sticking to a strict calorie limit in order to lose weight.</p>
<p>The type of breakfast you eat is also important. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22397883/">Another study</a> we conducted shows that appetite and satiety (feeling full) are influenced by the macronutrients (fat, protein and carbohydrates) in your meal. For example, high-protein meals were shown to make participants feel fuller for longer. And because these meals were satisfying, it also made participants less likely to give into cravings later on. </p>
<p>Some good examples of high-protein breakfasts include yoghurts, eggs, baked beans and toast, kedgeree (smoked fish, boiled egg and rice) or a fruit and vegetable smoothie with added quark or tofu.</p>
<p>So, based on the available evidence, it appears that eating most of your meals during the earlier daylight hours may be beneficial for your health and body weight.</p>
<h2>Timing your workouts</h2>
<p>Exercise is also important when it comes to our health. However, it’s not yet clear whether exercising at a certain time of day is more beneficial.</p>
<p><a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30426166/">One study</a>, which compared the effect of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) on blood sugar levels in men with type 2 diabetes, found that exercising in the afternoon was better than exercising in the morning when it came to improving blood sugar levels. This may be important in managing the condition in the long term. </p>
<p>However, a <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4095658/">separate study</a> conducted in people who did not have any health conditions found the timing of your workout was less important than when you ate. </p>
<p>The researchers found that participants who consumed around 700 calories before 11am were more physically active and had more stable blood sugar throughout the day, compared with participants who fasted until noon. Both of these factors may help to prevent weight gain in the long run. </p>
<p>So, while the timing of your workout may be personal preference, when you have your pre-workout meal does matter when it comes to health.</p>
<p>In general, by taking lessons from chrono-nutrition and tuning back into our body clocks, it may be possible to better look after our health in a way that’s more aligned with our biology.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/219444/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alex Johnstone receives funding from UKRI, The Scottish Government, NHS, Chief Scientist Office and European Community. She acts as a consultant for the food sector. </span></em></p>You may want to re-think skipping breakfast if you’re someone who does it often.Alex Johnstone, Personal Chair in Nutrition, The Rowett Institute, University of AberdeenLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2191142023-12-18T19:09:51Z2023-12-18T19:09:51Z5 ways to avoid weight gain and save money on food this Christmas<p>As Christmas approaches, so does the challenge of healthy eating and maintaining weight-related goals. The season’s many social gatherings can easily tempt us to indulge in calorie-rich food and celebratory drinks. It’s why we typically <a href="https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMc1602012">gain weight</a> over Christmas and then struggle to take it off for the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0031938414001528">remainder of the year</a>.</p>
<p>Christmas 2023 is also exacerbating cost-of-living pressures, prompting some to rethink their food choices. Throughout the year, <a href="https://dvh1deh6tagwk.cloudfront.net/finder-au/wp-uploads/2023/03/Cost-of-Living-Report-2023.pdf">71% of Australians</a> – or 14.2 million people – <a href="https://retailworldmagazine.com.au/rising-cost-of-living-forces-aussies-to-change-diets/">adapted</a> their eating behaviour in response to rising costs.</p>
<p>Fortunately, there are some simple, science-backed hacks for the festive season to help you celebrate with the food traditions you love without impacting your healthy eating habits, weight, or hip pocket.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/when-christmas-comes-so-do-the-kilos-new-research-tracks-australians-yo-yo-weight-gain-210709">When Christmas comes so do the kilos. New research tracks Australians' yo-yo weight gain</a>
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<h2>1. Fill up on healthy pre-party snacks before heading out</h2>
<p>If your festive season is filled with end-of-year parties likely to tempt you to fill up on finger foods and meals high in fat, salt, and sugar and low in nutritional value, have a healthy pre-event snack before you head out.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5015032/#sec-a.g.atitle">Research</a> shows carefully selected snack foods can impact satiety (feelings of fullness after eating), potentially reducing the calories you eat later. High-protein, high-fibre snack foods have the strongest effect: because they take longer to digest, our hunger is satisfied for longer.</p>
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<img alt="Person pours a handful of mixed nuts" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565710/original/file-20231214-31-zsoyv0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565710/original/file-20231214-31-zsoyv0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565710/original/file-20231214-31-zsoyv0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565710/original/file-20231214-31-zsoyv0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565710/original/file-20231214-31-zsoyv0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565710/original/file-20231214-31-zsoyv0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565710/original/file-20231214-31-zsoyv0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Nuts are a good option.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/hands-holding-jar-nuts-dried-fruits-1112521214">Shutterstock/NazarBazar</a></span>
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<p>So enjoy a handful of nuts, a tub of yoghurt, or a serving of hummus with veggie sticks before you head out to help keep your healthy eating plan on track.</p>
<h2>2. Skip the low-carb drinks and enjoy your favourites in moderation</h2>
<p>Despite the marketing promises, low-carb alcoholic drinks <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/hpja.531">aren’t better for our health or waistlines</a>.</p>
<p>Many low-carb options have a similar amount of carbohydrates as regular options but lull us into thinking they’re better, so we drink more. A <a href="https://www.vichealth.vic.gov.au/sites/default/files/K-013_Low-carb-beer_FactSheet_FINAL.pdf">survey</a> found 15% of low-carb beer drinkers drank more beer than they usually would because they believed it was healthier for them.</p>
<p>A typical lager or ale will contain less than 1.5 grams of carbohydrate per 100 ml while the “lower-carb” variety can range anywhere from 0.5 grams to 2.0 grams. The calories in drinks come from the alcohol itself, not the carbohydrate content. </p>
<p>Next time you go to order, think about the quantity of alcohol you’re drinking rather than the carbs. Make sure you sip lots of water in between drinks to stay hydrated, too.</p>
<h2>3. Don’t skimp on healthy food for Christmas Day – it’s actually cheaper</h2>
<p>There’s a perception that healthy eating is more expensive. But studies show this is a misconception. A <a href="https://southwesthealthcare.com.au/swh-study-finds-eating-a-healthier-diet-is-actually-cheaper-at-the-checkout/#:%7E:text=A%20recent%20study%20from%20the,does%20not%20meet%20the%20guidelines">recent analysis</a> in Victoria, for example, found following the Australian Dietary Guidelines cost the average family A$156 less a fortnight than the cost of the average diet, which incorporates packaged processed foods and alcohol.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/trying-to-spend-less-on-food-following-the-dietary-guidelines-might-save-you-160-a-fortnight-216749">Trying to spend less on food? Following the dietary guidelines might save you $160 a fortnight</a>
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<p>So when you’re planning your Christmas Day meal, give the pre-prepared, processed food a miss and swap in healthier ingredients:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>swap the heavy, salted ham for leaner and lighter meats such as fresh seafood. Some seafood, such as prawns, is also tipped to be cheaper this year thanks to <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/goodfood/lobsters-up-prawns-stable-a-buying-guide-to-seafood-this-christmas-20231208-p5eq3m.html">favourable weather conditions</a> boosting local supplies</p></li>
<li><p>for side dishes, opt for fresh salads incorporating seasonal ingredients such as mango, watermelon, peach, cucumber and tomatoes. This will save you money and ensure you’re eating foods when they’re freshest and most flavoursome</p></li>
</ul>
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<img alt="Woman holds platter at Summer Christmas lunch outdoors" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565716/original/file-20231214-17-kdrjv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565716/original/file-20231214-17-kdrjv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565716/original/file-20231214-17-kdrjv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565716/original/file-20231214-17-kdrjv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565716/original/file-20231214-17-kdrjv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565716/original/file-20231214-17-kdrjv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565716/original/file-20231214-17-kdrjv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Swap in healthier ingredients.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/be-jolly-fill-your-belly-cropped-2146240039">PeopleImages.com - Yuri A/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<li><p>if you’re roasting veggies, use healthier cooking oils like olive as opposed to vegetable oil, and use flavourful herbs instead of salt</p></li>
<li><p>if there’s an out-of-season vegetable you want to include, look for frozen and canned substitutes. They’re cheaper, and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0889157517300418">just as nutritious</a> and tasty because the produce is usually frozen or canned at its best. Watch the sodium content of canned foods, though, and give them a quick rinse to remove any salty water</p></li>
<li><p>give store-bought sauces and dressings a miss, making your own from scratch using fresh ingredients.</p></li>
</ul>
<h2>4. Plan your Christmas food shop with military precision</h2>
<p>Before heading to the supermarket to shop for your Christmas Day meal, create a detailed meal plan and shopping list, and don’t forget to check your pantry and fridge for things you already have. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4586574/">Eating beforehand</a> and shopping with a plan in hand means you’ll only buy what you need and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8206473/">avoid impulse purchasing</a>.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/bring-a-plate-what-to-take-to-christmas-lunch-that-looks-impressive-but-wont-break-the-bank-196565">Bring a plate! What to take to Christmas lunch that looks impressive (but won't break the bank)</a>
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<p>When you’re shopping, price check everything. Comparing the cost per 100 grams is the most effective way to save money and get the best value. Check prices on products sold in different ways and places, too, such as nuts you scoop yourself versus prepacked options.</p>
<h2>5. Don’t skip breakfast on Christmas Day</h2>
<p>We’ve all been tempted to skip or have a small breakfast on Christmas morning to “save” the calories for later. But this plan will fail when you sit down at lunch hungry and find yourself eating far more calories than you’d “saved” for. </p>
<p><a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32073608/">Research</a> shows a low-calorie or small breakfast leads to increased feelings of hunger, specifically appetite for sweets, across the course of the day. </p>
<p>What you eat for breakfast on Christmas morning is just as important too – choosing the right foods will <a href="https://theconversation.com/im-trying-to-lose-weight-and-eat-healthily-why-do-i-feel-so-hungry-all-the-time-what-can-i-do-about-it-215808">help you manage your appetite</a> and avoid the temptation to overindulge later in the day. </p>
<p><a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24703415/">Studies</a> show a breakfast containing protein-rich foods, such as eggs, will leave us feeling fuller for longer. </p>
<p>So before you head out to the Christmas lunch, have a large, nutritionally balanced breakfast, such as eggs on wholegrain toast with avocado.</p>
<p><em>At the Boden Group, Charles Perkins Centre, we are studying the science of obesity and running clinical trials for weight loss. You can <a href="https://redcap.sydney.edu.au/surveys/?s=RKTXPPPHKY">register here</a> to express your interest.</em> </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/5-ways-to-make-christmas-lunch-more-ethical-this-year-218351">5 ways to make Christmas lunch more ethical this year</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/219114/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nick Fuller works for the University of Sydney and has received external funding for projects relating to the treatment of overweight and obesity. He is the author and founder of the Interval Weight Loss program.</span></em></p>Many of us gain weight over Christmas and spend more than we’d like entertaining. Here’s how to keep both in check.Nick Fuller, Charles Perkins Centre Research Program Leader, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2158082023-12-10T19:07:34Z2023-12-10T19:07:34ZI’m trying to lose weight and eat healthily. Why do I feel so hungry all the time? What can I do about it?<p>Benjamin Franklin, one of the founding fathers of the United States, famously said nothing is certain except death and taxes. But I think we can include “you’ll feel hungry when you’re trying to lose weight” as another certainty. </p>
<p>The reason is basic biology. So how does this work – and what can you do about it?</p>
<h2>Hormones control our feelings of hunger</h2>
<p>Several hormones play an essential role in regulating our feelings of hunger and fullness. The most important are ghrelin – often called the hunger hormone – and leptin.</p>
<p>When we’re hungry, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11739476/">ghrelin</a> is released by our stomach, lighting up a part of our brain called the hypothalamus to tell us to eat. </p>
<p>When it’s time to stop eating, hormones, including <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8717038/">leptin</a>, are released from different organs, such as our gut and fat tissue, to signal to the brain that we’re full.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/chemical-messengers-how-hormones-make-us-feel-hungry-and-full-35545">Chemical messengers: how hormones make us feel hungry and full</a>
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<h2>Dieting disrupts the process</h2>
<p>But when we change our diet and start losing weight, we disrupt how these <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4766925/">appetite hormones function</a>. </p>
<p>This triggers a process that stems from our hunter-gatherer ancestors. Their bodies developed this mechanism as a survival response to adapt to periods of deprivation and protect against starvation. </p>
<p>The levels of hormones <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23126426/">managing our hunger increase</a>, making us feel hungrier to tell us to eat more, while the ones responsible for signalling we’re full decrease their levels, intensifying our feelings of hunger.</p>
<p>We end up increasing our calorie consumption so we eat more to regain the weight we lost. </p>
<p>But worse, even after the kilos creep back on, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22029981/">our appetite hormones don’t restore</a> to their normal levels – they keep telling us to eat more so we put on a little extra fat. This is our body’s way of preparing for the next bout of starvation we will impose through dieting. </p>
<p>Fortunately, there are things we can do to manage our appetite, including:</p>
<h2>1. Eating a large, healthy breakfast every day</h2>
<p>One of the easiest ways to manage our feelings of hunger throughout the day is to eat most of our food earlier in the day and taper our meal sizes so dinner is the smallest meal.</p>
<p><a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32073608/">Research</a> shows a low-calorie or small breakfast leads to increased feelings of hunger, specifically appetite for sweets, across the course of the day. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Man spreads avocado" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563857/original/file-20231206-16-2c5mdc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563857/original/file-20231206-16-2c5mdc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563857/original/file-20231206-16-2c5mdc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563857/original/file-20231206-16-2c5mdc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563857/original/file-20231206-16-2c5mdc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563857/original/file-20231206-16-2c5mdc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563857/original/file-20231206-16-2c5mdc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Prioritise breakfast over dinner.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/soft-focus-shot-man-having-delicious-759322450">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://www.cell.com/cell-metabolism/fulltext/S1550-4131(22)00344-8">Another study</a> found the same effect. Participants went on a calorie-controlled diet for two months, where they ate 45% of their calories for breakfast, 35% at lunch and 20% at dinner for the first month, before switching to eat their largest meal in the evening and their smallest in the morning. Eating the largest meal at breakfast resulted in decreased hunger throughout the day.</p>
<p><a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32073608/">Research</a> also shows we burn the calories from a meal 2.5-times more efficiently in the morning than the evening. So emphasising breakfast over dinner is good not just for hunger control, but also weight management.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/should-we-eat-breakfast-like-a-king-lunch-like-a-prince-and-dinner-like-a-pauper-86840">Should we eat breakfast like a king, lunch like a prince, and dinner like a pauper?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>2. Prioritising protein</h2>
<p>Protein helps contain feelings of hunger. This is because protein-rich foods such as lean meats, tofu and beans suppress the appetite-stimulating ghrelin and stimulate another hormone called <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1550413106002713">peptide YY</a> that makes you feel full. </p>
<p>And just as eating a breakfast is vital to managing our hunger, what we eat is important too, with <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24703415/">research</a> confirming a breakfast containing protein-rich foods, such as eggs, will leave us feeling fuller for longer. </p>
<p>But this doesn’t mean just eating foods with protein. Meals need to be balanced and include a source of protein, wholegrain carb and healthy fat to meet our dietary needs. For example, eggs on wholegrain toast with avocado.</p>
<h2>3. Filling up with nuts and foods high in good fats and fibre</h2>
<p>Nuts often get a bad rap – thanks to the misconception they cause weight gain – but nuts can help us manage our hunger and weight. The filling fibre and good fats found in nuts take longer to digest, meaning our hunger is satisfied for longer. </p>
<p><a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12791613/">Studies</a> suggest you can include up to 68 grams per day of nuts without affecting your weight. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/health-check-will-eating-nuts-make-you-gain-weight-108491">Health check: will eating nuts make you gain weight?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Avocados are also high in fibre and heart-healthy monounsaturated fats, making them another excellent food for managing feelings of fullness. This is backed by a <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6567160/">study</a> confirming participants who ate a breakfast incorporating avocado felt more satisfied and less hungry than participants who ate a meal containing the same calories but with lower fat and fibre content. </p>
<p>Similarly, eating foods that are high in soluble fibre – such as <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24820437/">beans</a> and vegetables – make us feel fuller. This type of fibre attracts water from our gut, forming a gel that slows digestion. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Couple cook together" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563854/original/file-20231206-25-s2excn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563854/original/file-20231206-25-s2excn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563854/original/file-20231206-25-s2excn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563854/original/file-20231206-25-s2excn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563854/original/file-20231206-25-s2excn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563854/original/file-20231206-25-s2excn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563854/original/file-20231206-25-s2excn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Fibre helps us feel fuller for longer.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/a-man-and-a-woman-preparing-food-in-a-kitchen-hQocGyy0unQ">Sweet Life/Unsplash</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>4. Eating mindfully</h2>
<p>When we take time to really be aware of and enjoy the food we’re eating, we slow down and eat far less. </p>
<p>A <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28718396/">review</a> of 68 studies found eating mindfully helps us better recognise feelings of fullness. Mindful eating provides our brain enough time to recognise and adapt to the signals from our stomach telling us we’re full.</p>
<p>Slow down your food consumption by sitting at the dinner table and use smaller utensils to reduce the volume of food you eat with each mouthful.</p>
<h2>5. Getting enough sleep</h2>
<p>Sleep deprivation disturbs our <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1389945708700133">appetite hormones</a>, increasing our feelings of hunger and <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms3259">triggering cravings</a>. So aim to get at least seven hours of uninterrupted sleep a night.</p>
<p>Try switching off your devices <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1477153515584979">two hours before bed</a> to boost your body’s secretion of sleep-inducing hormones like melatonin.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-our-brain-needs-sleep-and-what-happens-if-we-dont-get-enough-of-it-83145">Why our brain needs sleep, and what happens if we don’t get enough of it</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>6. Managing stress</h2>
<p>Stress increases our <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18568078/">body’s production of cortisol</a> and triggers food cravings.</p>
