tag:theconversation.com,2011:/au/topics/broken-hill-12624/articlesBroken Hill – The Conversation2021-07-14T04:20:41Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1635782021-07-14T04:20:41Z2021-07-14T04:20:41Z5 rocks any great Australian rock collection should have, and where to find them<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/411135/original/file-20210714-25-17z85xl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=5%2C11%2C3928%2C2607&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Road tripping with a geologist is a little different. While you’re probably reading road signs and dodging roadkill, we’re reading road cuttings and deciphering the history of the area over the previous millions — or even billions — of years. </p>
<p>Geology has shaped the Australian landscape. In Victoria where I live, for example, the western plains are pockmarked by <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08120099.2013.806954">Australia’s youngest volcanoes</a>, while the east of the state has been <a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.earth.28.1.47">pushed up</a> to form the mountains of the Great Dividing Range. </p>
<p>Along the southern margin of the state are fossilised braided rivers, relics of when <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.1440-0952.1999.00757.x">Australia drifted away from Antarctica</a>. Evidence of this event extends into Tasmania, where dolerite, <a href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/156738663.pdf">a rock that signifies this rift</a>, looms in enormous columns over Hobart from Mount Wellington.</p>
<p>This probably won’t surprise anyone who knows me, but I have rocks peppered around my house that I’ve collected on my travels. Every time I look at them, I not only think about how the rocks were formed, I’m also reminded of the trip when I collected them.</p>
<p>With international and even state borders set to remain closed for a while longer, this is the perfect time to take a great Australian road trip, become a rock detective, and build up your rock collection while you’re at it. </p>
<p>To help you get started, I’ve listed five rocks any great Australian rock collection should have.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/411149/original/file-20210714-19-12ucjmr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Green, volcanic crater" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/411149/original/file-20210714-19-12ucjmr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/411149/original/file-20210714-19-12ucjmr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=339&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411149/original/file-20210714-19-12ucjmr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=339&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411149/original/file-20210714-19-12ucjmr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=339&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411149/original/file-20210714-19-12ucjmr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411149/original/file-20210714-19-12ucjmr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411149/original/file-20210714-19-12ucjmr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">The crater of an erupted volcano near Mount Gambier in Victoria.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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<h2>1. Mantle xenoliths</h2>
<p><em>Western Victoria</em></p>
<p>The youngest rocks in Australia are those that erupted out of Australia’s <a href="https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/41319502#page/12/mode/1up">youngest volcano</a> in Mount Gambier, South Australia, 4,000 to 8,000 years ago. That volcano is the culmination of an enormous field of volcanoes that span central and western Victoria.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/photos-from-the-field-the-stunning-crystals-revealing-deep-secrets-about-australian-volcanoes-161176">Photos from the field: the stunning crystals revealing deep secrets about Australian volcanoes</a>
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<p>In western Victoria, the volcanoes were formed from magma that ascended from the Earth’s mantle — the layer between the Earth’s core and crust. While the magma was rising, it tore off chunks of the surrounding mantle rock and transported it to the surface. We can find these chunks of the mantle — or <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012821X97000587?via%3Dihub">mantle xenoliths</a> (xeno = foreign, lith = rock) — in cooled lava today in western Victoria. </p>
<p>At first, these rocks look like any other piece of black or brown basalt, but then you turn them over or crack them open and there’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/photos-from-the-field-the-stunning-crystals-revealing-deep-secrets-about-australian-volcanoes-161176">a blob of bright green rock</a> staring back at you. The mantle rock inside is comprised mainly of olivine, which is a green mineral, and some black/brown pyroxene.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/411142/original/file-20210714-25-1olsmws.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Green rock blob encased in black rock" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/411142/original/file-20210714-25-1olsmws.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/411142/original/file-20210714-25-1olsmws.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411142/original/file-20210714-25-1olsmws.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411142/original/file-20210714-25-1olsmws.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411142/original/file-20210714-25-1olsmws.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411142/original/file-20210714-25-1olsmws.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411142/original/file-20210714-25-1olsmws.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Green mantle xenolith (xeno = foreign, lith = rock) encased in cooled basaltic lava from Mount Shadwell, Victoria.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Dr Melanie Finch</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
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<p>Mantle xenoliths are a great place to start your rock collection because not only will they be your very own piece of Earth’s mantle, but you can find them yourself through a bit of fossicking around some of the volcanoes in western Victoria.</p>
<h2>2. Meteorites</h2>
<p><em>The Nullarbor Desert, South Australia and Western Australia</em></p>
<p>The Nullarbor is a desert plain region which straddles the border of South Australia and Western Australia. </p>
<p>The dry environment is ideal for preserving meteorites that fall to Earth, and the light colour of the limestone country rock and lack of vegetation means the black and brown meteorites are easier to see.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/411144/original/file-20210714-21-i1bpv1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/411144/original/file-20210714-21-i1bpv1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/411144/original/file-20210714-21-i1bpv1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411144/original/file-20210714-21-i1bpv1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411144/original/file-20210714-21-i1bpv1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411144/original/file-20210714-21-i1bpv1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411144/original/file-20210714-21-i1bpv1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411144/original/file-20210714-21-i1bpv1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">A black meteorite standing out against the white limestone of the Nullarbor Plain.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Professor Andy Tomkins</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