<p>So take time out when you need it and set aside time for stress-relieving activities. This can be as simple as getting outdoors. A <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00722/full">2019 study</a> found sitting or walking outdoors at least three times a week could reduce cortisol levels by 21%. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Person walks in house, next to grey dog" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563849/original/file-20231206-23-4atw7u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563849/original/file-20231206-23-4atw7u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563849/original/file-20231206-23-4atw7u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563849/original/file-20231206-23-4atw7u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563849/original/file-20231206-23-4atw7u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563849/original/file-20231206-23-4atw7u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563849/original/file-20231206-23-4atw7u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Take time out to reduce your stress levels.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/gray-dog-looking-at-the-person-qqpfqFwAyDQ">Evieanna Santiago/Unsplash</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>7. Avoiding depriving ourselves</h2>
<p>When we change our diet to lose weight or eat healthier, we typically restrict certain foods or food groups. </p>
<p>However, this <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18568078/">heightens activity</a> in our mesocorticolimbic circuit – the reward system part of the brain – often resulting in us craving the foods we’re trying to avoid. Foods that give us pleasure release feel-good chemicals called endorphins and learning chemicals called dopamine, which enable us to remember – and give in to – that feel-good response.</p>
<p>When we change our diet, activity in our hypothalamus – the clever part of the brain that regulates emotions and food intake – <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18568078/">also reduces</a>, decreasing our control and judgement. It often triggers a psychological response dubbed the “what-the-hell effect”, when we indulge in something we think we shouldn’t feel guilty about and then go back for even more.</p>
<p>Don’t completely cut out your favourite foods when you go on a diet or deprive yourself if you’re hungry. It will take the pleasure out of eating and eventually you’ll give into your cravings. </p>
<p><em>At the Boden Group, Charles Perkins Centre, we are studying the science of obesity and running clinical trials for weight loss. You can <a href="https://redcap.sydney.edu.au/surveys/?s=RKTXPPPHKY">register here</a> to express your interest.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/215808/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dr Nick Fuller works for the University of Sydney and has received external funding for projects relating to the treatment of overweight and obesity. He is the author and founder of the Interval Weight Loss program.</span></em></p>When we change our diet, we disrupt our appetite hormones. Here’s how it works – and how small changes to our diet can help us feel fuller for longer.Nick Fuller, Charles Perkins Centre Research Program Leader, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1867752022-09-09T15:19:42Z2022-09-09T15:19:42ZWeight loss: the time of day you eat your biggest meal has little effect – new study<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483564/original/file-20220908-4832-1jcbli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=7%2C0%2C4737%2C3165&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/traditional-english-breakfast-image-isolated-on-89940679">Jan Mika/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Some of the most popular diet advice in recent years has centred around the idea that the right timing for your meals can make a big difference in the amount of weight you lose. It was long said that if you wanted to lose weight it was best to eat a large meal at the beginning of the day and keep any later meals smaller. </p>
<p>The logic behind this theory is understandable, especially given that almost every cell in the body follows the same 24-hour cycle that we do. Circadian clocks are found throughout the body and regulate the daily rhythms of most of our biological functions, including metabolism. </p>
<p>Because of these metabolic rhythms, scientists have proposed that the way in which we process meals varies at different times of the day. This field of research is called “<a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jnc.15246">chrono-nutrition</a>”, and it has great potential for helping to improve people’s health.</p>
<p><a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/oby.20460">Two studies from 2013</a> suggested that consuming more calories <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/ijo2012229">early in the day</a> and fewer calories in the evening helps people lose weight. Yet a <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell-metabolism/fulltext/S1550-4131(22)00344-8">major new study</a> has found that while the relative size of breakfast and dinner influences self-reported appetite, it has no effect on metabolism and weight loss.</p>
<p>To investigate the link between the size of breakfast and dinner and their effect on hunger, a team of researchers at the universities of Aberdeen and Surrey conducted a controlled study in healthy but overweight people. The participants were fed two diets, each for four weeks: a big breakfast and a small dinner, and a small breakfast with a big dinner. We kept lunches the same. </p>
<p>We provided all of the meals so we knew exactly how many calories study participants were consuming. We measured the participants’ metabolism, including monitoring how many calories they burned.</p>
<p>All study participants undertook both diet conditions so that the effect of meal patterns could be compared in the same people.</p>
<p>We predicted that a big breakfast and small dinner would increase calories burned and weight lost. Instead, the results of the experiment found no differences in body weight or any biological measures of energy usage between the two meal patterns. </p>
<p>Measures of energy usage included basal metabolic rate (how many calories your body uses at rest), physical activity, and use of a chemical form of water that enables assessment of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xcrm.2021.100203">total daily energy use</a>.</p>
<p>There were also no differences in daily levels of blood glucose, insulin or lipids. This is important because changes of these factors in the blood are associated with metabolic health. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6658129/">Our findings are consistent</a> with short-term (one to six days) <a href="https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.116.151332">meal-timing studies</a>, where participants live in a laboratory respiratory chamber (a small, air-tight room equipped with basic comforts) for the duration of the experiment. Together, the research suggests that the way our bodies process calories in the morning versus the evening does not influence weight loss in the way that has been reported in other studies.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A picture of a plate on a table with a fork and knife on either side of it. In the centre of the plate is an old alarm clock." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483731/original/file-20220909-18-x59nuw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483731/original/file-20220909-18-x59nuw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=384&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483731/original/file-20220909-18-x59nuw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=384&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483731/original/file-20220909-18-x59nuw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=384&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483731/original/file-20220909-18-x59nuw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=483&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483731/original/file-20220909-18-x59nuw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=483&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483731/original/file-20220909-18-x59nuw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=483&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">When you decide to have your biggest meal of the day is up to you.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/alarm-clock-inside-plate-675866614">nehophoto/ Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In our study, the only difference was a change in the self-reported feeling of hunger and related factors, such as the quantity of food they wanted to eat. Across the day, the meal pattern of big breakfast and small dinner caused participants to report less hunger throughout the day. This effect may be useful for people looking to lose weight, as it may help them better control their hunger and eat less. </p>
<p>As with all research, there were some limitations to our study. We only studied participants for four weeks for each meal pattern. <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/ijo2012229">Past research</a> has shown the largest differences in the effects of early versus late energy intake <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/oby.20460">after four weeks</a>. However, the fact that neither calories eaten nor calories burned changed over four weeks shows that body weight is unlikely to have changed if the study was longer.</p>
<p>Participants in the study were also allowed to choose the exact time of each meal. Despite this, there was a negligible difference in timing in each meal pattern.</p>
<p>Chrono-nutrition remains an exciting research area and there’s increasing evidence that meal timing can play an important role in improving the health of many people. However, our latest research indicates that the time of day you eat your biggest meal is not as important for weight loss as previously thought.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/186775/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jonathan Johnston receives funding from BBSRC, MRC, The Colt Foundation. He has performed consultancy work for Kellogg Marketing and Sales Company (UK) Limited, and collaborated with the Nestlé Institute of Health Sciences.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alex Johnstone receives funding from UKRI, The University of Aberdeen, The Scottish Government, National Health Service Endowments award, Tennovus Charity, Chief Scientist Office and European Community.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Peter Morgan receives funding from Scottish Government and the Medical Research Council. In the past he has received funding from the BBSRC as well as from the pharmaceutical industry.</span></em></p>Previous studies suggested it was better to consume the bulk of your calories early in the day.Jonathan Johnston, Professor of Chronobiology and Integrative Physiology, University of SurreyAlex Johnstone, Personal Chair in Nutrition, The Rowett Institute, University of AberdeenPeter Morgan, Chair professor, University of AberdeenLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1865722022-07-31T20:05:35Z2022-07-31T20:05:35ZHow to get your kid to eat breakfast before school – and yes, it’s OK to have dinner leftovers or a sandwich<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/473844/original/file-20220713-22-9o3mzj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4901%2C3262&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The cereal bowl is sitting there getting mushy and gross. You ask your child to eat for the 20th time, but still they sit there, totally unwilling. </p>
<p>Eventually, there is simply no time left (the school bell will ring in three minutes) and you have to make a hasty exit out of the house. Maybe your child has eaten one or two mouthfuls, maybe they have had nothing. You and your kid are both cranky and stressed. </p>
<p>Does this sound familiar? </p>
<p>Unfortunately, eating breakfast really is important. So as parents, you do need to offer it and do need to try and make sure it is eaten. </p>
<p>But as a dietitian and a mum, I can assure you, it can be easier than this! How can parents get their kids to eat this important meal, without making it the most irritating part of the day? </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/3-reasons-your-teenager-might-skip-breakfast-dont-fuss-but-do-encourage-a-healthy-start-177457">3 reasons your teenager might skip breakfast – don't fuss but do encourage a healthy start</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>How many kids skip breakfast?</h2>
<p>Research tells us a lot of children don’t eat breakfast. </p>
<p>The most recent <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1753-6405.12715">data</a> we have is about ten years old. But as of 2011–12, close to 12% of boys and 15% of girls aged between two and 17 skip breakfast. </p>
<p>This increases with age. By the time children are 14 to 17, about 25% of boys and 36% of girls miss the meal. These results are somewhat similar to reported rates of breakfast-skipping around the world.</p>
<h2>How important is the first meal of the day?</h2>
<p>You have heard it before and that’s because breakfast really is important. </p>
<p>As research shows, skipping breakfast has been <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41430-018-0084-3">associated</a> with lower diet quality. </p>
<p>For example, 2018 US research on children aged two to 12 who skipped breakfast on the day of study found 36% of their daily energy intake came from snacks compared to 29% in those who ate breakfast. </p>
<p>Breakfast skippers also had lower intakes of fibre, folate, Vitamin A, iron and calcium – all critical nutrients for physical and mental growth and development in children – than kids who did eat breakfast. Their intake of processed and ultra-processed foods was also higher. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A bowl of porridge with fruit." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474786/original/file-20220719-26-v7odnl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474786/original/file-20220719-26-v7odnl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474786/original/file-20220719-26-v7odnl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474786/original/file-20220719-26-v7odnl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474786/original/file-20220719-26-v7odnl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474786/original/file-20220719-26-v7odnl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474786/original/file-20220719-26-v7odnl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Skipping breakfast has been linked to increased snacking among kids.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">www.shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-do-we-know-what-works-systematic-research-reviews-5979">review</a> of 16 studies in children and adolescents also <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20112153/">indicates</a> skipping breakfast in this age group is linked with more risk of obesity and being overweight. And this can lead to an <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jes/article/1/5/524/3754347?login=true">increased risk</a> of type 2 diabetes in children.</p>
<p>A <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25181492/">study</a> which looked at breakfast consumption in children and then followed them into adulthood found if they continued to skip breakfast they had higher risk of detrimental effects on their heart health and diseases such as <a href="https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/metabolic-syndrome">metabolic syndrome</a> and diabetes.</p>
<h2>It is also important for learning</h2>
<p>Skipping breakfast means there is not enough glucose in the body (from breaking down carbohydrates), which is what the brain prefers as its energy source. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3900881/">Glucose</a> provides the energy for messaging between the brain cells and helps to make <a href="https://qbi.uq.edu.au/brain/brain-functions/what-are-neurotransmitters">neurotransmitters</a>s (chemical messages in the body). </p>
<p>Studies <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/nutrition-research-reviews/article/systematic-review-of-the-effect-of-breakfast-on-the-cognitive-performance-of-children-and-adolescents/82FE2D456F27AB7FBB1BC58BB146D1A8">also show</a> children who eat breakfast regularly perform better academically than those who skip it. In particular, skipping breakfast impacts on their memory and the number of errors on attention tasks.</p>
<p>This effect on achievement is more pronounced for those children who don’t eat enough nutritious food overall. Interestingly school breakfast programs lead to improvements in academic ability, but it is thought this may be because children attend school more. </p>
<h2>Why don’t kids want to eat breakfast?</h2>
<p>A 2014 <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24645936/">study</a> conducted in Australia and England tried to identify why adolescents skip breakfast. This found teenagers said they did not have time, were not hungry or did not enjoy breakfast. Only a small percentage reported skipping breakfast to control weight. </p>
<p>A 2019 <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/16/18/3238">study</a> in the United States of kids aged six to 11 asked both parents and children why they think children skip breakfast. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="School pupils laughing." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474795/original/file-20220719-12-h410db.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474795/original/file-20220719-12-h410db.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474795/original/file-20220719-12-h410db.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474795/original/file-20220719-12-h410db.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474795/original/file-20220719-12-h410db.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=522&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474795/original/file-20220719-12-h410db.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=522&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474795/original/file-20220719-12-h410db.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=522&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Skipping breakfast is associated with a poorer diet overall.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">www.shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Respondents said lack of time and feeling rushed was the main reason.</p>
<p>In this study, they were also asked to identify what may help. Children suggested having a set morning routine and also selecting breakfast foods ahead of time. </p>
<p>The children also said that parents needed to continue to encourage them to eat breakfast. Parents were in agreement with these suggestions from the children but also said using “grab-and-go” products would also help. </p>
<p>Parents also said avoiding distractions – like books and phones – was important.</p>
<h2>What can parents do?</h2>
<p><strong>1. Allow enough time</strong></p>
<p>This will come as no surprise to parents, but we need to make sure kids have enough time to eat. This means getting up early enough and having a routine in the morning that makes time for breakfast.</p>
<p><strong>2. Be prepared</strong></p>
<p>To save time and make it easier set the breakfast table the night before. Get it ready with crockery, cups and cutlery, and put out the foods that won’t spoil overnight such as their favourite wholegrain cereal, spreads for toast and wholegrain bread.</p>
<p><strong>3. Have a decent selection</strong></p>
<p>Give your kids good options and make them feel like they have a choice. Ensure you have a range of healthy and easy breakfast options that your children like. </p>
<p>This can be traditional breakfast options like wholegrain breads and breakfast cereals, fruit toast, yoghurt and cut up or frozen fruit. Porridge, particularly in winter, is great as it can cook itself in the microwave. </p>
<p>Offering smoothies with fruit, yoghurt, milk and oats may be appealing to adolescents. </p>
<p><strong>4. Think outside the (cereal) box</strong></p>
<p>There are no rules around what sort of healthy foods can be eaten at breakfast. The important thing is that they are from the <a href="https://www.eatforhealth.gov.au/guidelines">Australian Dietary Guidelines</a>. </p>
<p>Some may find healthy leftovers from dinner appealing or even a sandwich with avocado and salad fillings, or cold meats like chicken or tuna. Of course a cooked breakfast with wholegrain toast, eggs and veggies (avocado, mushrooms, tomatoes, spinach) is excellent, but this is not a quick option! </p>
<p><strong>5. Get rid of distractions</strong></p>
<p>Make sure your kids can just focus on eating. This means no TVs, devices, toys or books. </p>
<p><strong>6. Do it yourself</strong></p>
<p>Remember children are great imitators. So, if they see parents eating breakfast they are more likely to do it as well.</p>
<p><strong>7. Have a back-up</strong></p>
<p>If these ideas still don’t work and you have had one of those mornings where nothing goes right, then you could consider grab-and-go options.</p>
<p>These don’t have to be commercial products either – think of smoothies, toast, previously homemade savoury muffins or banana bread (that are perhaps stored in the freezer for these occasions) or a piece of fruit. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/should-we-eat-breakfast-like-a-king-lunch-like-a-prince-and-dinner-like-a-pauper-86840">Should we eat breakfast like a king, lunch like a prince, and dinner like a pauper?</a>
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</p>
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<p><strong>8. But be careful about muesli bars</strong></p>
<p>Muesli bars can be an option, but make sure you look for ones that are low in sugar (less than 15 grams per 100 grams), low in saturated fat (less than 1.5 grams per 100 grams) and high in fibre (more than four grams per 100 grams). Remember if the bars contain fruit and nuts in them, the level of sugar and fat will go up, but this is not problematic as it is not added sugar or fat.</p>
<p>So, set yourself and you children up for successful breakfasts, and who knows? You may even enjoy the family eating together.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/186572/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Evangeline Mantzioris is affiliated with Alliance for Research in Nutrition, Exercise and Activity (ARENA) at the University of South Australia. Evangeline Mantzioris has received funding from the National Health and Medical Research Council, and has been appointed to the National Health and Medical Research Council Dietary Guideline Expert Committee.</span></em></p>Yes, eating breakfast really is important. So how can parents help kids to eat this important meal, without making it the most irritating part of the morning?Evangeline Mantzioris, Program Director of Nutrition and Food Sciences, Accredited Practising Dietitian, University of South AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1774572022-04-11T19:57:11Z2022-04-11T19:57:11Z3 reasons your teenager might skip breakfast – don’t fuss but do encourage a healthy start<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/453501/original/file-20220322-20-1abow4f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=44%2C52%2C4947%2C3937&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://image.shutterstock.com/image-photo/teen-boy-holding-smoothie-vegetables-600w-1887454447.jpg">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>As I sit at the breakfast table with 12-year-old Martin, awaiting his daily bowl of Weetbix, I ask him, “So, how many do you do?” With a cheeky grin and a twinkle in his eye, he sits up tall and proudly shares, “I have five!”</p>