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<p>Even if you don’t have a great eye for spotting meteorites hiding in plain sight, you can do as the geologists do and use a magnet on a stick to help you. Most meteorites are iron-rich, so wandering around with a magnet hovering over the surface is a good way to pick them up. </p>
<p>Thousands of meteorites have been found in the Nullarbor, <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1945-5100.2010.01289.x">some up to 40,000 years old</a>.</p>
<h2>3. Metamorphic rocks</h2>
<p><em>Broken Hill, New South Wales</em></p>
<p>You’ve probably heard of Broken Hill because of the large silver, lead and zinc mine there. But the geological conditions that created the ore deposit around <a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article/32/7/589/29483/Subseafloor-origin-for-Broken-Hill-Pb-Zn-Ag">1.7 billion years ago</a> also made some beautiful rocks.</p>
<p>A visit to Broken Hill’s <a href="https://www.brokenhill.nsw.gov.au/Facilities/Albert-Kersten-Mining-and-Minerals-Museum">Albert Kersten Mining and Minerals Museum</a> will demonstrate the vast array of unusual minerals found in the region, some of them described for the first time at this locality. </p>
<p>If you’re seeking your own chunk of Broken Hill’s geological history, Round Hill is the place for you. Just a short way out of the town centre, you’ll find beautiful red garnets surrounded by patches of white minerals (quartz and feldspar). </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/411143/original/file-20210714-23-22ws9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A geologist holding a rock with various colours" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/411143/original/file-20210714-23-22ws9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/411143/original/file-20210714-23-22ws9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411143/original/file-20210714-23-22ws9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411143/original/file-20210714-23-22ws9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411143/original/file-20210714-23-22ws9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=532&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411143/original/file-20210714-23-22ws9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=532&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411143/original/file-20210714-23-22ws9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=532&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">A large garnet from the Broken Hill region.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Professor Andy Tomkins</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
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<p>These rocks started out as sand and mud, and <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1525-1314.2005.00608.x">record the history</a> of being buried and heated to over 700°C deep below the Earth’s surface. This process caused the rock to start melting and created the striking stripey, garnet-rich rocks we find there today.</p>
<h2>4. Banded iron formation</h2>
<p><em>Western Australia</em></p>
<p>Banded iron formation is a layered sedimentary rock mainly comprised of alternating bands of chert (a sedimentary rock made of quartz) that’s often red in colour and silver to black iron oxide. It is the main host of iron ore, and can be found in several regions in Western Australia.</p>
<p>The Hamersley Province in the northwestern part of Western Australia has the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301926815003629">thickest and most extensive</a> banded iron formations in the world. They are about <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1400-0952.2004.01082.x?casa_token=QbHbov_0we0AAAAA:brBYBRIolr2lzbYRHh1CxGZ8zJDTdP02YNjrkq-wXVUfzNj5SK5c9cmcWlmmvOi2WUYd4biGz6ao">2.45 to 2.78 billion years old</a>.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/411141/original/file-20210714-23-1kx5iq1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Red and brown bands along a rock face" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/411141/original/file-20210714-23-1kx5iq1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/411141/original/file-20210714-23-1kx5iq1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411141/original/file-20210714-23-1kx5iq1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411141/original/file-20210714-23-1kx5iq1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411141/original/file-20210714-23-1kx5iq1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411141/original/file-20210714-23-1kx5iq1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411141/original/file-20210714-23-1kx5iq1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Banded iron formation at Forescue Falls, WA.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/graeme/12116315164/in/photolist-7CDYgj-2j6Va2M-2jdGHSf-oEf3Dz-2jdKu3P-2jdKu2m-2dN6GRq-2dN6GBh-oUHcDh-9q1zoW-oEg6Xp-oWKg3z-9q1Ajo-h9Ze7W-oWtFjP-oEfWy6-jsFhnA-mgHSqk-gTUFeN-oWuEdP-zAzaNc-7AevFd-7AazUx-7Ae6uE-7AedRo-7Ae3iw-7AadWP-7Aahr4-7Ae5Qh-7Aai96-7Ae2ps-7AaXwr-2jWei3g-2jW9Sxi-uRHgZW">Graeme Churchard/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
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<p>Geologists believe they <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.1365-3091.2003.00594.x">formed on a continental shelf</a>, where thick continental crust extends out into the ocean and then drops away to oceanic crust.</p>
<p>Banded iron formation is exciting because it no longer forms on Earth today, meaning it records an ancient process that we no longer see happening. </p>
<p>It is thought to have formed in ancient oceans, which were starting to increase in oxygen content at the time. It records the chemical input of these oceans, as well as sediments from the continent and volcanoes on the ocean floor.</p>
<h2>5. Dinosaur fossils</h2>
<p><em>Central and western Queensland</em></p>
<p>Oh to have been in Queensland 100 million years ago! Judging by the fossils found in parts of the state, it would have been a cornucopia of dinosaur activity.</p>
<p>From an unlikely duo of <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0006190">dinosaurs in a 98-million-year-old billabong</a> in Winton, to <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02724634.2012.694591">fossilised evidence of a dinosaur herd</a> at Lark Quarry, Queensland is the place to go to peer back in time to the Mesozoic Era between 252 and 66 million years ago. </p>