<p>But as kids enter their teenage years, interest in breakfast is much more hit-and-miss. It can slowly morph into a chore as opposed to an enjoyable morning ritual. </p>
<p>Whether it’s because they’re too tired, sleepy, running late, or just not hungry, it’s worrying watching your empty-bellied teen stroll off towards the school gates. Will they have enough energy for the day? Will they be able to concentrate and learn? And more alarmingly, is there something more serious behind this new breakfast skipping habit?</p>
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<em>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/instagram-can-make-teens-feel-bad-about-their-body-but-parents-can-help-heres-how-168093">Instagram can make teens feel bad about their body, but parents can help. Here's how</a>
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<h2>The most important meal of the day?</h2>
<p>We’ve all heard time and again that breakfast is the most important meal of the day, <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/10/5/559/htm">but why</a> is it important for <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1559827608327219">teens</a>? </p>
<p>A nutritious breakfast will provide adolescents with energy for growth and fuel for the day’s activity. What is more, commonly consumed breakfast foods provide whole grains, fibre and calcium – important components of a healthy diet. Breakfast eaters are more likely to eat an overall <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195666318312893">higher quality diet</a> throughout the rest of the day. Not skipping breakfast might also be good for long-term <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2308-3425/6/3/30/htm">health</a>, with evidence suggesting skipping may be linked to a greater risk of heart disease and death. </p>
<p>Aside from its health benefits, the consumption of a nutritious breakfast has been associated with better <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/13/4/1320/pdf">performance at school</a>. A <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4863264/#b9">systematic review</a> found eating breakfast (compared to skipping it) may have a beneficial effect on students’ cognitive function when measured within four hours of consumption. However, results were inconsistent depending on the cognitive domain (attention, executive function, memory), and effects were greater in undernourished students.</p>
<p>Another important aspect is that breakfast is when humans break their overnight fast! Considering the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6054480/">poor quality of sleep</a> often experienced by teens, time in bed of a morning may be longer (especially on the weekends), leading to a longer overnight fast. This places a greater importance on replenishing the body’s energy stores with a nutritious morning meal.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/453495/original/file-20220322-17-3tagnv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="kids in kitchen cooking" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/453495/original/file-20220322-17-3tagnv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/453495/original/file-20220322-17-3tagnv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453495/original/file-20220322-17-3tagnv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453495/original/file-20220322-17-3tagnv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453495/original/file-20220322-17-3tagnv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453495/original/file-20220322-17-3tagnv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453495/original/file-20220322-17-3tagnv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Changes in dietary habits can happen between the pre-teen and adolescent years.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://images.unsplash.com/photo-1605433246995-23f532d1e001?ixlib=rb-1.2.1&ixid=MnwxMjA3fDB8MHxwaG90by1wYWdlfHx8fGVufDB8fHx8&auto=format&fit=crop&w=1770&q=80">Unsplash/Annie Spratt</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Are teens eating breakfast?</h2>
<p>Yes and no.</p>
<p>Data collection for the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/1753-6405.12715">2011–2012 Australian National Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey</a> (the most recent research available) took place over two days. On these two days, 87% of boys and 81% of girls consumed breakfast. </p>
<p>Given the convincing evidence supporting breakfast intake, it is concerning that 12% of boys and 15% of girls skipped it on both days. Especially concerning is the higher number of girls not eating breakfast, a phenomenon that has <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9886013/">persisted over time</a>. </p>
<p>There are several reasons why teens may intentionally avoid eating in the morning. It’s important to be curious about why your teen might be doing this. A simple conversation may help put an end to your worries.</p>
<p>It’s important to also be aware that teens from lower socioeconomic status households are <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2667833/">more likely to skip breakfast</a>, which is where school programs can be vital.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"660096830311649280"}"></div></p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/anorexia-spiked-during-the-pandemic-as-adolescents-felt-the-impact-of-covid-restrictions-169466">Anorexia spiked during the pandemic, as adolescents felt the impact of COVID restrictions</a>
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<h2>3 reasons teens skip breakfast and some fixes</h2>
<p>Talk about it with your young person. Getting to the bottom of why your teen isn’t keen on breakfast will help determine your game plan.</p>
<p><strong>1. They’re not hungry</strong></p>
<p>No worries, the principles of <a href="https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3273&context=extension_curall">intuitive eating</a> encourage us to honour our internal hunger and fullness signals to guide when and how much we eat. </p>
<p>Encourage them to take something <a href="https://dietitiansaustralia.org.au/recipes/straw-banana-breakfast-smoothie">easy</a> to eat when hunger does strike just before school or between classes. Or perhaps, think about some easy morning activity you can do together (like a walk or some yoga) to promote a healthy appetite. </p>
<p><strong>2. They’re always running late</strong></p>
<p>Maybe it’s time to set that alarm a smidge earlier or prepare food the <a href="https://www.healthyfood.com/healthy-recipes/basic-overnight-oats/">night before</a>. Having <a href="https://dietitiansaustralia.org.au/health-advice/recipes">ready-to-eat nutritious snacks</a> available would also help for those times between the main family meals. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/453497/original/file-20220322-17-1twqho3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="oat and fruit jars" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/453497/original/file-20220322-17-1twqho3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/453497/original/file-20220322-17-1twqho3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453497/original/file-20220322-17-1twqho3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453497/original/file-20220322-17-1twqho3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453497/original/file-20220322-17-1twqho3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453497/original/file-20220322-17-1twqho3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453497/original/file-20220322-17-1twqho3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Some grab and go options might help the teen who isn’t hungry first thing, or always running late.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://image.shutterstock.com/image-photo/healthy-breakfast-glass-jars-oat-600w-413827885.jpg">Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p><strong>3. They’re dieting</strong></p>
<p>If they’re trying out a new diet or fasting regime, or want to reduce their overall energy intake to change their body shape, then this is where a <a href="https://feedyourinstinct.com.au/">closer look</a> is warranted. These could be <a href="https://www.nationaleatingdisorders.org/warning-signs-and-symptoms">early symptoms of an eating disorder</a>. </p>
<p>However, if your teen is engaging in behaviours for weight or shape control, it’s also possible they won’t come right out and say so. Most of the time people with an eating disorder don’t realise they need help, but early intervention is so important for treatment success. </p>
<p>If you are concerned, <a href="https://www.eatingdisorders.org.au/eating-disorders-a-z/eating-disorders-explained/?gclid=Cj0KCQiAmpyRBhC-ARIsABs2EAr-JsKO070jkFZUyK5nkrLxrP0cViCHIqTfxEnPbSvWPNgmRYH-ipsaAkkpEALw_wcB">keep an eye on</a> drastic changes in food preferences or avoidance of specific foods or food groups. Aside from food-related behaviours, someone with an eating disorder also experiences psychological symptoms, most commonly depression and anxiety. <a href="https://www.eatingdisorders.org.au/my-eating-disorder-recovery-journey/talking-to-my-eating-disorder-doctor/">Talking to a GP</a> about these concerns is an important first step. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-nice-warm-bowl-of-porridge-3-ways-plus-a-potted-history-137007">A nice warm bowl of porridge: 3 ways plus a potted history</a>
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<h2>Don’t make a fuss</h2>
<p>Regardless of your teen’s food behaviours, breakfast or not, this is a vulnerable time and it’s important not to introduce pressure or monitoring at mealtimes as this can interfere with their relationship with food. </p>
<p>Try to keep food chat neutral. Avoid linking food and body size or shape, focus on flavour and enjoyment and leave diet-talk out of it. If you’re concerned about a potential eating disorder, you can access <a href="https://butterfly.org.au/get-support/helpline/">resources online</a> and talk to your doctor.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/453499/original/file-20220322-19-u7uvvh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="woman talks to teenage girl" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/453499/original/file-20220322-19-u7uvvh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/453499/original/file-20220322-19-u7uvvh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453499/original/file-20220322-19-u7uvvh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453499/original/file-20220322-19-u7uvvh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453499/original/file-20220322-19-u7uvvh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453499/original/file-20220322-19-u7uvvh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453499/original/file-20220322-19-u7uvvh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Try not to nag and don’t make it weird, mum.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://image.shutterstock.com/image-photo/mother-arguing-teenage-daughter-over-600w-1148689022.jpg">Shutterstock</a></span>
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</figure>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-manage-weight-issues-with-your-teenager-when-youre-not-meant-to-talk-about-weight-64368">How to manage weight issues with your teenager when you're not meant to talk about weight</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/177457/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tetyana Rocks is affiliated with Dietitians Australia Eating Disorders Interest Group Leadership Team.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Madeline West does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Too sleepy? In a rush? Or something more concerning? Teenagers often get turned off breakfast. Chat to them to find out why and offer some easy options.Madeline West, PhD Candidate & Lecturer, Deakin UniversityTetyana Rocks, Research fellow, Deakin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1805212022-04-05T10:45:09Z2022-04-05T10:45:09ZA history of Easter feasts and why the English breakfast might be medieval<p>Easter is the principal festival of the <a href="https://www.churchofscotland.org.uk/worship/festivals-and-dates">Christian year</a>. Both Easter and its long prelude Lent have traditions associated with food. Lent is traditionally a time of giving up food, especially meat and dairy. Easter is, by contrast, a feast. </p>
<p>Versions of <a href="http://www.foodsofengland.co.uk/simnelcake.htm">simnels</a> (high-quality bread), decorated eggs, pancakes, and roast lamb can all be found in <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books/about/Food_in_Medieval_Times.html?id=jtgud2P-EGwC">medieval European culture</a>. Whether hot cross buns come from the same period is open to question. Some argue <a href="http://foodhistorjottings.blogspot.com/2012/03/hot-cross-buns-and-grains-of-paradise.html">that hot cross buns</a> come from <a href="https://www.stalbanscathedral.org/the-alban-bun">St Albans buns</a>, apparently invented by the monk of St Albans Thomas Rockcliffe in the mid-14th century. </p>
<p>From around the seventh century, prayers in the north Italian monastery of <a href="https://www.historyofinformation.com/detail.php?id=1398">Bobbio</a>, founded by the Irish monk Columbanus, blessed lamb eaten for Easter lunch. Two centuries later, <a href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/lamb-god">roast lamb at Easter</a> had been adopted more widely by the papacy, the leaders of the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1016/j.jmedhist.2009.12.001">Catholic church</a>.</p>
<h2>Lamb for Easter feasts</h2>
<p>Lamb was certainly a meat with specific links to the festival, but traces of other foodstuffs now associated with Easter and Lent can also be found in the period. A good example is <a href="http://blogstaging.yupnet.org/2016/03/26/easter-medieval-food/">simnels</a> – not the almond cake but a very high-quality wheat loaf, known across medieval Europe. <a href="https://www.medievalists.net/2013/07/bread-in-the-middle-ages/">Medieval bread</a> came in many different forms and qualities. Simnels as white wheat bread were at the top of the pile.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Illuminated manuscript of people eating in gold and orange." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/456138/original/file-20220404-11-c5960w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/456138/original/file-20220404-11-c5960w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/456138/original/file-20220404-11-c5960w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/456138/original/file-20220404-11-c5960w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/456138/original/file-20220404-11-c5960w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=495&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/456138/original/file-20220404-11-c5960w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=495&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/456138/original/file-20220404-11-c5960w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=495&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">From The Hague medieval illuminated manuscripts, The Hague, KB, 78 D 38 II Gospels Fol. 186v</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>During Lent medieval society operated within a system of <a href="https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300181913/culture-food-england-1200-1500/">dietary regulation</a> set by the church. This involved <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1016/j.jmedhist.2006.09.005">abstinence</a> from meat on particular days, for example, Fridays and periods before major church festivals. Fish was therefore important for <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315568447-10/medieval-cuisine-seasons-year-1-paul-freedman?context=ubx&refId=ac65a44d-e1c5-477d-a2df-f8c6d513790c">Lenten diets</a>, for those that could afford it. Of especial importance was the range of dried sea fish that formed one of the mainstays of the northern European economy.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-are-the-origins-of-lent-155622">What are the origins of Lent?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Drying (stockfish) and salting were the two principal methods of preservation, with herring and cod the dominant species. <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2019/05/medieval-people-were-already-ruining-fish/589837/">Freshwater fish</a> including trout, pike and, in some cases, sturgeon seem to have been served in elite households. Large fish such as sturgeon also feature in many stories of the saints, for example <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VqMmtwAACAAJ&redir_esc=y">Anselm of Canterbury</a>, (1033-1109) and <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03044181.2019.1658617">Bernard of Clairvaux </a>(1091-1153). </p>
<p>The Lenten fast also banned dairy. The beginning of Lent was marked gastronomically by Shrove Tuesday, perhaps more familiar as Pancake Day, where people used up their stocks of eggs and animal fat. Less known is Collop Monday, an occasion to eat up preserved meats such as bacon in slices – <a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/collop">collops</a>. Take the two together and you have bacon and eggs, the origin, perhaps, as historian <a href="http://blogstaging.yupnet.org/2016/03/26/easter-medieval-food/">Chris Woolgar</a> suggests, of the “English” breakfast.</p>
<p>Although eggs were not allowed during the Lenten fast, ingenious medieval chefs created confectionery alternatives. A fascinating recipe for “eggs in Lent” is recorded in the <a href="https://www.bl.uk/collection-items/potage-dyvers">British Library</a>, from about 1430.</p>
<blockquote>
<p><em>Take eggs and blow out their insides through the other end. Then wash the shell clean in warm water; take good almond milk and set it on the fire, and take a fair cloth and pour the milk onto it and let the water run through. Then take the residue on the cloth and gather it together in a dish and add enough sugar to it. Then take half and colour it with a little saffron, and also add ground cinnamon. Then take some of the ‘white’ (the uncoloured mixture) and put it in the lower end of the shell, and put the ‘yolk’ (the coloured mixture) in the middle, and fill up the shell with (the remaining) white – but not too full in case it runs over. Then set it in the fire and roast it, and serve</em></p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Moderation and feasting</h2>
<p>Easter day was the end of 40 days of moderation and restraint and the moment when flesh and dairy could be consumed again. An example comes from 1290 and the celebrations of the bishop of Hereford, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Swinefield">Richard Swinfield </a>, at his manor at Colwall, about 20 miles from Hereford. Unusually for the period, we have a full <a href="https://medieval.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/catalog/manuscript_6430">set of accounts</a> for his household for <a href="https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/A_Roll_of_the_Household_Expenses_of_Rich/-GdKAAAAYAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1%5D">1289-90</a>. </p>
<p>The accounts show the amount of hay required for horses, allowing an estimate of at least 70 guests for the feast. Preparations include an unquantified amount of bread and ale and 11 sextaries of wine (about 66 gallons). And then, two and a half carcasses of salt beef, a bacon, two boars, one live ox, two fresh beef carcasses, five pigs, six calves, 27 lambs, 12 capons, 148 pigeons, three fat deer, milk, cheese, flour, suet, three bushels of salt and 4,000 eggs. </p>
<p>Richard Swinfield’s Easter feast includes, as we should expect, lamb, which was almost certainly roasted. A near-contemporary recipe (now in the <a href="https://www.bl.uk/catalogues/illuminatedmanuscripts/record.asp?MSID=9473&CollID=27&NStart=32085&_ga=2.202512913.167382695.1648809835-1329288859.1648809835">British Library</a>) details how to prepare a roasted lamb – filled with spices and ginger. </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“<em>Instructions for roasting kid in its skin. Take the kid and slaughter it; scald like a young hog, clean and dress it; then put it on a spit; in it, put fine spices and a good filling made with the same spices, adding saffron and salt; then put it to roast; when it is hot, lard it with long lardoons; when it is cooked, remove it from the spit and serve it with the filling and good ginger</em>.” </p>
</blockquote>
<p>And while chocolate eggs had no place in the Middle Ages, decorated eggs did. A very early example comes from <a href="https://blogs.bl.uk/digitisedmanuscripts/2017/04/a-hunt-for-medieval-easter-eggs.html.">Edward I of England</a>, who, according to his household accounts, spent some 18 pence on 450 eggs decorated with gold leaf or dyed. This was for Easter in 1290 when these eggs were offered to the royal household. There were, however, definitely no Easter bunnies.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/180521/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Giles Gasper receives funding from the Arts and Humanities Research Council and the Leverhulme Trust.</span></em></p>Many Easter treats hark back to medieval times.Giles Gasper, Professor in High Medieval History, Durham UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1666902021-09-13T16:43:27Z2021-09-13T16:43:27ZThe carbon footprint of a full English breakfast – and how to reduce it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/420783/original/file-20210913-25-1u6locx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C1917%2C1440&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">One of the most popular UK breakfasts is less than friendly to the environment.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://pixabay.com/photos/english-breakfast-toast-tea-food-2421038/">Ruckers/Pixabay</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Over <a href="https://yougov.co.uk/topics/lifestyle/articles-reports/2017/01/23/bacon-most-important-part-full-english-breakfast">four-fifths</a> of the English population say they enjoy a full English breakfast. But when food production accounts for a <a href="https://ourworldindata.org/environmental-impacts-of-food#co2-and-greenhouse-gas-emissions">quarter</a> of global greenhouse gas emissions, and 11% of UK emissions come from <a href="https://www.theccc.org.uk/publication/land-use-reducing-emissions-and-preparing-for-climate-change/">agriculture</a>, it’s time to think critically about how we can reduce the impact of our breakfasts – without compromising on quality or taste. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/articles/47YSDFmjbwVxK6h5LcMkQdQ/how-to-make-a-lower-carbon-fry-up">Our research</a>, originally conducted for a BBC Radio 5 Live investigation, takes a look at how to make your first meal of the day lower carbon. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43016-020-00200-w">Cooking</a> at home can account for up to 27% of total emissions for meat products and up to 61% for vegetables. The good news is that a full English breakfast is fairly quick to make compared to, for example, a roast dinner, reducing emissions associated with cooking processes. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/carbon-footprints-are-hard-to-understand-heres-what-you-need-to-know-144317">carbon footprint</a> of a full English is also less than a roast dinner, thanks to its staple meats – sausage and bacon – being derived from pork rather than emissions-intensive red meats such as beef or lamb. </p>