<p>And if you’re really lucky, you might even have dinosaur bones on your property, like <a href="https://peerj.com/articles/11317/">the huge, long-necked sauropod</a> discovered just this year on a Queensland cattle farm.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/411146/original/file-20210714-27-uptilx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An outback museum with a dinosaur statue in front" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/411146/original/file-20210714-27-uptilx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/411146/original/file-20210714-27-uptilx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411146/original/file-20210714-27-uptilx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411146/original/file-20210714-27-uptilx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411146/original/file-20210714-27-uptilx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411146/original/file-20210714-27-uptilx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411146/original/file-20210714-27-uptilx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">The Australian Age of Dinosaurs Museum in Winton, Queensland, is home to the largest collection of Australian dinosaur fossils. (Note: not a real dinosaur.)</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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<p>When building your Australian rock collection, remember to check first if <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-hunt-fossils-responsibly-5-tips-from-a-professional-palaeontologist-156861">fossicking is allowed in the area</a>. When you find an interesting rock, your state or territory geological survey might be able to help with identifying it. </p>
<p>Happy hunting!</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-hunt-fossils-responsibly-5-tips-from-a-professional-palaeontologist-156861">How to hunt fossils responsibly: 5 tips from a professional palaeontologist</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/163578/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Emily Finch has previously received funding from an Australian Postgraduate Award and a Society of Economic Geologists Graduate Student Fellowship. </span></em></p>When borders reopen, take an Aussie road trip and explore the continent’s unique geology, from meteorites in the Nullarbor Plain to rock formations that are billions of years old.Emily Finch, Beamline Scientist at ANSTO, and Research Affiliate, Monash UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/527522016-01-11T19:21:14Z2016-01-11T19:21:14ZPregnant women and parents misled about dangers of living with lead pollution<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/107473/original/image-20160107-14922-1kcvcsx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Pregnant women in three Australian cities are not told that lead exposure during pregnancy is linked to miscarriage and early delivery.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/luca_montanari/5359952368/in/photolist-9aDa6S-9iTDci-uo8KM-n5aP1-83r6uD-dv947e-JGaEV-4CNLPu-bGhdin-p1vWq-7Sq3rb-2Jahu-6tdonT-6LUnuU-RmrUe-2awR9t-4qBEBq-5dYQxS-4obmhs-5ZFH3v-pnQQCT-5kqhjC-uo8Ta-62ngiQ-5WRED1-w1Z8cL-2dK3NE-bnFCji-4XEj55-2P4cSm-9hx7Qo-6tpfh8-4erPVu-3fJbgC-4enQZe-5mX5qM-25pEQF-6L1zLU-5TtEe7-9L72Bq-dBMuBC-px5pXo-dwxNHm-sgtVRL-6s5e9z-67sQwx-5nYsUe-6z42e6-4erQ2h-b7a2S6">Flickr/Luca Montanari</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Parents in three Australian states are being given misleading information about the dangers of lead exposure for babies and small children – including failing to warn pregnant women about the risks of miscarriage.</p>
<p>Lead is particularly harmful to unborn babies and young children. As the <a href="http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs379/en/">World Health Organization</a> warns, “there is no known level of lead exposure that is considered safe”. Childhood lead exposure is estimated to contribute to about 600,000 new cases of children developing intellectual disabilities every year.</p>
<p>Yet <a href="http://ehjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12940-015-0085-9">our research</a>, published in the international journal <a href="http://www.ehjournal.net/">Environmental Health</a>, found that official online educational materials aimed at people in Broken Hill in New South Wales, Mount Isa in Queensland and Port Pirie in South Australia understate the health risks of lead for fetuses, babies and children.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/107353/original/image-20160106-13295-rsie7b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/107353/original/image-20160106-13295-rsie7b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/107353/original/image-20160106-13295-rsie7b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/107353/original/image-20160106-13295-rsie7b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/107353/original/image-20160106-13295-rsie7b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/107353/original/image-20160106-13295-rsie7b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/107353/original/image-20160106-13295-rsie7b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/107353/original/image-20160106-13295-rsie7b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Mount Isa in north-west Queensland.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/robandstephanielevy/3537194475/in/photolist-fQiinw-Curwec-974Qcp-e6FvdR-uRHgZW-9px957-8P93Na-8P8LSZ-4jU9rU-dMN9if-6oz3FD-7NznNH-wbhZwo-av9Nxu-m2sCPB-71gtDk-7NgS6c-5PXfZu-7pnLNC-5PWHfz-5QEFTh">Rob and Stephanie Levy/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>All three cities are home to an active lead mine or smelter.</p>
<p>With slogans such as <a href="http://www.leadnsw.com.au/">“Lead, it’s in our hands”</a> and <a href="http://www.livingwithlead.com.au/">“Living safely with lead”</a>, the cities’ health education programs all promote the idea that parents can sufficiently protect their children from lead exposure through individual actions, such hand washing, household cleaning, and taking precautions in the garden. </p>
<p>Yet there is no evidence to show that’s true. In 2014, a group of international experts <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD006047.pub4/abstract">reviewed 14 studies involving 2656 children</a>. They found that “educational and dust control interventions are not effective in reducing blood lead levels of young children”. They also concluded that there was “insufficient evidence” to show that reducing children’s exposure to contaminated soil would reduce blood lead levels.</p>
<p>So what exactly are parents in Broken Hill, Mount Isa and Port Pirie being told? And what risks are pregnant women and families in the United States being clearly warned about that parents in Australia are not?</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/107348/original/image-20160106-13263-8xq99e.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/107348/original/image-20160106-13263-8xq99e.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/107348/original/image-20160106-13263-8xq99e.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=383&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/107348/original/image-20160106-13263-8xq99e.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=383&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/107348/original/image-20160106-13263-8xq99e.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=383&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/107348/original/image-20160106-13263-8xq99e.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=481&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/107348/original/image-20160106-13263-8xq99e.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=481&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/107348/original/image-20160106-13263-8xq99e.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=481&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Clowning around? A blog post about teaching Port Pirie kids about ‘safe practises around lead’, despite health experts warning that ‘there is no known level of lead exposure that is considered safe’.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://tenforthemportpirie.blogspot.com.au/">tenforthemportpirie.blogspot.com.au, accessed 6 January 2016</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Why do American parents get clearer warnings than Australians?</h2>