<p>Beef has multiple times the <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/the-most-polluting-protein-environmental-impact-of-beef-pork-poultry/">environmental impact</a> of pork, since cattle are <a href="https://www.fda.gov/animal-veterinary/animal-health-literacy/how-cows-eat-grass#:%7E:text=Cows%20are%20known%20as%20%E2%80%9Cruminants,stomach%20is%20called%20the%20rumen.&text=This%20process%20of%20swallowing%2C%20%E2%80%9Cun,more%20completely%2C%20which%20improves%20digestion.">“ruminants”</a> – animals with complex stomach systems containing greenhouse gas-producing microbes. </p>
<p>But the majority of the carbon footprint of this breakfast still comes from <a href="https://yougov.co.uk/topics/lifestyle/articles-reports/2017/01/23/bacon-most-important-part-full-english-breakfast">its meat</a>: 34% from the sausage and 29% from the bacon. </p>
<p>The second greatest carbon culprit is usually <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/jiec.12169">tomatoes</a>. These contribute about 9% to this breakfast’s total emissions during winter and spring, when they aren’t in season – or if they’re a specialist variety with a lower yield, such as cherry tomatoes.</p>
<p>A breakfast using plant-based bacon substitutes and vegetarian sausage would reduce its carbon footprint by 51%. An average vegetarian sausage has about a quarter of the impact of a standard <a href="https://healabel.com/s-ingredients/sausage">pork sausage</a>, making it an easy option to significantly reduce the breakfast’s environmental impact without dramatically affecting flavour. This change alone would reduce the breakfast’s footprint by 25%. </p>
<p>For an even lower-carbon breakfast, switching to wholemeal bread, seasonal, local tomatoes and a plant-based spread – which has around <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11367-019-01703-w">3.7 times</a> less environmental impact than dairy spreads – could reduce its footprint by a further 12%.</p>
<p><strong>The footprint of a full English</strong></p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Three pie charts showing the carbon footprints of different breakfast varieties" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421062/original/file-20210914-15-qt6y75.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421062/original/file-20210914-15-qt6y75.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421062/original/file-20210914-15-qt6y75.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421062/original/file-20210914-15-qt6y75.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421062/original/file-20210914-15-qt6y75.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=517&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421062/original/file-20210914-15-qt6y75.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=517&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421062/original/file-20210914-15-qt6y75.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=517&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A comparison of the carbon footprints of full English breakfast varieties.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>If you switched to eating the vegetarian equivalent of a full English every weekend for a year – including wholemeal bread, plant-based spread and seasonal, local tomatoes – by the end of that year you’d have saved the equivalent carbon footprint of a return flight from London to Amsterdam. You’d have helped your <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0140673618317884">health</a>, too, as cutting down on red meat has been shown to <a href="https://www.bmj.com/content/371/bmj.m4141">reduce</a> the likelihood of cardiovascular disease.</p>
<p>However, the overall benefits of a <a href="https://theconversation.com/four-ways-to-reduce-the-carbon-in-your-food-basket-128811">low-carbon diet</a> depend on which proteins are used to substitute meat. Not all vegetarian diets are equally healthy for the planet: <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/climate-change/is-dairy-or-meat-worse-for-the-environment-b1891387.html">cheese</a>, for example, can have twice the carbon footprint of pork.</p>
<p>Similarly, plant-based diets have been shown to generally contain more <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jn/article-abstract/151/1/120/5874423?redirectedFrom=fulltext">ultra-processed foods</a>. These are foods that go through <a href="https://www.heartandstroke.ca/articles/what-is-ultra-processed-food">multiple processes</a> during production, including the addition of numerous artificial ingredients, and as a result tend to have significantly reduced nutritional value. This means the possible trade-off between nutritional quality and carbon footprint should be carefully considered when planning meals.</p>
<h2>Low carb, low carbon</h2>
<p>What about other breakfast foods? A bowl of cereal or porridge is an excellent, low-carbon source of energy, with a carbon footprint about <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352550915000238?via%3Dihub">one-tenth</a> that of a single pork sausage. </p>
<p>The key factor in the footprint of cereal or porridge is the amount and type of milk used. Adding a standard serving of dairy milk to a bowl of cereal quadruples its footprint, and for a <a href="https://www.bbcgoodfood.com/recipes/perfect-porridge">standard porridge recipe</a> would increase its footprint sevenfold.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Cows walk in front of a factory" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/420787/original/file-20210913-23-5ywmp7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/420787/original/file-20210913-23-5ywmp7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420787/original/file-20210913-23-5ywmp7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420787/original/file-20210913-23-5ywmp7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420787/original/file-20210913-23-5ywmp7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420787/original/file-20210913-23-5ywmp7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420787/original/file-20210913-23-5ywmp7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The meat and dairy industries are significant contributors to food’s carbon footprint.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://pixabay.com/photos/ohio-farm-rural-sky-clouds-fields-114092/">12019/Pixabay</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Dairy milk is typically <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-46654042">3.5 times</a> more emissions-intensive than alternative milks. The alternatives that produce the least carbon emissions are almond, oat and soy. Contrary to popular belief, the amount of water needed to produce even the most water-intensive <a href="https://www.truthordrought.com/almond-milk-myths">alternative milk</a> – almond – is less than the amount needed for dairy milk. </p>
<p>Fruit is another great source of low carbon energy, as highlighted in Mike Berners-Lee’s book <a href="https://howbadarebananas.com/">“How Bad Are Bananas?”</a> (spoiler – not very). Fruits such as berries and grapes typically have about twice the footprint of a banana due to their <a href="https://ask.usda.gov/s/article/What-foods-are-perishable#:%7E:text=Perishable%20foods%20are%20those%20likely,Refrigeration%20slows%20bacterial%20growth.">perishability</a>, so opting for a banana or apple could be an easy low-carbon breakfast switch. </p>
<h2>Breakfast beverages</h2>
<p>Switching to fruit juices with ingredients that can be grown in the UK, such as apple juice, can help to reduce the impact of your breakfast beverage selection. Even better, make smoothies with <a href="https://www.thegrocer.co.uk/food-waste/millions-of-tonnes-of-ugly-fruit-and-veg-wasted-says-report/570736.article">surplus, wonky or overripe</a> fruit that would otherwise be wasted, to avoid the emissions associated with <a href="http://sciencesearch.defra.gov.uk/Default.aspx?Menu=Menu&Module=More&Location=None&Completed=0&ProjectID=15256#:%7E:text=It%20is%20currently%20estimated%20that,of%20landfill%20gas%20recovery%20schemes.">landfills</a>.</p>
<p>As with cereal, the environmental impact of tea and coffee depends most on which milk you use.</p>
<p><strong>Coffee’s carbon footprint</strong></p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A bar chart showing the carbon footprints of different types of coffee and milk" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421063/original/file-20210914-19-qvd9ro.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421063/original/file-20210914-19-qvd9ro.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=486&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421063/original/file-20210914-19-qvd9ro.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=486&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421063/original/file-20210914-19-qvd9ro.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=486&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421063/original/file-20210914-19-qvd9ro.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=611&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421063/original/file-20210914-19-qvd9ro.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=611&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421063/original/file-20210914-19-qvd9ro.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=611&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A comparison of the carbon footprint of coffee types and use of oat milk instead of dairy milk.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Although it looks like there’s no such thing as 100% “green” eggs and bacon, making these switches can have a surprising impact on your carbon footprint while still allowing you to enjoy the most important meal of the day.</p>
<p>Fortunately, many of the ways to make our food footprint more palatable have benefits for personal as well as planetary health. But while consumers have a lot of power in designing more sustainable diets, dietary change shouldn’t be our <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652620357188?via%3Dihub">sole responsibility</a>. </p>
<p>Sustainable dietary choices should be supported by action from food producers and supermarkets – for instance, by providing accessible <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/business/2021/jun/27/traffic-light-system-of-eco-scores-to-be-piloted-on-british-food-labels">carbon footprint data</a> on food packaging.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/166690/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alice Garvey receives funding from the EPSRC Doctoral Training Programme.</span></em></p>Green eggs and bacon anyone? The substitutes you need to make to change your traditional full English into a breakfast which is healthier for the planet – and for you.Alice Garvey, PhD Researcher in Environmental Policy, University of LeedsLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1565332021-05-03T12:03:07Z2021-05-03T12:03:07ZBreakfast After the Bell programs reduce school absenteeism<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/389140/original/file-20210311-15-an4t6z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3195%2C2117&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Chronic absenteeism rates fell 8 percentage points among schools in Nevada and Colorado that adopted the 'Breakfast after the Bell' program. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/fourth-grader-eats-breakfast-before-the-start-of-the-day-at-news-photo/1229943333?adppopup=true">Jessica Rinaldi/The Boston Globe via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/research-brief-83231">Research Brief</a> is a short take about interesting academic work.</em> </p>
<h2>The big idea</h2>
<p>Making a healthy breakfast available to students not only can help alleviate hunger and improve concentration at school; it also appears to encourage regular attendance, according to new research I co-authored.</p>
<p>In a <a href="https://doi.org/10.3102/0162373721991572">study published in February 2021</a>, <a href="https://www.gse.upenn.edu/academics/faculty-directory/gottfried">my co-author</a> <a href="https://www.depts.ttu.edu/education/our-people/Faculty/jacob_kirksey.php">and I</a> explored how the rollout of Breakfast After the Bell programs at high-poverty schools in Colorado and Nevada have been linked to reductions in the number of students who were chronically absent. The programs extend free morning meals to learners unable to get into school before classes start.</p>
<p>Our study looked at levels of absenteeism in the last year before Breakfast After the Bell was introduced in the states – the 2013-2014 academic year – and two years after. In both states, high-poverty schools, where 70% or more students are eligible for free or reduced-priced meals, were mandated to adopt the program. In the 2015-16 academic year, approximately 25% of the schools met this criterion.</p>
<p>Our results show that the initiative increased both the overall number of students eating school breakfasts and how many qualified for free or reduced-priced school meals.</p>
<p>We also found that chronic absenteeism – defined as missing 15 days or more in the school year – declined in schools that adopted Breakfast After the Bell programs. On average, chronic absenteeism rates fell by about 8 percentage points. High schools saw twice as large a drop in chronic absenteeism rates compared to elementary and middle schools once the program was introduced. </p>
<p>As the state mandates applied only to high-poverty schools, we compared absenteeism in schools that approached that level – with 60%-69% of students on free and reduced lunch – with those just above that line, with 70%-79% of students eligible. We found chronic absenteeism rates were 8 percentage points lower than what we would expect for the 70%-79% group.</p>
<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p>Schools across the country are wrestling with ways to <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.3102/0013189X21994488?casa_token=AYB-sFq95B0AAAAA%3AwECJ4lJsT213woBiey8NguoHGOMT5gzMlagdO0i2VmRimmqUAiwuexu5XScmNsg4tCikAh2EbXABGg">open up fully to students</a> following COVID-19 school closures and remote classes. </p>
<p>As more in-person instruction resumes this fall, schools and policymakers must find ways to encourage consistent attendance for students and also address the disproportionate learning impact that the coronavirus has had on students from lower-income families and in communities of color. Findings from our study suggest that one way to not only improve attendance but also improve breakfast participation is to adopt programs like Breakfast After the Bell. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/2332858419867692">As research shows</a>, consistent attendance is a key ingredient to the educational success for students. And expanding the availability and ease of getting breakfast at school would be particularly beneficial for students who depend on school meals as their primary source of nutrition. </p>
<h2>What still isn’t known</h2>
<p>While this study was able to link Breakfast After the Bell programs to reductions in chronic absenteeism, we still do not know much about the underlying reasons for this change.</p>
<p>It may be that students or their families are more motivated to come to school since breakfast is included as part of the regular school day. It could also be that such programs, which often include providing free meals to all students, reduce the stigma that could be associated with receiving a “free” meal for students. There is also <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1008895108">research that suggests</a> that eating breakfast in smaller settings, like a classroom, reduces the spread of illnesses that are connected to student absenteeism. </p>
<h2>What’s next</h2>
<p>As <a href="http://bestpractices.nokidhungry.org/research/school-breakfast">organizations</a> and <a href="https://senatorjasonlewis.com/2020/08/13/school-breakfast/">policymakers</a> continue to promote the adoption of Breakfast After the Bell programs, it is important that we consider how the implementation of these programs vary with respect to costs. </p>
<p>Shifting breakfast times and locations at school does not necessarily involve significant financial costs. But we should consider how Breakfast After the Bell may affect instructional time as well as the duties or responsibilities of teachers and other school staff. If breakfast is served as part of the regular school day and in class, there are potential delays and disruptions to classroom learning as teachers allow students to eat their breakfast and clean up. </p>
<p>For us as researchers, one important next step is to figure out how to best way to implement Breakfast After the Bell and mitigate any classroom disruptions.</p>
<p>[<em>The Conversation’s newsletter explains what’s going on with the coronavirus pandemic. <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=coronavirus-going-on">Subscribe now</a>.</em>]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/156533/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>This research was externally funded by No Kid Hungry.</span></em></p>Chronic absenteeism is a pressing issue in high-poverty schools, but research suggests that serving students breakfast during class can help keep kids in school.Jacob Kirksey, Assistant Professor Educational Psychology & Leadership, Texas Tech UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1262452019-11-04T12:17:10Z2019-11-04T12:17:10ZWhy it’s better to exercise before breakfast<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/299853/original/file-20191101-88403-1nt4a5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">shutterstock</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/download/confirm/562427887?size=medium_jpg">Spectral-Design/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Exercise is recommended for people who are overweight or obese as a way to reduce their risk of developing type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease. But people don’t always have time to exercise as much as they would like, so finding ways to increase the health benefits of exercise is important. Our <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jcem/advance-article/doi/10.1210/clinem/dgz104/5599745">latest research</a> has found a way to do just that, and it’s to do with timing. This means you might be able to get away with doing less exercise if other commitments, such as family and work, always seem to get in the way.</p>
<p>To explain how this works, it helps to know a bit about insulin. Insulin is a hormone that helps control blood sugar levels. One of the main effects of insulin after a meal is to allow sugar in the blood to be transported into muscle, where it can then be stored or used as a fuel for energy. </p>
<p>When people don’t exercise enough and become overweight or obese, their bodies have to produce more insulin for the hormone to have this important effect. In other words, they become less sensitive to insulin. This is one of the reasons why being overweight increases the risk of getting type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/should-you-eat-breakfast-53129">Should you eat breakfast?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>One of the main health benefits of exercise is that it improves our response to insulin and we can better control our blood sugar levels – even if we don’t see this change happening. It is now becoming clear that when we eat in relation to exercise could be important for this insulin response.</p>
<p>Our study looked at the responses to six weeks of exercise, which was supervised cycling for 50 minutes, three times a week. In one group, overweight or obese men exercised before breakfast (fasted state) and showed an improved insulin response after the training. That is, they had to produce less insulin to control their blood sugar levels. This suggests that they had a lower risk of diseases such as type 2 diabetes after the training. But the men who performed the same exercise after eating breakfast did not show an improved blood insulin response. </p>
<p>The men who exercised before breakfast also burned about double the amount of fat during exercise than the group who exercised after breakfast. Current evidence suggests that this increased fat burning during exercise may explain why that group showed improved health benefits. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/299858/original/file-20191101-88419-15eiord.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/299858/original/file-20191101-88419-15eiord.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/299858/original/file-20191101-88419-15eiord.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/299858/original/file-20191101-88419-15eiord.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/299858/original/file-20191101-88419-15eiord.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/299858/original/file-20191101-88419-15eiord.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/299858/original/file-20191101-88419-15eiord.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Beta-cells in the pancreas release insulin in the blood vessel. Insulin stimulates the absorption of glucose in skeletal muscle.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/download/confirm/1334698616?src=ec3f1453-ded1-4958-8683-36d7e5c85b97-1-3&size=huge_jpg">Designua/Shutterstock</a></span>
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</figure>
<h2>But don’t expect to lose more weight</h2>
<p>A common misconception about exercise in the fasted state is that the increased fat burning will lead to increased weight loss. But for weight loss, the important factor is energy balance. This is the amount of energy eaten as food and drinks minus the amount of energy that is expended by the body, partly through exercise. </p>
<p>There is <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jn/article/149/8/1326/5440571">some evidence</a>, that, over a short period (24 hours), skipping breakfast altogether and doing exercise may create a more negative energy balance, compared with eating breakfast and doing the same exercise. Yet <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25429252">evidence also suggests</a> that when it is only the timing of meals in relation to exercise that is changed (not skipping breakfast), the amount of weight lost will be similar even if fat burning is different. So increased fat burning during exercise does not lead to greater weight loss, unless the energy balance (for example, energy intake or energy expenditure) is different.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/skipping-breakfast-may-help-you-lose-weight-what-hunter-gatherers-can-teach-us-109840">Skipping breakfast may help you lose weight - what hunter-gatherers can teach us</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>It is now important to repeat the study in women, although it is likely that the same effect would be shown with exercise before versus after breakfast. This is because for men and women eating breakfast before exercise <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15702454">reduces fat burning during the exercise</a>. This research was also for moderate-intensity endurance exercise, such as cycling and jogging, and the results don’t necessarily apply for high-intensity exercise or weight lifting.</p>
<p>Finding ways to increase the health benefits from exercise may help to reduce the increasing prevalence of diseases such as type 2 diabetes. The new research suggests that for your health it could be better to move your feet before you eat.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>More on evidence-based articles about exercise:</em></p>
<ul>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/a-single-workout-could-save-your-life-88834?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=IsItTrue">A single workout could save your life</a></em></p></li>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/gym-membership-how-to-get-the-most-out-of-it-according-to-a-sports-scientist-107551?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=IsItTrue">Gym membership: how to get the most out of it, according to a sports scientist</a></em></p></li>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/keeping-fit-how-to-do-the-right-exercise-for-your-age-108851?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=IsItTrue">How to do the right exercise for your age</a></em></p></li>
</ul>
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<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301912/original/file-20191115-66957-gxdqkd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301912/original/file-20191115-66957-gxdqkd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301912/original/file-20191115-66957-gxdqkd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301912/original/file-20191115-66957-gxdqkd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301912/original/file-20191115-66957-gxdqkd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=176&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301912/original/file-20191115-66957-gxdqkd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=176&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301912/original/file-20191115-66957-gxdqkd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=176&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/newsletters/the-daily-newsletter-2?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=GeneralBannerA126245">Click here to subscribe to our newsletter and stay healthy with guidance you can trust.</a></em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/126245/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rob Edinburgh does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Fasting exercise could help lower your risk of developing type 2 diabetes.Rob Edinburgh, PhD Candidate, Health, University of BathLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1156212019-05-23T21:17:18Z2019-05-23T21:17:18ZForget toast and oatmeal, low-carb breakfasts reduce sugar spikes in those with Type 2 diabetes<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/271026/original/file-20190425-121228-emj39k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=24%2C57%2C5439%2C3546&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Eating a low-carbohydrate breakfast could help curb cravings for treats later in the day -- a simple and powerful strategy not just for those with Type 2 diabetes, but for anyone looking to improve their diet.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK499830/">Keto</a>, <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/weight-loss/in-depth/low-carb-diet/art-20045831">low-carb</a>, <a href="https://www.healthlinkbc.ca/health-topics/aba5112">low glycemic index</a>, <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/nutrition-and-healthy-eating/in-depth/mediterranean-diet/art-20047801">Mediterranean</a>, <a href="https://www.heartandstroke.ca/get-healthy/healthy-eating/dash-diet">DASH diet</a>, <a href="https://www.heartuk.org.uk/very-low-fat-diet/introduction">low-fat</a>: there are a dizzying array of diets claiming to optimize health. Some are based on sound science and some are not.</p>
<p>For anyone living with Type 2 diabetes, a disease that affects about <a href="https://www.diabetesatlas.org/">one in 12 people globally</a>, figuring out what to eat can be even more confusing because their bodies have difficulty processing sugars.</p>
<p>When they eat carbohydrates — the sugars and starches found in many foods — they get large spikes in blood sugar. <a href="https://doi.org/10.2337/diabetes.54.6.1615">Poor control of blood sugar by the body can damage organs</a>, particularly blood vessels, eyes and kidneys.</p>
<p>The goal of my <a href="http://emil.ok.ubc.ca/">research lab</a> at the University of British Columbia’s Okanagan campus is to research diet and exercise interventions for the treatment and prevention of Type 2 diabetes. We conduct human studies testing how different lifestyle strategies impact blood glucose control and other health markers important for the management of this disease.</p>
<p>What does our science say about some of these fad diets? What are some simple strategies that those living with Type 2 diabetes can use to cut through the hype and improve their health?</p>
<p>The first is probably the simplest and easiest to implement: restrict carbohydrate-containing foods, like oatmeal and toast, at breakfast.</p>
<h2>A reversed circadian rhythm</h2>
<p>I have been using <a href="https://www.medtronicdiabetes.com/treatments/continuous-glucose-monitoring">continuous glucose monitoring</a> for 10 years to study how diet and exercise influence blood sugar control. From studying hundreds of individuals with Type 2 diabetes, I can point to one consistency: breakfast leads to the biggest glucose spike of the day.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/274742/original/file-20190515-60529-1uczu64.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/274742/original/file-20190515-60529-1uczu64.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274742/original/file-20190515-60529-1uczu64.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274742/original/file-20190515-60529-1uczu64.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274742/original/file-20190515-60529-1uczu64.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274742/original/file-20190515-60529-1uczu64.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274742/original/file-20190515-60529-1uczu64.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Oatmeal, fruits and yogurt may seem like a healthy breakfast, but it is high in carbohydrates.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>I always assumed this was due to the fact that typical Western breakfast foods, like cereal, toast, oatmeal and fruit, are high in carbohydrates.</p>
<p>However, it could also be that circadian rhythm — the internal clock that sets our 24-hour metabolism — is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1210/edrv.18.5.0317">“reversed” in Type 2 diabetes</a>. </p>
<p>Instead of waking up and being most glucose tolerant and insulin sensitive early in the day, circadian rhythm is disrupted in those with Type 2 diabetes — so that their bodies are even worse at handling carbohydrates in the morning. If they eat a typical breakfast they get a very pronounced glucose spike.</p>
<p>This led us to conduct our recent study, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/nqy261">published in <em>The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition</em></a>, which asked the simple question: “What would happen to overall glucose control if people with Type 2 diabetes avoided carbohydrates at breakfast?”</p>
<h2>Desire for sweet foods lower</h2>
<p>As predicted, we completely eliminated the large breakfast glucose spike by providing a low-carbohydrate breakfast consisting of an egg, cheese and spinach omelette. </p>
<p>Not only that, blood sugar spikes after lunch and dinner were the exact same regardless of the breakfast. So overall exposure to damaging glucose spikes was improved and markers of glucose volatility were better with the simple switch to a very low-carbohydrate breakfast.</p>
<p>We also discovered that both pre-meal hunger and desire to eat sweet foods were lower at dinner on the low-carbohydrate breakfast day. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/274749/original/file-20190515-60541-bllv2t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/274749/original/file-20190515-60541-bllv2t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274749/original/file-20190515-60541-bllv2t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274749/original/file-20190515-60541-bllv2t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274749/original/file-20190515-60541-bllv2t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274749/original/file-20190515-60541-bllv2t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274749/original/file-20190515-60541-bllv2t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Could a breakfast omelette reduce your craving for ice-cream?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This suggests that eating a low-carbohydrate breakfast could reduce energy intake and help curb cravings for treats later in the day. A simple and powerful strategy not just for those with Type 2 diabetes, but for anyone looking to improve their diet.</p>
<p>It should be noted that encouraging findings are preliminary and we don’t know if all low-carbohydrate breakfast foods would lead to the same effects.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/is-the-food-industry-conspiring-to-make-you-fat-81537">Is the food industry conspiring to make you fat?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>You might also be asking yourself, if breakfast glucose spikes are such a problem, then why didn’t you ask participants just to skip breakfast? We know from previous research that skipping breakfast is probably not the greatest idea for someone with Type 2 diabetes because it leads to exaggerated glucose spikes at lunch and dinner, and may lead to metabolic compensation — so that people eat more, or expend less energy, later in the day.</p>
<h2>Diabetes ‘remission’ with keto diet</h2>
<p>The second strategy for those with Type 2 diabetes in particular, is to follow a low-carbohydrate or ketogenic diet.</p>
<p>Evidence for the <a href="https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.115.112581">benefits of a keto diet for Type 2 diabetes are accumulating</a>, with studies showing that with the proper support and medical guidance, over 50 per cent of patients might be able to get their <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13300-018-0373-9">condition into “remission.”</a></p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/274744/original/file-20190515-60541-1qs3s50.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/274744/original/file-20190515-60541-1qs3s50.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274744/original/file-20190515-60541-1qs3s50.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274744/original/file-20190515-60541-1qs3s50.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274744/original/file-20190515-60541-1qs3s50.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274744/original/file-20190515-60541-1qs3s50.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274744/original/file-20190515-60541-1qs3s50.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A steak with grilled vegetables is a typical ‘keto’ meal.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>That means their blood glucose control is back to normal and they do not have to take glucose-lowering medications anymore. It’s an astounding and life-changing result for the many people who have become dependent on daily medications like insulin or metformin.</p>
<p>In the real-world though, adherence to any restrictive dietary patterns is generally poor. Some people can stick to it, but usually <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/200094?dom=pscau&src=syn">at least half of participants fall off the wagon within six to 12 months of starting any new diet</a>, whether low-carb or not.</p>
<h2>One or two low-carb meals</h2>
<p>There may also be some <a href="https://www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/should-you-try-the-keto-diet">risks to a hardened ketogenic diet approach</a>. One recent study from my lab also warns that the occasional “cheat day” when on a strict ketogenic diet <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/11/3/489">might cause damage to blood vessels</a>.</p>
<p>Switching just one or two meals per day to low-carb could be an attainable goal that maximizes the benefits while also minimizing the potential risks for many individuals with Type 2 diabetes.</p>
<p>In an age when pharmaceuticals are the norm for managing most diseases, I’m encouraged to be discovering some simple alternatives that can be tested in scientific research studies. It’s not every day that we in the health fields see diseases seemingly reverse in our patients. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/274748/original/file-20190515-60567-6mkz97.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/274748/original/file-20190515-60567-6mkz97.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274748/original/file-20190515-60567-6mkz97.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274748/original/file-20190515-60567-6mkz97.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274748/original/file-20190515-60567-6mkz97.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274748/original/file-20190515-60567-6mkz97.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274748/original/file-20190515-60567-6mkz97.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Eating one or two low-carb meals a day could be an attainable goal.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Because normal circadian rhythm dictates that humans are most tolerant to glucose in the morning, this strategy might not optimal for someone without diabetes. However, the lower feelings of hunger later in the day, when a low-carbohydrate breakfast is consumed, might be attractive for lots of people who are trying to control their weight. </p>
<p>We hope to test out some of these ideas in the coming years as we continue our research on optimizing lifestyle approaches for Type 2 diabetes.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/115621/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jonathan Little receives funding from the Canadian Institutes for Health Research, Michael Smith Foundation for Health Research, Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council, and the Heart and Stroke Foundation of Canada. He has received funding from the Egg Farmer's of Canada and Egg Nutrition Center unrelated to the low-carbohydrate breakfast study discussed in this article. He is affiliated with the not-for-profit Institute for Personalized Therapeutic Nutrition as co-Chief Scientific Officer. He owns shares and consults for Metabolic Insights Inc., a for-profit company that is developing a non-invasive metabolic monitoring device. </span></em></p>New research shows that eating a low-carbohydrate breakfast both reduces sugar spikes in the morning and reduces cravings for sweet foods in the evening, in people with Type 2 diabetes.Jonathan Little, Associate Professor in the School of Health and Exercise Sciences, University of British ColumbiaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1098402019-01-31T00:21:47Z2019-01-31T00:21:47ZSkipping breakfast may help you lose weight - what hunter-gatherers can teach us<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/254358/original/file-20190117-32810-tin6ck.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Give it a miss.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/download/confirm/577772020?src=R7NVI1rsVES9-UXs_UN38A-1-0&size=medium_jpg">Elena Veselova/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Breakfast, we are told, is the most important meal of the day. Over the last 50 years, we have been bombarded with messages extolling the health benefits of processed cereals and porridge oats. We are told breakfast helps us reduce weight by speeding up our metabolism – this helps us avoid hunger pangs and overeating later in the day. </p>
<p>These are not just marketing messages, they are core to nutritional guidelines in developed countries, such as in the US, UK and Australia, prepared by expert scientific panels. These messages are mirrored in the media and websites worldwide. But what if the benefits of breakfast are just another diet myth?</p>
<h2>No word for breakfast</h2>
<p>It’s popular these days to follow the nutritional regimes of our ancient ancestors, but no one seems to be studying whether or not they ate breakfast. The Hadza people in Tanzania are the last true hunter-gatherers in East Africa who we believe live much like our ancestors. Living with them, we noticed a definite lack of a breakfast routine. They also have no regular word to describe “breakfast”. </p>
<p>After waking up, the men usually leave on a hunting or honey-gathering trip without eating, maybe grabbing some berries a few hours later, en route. If they stay in camp in the morning or even all day, a handful of honey late morning – or even consumed as late as early afternoon – may be all they eat until a larger, evening meal. That said, there is no routine and eating patterns are highly variable, depending on the camp size and season. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/i-spent-three-days-as-a-hunter-gatherer-to-see-if-it-would-improve-my-gut-health-78773">I spent three days as a hunter-gatherer to see if it would improve my gut health</a>
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<p>The women stay close to the camp and on some days make simple food, like baobab porridge, or they eat some stored honey, but rarely before 9-10am, giving them a fasting time since their evening meal of over 15 hours. Lacking a regular breakfast routine has not made them fat or unhealthy and they lack most Western diseases. Perhaps we should take a leaf from their book. At least, that’s what the latest scientific evidence suggests.</p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/254357/original/file-20190117-32828-11ziyuw.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/254357/original/file-20190117-32828-11ziyuw.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/254357/original/file-20190117-32828-11ziyuw.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/254357/original/file-20190117-32828-11ziyuw.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/254357/original/file-20190117-32828-11ziyuw.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/254357/original/file-20190117-32828-11ziyuw.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/254357/original/file-20190117-32828-11ziyuw.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A bit of honey for breakfast.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jeff Leach</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>An honest mistake</h2>
<p>The health benefit of breakfast has now been completely debunked by a new <a href="http://www.bmj.com/content/364/bmj.l42">systematic review and meta-analysis</a> of 11 randomised trials that investigated the impact of skipping breakfast on weight and metabolic rate. </p>
<p>The studies vary widely in duration and quality, and seven looked at changes in weight as well as changes in energy usage. Their conclusion is the same as in <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27292940">recent reviews</a> that have been largely ignored, namely, there is no evidence to support the claim that skipping meals makes you put on weight or adversely reduces your resting metabolic rate. </p>
<p>There is now considerable evidence from these studies that skipping breakfast can be an effective way to reduce weight for some people. So why has the field got it so wrong in the past? </p>
<p>One reason is the belief in “grazing” rather than “gorging” to avoid “stress” on the body from having to digest large meals, especially later in the day when glucose and insulin peaks are higher and metabolic rate lower. The flawed rationale was based on lab rodents and a few <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Jenkins+DJ+NEJM+1989">short-term human studies</a>. While the concept of over-compensation later in the day was correct – breakfast skippers do eat more lunch and slightly reduce their activity – it is not nearly enough to make up the energy deficit in a real-world setting outside a lab. </p>
<p>Scientists were honestly misled in the past by many observational studies showing that obese people skipped meals more often than thin people. This mindset became ingrained in nutritional dogma. But these observational studies were seriously biased. Breakfast skippers were more likely, on average, to be poorer, less educated, less healthy and have a poorer diet. Overweight people were more likely to diet and, after a binge, more likely to feel guilty and skip a meal. </p>
<p>Despite these flaws in the science and the steady increase in opposing evidence from randomised controlled trials, the idea that skipping meals is unhealthy has prevailed for decades. It’s still part of current NHS recommendations by Public Health England and one of its eight key <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/live-well/eat-well/eight-tips-for-healthy-eating/">healthy diet messages</a>, part of <a href="https://www.cnpp.usda.gov/2015-2020-dietary-guidelines-americans">USDA Dietary Guidelines for Americans</a>, as well as the <a href="https://nhmrc.gov.au/about-us/publications/australian-dietary-guidelines">Australian Guidelines for Nutrition</a>.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/exaggerated-portions-alongside-real-nutrition-claims-on-cereal-boxes-may-mislead-consumers-new-study-101269">Exaggerated portions alongside real nutrition claims on cereal boxes may mislead consumers – new study</a>
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<p>Another common pro-breakfast argument is that, as well as reducing obesity, it is essential for the mental well-being and attention span of children, even if well nourished. Again the evidence of over 20 trials, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27184287">when reviewed independently</a>, is at best weak and inconsistent, and probably biased in the same way as for adults.</p>
<p>Evidence is also accumulating that restricted eating times and increasing fasting intervals can help some people <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6004924/">lose weight</a>. Some of these recent developments that seem counterintuitive to traditional thinking, make sense when we consider the importance of the gut microbiome on our health and metabolism. The community of 100 trillion gut microbes have a circadian rhythm and vary in composition and function in fasting and fed states. Data suggests microbial communities could benefit from <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1550413114005051">short periods of fasting</a>. They, like us, may need to rest and recuperate.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/intermittent-fasting-could-help-tackle-diabetes-heres-the-science-82281">Intermittent fasting could help tackle diabetes – here's the science</a>
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<p>Some of us are programmed to prefer eating food earlier in the day and others later, which may suit our unique personal metabolism. Around a third of people in developed countries regularly skip breakfast while many others enjoy it. This does not mean that everyone overweight would benefit from skipping breakfast. There is no one size fits all, and prescriptive diet guidelines filled with erroneous information look increasingly counterproductive and detract from important health messages. </p>
<p>Different populations have their own varied breakfast habits, but before you next go hunting, why not try your own personal breakfast skipping experiments - it may suit you.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/109840/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tim Spector Receives royalties from book “The Diet Myth: the science behind what we eat”. Orion 2016,
He is a scientific founder of Zoe Global Ltd (a personalised nutrition company) and has received research grants from Danone. He receives grants from the MRC, EU, NIH and NIHR amongst others.