<p>Emissions from lead mining and smelting activities in Broken Hill, Mount Isa and Port Pirie have been linked to higher levels of lead in local children’s blood. </p>
<p>These blood lead levels exceed the National Health and Medical Research Council’s (NHMRC) new public health intervention level of 5 micrograms per decilitre in about <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-05-20/high-blood-lead-levels-confirmed-in-half-of-broken-hill-children/6483398">half of all children in Broken Hill</a> and <a href="https://www.sahealth.sa.gov.au/wps/wcm/connect/fba2f5004987061fa943a94564a15cee/Port+Pirie+Blood+Lead+Levels+Analysis+of+blood+lead+levels+for+the+first....pdf?MOD=AJPERES&CACHEID=fba2f5004987061fa943a94564a15cee">Port Pirie</a>, as <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-verdicts-in-we-must-better-protect-kids-from-toxic-lead-exposure-41969">explained in The Conversation</a> last year. </p>
<p>Lead exposure puts children at risk of significant health effects including developmental, learning and behavioural problems. For example, a <a href="https://theconversation.com/australian-children-exposed-to-toxic-mining-metals-do-worse-at-school-48343">recent study</a> found that children living closest to the Broken Hill mine had lower school test scores and were more likely to be diagnosed with developmental disabilities.</p>
<p>All three cities have online lead health education programs. In Broken Hill, the <a href="http://www.leadnsw.com.au/">www.leadnsw.com.au</a> program was developed by a local health clinic and the NSW government. Mount Isa’s website <a href="http://www.livingwithlead.com.au/">www.livingwithlead.com.au</a> involves the Queensland government, Mount Isa Mines, and the local council.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/107347/original/image-20160106-13282-1wyazg8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/107347/original/image-20160106-13282-1wyazg8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/107347/original/image-20160106-13282-1wyazg8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=364&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/107347/original/image-20160106-13282-1wyazg8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=364&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/107347/original/image-20160106-13282-1wyazg8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=364&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/107347/original/image-20160106-13282-1wyazg8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/107347/original/image-20160106-13282-1wyazg8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/107347/original/image-20160106-13282-1wyazg8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A screenshot from Mount Isa’s Living with Lead homepage, which still uses the slogan ‘Living Safely with Lead’.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.livingwithlead.com.au/">www.livingwithlead.com.au accessed 6 January 2016</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In Port Pirie, the SA government and lead smelter operator Nyrstar have <a href="http://tenforthemportpirie.blogspot.com.au/2014/10/what-is-tlap-targeted-lead-abatement.html">worked together</a> on the Targeted Lead Abatement Program, or <a href="http://www.tlap.com.au/">www.tlap.com.au</a>. (TLAP’s website is currently down, with a message saying the site has “crashed”.)</p>
<p>As part of our new study, we compared those Australian websites with international best practice, published by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (US <a href="http://www.cdc.gov/">CDC</a>). We found important differences between them.</p>
<p>Like the World Health Organization, the <a href="http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/lead/">US CDC plainly states</a>: “No safe blood lead level in children has been identified.”</p>
<p>In contrast, at the time of our analysis, <em>none</em> of the materials from Broken Hill, Mount Isa or Port Pirie made such a clear statement about lead exposure and harm to children.</p>
<p>As our article went through the peer review process, one page of the Mount Isa website “<a href="http://www.livingwithlead.com.au/about-lead/">About Lead</a>” was updated to include a new statement:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>There is no safe level of lead that has been proven not to cause any health problems.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>However, that statement is not repeated on other pages, including the one labelled <a href="http://www.livingwithlead.com.au/mount-isa/mount-isa-children/">Mount Isa Children</a>, which instead begins with advice to “Wash hands regularly”.</p>
<p>The US CDC also warns parents that the “effects of lead exposure cannot be corrected” and that “even low levels of lead in blood affect children.”</p>
<p>At the time of our analysis, only the Broken Hill site contained comparable information on low-level exposure and the fact that lead can cause permanent damage to children.</p>
<h2>Missing warnings for pregnant women and kids at higher risk</h2>
<p>All three of the Australian websites left out important risks of lead exposure during pregnancy.</p>
<p>The US CDC has a page specifically on <a href="http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/lead/tips/pregnant.htm">lead and pregnant women</a>, using blunt language to warn women that lead exposure during pregnancy can “put you at risk for miscarriage” and “cause your baby to be born too early or too small”. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/107480/original/image-20160107-4331-1e1jkl0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/107480/original/image-20160107-4331-1e1jkl0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/107480/original/image-20160107-4331-1e1jkl0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=808&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/107480/original/image-20160107-4331-1e1jkl0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=808&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/107480/original/image-20160107-4331-1e1jkl0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=808&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/107480/original/image-20160107-4331-1e1jkl0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1016&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/107480/original/image-20160107-4331-1e1jkl0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1016&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/107480/original/image-20160107-4331-1e1jkl0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1016&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">From the Broken Hill website, showing when it’s recommended local toddlers get blood tests to check for lead poisoning.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.leadnsw.com.au/#!hygiene/cn8w">Lead NSW</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In contrast, none of the three Australian sites mentioned those crucial risks to babies. (Compare the <a href="http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/lead/tips/pregnant.htm">clear US advice</a> to that given to pregnant women <a href="http://www.leadnsw.com.au/#!starting-a-family/c16ls">in Broken Hill</a> and <a href="http://www.livingwithlead.com.au/mount-isa/mount-isa-residents/">Mount Isa</a>.)</p>
<p>People can often be affected by lead exposure without showing obvious symptoms. Yet only the Broken Hill materials provided parents with a schedule for when they should have their children’s blood tested for lead exposure.</p>