TS is a regular breakfast eater.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jeff Leach is the Founder of the Human Food Project, co-Founder of American Gut Project and on the advisory board of Zoe Global Ltd (a personalised nutrition company). He receives funding from A Team Foundation and Emch Foundation. He is the author of the book REWILD.</span></em></p>‘Eat breakfast like a king’ is flawed advice, new study finds.Tim Spector, Professor of Genetic Epidemiology, King's College LondonJeff Leach, Visiting Research Fellow, King's College LondonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1012692018-08-17T10:01:57Z2018-08-17T10:01:57ZExaggerated portions alongside real nutrition claims on cereal boxes may mislead consumers – new study<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/232251/original/file-20180816-2900-1slym8z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Cereal portions this big are not good for children.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Daisy Daisy/Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Eating healthy cereals in moderation can contribute to a balanced diet. However, many breakfast cereals on offer in the UK contain very high levels of sugar. In fact, based on total product weight, some are made up of <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-much-sugar-is-lurking-in-your-cereal-36797">more than a third</a> of the sweet stuff. </p>
<p>For children, breakfast cereals can be more than just a morning meal. Because they are quick and easy to prepare, kids tend to snack on them throughout the day too. This popularity means that cereal products are the second main contributor of free sugars (sugars added to food and drink, as well as sugars found naturally in things such as honey or unsweetened fruit juices) to children’s diets. They <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/national-diet-and-nutrition-survey-results-from-years-1-to-4-combined-of-the-rolling-programme-for-2008-and-2009-to-2011-and-2012">account for</a> 8% of the free sugars intake in children (four to 10 years old) and 7% in teenagers (11–18 years).</p>
<p>When it comes to sugar discussions, we are frequently told that consuming excess free sugar in food and drink is detrimental to health and increases the risk of obesity, which is associated with greater risks of developing type 2 diabetes, hypertension, coronary artery disease and cancer. However, what is sometimes less discussed in the media is that excess sugar is also a well-established risk factor for tooth decay – which itself <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/tooth-decay/">can lead to</a> cavities, gum disease and painful abscesses.</p>
<p>For <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/sj.bdj.2018.531">our recently published study</a>, we wanted to look at how breakfast cereals which are high in sugar are marketed to children, and how this impacts on oral health. We were particularly keen to look at how portion sizes are presented on the front of packets, and what this meant for sugar intake.</p>
<h2>Oversized portions</h2>
<p>Recent UK nutritional recommendations have indicated that free sugars should not exceed <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/common-health-questions/food-and-diet/how-much-sugar-is-good-for-me/">5% of total dietary energy</a> for children aged two and up. <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/live-well/eat-well/how-does-sugar-in-our-diet-affect-our-health/">According to the NHS</a> this is no more than 19g a day (approximately five teaspoons) for children aged four to six years old, and no more than 24g (six teaspoons) for children aged seven to 10.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/232252/original/file-20180816-2900-16tpy0d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/232252/original/file-20180816-2900-16tpy0d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/232252/original/file-20180816-2900-16tpy0d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/232252/original/file-20180816-2900-16tpy0d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/232252/original/file-20180816-2900-16tpy0d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=567&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/232252/original/file-20180816-2900-16tpy0d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=567&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/232252/original/file-20180816-2900-16tpy0d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=567&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Nine of the 13 cereal boxes examined in the study.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Maria Morgan</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Using these guidelines, we looked at the packaging of the nine most popular types of breakfast cereals marketed to children in the UK. As it is the most popular of the top nine (according to Mintel marketing reports), we decided to look at Coco Pops in more detail and included all branded and UK supermarket versions of the chocolate flavour cereal. This meant that in total we included 13 breakfast cereals in our study: Cheerios, Coco Pops (and Asda, Sainsbury’s, Morrisons and Tesco supermarket branded versions), Cornflakes, Crunchy Nut Cornflakes, Frosties, Rice Krispies, Shreddies, Sugar Puffs and Weetabix. </p>
<p>What we found was that, at the manufacturer’s suggested portion size, eight of the 13 cereals provided more than half of the recommended daily sugar intake for a child aged four to six years old. But we also found that the images of the portion sizes on the front of the packaging could be misleading for consumers. While manufacturers suggested portion sizes on the packaging, the images appeared to show portions that were at least two-thirds more than the recommendations. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/231883/original/file-20180814-2912-ed7sei.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/231883/original/file-20180814-2912-ed7sei.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/231883/original/file-20180814-2912-ed7sei.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/231883/original/file-20180814-2912-ed7sei.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/231883/original/file-20180814-2912-ed7sei.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/231883/original/file-20180814-2912-ed7sei.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/231883/original/file-20180814-2912-ed7sei.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sugar content of the leading UK children’s breakfast cereals (g/100g).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Alongside these deceptive portion pictures were cartoon characters, royal endorsements and QR codes promoting the breakfast cereals, many of which appeared to be targeted at child consumers. </p>
<p>We did find that nutritional claims focused on vitamins (especially folic acid) and minerals (notably iron), whole grains and no artificial colours or flavours, were legitimate on all the cereals. In addition, only two of the 13 cereals we looked at – Weetabix and Sugar Puffs – did not have a voluntary <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/live-well/eat-well/how-to-read-food-labels/">front-of-pack nutrition label</a> (often colour coded into traffic lights). But the problem here is that while legitimate claims about other nutritional constituents in the cereals appear alongside images which don’t depict the manufacturers’ actual recommendation, consumers may think that the products are healthier than they are. </p>
<p>This may not necessarily be a deliberate attempt to mislead consumers, but dentists and other health professionals need to be aware of the high sugar content of these cereals, and the effects of marketing techniques, when giving nutritional advice to children and parents. At the same time, consumers need to be a bit more savvy about their breakfast choices too. </p>
<p>A good breakfast is an important part of the day – and it need not be “boring”. Simply choosing breakfast cereals with less sugar, such as porridge, plain shredded wholewheat and plain wholewheat biscuit cereals, adding some fresh fruit (bananas or raspberries are good) and serving with semi-skimmed milk or natural yoghurt, can make all the difference. For more ideas and information, Change4life has some top tips for <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/change4life/cutting-back-sugar">cutting sugar at breakfast</a>, as well as some <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/change4life/recipes">quick and easy recipes</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/101269/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>This research was conducted by Rosie Khehra as part of her BDS; it was led by Maria Morgan who acted as research supervisor and Dr Ruth Fairchild from Cardiff Metropolitan University was a co-author.</span></em></p>The marketing of breakfast cereals may be confusing consumers with a mix of true and inflated claims.Maria Morgan, Senior Lecturer in Dental Public Health, Cardiff UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/950202018-05-31T07:25:42Z2018-05-31T07:25:42ZHow Brexit will affect each ingredient of the full English breakfast<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/220476/original/file-20180525-51102-199ac5w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/full-english-breakfast-including-sausages-grilled-409457311?src=2odd7T25AA4Y01ulszabKA-1-35">shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The typical full English breakfast might include sausages, bacon, eggs, mushrooms, tomato, baked beans, hash browns and toast. Here’s how Brexit could effect the UK’s most important meal of the day.</p>
<h2>Eggs</h2>
<p>Let’s start with the good news. The British egg industry can produce enough for the country to be entirely <a href="https://www.egginfo.co.uk/egg-facts-and-figures/industry-information/data">self-sufficient in eggs</a>. In light of the recent scare concerning contaminated eggs imported from Dutch farms, it is unnecessary (other than for cost reasons) for UK supermarkets to use cheaper, foreign-sourced eggs for processed products. So if you fancy eggs for breakfast, Brexit is unlikely to have any effect on this staple.</p>
<h2>Bread</h2>
<p>Bread is made from wheat and about 85% of the wheat used by UK flour millers is <a href="http://www.nabim.org.uk/statistics">home grown</a>. The majority of the flour produced in the UK is also used there. Only about 1% of UK flour sales are based on imports of flour, whereas about <a href="http://www.nabim.org.uk/imports-and-exports">2% is exported</a>. Canadian wheat is imported due to its excellent characteristics which work well blended with UK wheats. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/221008/original/file-20180530-120499-y0e0sk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/221008/original/file-20180530-120499-y0e0sk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/221008/original/file-20180530-120499-y0e0sk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/221008/original/file-20180530-120499-y0e0sk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/221008/original/file-20180530-120499-y0e0sk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/221008/original/file-20180530-120499-y0e0sk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/221008/original/file-20180530-120499-y0e0sk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">British fields of gold.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/andrewgustar/14630034898/in/photolist-ohNKF1-dDFK4z-6Nt2kP-8sw1B2-8rJZPb-8nsYq4-skoUT1-f4MtmD-pdfpMp-8odDWc-cyGuGA-fANZxh-6MkLmH-fAyJaP-6DRB7P-WTLjih-56qEtd-fANZjE-8jBk3t-9ZadB5-5gHkET-3eVoKW-cHgXbm-nLnvw8-8eHotY-64dNbX-AdVerf-8satT3-8mxrWg-vENoiD-WTM5MU-3PRLT-cCWrnw-8mzeyn-6D7WxF-5gHkEB-gkSTfs-oyHJNg-5a9zMx-21JBaXm-oj5yTU-v8NV8S-uM8qUC-V5kqSc-WYiBp7-W1DoGm-vkLwbA-9gCQdm-6P8J6C-stH1gk">Andrew Gustar/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Depending on the quality of the UK crop, wheat may also be imported from France and Germany. So unless you are after a croissant which requires the softer French wheat, your breakfast toast should not be affected by Brexit.</p>
<h2>Sausages and bacon</h2>
<p>Now for the less good news. Britain’s breakfast sausages and bacon are dependent on the availability and cost of pork. British farmers currently <a href="https://pork.ahdb.org.uk/prices-stats/news/2017/">produce only 40% of the pork eaten in the UK</a>. The other 60% comes from EU countries such as Denmark, Germany and the Netherlands. European producers are able to provide pork more cheaply than British farmers who have additional costs related to higher animal welfare standards – <a href="https://pork.ahdb.org.uk/pig-production/outdoor/">40% of the British pig herd is bred outdoors</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/220792/original/file-20180529-80640-92hn1k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/220792/original/file-20180529-80640-92hn1k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/220792/original/file-20180529-80640-92hn1k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/220792/original/file-20180529-80640-92hn1k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/220792/original/file-20180529-80640-92hn1k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/220792/original/file-20180529-80640-92hn1k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/220792/original/file-20180529-80640-92hn1k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This little piggy is not going to the British market.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>So a hard Brexit would probably lead to a rise in the cost of sausages and bacon, until such a time as the British pork industry recovers sufficiently to supply enough happy pigs. </p>
<h2>Hash browns</h2>
<p>Although the <a href="https://www.potatopro.com/united-kingdom/potato-statistics">UK still ranks number 11</a> in the world among potato producing countries, the harvested area has shrunk by half since 1960 and demand exceeds supply. Mediterranean countries are often the largest source of fresh potato imports to the UK. These usually include new potatoes from both EU and non-EU countries (such as Israel), as well as potatoes from the near continent (principally Holland, Belgium and France). </p>
<p>Frozen, processed potatoes account for the largest proportion of UK imports. Average prices are lower for imported frozen products than those domestically produced with the majority of frozen potato imports coming from the Netherlands and Belgium. This means that if your hash browns come in frozen form, Brexit could make them more expensive.</p>
<h2>Mushrooms</h2>
<p>Mushrooms are a relatively new crop in the UK and the industry itself is young, dominated by <a href="http://environmentalscience.oxfordre.com/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199389414.001.0001/acrefore-9780199389414-e-231">a single species of mushroom</a>. Mushrooms which can be grown in the UK have seen massive drops in production due to the industry being dominated by a few big companies. The production area of mushrooms has decreased since <a href="http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20130124181335/http://www.defra.gov.uk/statistics/files/defra-stats-foodfarm-landuselivestock-mushrooms-110728.pdf">2007 from 126 to 86 hectares</a>. </p>
<p>One company based in Ireland dominates production and <a href="https://www.rte.ie/news/business/2016/1014/823958-mushroom-industry/">mushroom growers in Ireland rely on the UK for 80% of sales</a>. Other countries that export mushrooms to the UK are Poland, Belgium and the Netherlands. Recently, G’s Growers Ltd, an independent Producer Organisation, has made a <a href="https://www.gs-fresh.com/new-mushroom-farm-opens/">major investment</a> in a new mushroom growing facility in Cambridgeshire in response to demand for UK-grown mushrooms. </p>
<p>But, to complicate matters, the mushroom industry in the UK employs <a href="https://theconversation.com/who-picked-british-fruit-and-veg-before-migrant-workers-63279">predominantly Eastern European pickers</a>. This indicates that Brexit will have a double-edged effect on mushrooms, with increased prices and shortages due to availability of labour.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/who-picked-british-fruit-and-veg-before-migrant-workers-63279">Who picked British fruit and veg before migrant workers?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Tomatoes</h2>
<p>And now for some really bad news. Tomatoes grow where it is hot, and require a long growing season. To combat its climate, the British tomato industry has more than 200 hectares of glasshouses. Despite this, British tomato production amounts to only about a fifth of the total volume of tomatoes sold in the country <a href="http://www.britishtomatoes.co.uk/tomato-facts/market-info/">each year</a>. </p>
<p>About <a href="http://foodresearch.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/horticulture-briefing-final-24-March.pdf">400,000 tonnes of fresh tomatoes are imported</a> from EU countries such as Spain, the Netherlands, Poland, Italy and Belgium, and non-EU countries such as Morocco and Israel. The UK is nowhere near tomato self-sufficiency, and a hard Brexit would definitely mean more expensive tomatoes.</p>
<h2>Baked beans</h2>
<p>Beans – haricot, navy or phaseolus vulgaris – cannot be grown in Britain. They are all <a href="https://sustainablefoodtrust.org/articles/rediscovering-british-pulses/">imported</a> – mostly from North America, although scientists are mapping DNA in an attempt to <a href="https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/a-baked-bean-that-could-be-grown-in-britain-23pdvns7l">create a strain that will survive in the UK</a>. Breakfast favourite baked beans require haricot beans. People in the UK consume about 2,000 tonnes of baked beans every year. But baked beans aren’t just beans. They also contain a spice mixture, tomato sauce, starch, sugar and vinegar. So although Brexit may not have a direct impact on imports from North America, the fact that baked beans contain tomatoes could influence their price.</p>
<p>So, if you can reduce your breakfast to just eggs and toast, you might not even notice Brexit. But if you want that full English medley, Brexit may not be your cup of tea.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/95020/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hana Trollman does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Sausages, bacon, eggs, mushrooms, tomatoes, beans, bread and hash browns. All are accounted for.Hana Trollman, PhD Researcher, Loughborough UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/600882016-06-01T14:49:04Z2016-06-01T14:49:04ZHow to eat your way to better grades<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/124595/original/image-20160531-1959-htta6k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Food for thought.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Miriam Doerr/Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The saying goes that you are what you eat, so when it comes to exam time it makes sense to think carefully about what you are feeding your body. Food is fuel and knowing what to eat and drink ahead of exams can make all the difference to your performance.</p>
<p>A key factor in how well you do in an exam is “<a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00394-005-0585-4">cognitive function</a>”, which pretty much means the functioning of the brain. This includes variables such as memory and attention, and it can be easily affected by how much, and what type of food you do or do not eat. So it is logical that to enhance exam performance you want to think about optimising your cognitive function, with diet a key factor for consideration. </p>
<p>So where to start? Well, the first thing to consider – which is particularly important for morning exams – is to eat breakfast. Evidence suggests that <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1525295">breakfast consumption</a>, when compared to skipping breakfast, <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19930787">enhances cognitive function</a> in children, adolescents and adults – and that missing breakfast can impair your cognitive function and exam performance. So you should always make sure you eat something before an exam – ideally about two hours beforehand. It also matters what you eat. In adolescents in particular, our work suggests that the <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22017815">breakfast should be low glycaemic index</a> (GI). </p>