<p>The US CDC also discusses the fact that racial minorities and low-income families may be at higher risk of lead exposure. Only in Broken Hill were racial differences in blood lead levels discussed, even though higher average blood lead levels have been reported in Indigenous children in both Mount Isa and Broken Hill.</p>
<h2>Patchy advice for parents on kids playing outdoors</h2>
<p>Our study also found that incomplete information on the risks of lead in soil, even though soil and dust are major pathways of exposure. Only the Broken Hill materials said that:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>many local yards exceed the national soil lead safety level.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>While the other cities’ websites acknowledged that soil may be contaminated, none of the three contain information on the acceptable Australian standard for lead in gardens (300 milligrams per kilogram) or the percentage of gardens that exceed the standard in each city. They also didn’t tell residents how they could get their soil tested to evaluate their family’s risk. </p>
<p>Because lead contamination is widespread in Broken Hill, Mount Isa and Port Pirie, and the potential for children to be exposed in their homes, gardens, and play areas is very real, the three websites make many recommendations for reducing children’s exposure.</p>
<p>These include intensive interior and exterior cleaning, personal hygiene, gardening, diet and food preparation. But the advice was not consistent across the communities. </p>
<p>For example, in Broken Hill and Mount Isa parents have been advised to let children play in areas with grass or turf cover or to provide a sand pit. But in Port Pirie, no specific advice on children’s play areas was given, except to cover bare soil.</p>
<p>Only in Port Pirie were parents advised to wash outdoor play structures. A recent study, however, found playground washing to be of <a href="https://theconversation.com/toxic-playgrounds-broken-hill-kids-exposed-to-poisonous-dust-32325">limited effectiveness</a> for reducing children’s lead exposure if contamination is ongoing.</p>
<p>Advice on eating homegrown vegetables also varied. In Port Pirie, children and pregnant women are told not to eat “leafy vegetables like lettuce, silverbeet, cabbage, broccoli and cauliflower”. No similar advice was provided in the other communities.</p>
<p>Additionally, some advice on <a href="http://semspub.epa.gov/work/11/175343.pdf">how to reduce exposure</a> to lead that <em>is</em> <a href="http://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/documents/reduc_pb.pdf">supported by research</a> has not being shared with families in all three cities. Two examples include:</p>
<ul>
<li>Door mats to reduce tracked in lead: this recommendation is supported by research but was only provided in Mount Isa.</li>
<li>HEPA filters for vacuuming: even though both South Australia Health and US EPA recommend the use of HEPA filters on vacuums in communities with lead contamination to minimise the spread of lead dust when vacuuming, this advice was not offered in Broken Hill or Mount Isa. In Port Pirie, HEPA filters were only said to be “preferred.”</li>
</ul>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/E6KoMAbz1Bw?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Canadian expert Dr Bruce Lanphear explains how extremely low levels of toxins including lead can affect a child’s brain development.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What needs to happen to make Australian kids safer?</h2>
<p>The health education programs in Broken Hill, Mount Isa and Port Pirie currently place the overwhelming burden on parents to keep lead out of their children’s bodies, even though they are living in communities with <a href="https://theconversation.com/reducing-the-harms-of-toxic-air-in-mining-and-smelting-communities-25999">historical and ongoing contamination</a>.</p>
<p>Lead pollution is not a problem that parents can solve on their own. Reducing or eliminating lead emissions, removing children from the sources of exposure, and cleaning up environmental contamination is critical. </p>
<p>Based on our research, we recommend revising the advice to people in all three of these communities so that it is as clear and comprehensive as what is published by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Parents and pregnant women in Broken Hill, Mount Isa and Port Pirie need to be given <em>all</em> of the evidence-based advice about reducing lead exposure.</p>
<p>Those revisions should be led by the NHMRC, as Australia’s leading expert health body. And that work should be coordinated across the three cities, so that families aren’t given different advice depending on where they live. There should also be rigorous and independent evaluation of these programs to determine if they are effective.</p>
<p>Better lead health education is important. But it is also not a substitute for eliminating lead in children’s homes, play areas and gardens.</p>
<p><em>* Do you have any questions about lead pollution and what advice families should be getting? Leave your questions below and Donna Green will be available for an Author Q&A between 1-2pm AEDT on Tuesday January 12.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/52752/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Parents in three Australian states are being given misleading advice about the dangers of lead to babies and small children – including failing to warn pregnant women about miscarriage risks.Marianne Sullivan, Assistant Professor of Public Health, William Paterson UniversityDonna Green, Senior Lecturer and Researcher at the Climate Change Research Centre (CCRC) & Associate Investigator for the ARC Centre of Excellence for Climate Systems Science, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/323252014-10-15T19:29:09Z2014-10-15T19:29:09ZToxic playgrounds: Broken Hill kids exposed to poisonous dust<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/61799/original/gh6vj8p5-1413351843.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Children are particularly susceptible to the toxic effects of lead because their brains and bodies are still developing.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-183055004/stock-photo-two-little-boys-crawling-on-the-ground-playing-with-toy-cars-at-a-childrens-playground.html?src=zijezWgiQkvuAmYsAr1NLQ-1-53">Viacheslav Nikolaenko/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In the shadows of Broken Hill’s rich mining history lies a legacy of contamination and regulatory failure that will likely outlive any benefits locals derive from mining. </p>
<p>One in five children aged under five in Broken Hill have <a href="http://www.wnswlhd.health.nsw.gov.au/UserFiles/files/FarWest/ANNUAL%20LEAD%20REPORT%202012%20Final.pdf">blood lead levels</a> above the current national goal of ten micrograms per decilitre (μg/dL). And the trend is headed in the wrong direction. </p>
<p>Our research, published today in the journal <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S001393511400320X">Environmental Research</a>, shows children are exposed to contaminants in play areas. Metal-rich dust accumulates continually on play surfaces and is readily picked up on the hands of children as they play. When they touch their mouth, they <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15254477">ingest</a> the metal particles. </p>
<p>To pre-empt claims children are ingesting historical sources of lead, such as leaded gasoline and paint residue, we used lead isotopic analysis to show the most likely source of contamination is from the lead ore body that is still being mined.</p>
<h2>Lead and human health</h2>
<p>Lead is a neurotoxin, a poison that acts on the nervous system; children are particularly susceptible because their brains and bodies are still developing. Elevated blood lead is <a href="http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.med.55.091902.103653">linked to</a> permanent cognitive impairment measured in decreased IQ and has also been <a href="http://www.plosmedicine.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pmed.0050101#pmed-0050101-g002">linked to</a> a greater likelihood to commit crime later in life. </p>
<p>Although the current (under review) national goal for blood lead is 10 μg/dL, there is <a href="https://theconversation.com/time-to-rethink-blood-lead-goals-to-reduce-risk-to-childrens-health-10493">overwhelming evidence</a> showing that damage occurs at levels below 5 μg/dL.</p>
<p>Following significant and successful efforts by Broken Hill’s Lead Health Program, childhood blood levels declined significantly from their peak in the early 1990s. </p>
<p>But recent improvements in screening participation <a href="http://www.wnswlhd.health.nsw.gov.au/UserFiles/files/FarWest/ANNUAL%20LEAD%20REPORT%202012%20Final.pdf">have revealed</a> that the problem is now worse than previously thought. The proportion of children aged 12 months to five years with a blood lead level above 10 μg/dL has risen from 12.6% in 2010 to 21% in 2012. </p>
<p>It is unfortunate for the children of Broken Hill that the successful Lead Health Program no longer exists in its own right and is only a poorly funded component of the Broken Hill Child and Family Health Centre. </p>
<h2>Contaminated playgrounds</h2>
<p>We measured the amount of metal-rich dust that could be picked up on the hands of children at public playgrounds in Broken Hill. We found that, on average, the amount of lead on hands after ten minutes play was 72 times the amount on hands before contact with play equipment.</p>
<p>Although there is no Australian standard specifically for lead on hands, the Western Australian government <a href="http://www.public.health.wa.gov.au/cproot/1946/2/Esperance%20enquiry%20response.pdf">set a goal</a> in 2007, for the clean-up standards in Esperance, that outdoor surfaces accessible to children should not exceed 400 μg/m2. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/61800/original/zpph7hbr-1413351996.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/61800/original/zpph7hbr-1413351996.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/61800/original/zpph7hbr-1413351996.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/61800/original/zpph7hbr-1413351996.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/61800/original/zpph7hbr-1413351996.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/61800/original/zpph7hbr-1413351996.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/61800/original/zpph7hbr-1413351996.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Surfaces are being recontaminated on a daily basis.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-93698497/stock-photo-childrens-playground-swing-with-frost.html?src=zijezWgiQkvuAmYsAr1NLQ-1-23">Pefkos/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Our study found that, after playing at one particular playground, a child’s hand could have the equivalent loading of 60,900 μg/m2 – more than 150 times the goal set in WA and <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0269749113001875">significantly higher</a> than levels recorded in the smelter city of Port Pirie.</p>
<p>As well as playgrounds, dust falling across most of the city and any outdoor surfaces is contributing to the harmful metal residues already present in the soil contaminated from more 130 years of mining activity.</p>
<h2>Lead in soils</h2>
<p>Soils in playgrounds also had elevated lead. The <a href="http://www.comlaw.gov.au/Details/F2013C00288/Html/Volume_2">National Environmental Protection Measure (2013)</a> sets a soil lead standard of 600 mg/kg for recreational spaces. Three of the six playgrounds we tested exceeded this standard and four exceeded the lower residential standard of 300 mg/kg, which may be a more appropriate standard as it also applies to daycare centres. </p>
<p>Of the other metals we analysed (arsenic, cadmium, silver and zinc), no soil samples exceeded the relevant Australian guidelines. However, it is worth noting that Australian standards for soil metal are more liberal than our international counterparts. </p>
<p><a href="oehha.ca.gov/risk/pdf/screenreport010405.pdf">California</a>, <a href="http://st-ts.ccme.ca/">Canada</a>, and the <a href="http://www.epa.gov/region9/superfund/prg/">United States Environmental Protection Agency</a> set soil lead guidelines at 80 mg/kg, 140 mg/kg and 400 mg/kg respectively. <a href="http://www.miljodirektoratet.no/old/klif/publikasjoner/2550/ta2550.pdf">Norwegian soil guidelines</a> specifically limit soil used in children’s playgrounds to 60 mg/kg. Only one playground in Broken Hill had soil below this level.</p>
<h2>Lead dust from mining</h2>
<p>Our data, combined with <a href="http://www.perilya.com.au/health--safety--environment/environment/enviro-reports">data</a> collected by <a href="http://www.cbhresources.com.au/operations/rasp-mine/sustainablity/environment/environmental-monitoring/">mining companies</a> as part of their environmental monitoring, show that surfaces in Broken Hill are recontaminated daily. And they indicate that contemporary mining activities are the most likely consistent source of airborne lead and other metal-rich particles. </p>
<p>Although the bulk of mining today occurs underground, ore is processed at the surface and can generate large amounts of dust. It is unlikely to be a coincidence that the most impacted playground we measured was located at Zinc Lakes, less than 400 metres from an active ore processing facility. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/60700/original/tk3cjxv8-1412298295.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/60700/original/tk3cjxv8-1412298295.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/60700/original/tk3cjxv8-1412298295.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/60700/original/tk3cjxv8-1412298295.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/60700/original/tk3cjxv8-1412298295.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/60700/original/tk3cjxv8-1412298295.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/60700/original/tk3cjxv8-1412298295.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Ore processing as seen from Zinc Lakes playground.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">SOURCE: L. Kristensen</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Importantly, arsenic, cadmium, lead, silver, and zinc levels on hand wipes each correlated significantly with the amounts of the same metals deposited on wiped surfaces for each day, demonstrating a common source for the contamination of hands and dust-collecting surfaces. </p>
<h2>What can be done?</h2>
<p>The high likelihood of recontamination from ongoing lead deposition makes it unlikely that common approaches to containing lead and other soil metal contamination, including topsoil replacement and remediation techniques, would be effective in Broken Hill. </p>
<p>Broken Hill is not alone with this problem either; similar work in the smelting towns of <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23643852">Port Pirie</a> in South Australia and <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23770073">Mount Isa</a> in Queensland <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1875963714000226">has shown</a> that environmental contamination is persistent and pervasive and that effective regulatory controls are often lacking. </p>