<p>Low GI foods produce a slower rise and lower peak in blood glucose concentration after eating which is believed to be beneficial for cognitive function. For example, muesli and porridge (with no added sugar I’m afraid) would be an ideal start to the day. A number of things can also help to reduce the GI of breakfast, such as adding milk. <a href="http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/11641749">Milk promotes the release of insulin</a>, the key hormone in glucose uptake which helps to lower our blood glucose concentration. Adding an apple can also reduce the GI of our breakfast. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/124596/original/image-20160531-1959-3stwij.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/124596/original/image-20160531-1959-3stwij.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124596/original/image-20160531-1959-3stwij.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124596/original/image-20160531-1959-3stwij.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124596/original/image-20160531-1959-3stwij.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124596/original/image-20160531-1959-3stwij.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124596/original/image-20160531-1959-3stwij.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Start your day with oats.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">CatchaSnap/Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The breakfast should also be reasonably high carbohydrate, given that glucose (from carbohydrates) is the main fuel used by the brain. This could include foods such as breakfast cereals, toast and porridge. However, you may also want to think about adding in some protein <a href="http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/87/5/1558S.long">as it helps us to feel fuller for longer</a>. </p>
<p>Because the last thing you want is for your stomach to rumble halfway through an exam, a breakfast containing both carbohydrate and protein may be the best course of action – such as scrambled eggs on wholegrain toast. It’s also probably best to <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0031938496005197">avoid high fat foods, such as a full English breakfast, as they can make us feel tired</a>.</p>
<h2>Thirsty work</h2>
<p>Alongside breakfast, it is also very important to ensure that you stay hydrated. Lots of people do not drink enough and evidence suggests that <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07315724.2007.10719658#.Vz7ggfkrJzU">dehydration impairs our cognitive function</a> leading to poorer exam performance. In terms of what to drink, water is always a good call, as lots of “energy drinks” and fruit drinks contain lots of sugar. </p>
<p>Something also worth considering is caffeine. <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-3010.2007.00665.x/full">Caffeine has very well documented effects on cognitive function and alertness</a> – so you may want to think about boosting your caffeine intake. However, this must be done with slight caution – don’t over do it. A very large dose of caffeine can also have negative effects, and lead to you being unable to concentrate (and wanting to get up and run around the exam hall). But the opposite can also be true, especially in habitual caffeine consumers. If they abstain from caffeine completely they may experience negative consequences. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/124598/original/image-20160531-1931-qht1oy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/124598/original/image-20160531-1931-qht1oy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124598/original/image-20160531-1931-qht1oy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124598/original/image-20160531-1931-qht1oy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124598/original/image-20160531-1931-qht1oy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124598/original/image-20160531-1931-qht1oy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124598/original/image-20160531-1931-qht1oy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Caffeine can be a great way to give your brain a boost, but try not to overdo it.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Africa Studio/Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>So that’s your nutritional pep talk for morning exams, now what about for an afternoon one? Well, similar things hold true. You want to be eating a lunch based on carbohydrate and protein (consumed around two hours before the exam if possible) and to ensure that you stay well hydrated, with moderate caffeine intake.</p>
<p>It is also worth pointing out that nutrition is not a one size fits all science – what works for one person may not work for another. So use these tips as general guidelines. My greatest recommendation would be to “practice” these exam nutritional strategies, to make sure they work for you. It is better to find out in advance, rather than on the day, that you can’t stomach a big bowl of porridge at seven in the morning.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/60088/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Simon Cooper does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Is there such a thing as brain food?Simon Cooper, Senior Lecturer Sport Science, Nottingham Trent UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/573792016-04-14T03:26:33Z2016-04-14T03:26:33ZFor poor children, two healthy meals a day can keep obesity away<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/118562/original/image-20160413-22081-58dwv9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">School nutrition programmes help reduce the risk of children developing obesity.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Tiger Brands Foundation</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Schoolchildren who receive a nutritious lunchtime meal are less likely to be overweight or suffer from childhood obesity. And those who receive both breakfast and lunch are three times less likely to suffer this fate. </p>
<p>Tackling childhood obesity is important because it may result in adult obesity and these children developing non-communicable diseases such as diabetes, hypertension and heart disease later in life.</p>
<p>Obesity is not necessarily driven by overeating, as is commonly thought. Children can also develop obesity when they are eating poor quality and inexpensive food that may be high in fats and refined carbohydrates. </p>
<p>Globally, about 44 million children are overweight or obese. In South Africa, about 28% of children between the ages of two and 14 are <a href="http://www.hsrc.ac.za/en/research-outputs/view/6493">overweight or obese</a>.</p>
<p>Our <a href="http://www.uj.ac.za/faculties/humanities/csda/Documents/TBF%20Nutrition%20Report%202015%20FINAL%20WEB%20VERSION.PDF">study</a> has shown that childhood obesity is relatively easy and cost effective to prevent. Two in-school nutrition programmes – one of which included both breakfast and lunch – had a marked effect on reducing overweight and obesity levels among schoolchildren.</p>
<h2>Effects of in-school nutrition programmes</h2>
<p>Our findings are from a comparative study at schools in the Lady Frere and Qumbu districts of the Eastern Cape province.</p>
<p>We wanted to independently assess the relative effects of an in-school breakfast programme and the Department of Basic Education’s <a href="http://www.education.gov.za/Programmes/NSNP/tabid/632/Default.aspx">National School Nutrition Programme</a>. The impact of these programmes has never been assessed before. </p>
<p>Children receiving the National School Nutrition Programme get a mid-morning lunch meal consisting of a protein, carbohydrate and vegetables. The breakfast is made up of a fortified cereal before the school day starts. </p>
<p>We compared the height and weight measurements of children at three types of schools:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>those who started receiving the lunchtime meal shortly after the study started; </p></li>
<li><p>those who had been receiving the lunchtime meal for some time; and </p></li>
<li><p>those who received both the lunchtime meal and an in-school breakfast.</p></li>
</ul>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/118563/original/image-20160413-22078-1uwu77x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/118563/original/image-20160413-22078-1uwu77x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118563/original/image-20160413-22078-1uwu77x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118563/original/image-20160413-22078-1uwu77x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118563/original/image-20160413-22078-1uwu77x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118563/original/image-20160413-22078-1uwu77x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118563/original/image-20160413-22078-1uwu77x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">As part of the study some students received breakfast and lunch at school.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Tiger Brands Foundation</span></span>
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<p>Almost 35% of learners at schools that had not been receiving the lunchtime meal were either overweight or obese when they were measured against the <a href="http://www.who.int/childgrowth/standards/bmi_for_age/en/">Body Mass Index-for-age</a> recommendations made by the World Health Organisation. </p>
<p>In comparison, only 17% of learners at schools that had been receiving the lunchtime meal were classified as overweight or obese. </p>
<p>And of the children at the schools that received both the breakfast and the lunch, only 11.5% of learners were overweight or obese.</p>
<p>The effects of the school nutrition programmes can be seen more dramatically at the schools that started receiving the lunchtime meal in the course of the study.</p>
<p>When the children were first measured, the overweight and obesity levels were alarmingly high. By the end of the year – after the children had been receiving the lunchtime meal for at least three terms – the overweight and obesity levels had dropped by 8%.</p>
<h2>A good return on investment</h2>
<p>According to <a href="http://www.statssa.gov.za/publications/Report-03-19-00/Report-03-19-002012.pdf">Statistics South Africa</a> 30% of children live in households that have inadequate or severely inadequate access to food. These children therefore experience moderate or persistent hunger. </p>
<p>With the current drought and increased food prices, it is becoming more and more expensive and difficult for families, especially those in poor communities, to afford and opt for healthier food baskets.</p>
<p>As a result, poorer people are more likely to consume the foods that drive obesity. This in turn contributes to increased risk for non-communicable diseases. Children who grow up in these communities have no option but to consume food that lacks the right balance of nutritious meals. They are at high risk for obesity and “hidden hunger”. Hidden hunger is a micronutrient deficiency related to consuming low quality, nutritionally deficient meals.</p>
<p>Obesity – including childhood obesity – places a heavy cost burden on the health-care system of a country, given its association with heart disease and other non-communicable diseases.</p>
<p>But the lunchtime meal costs R2.73 per primary school learner per day. The breakfast has a similar cost. Although these are relatively low cost, the significant drop in obesity rates shows that they are high-impact interventions that could protect children from later obesity. </p>
<p>Taking into account the likely cost savings for the health-care system, interventions such as these represent an excellent return on investment. </p>
<p>With high levels of poverty that result in food insecurity and increasing food costs, in-school nutrition programmes are not only an important poverty alleviation mechanism that taps into the moral duty we have to ensure that children are fed; they have also been shown to deliver longer-term health benefits for the children, and for the country as a whole.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/57379/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The study was funded by the Tiger Brands Foundation which provided the in-school breakfast at selected schools,</span></em></p>In-school nutrition programmes can reduce the chances of children suffering from childhood obesity.Lauren Graham, Senior Researcher at the Centre for Social Development for Africa, University of JohannesburgLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/531292016-02-14T20:41:21Z2016-02-14T20:41:21ZShould you eat breakfast?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/108013/original/image-20160113-10394-ijzqy5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The most important meal of the day?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/cat.mhtml?lang=en&language=en&ref_site=photo&search_source=search_form&version=llv1&anyorall=all&safesearch=1&use_local_boost=1&autocomplete_id=&searchterm=fried%20breakfast&show_color_wheel=1&orient=&commercial_ok=&media_type=images&search_cat=&searchtermx=&photographer_name=&people_gender=&people_age=&people_ethnicity=&people_number=&color=&page=1&inline=61075384">www.shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In the middle of the last century, popular nutrition author Adelle Davis advised people to eat breakfast like a king, lunch like a prince, and dinner like a pauper. Her advice stuck. Recent examination of the merits of adults eating breakfast has raised the question of whether we should indeed eat like kings at breakfast or just skip it all together.</p>
<p>First of all, the “most important meal of the day” is not a title anybody should give to any meal whether it’s breakfast, lunch or dinner. To attempt to arbitrarily define a specific meal as the most important is not sensible, but there are a few commonly held truths that may have contributed to breakfast receiving this rather lofty title. When considering these ideas, it becomes clear that some don’t <a href="http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/98/5/1298.long">have the weight of evidence</a> you might expect. </p>
<p>Here are some of the commonly asked questions about breakfast and some of the evidence. As you will see, it’s not a cut and dry issue. </p>
<h2>Does skipping breakfast make you eat more?</h2>
<p>We know that skipping breakfast causes the brain to be <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=goldstone+2009+fasting">more responsive to highly palatable foods</a> and that people often <a href="http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=9860772&fileId=S0007114515001506">eat more at lunchtime</a> if they skip breakfast. But in <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=levitsky+2013+energy+intake">laboratory situations</a> and in more realistic investigations conducted with people going about their <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=reeves+2014+breakfast">normal routines</a>, most studies show that skipping breakfast results in lower total energy intake over the course of a day than eating breakfast. So, despite <a href="http://www.nature.com/ijo/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/ijo2015154a.html">greater hunger during the morning</a> and some compensation during lunch, the effect of skipping breakfast doesn’t seem great enough to make people overshoot the calorie deficit created by missing the morning meal.</p>
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<h2>Does breakfast ‘kick start’ your metabolism?</h2>
<p>Eating sets a variety of biological processes associated with digesting and storing food into action, which result in increased energy expenditure known as diet induced thermogenesis (DIT). So, yes, breakfast does kick start your metabolism. </p>
<p>A recent study has even shown that this increase in expenditure is <a href="http://www.nature.com/ijo/journal/v39/n12/full/ijo2015138a.html">more pronounced in the morning</a> than the evening. But there is a major problem with pinning your hopes on this “jump start” to offset the energy in your breakfast. </p>
<p>DIT accounts for a proportion of the food you eat. For a normal diet it’s only <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15507147">about 10% of energy intake</a>. Higher proportions of protein can push this figure up, but even at its greatest, DIT might only account for about 15% of what you eat.</p>
<p>But there might be more to this than just the increased metabolism due to digestion. New evidence from our group, published in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, found that those assigned to eat breakfast <a href="http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/100/2/539.long">used more energy through physical activity</a> (<a href="http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/early/2016/02/10/ajcn.115.122044.abstract">in particular during the morning</a>) than those fasting. So it might be that skipping breakfast makes people feel less energetic so they reduce their levels of physical activity, without consciously realising it. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/109179/original/image-20160125-19645-12unouz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/109179/original/image-20160125-19645-12unouz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/109179/original/image-20160125-19645-12unouz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/109179/original/image-20160125-19645-12unouz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/109179/original/image-20160125-19645-12unouz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=548&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/109179/original/image-20160125-19645-12unouz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=548&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/109179/original/image-20160125-19645-12unouz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=548&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Eating breakfast might give you more energy.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/cat.mhtml?lang=en&language=en&ref_site=photo&search_source=search_form&version=llv1&anyorall=all&safesearch=1&use_local_boost=1&autocomplete_id=&searchterm=cycling%20to%20work&show_color_wheel=1&orient=&commercial_ok=&media_type=images&search_cat=&searchtermx=&photographer_name=&people_gender=&people_age=&people_ethnicity=&people_number=&color=&page=1&inline=31565926">www.shutterstock.com</a></span>
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<h2>Does skipping breakfast make you gain weight?</h2>
<p>Skipping breakfast is <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16129078">associated with greater weight</a> and increased fatness over time. But this doesn’t necessarily mean that skipping breakfast causes the weight gain. It could be that eating breakfast is simply a marker of a healthy lifestyle and, in itself, doesn’t protect against obesity. </p>
<p>Several randomised trials (where people are randomly assigned to a certain behaviour, such as eating breakfast or skipping breakfast) have <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24898236">not found any evidence</a> to suggest that skipping breakfast causes weight gain. Despite the association between skipping breakfast and weight gain, experiments specifically designed to try and establish cause and effect haven’t provided evidence that skipping breakfast causes you to put on weight. </p>
<h2>Thinking beyond weight</h2>
<p>Having covered the common perceptions relating to breakfast and weight, it’s important to recognise that there are other dimensions to the debate on breakfast:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>The term “breakfast” covers a vast array of foods from sugary cereals to fry ups. Research examining how different breakfast types affect the body is still ongoing. </p></li>
<li><p>It’s possible that consuming breakfast (depending on the type) may make you <a href="http://jn.nutrition.org/content/143/1/86.full">more likely to consume recommended amounts</a> of certain nutrients. </p></li>
<li><p>There is evidence that eating breakfast can improve <a href="http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=10066637&fileId=S0029665115004243">endurance exercise performance</a>. </p></li>
<li><p>Eating breakfast might help the body <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15699226">regulate blood glucose</a> concentrations. Skipping breakfast has been shown to increase postprandial hyperglycemia (high blood sugar following a meal) <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26220945">in people with type 2 diabetes</a>. </p></li>
</ul>
<h2>So, should you eat breakfast?</h2>
<p>The prevailing public wisdom suggests that, yes, you should eat breakfast. But the current state of scientific evidence means that, unfortunately, the simple answer is: I don’t know. It depends. </p>
<p>Whether you are a religious breakfast consumer or a staunch skipper, keep in mind that both sides might have some merit and the answer is probably not as simple as you’ve been led to believe. </p>
<hr>
<p><em>More on evidence-based articles about diets:</em></p>
<ul>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/do-you-get-diabetes-from-eating-too-much-sugar-95833?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=Diet">Do you get diabetes from eating too much sugar?</a></em></p></li>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/low-carb-paleo-or-fasting-which-diet-is-best-89685?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=Diet">Low carb, Paleo or fasting – which diet is best?</a></em></p></li>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/does-eating-at-night-make-you-fat-96804?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=Diet">Does eating at night make you fat?</a></em></p></li>