<p>Some of early responses to the problem have been positive, with the mining company Perilya putting notifications on their Zinc Lakes playground that users should wash their hands after play. The Council is also following suit with similar signage on their playgrounds. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/60695/original/6db6zgxj-1412297424.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/60695/original/6db6zgxj-1412297424.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/60695/original/6db6zgxj-1412297424.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/60695/original/6db6zgxj-1412297424.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/60695/original/6db6zgxj-1412297424.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/60695/original/6db6zgxj-1412297424.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/60695/original/6db6zgxj-1412297424.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The new signage at Zinc Lakes urges children to wash their hands after play.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">SOURCE: M. Taylor</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In Broken Hill, there is currently no independent monitoring of air pollution. The monitoring that does take place is being carried out by the companies doing the polluting and is restricted, in the main, to their lease or adjacent areas and not in the larger residential environment. This monitoring does not include measurement or regulation of arsenic or cadmium, which are also known to cause significant detrimental health outcomes. </p>
<p>The approaches used to measure air pollution from mining activities in Australia rely on data averaged yearly as a benchmark. As a result, short-term spikes in emissions are <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1875963714000226">not accounted for</a>, potentially downplaying the risks. </p>
<p>The Environmental Protection Authority (EPA) has an important role to play in setting effective limits for pollution and in the monitoring and enforcement of those limits for the benefit of communities in vulnerable locations. </p>
<p>Recently, questions were raised about the NSW EPA’s willingness – <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-08-13/reporting-errors-blamed-for-lead-levels-at-boolaroo-smelter-site/5628786">or ability</a> – to fulfil this role. </p>
<p>We need to explore more flexible monitoring programs, and to regulate and better manage the contamination risk in places such as Broken Hill. This is particularly important for communities that are already acknowledged as being <a href="http://profile.id.com.au/broken-hill/seifa-disadvantage">significantly disadvantaged</a>. </p>
<p>People should not continue to suffer from the lingering impacts of industrial activity in their environments. Residents of mining and smelting towns should be able to live, work and play in the knowledge that their environments are clean and safe, and that effective pollution regulation will keep them that way.</p>
<p>To lower exposures permanently and reduce the cycle of contamination, the New South Wales government needs to make a significant financial commitment to start a new Lead-Free Children’s Health Program. While any such program needs to be independent, it will have to engage with and involve the whole community, the city’s mining companies and government at all levels. </p>
<p><em>UPDATE 13 February: The New South Wales Government <a href="http://www.brokenhill.nsw.gov.au/images/documents/brokenhill/News/Stokes%20Skinner%20Humphries%20med%20rel%20-%20NSW%20Govt%20commits%20more%20than%2013%20million%20to%20reduce%20lead%20levels%20at%20Broken%20Hill.pdf">today announced</a> a five-year $13 million program to address the issue of lead contamination and elevated blood lead levels among children in Broken Hill.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/32325/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mark Patrick Taylor is an elected committee member of the Lead Group (<a href="http://www.lead.org.au">http://www.lead.org.au</a>). The data that was collected for the research discussed in the article received support from Macquarie University′s LEAP program, which is funded by the Federal Government's Higher Education Participation and Partnerships Program.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Louise Kristensen, Marek Rouillon, and Simon Mould do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>In the shadows of Broken Hill’s rich mining history lies a legacy of contamination and regulatory failure that will likely outlive any benefits locals derive from mining. One in five children aged under…Mark Patrick Taylor, Professor of Environmental Science, Macquarie UniversityLouise Kristensen, PhD Candidate, Macquarie UniversityMarek Rouillon, PhD Candidate, Macquarie UniversitySimon Mould, MRes Student in Environmental Science, Macquarie UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/321462014-10-03T05:53:36Z2014-10-03T05:53:36ZHistory repeating: from the Battle of Broken Hill to the sands of Syria<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/60487/original/rh8q775x-1412140892.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Known as White Rocks, this quartz outcrop was the site of a three-hour gun battle in 1915 between police and two Afghans, who had shot and killed picnickers leaving Broken Hill.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Amanda Slater/Flickr</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s another hot Australian New Year’s Day, and 1200 people are aboard a train bound for a picnic when a burst of gunfire shatters the festive atmosphere. Police return fire, killing the attackers – but not before four picnickers are killed and seven more wounded.</p>
<p>This is not a fantastic scenario: for several terrifying hours, this was Broken Hill in outback New South Wales on January 1, 1915.</p>
<p>A century on, religion is still being abused for political purposes by extremists. We have recently heard Islamic State (also known as IS or ISIS) calling on Muslims around the world to attack and “kill a disbelieving American or European … or an Australian or a Canadian or any other disbeliever from the disbelievers”. </p>
<p>Those recent pronouncements have some echoes of the now little-remembered 1915 Battle of Broken Hill. Similarly, the current delays in protecting civilians in Syria and Iraq from the horror unleashed by the IS – particularly the slow response of neighbouring countries like Turkey – mirror the situation in 1915. </p>
<p>Then, as now, the world was acutely aware of the humanitarian catastrophe that was unfolding in those same parts of the world. When unarmed civilians were trapped in the <a href="scholarcommons.usf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1233&context=gsp">Hakkari Mountains or the city of Van</a>, drastic action was required to save lives. Action that was too slow in coming for too many. </p>