</ul>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301912/original/file-20191115-66957-gxdqkd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301912/original/file-20191115-66957-gxdqkd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301912/original/file-20191115-66957-gxdqkd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301912/original/file-20191115-66957-gxdqkd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301912/original/file-20191115-66957-gxdqkd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=176&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301912/original/file-20191115-66957-gxdqkd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=176&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301912/original/file-20191115-66957-gxdqkd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=176&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/newsletters/the-daily-newsletter-2?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=GeneralBannerA53129">Click here to subscribe to our newsletter and stay healthy with guidance you can trust.</a></em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/53129/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>James Betts has provided research consultancy for GlaxoSmithKline, Lucozade Ribena Suntory, Kellogg & PepsiCo. He has received research funding from GlaxoSmithKline, the Saudi Arabian Ministry of Higher Education, the Economic and Social Sciences Research Council (ESRC) and the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Enhad Chowdhury does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Received wisdom says you should eat breakfast like a king, but is this advice supported by scientific evidence?Enhad Chowdhury, Postdoctoral Research Associate, University of BathJames Betts, Senior Lecturer in Nutrition, Metabolism and Statistics, University of BathLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/508632015-11-19T15:05:16Z2015-11-19T15:05:16ZBreakfast actually boosts children’s school grades, our new study suggests<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/102373/original/image-20151118-14214-pi2kzu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">What you eat matters. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Oksana Kuzmina/www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Eating breakfast has <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-happens-when-kids-dont-eat-breakfast-33311">long been believed</a> to benefit children’s education, leading to the widespread adoption of breakfast clubs throughout the UK, particularly in poorer areas. Yet in most cases, studies have tended to <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21439306?dopt=Abstract">link eating breakfast</a> to better cognitive performance, such as children’s concentration and <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14637332?dopt=Abstract">memory</a>, rather than directly to educational outcomes. </p>
<p>Our <a href="http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayFulltext?type=6&fid=9976459&jid=PHN&volumeId=-1&issueId=-1&aid=9976458&bodyId=&membershipNumber=&societyETOCSession=&fulltextType=RA&fileId=S1368980015002669#ack1">new longitudinal study</a> has now found that eating breakfast is associated with educational outcomes at school. </p>
<p>We conducted secondary analysis of data from 5,000 nine to 11-year-olds from more than 100 primary schools in Wales. These data were collected as part of a randomised trial of the Welsh government’s <a href="http://gov.wales/topics/educationandskills/schoolshome/foodanddrink/breakfast/?lang=en">Primary School Free Breakfast Initiative</a>.</p>
<p>Pupils were asked to list all the food and drink they had consumed over a period of just over 24 hours (including two breakfasts), noting what they consumed at specific times throughout the previous day and for breakfast on the day of reporting. </p>
<p>The data was subsequently linked to pupils’ educational outcomes through the results of Key Stage 2 teacher assessments at the end of primary school – six to 18 months later.</p>
<h2>What kids eat matters</h2>
<p>Our results demonstrate that eating breakfast is associated with substantially increased odds of achieving higher scores in teacher assessments – classified as an average grade of four or more across English, Maths and Science. This was after adjusting for socioeconomic differences between those children who ate breakfast and those who didn’t.</p>
<p>Whether pupils ate breakfast, and the quality of what they ate, were consistently associated with improved educational outcomes. A “healthy breakfast” score comprised of the number of items from four categories - fruit, dairy, cereal and bread items. Eating unhealthy items such as sweets and crisps for breakfast, which was reported by one in five children, was not associated with better school results later on. </p>
<p>These findings provide strong evidence that aspects of pupils’ diets are linked to their educational outcomes and demonstrates the synergy between health and education. In the current political climate and amid <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/politics/2015/jun/30/school-budget-cuts-undermining-pupil-premium">tightening school budgets</a>, it is key to consider the potential knock-on effects that any disinvestment in areas such as school nutrition may have on both the health and educational outcomes of school children.</p>
<h2>Changing school environments</h2>
<p>There is growing evidence that school environments can directly improve, or harm, health outcomes for young people, and breakfast clubs are one example of changing a school’s environment to promote health. For them to be an effective means of improving educational outcomes largely depends on the extent to which they are effective in reaching those young people who wouldn’t have eaten breakfast, or would have eaten poorer quality breakfasts, at home. But where schools are able to effectively reach these pupils, there is now very good reason to believe that they will reap educational rewards.</p>
<p>Yet while the widespread adoption of breakfast clubs has been driven by their perceived benefits for education, focusing on improving young people’s health can often be seen as conflicting with schools’ core business to achieve good educational outcomes. Diverting time and resources toward health improvement is often seen as taking time and resources away from this primary task. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/102385/original/image-20151118-14183-1n1htqv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/102385/original/image-20151118-14183-1n1htqv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/102385/original/image-20151118-14183-1n1htqv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/102385/original/image-20151118-14183-1n1htqv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/102385/original/image-20151118-14183-1n1htqv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/102385/original/image-20151118-14183-1n1htqv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/102385/original/image-20151118-14183-1n1htqv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Making sure everybody gets breakfast.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Monkey Business Images/www.shutterstock.com</span></span>
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<p>Recent research and policy debates in the UK have begun to emphasise the need to understand how health and education may come to be viewed as complementary rather than competing agendas. For example, Public Health England has produced <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/370686/HT_briefing_layoutvFINALvii.pdf">a briefing</a> for school staff highlighting the reciprocal relationship between pupil health and wellbeing and attainment. Recent education reviews <a href="http://dera.ioe.ac.uk/22165/2/150225-successful-futures-en_Redacted.pdf">in Wales</a> and Scotland have also highlighted physical and mental health and wellbeing as a priority. </p>
<p>Research now needs to turn to understanding what other areas might serve as focal points for efforts to promote health and educational outcomes simultaneously. There is, for example, <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-running-around-more-can-help-children-do-well-at-school-33107">growing evidence</a> of associations between physical activity and educational outcomes. We need to continue to build this evidence base and effectively communicate it to schools to demonstrate that improving health and education are complementary, and not competing priorities.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/50863/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hannah Littlecott receives PhD studentship funding from the Medical Research Council and Cardiff University. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Graham Moore receives funding from the Medical Research Council, and has previously been funded by grants from the Welsh Government. </span></em></p>Eating breakfast is associated with higher grades in English, maths and science.Hannah Littlecott, PhD Candidate, School of Social Sciences, Cardiff UniversityGraham Moore, Research Fellow, Cardiff UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/317312015-06-29T04:46:59Z2015-06-29T04:46:59ZHealth Check: is breakfast really the most important meal of the day?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/86654/original/image-20150629-1386-10g94xy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Eating three meals a day (rather than two) makes it easier to meet the body’s needs for many nutrients.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/jaredzimmerman/7332744010/">Jared Zimmerman/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Personally, I need breakfast. Almost every morning, I wake up early feeling hungry, and it’s only once I banish my morning hunger that I’m ready to fire. By mid-morning, I take a break and enjoy a snack. </p>
<p>I’ve used a personal anecdote because it’s likely that eating breakfast – or skipping it – may simply reflect a personal preference for timing food intake. Not everyone enjoys eating first thing in the morning. But your first choice of foods may contribute to an overall healthy diet.</p>
<p>An important note of caution first: any study of breakfast’s benefits is fraught with difficulty because breakfast studies are often funded by the makers of ready-to-eat breakfast cereals. That doesn’t necessarily make their findings invalid, but it means we need to look carefully at how the studies are constructed and the way their findings may have been interpreted.</p>
<h2>Nutritional benefits</h2>
<p>It’s logical to assume that eating three meals a day (rather than two) makes it easier to meet the body’s needs for many nutrients. But such assumptions depend on what you include in each meal and whether particular nutrients likely to be consumed at breakfast are marginal in your diet in the first instance.</p>
<p>Many ready-to-eat breakfast cereals emphasise their content of added vitamins (usually thiamin, riboflavin, or niacin), even though these are not commonly deficient in diets of people living in developed countries. So studies showing higher intakes of these vitamins in people who consume these products (generally funded by the makers of cereals) are meaningless. Especially since higher vitamin intake merely means any excess is excreted.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/86655/original/image-20150629-1438-191rlw0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/86655/original/image-20150629-1438-191rlw0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/86655/original/image-20150629-1438-191rlw0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/86655/original/image-20150629-1438-191rlw0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/86655/original/image-20150629-1438-191rlw0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=460&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/86655/original/image-20150629-1438-191rlw0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=460&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/86655/original/image-20150629-1438-191rlw0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=460&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Many ready-to-eat breakfast cereals emphasise their content of added vitamins.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/jmdavies/13653266275/">Jamie Davies/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
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<p>Choosing breakfast foods that add dietary fibre is more likely to be useful, since fibre intakes are often below levels recommended for good health. And some breakfast cereals offer good value in the quantity and type of dietary fibre they contain. </p>
<p>Oats, for example, have particularly valuable forms of soluble fibre, and since they are unlikely to be consumed other than as breakfast porridge or muesli, these foods become worthwhile choices. Oats – and other high-fibre choices – are also satisfying, <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24024772">increasing feelings of fullness and reducing hunger</a>, especially when compared with ready-to-eat cereals.</p>
<p>For teenage girls and many older people, <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25403942">calcium is another marginal nutrient</a>. Yoghurt and cheese are good sources of this mineral, as are milk and some calcium-enriched drinks. So milk with breakfast cereals could be beneficial. </p>
<p>In the United States, <a href="http://www.ars.usda.gov/SP2UserFiles/Place/80400530/pdf/DBrief/3_milk_consumption_0506.pdf">milk on breakfast cereal contributes</a> 28% of milk intake for those over 50 years of age and 22% to 26% of the milk consumed by younger adults. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23399659">A similar proportion of milk</a> consumed by children and teenagers is also added to breakfast cereals.</p>
<p>But the most common nutritional problems in developed countries are related to excesses – too many kilojoules for sedentary people and high intakes of salt, sugars and certain fats. And many popular breakfast items are unlikely to help with reducing these excesses. This includes many children’s breakfast cereals, which may be one third (or more) sugar. Pastries or banana cake (aka banana bread) are even worse because they feature sugar and other refined carbohydrates as well as saturated fat.</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/86657/original/image-20150629-1433-da462g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/86657/original/image-20150629-1433-da462g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=290&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/86657/original/image-20150629-1433-da462g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=290&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/86657/original/image-20150629-1433-da462g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=290&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/86657/original/image-20150629-1433-da462g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=364&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/86657/original/image-20150629-1433-da462g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=364&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/86657/original/image-20150629-1433-da462g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=364&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Pastries are a less-than-ideal breakfast choice.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/michaelandannabel/14718967135/">Mike and Annabel Beales/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
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<p>There <a href="http://journals.cambridge.org/download.php?file=%2FNRR%2FS0954422414000262a.pdf&code=4cfe2a45f47452461339879b90c07d0c">may be problems in defining breakfast</a>, but there’s ample evidence that eating a healthy breakfast has overall nutritional benefits, especially when compared with skipping breakfast. </p>
<p>Some of the relevant studies include <a href="http://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1052&context=hbspapers">this one from Australia</a> (its author previously worked with <a href="http://www.kelloggs.com.au/en_AU/home.html">Kellogg</a> Australia); <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21041816/">this one from the United States</a> in children, and <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25458992">these two</a> in <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16390666">adults</a>; this <a href="http://jn.nutrition.org/content/143/1/86.full.pdf">one from Canada</a> (authors supported by Kellogg Canada); <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17362538">this one from Belgium</a>; this <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4460061/">one from Korea</a>, where benefits have been shown for the traditional breakfast of rice or noodles with side dishes featuring vegetables, eggs, meat or beans; and <a href="http://apjcn.nhri.org.tw/server/APJCN/22/4/583.pdf">this one from Japan</a> (at least for nutrients relevant to bone density studied).</p>
<h2>Long-term health effects</h2>
<p>More reliable longitudinal studies also show health benefits for regular breakfast eaters. The <a href="http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/36/10/3100.full.pdf+html">Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults (CARDIA) study</a>, for instance, checked almost 3,600 participants over an 18-year period and found breakfast eaters were less likely to be obese (especially around the abdomen), or to have metabolic syndrome, high blood pressure or type 2 diabetes.</p>
<p><a href="http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/92/6/1316.long">An Australian study</a> did a 20-year follow-up of a large group of children first surveyed when they were between nine and 15 years old and found those who skipped breakfast (defined as not eating between 6am and 9am) as children had a larger waist circumference, higher fasting insulin and higher total and LDL cholesterol levels – all risk factors for cardiovascular health – as adults.</p>
<p>Many studies show a higher incidence of excess weight in those who skip breakfast. Space precludes listing the many results for this aspect of breakfast, but they are well summarised (with references) <a href="http://epublications.uef.fi/pub/urn_isbn_978-952-61-1223-7/urn_isbn_978-952-61-1223-7.pdf">in this comprehensive Finnish report</a> that notes a relationship between regular breakfast consumption and lower Body Mass Index (BMI) in Western, Asian and Pacific regions. It also notes a few studies that have failed to find any association.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/86656/original/image-20150629-1396-f4g2bu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/86656/original/image-20150629-1396-f4g2bu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/86656/original/image-20150629-1396-f4g2bu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/86656/original/image-20150629-1396-f4g2bu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/86656/original/image-20150629-1396-f4g2bu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/86656/original/image-20150629-1396-f4g2bu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/86656/original/image-20150629-1396-f4g2bu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Traditional Japanese breakfasts have been shown to be good for health.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/toyohara/4040436726/">toyohara/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
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<p>As with all studies in human nutrition and weight, there are many confounding factors. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3984843/">Some studies</a>, for example, show breakfast eaters have higher levels of physical activity or spend less time watching television. The combination of skipping breakfast and late night eating, but neither on its own, may increase the risk of metabolic syndrome.</p>
<p>The <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11836452">US National Weight Control Registry</a> reports eating breakfast is a characteristic common to successful weight-loss maintainers. Almost 80% of the 2,959 people on the register who have lost an average of 32 kilograms and kept it off for six years eat breakfast every day. </p>
<p>Studies show children who have eaten breakfast have better concentration, greater academic performance and more positive learning outcomes as well as fewer behavioural and emotional problems. <a href="http://frac.org/wp-content/uploads/2009/09/breakfastforlearning.pdf">Here’s a paper</a> with a list of 63 references backing these claims.</p>
<p>As I noted at the beginning of this article, personal preferences and habits vary – and are probably very relevant here. Skipping breakfast and satisfying yourself later with junk foods will lead to poor results. But it’s possible to compensate for a missed breakfast with a nutrient-rich lunch and dinner.</p>
<p>For most people, it makes sense for breakfast to contribute to a health balanced diet without increasing intake of saturated fat, added sugars or salt. Practical choices that fit these criteria include wholegrain breads, grains or cereals (with minimal added sugar), fruit, milk, yoghurt or cheese, vegetables (perhaps tomatoes, spinach or mushrooms), and eggs, legumes, nuts or seeds.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/31731/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rosemary Stanton does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>We’re told to breakfast like kings but is the first meal of the day really one for champions, or chumps who’ve been taken in by the marketing of ready-to-eat cereal manufacturers?Rosemary Stanton, Nutritionist & Visiting Fellow, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.