<p>The question now is whether we learn from history, or sit back and watch more civilians die.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/60486/original/qz9kq59c-1412140815.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/60486/original/qz9kq59c-1412140815.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/60486/original/qz9kq59c-1412140815.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/60486/original/qz9kq59c-1412140815.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/60486/original/qz9kq59c-1412140815.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/60486/original/qz9kq59c-1412140815.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/60486/original/qz9kq59c-1412140815.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/60486/original/qz9kq59c-1412140815.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">1200 picnickers were on 40 open ore railway trucks like this one in 1915 when two unaffiliated extremists opened fire on the crowd, killing four.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Amanda Slater/Flickr</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A call to action</h2>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/60490/original/r6dtwy7k-1412141519.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/60490/original/r6dtwy7k-1412141519.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/60490/original/r6dtwy7k-1412141519.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/60490/original/r6dtwy7k-1412141519.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/60490/original/r6dtwy7k-1412141519.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/60490/original/r6dtwy7k-1412141519.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/60490/original/r6dtwy7k-1412141519.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/60490/original/r6dtwy7k-1412141519.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Memorial plaques.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Amanda Slater/Flickr</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The attack in outback New South Wales came only a few weeks after Sheikh-ul-Islam, the Ottoman Turkish Empire’s primary religious leader, declared a jihad (or holy war) on behalf of the government, urging his followers to take up arms against Great Britain and the Allies on November 14, 1914.</p>
<p>The sheikh’s declaration urged Muslims all over the world – including those living in Allied countries – to rise up and defend the Ottoman Empire. In part, his declaration read: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>Of those who go to the Jihad for the sake of happiness and salvation of the believers in God’s victory, the lot of those who remain alive is felicity, while the rank of those who depart to the next world is martyrdom. In accordance with God’s beautiful promise, those who sacrifice their lives to give life to the truth will have honour in this world, and their latter end is paradise.</p>
</blockquote>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/60499/original/2cdfwpxp-1412144822.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/60499/original/2cdfwpxp-1412144822.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/60499/original/2cdfwpxp-1412144822.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/60499/original/2cdfwpxp-1412144822.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/60499/original/2cdfwpxp-1412144822.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/60499/original/2cdfwpxp-1412144822.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/60499/original/2cdfwpxp-1412144822.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/60499/original/2cdfwpxp-1412144822.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Amanda Slater/Flickr</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In modern parlance, Broken Hill could be classified as a <a href="http://www.newsweek.com/wests-greatest-threat-lone-wolf-terrorist-say-security-experts-267936">“lone-wolf attack”</a>. The attackers were former Afghan cameleers named Badsha
Mohammed Gool, an ice-cream vendor, and Mullah Abdullah, a local imam and halal butcher. </p>
<p>While the attack was apparently politically inspired, the attackers confessed in notes they left behind that they were not involved in any organised group or militia.</p>
<h2>Remembering the lessons of genocide</h2>
<p>Now, just as in 1914, Yazidis, Christian Armenians and especially indigenous Christian Assyrians are <a href="http://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/2014/08/08/they-left-n-door-targeting-christians-iraq">being targeted</a> in the name of Islam.</p>
<p>Just as it was in 1914, the 2000-year-old Christian presence in the Middle East is threatened with extinction, even as we approach the eve of the centenary of the 1915 Armenian and Assyrian genocides.</p>
<p>A century ago, the ideological forebears of IS targeted Christian Hellenes, Armenians and Assyrians. Once the people were largely gone, their physical heritage was targeted: churches, monasteries, schools, hospitals, community centres, homes. Thousands of Christian holy sites were systematically destroyed across Turkey, Iraq and Syria.</p>
<p>Just as before, religion is being abused for political purposes by groups of extremists. Late last month, IS destroyed the <a href="http://www.lragir.am/index/eng/0/politics/view/33008">Armenian Church of the Holy Martyrs</a> at Deir-e-Zor in north-eastern Syria, part of their campaign to “cleanse” their “caliphate” of the presence of “unbelievers”.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"515913694363262976"}"></div></p>
<p>In a sea of inhumanity unleashed by IS, this was a particularly barbaric act, as the Church of the Holy Martyrs and its associated museum are dedicated to the victims of the Armenian Genocide. </p>
<p>The church served as a massive reliquary containing the bones of Christian Armenians deported by the Ottoman Turkish Empire to the desert wastes around Deir-e-Zor to die of hunger, dehydration or worse.</p>
<p>The sands in this corner of war-ravaged Syria contain dozens of mass graves from World War One, the victims of a systematic campaign of extermination by a government against its own citizens. The descendants of the survivors are now part of the Kurdish People’s Protection Units (YPG) militia of <a href="https://theconversation.com/saving-koban-the-town-that-the-world-cant-afford-to-lose-to-isis-32427">Kobanê</a>, including units of indigenous Christian Assyrians who refuse to permit another genocide to occur.</p>
<p>Just as in 1915, while claiming to be unable to restrain the extremists who hide behind the veil of religion, over recent months the Turkish authorities have done little to help the international efforts to confront IS, while permitting IS fighters vital access across its borders with Syria and Iraq. This includes not doing enough to crack down on alleged <a href="http://www.voanews.com/content/turkey-islamic-state-group-oil-smuggling-militant-jihadists/2469047.html">IS oil smuggling</a>.</p>
<p>Turkey still denies that it has allowed the oil smuggling. But in June, Turkish opposition MP Ali Ediboglu said that <a href="http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/business/2014/06/turkey-syria-isis-selling-smuggled-oil.html##ixzz3F3PD1fRT">US$800 million worth of oil</a> from IS-occupied areas of Syria and Iraq had been sold in Turkey. This equates to about US$1.2 million per day flowing into IS coffers, <a href="http://oilprice.com/Energy/Crude-Oil/Who-Is-Buying-The-Islamic-States-Illegal-Oil.html">according to industry sources</a>.</p>
<p>While <a href="http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-29455204">Turkish MPs have just voted</a> to allow NATO to use the 60-year-old Incirlik air base and potentially allow the Turkish military to enter Iraq and Syria to join the fight against IS, it’s still unclear exactly what action Turkey will take. Turkish Defence Minister Ismet Yilmaz has been reported as saying: <a href="http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-29455204">“Don’t expect any immediate steps.”</a></p>
<h2>Rescuing defenceless civilians</h2>
<p>In World War One, small groups of specialist forces such as the Dunsterforce rescued tens of thousands of Yazidis, Christian Armenians and indigenous Christian Assyrians, placing themselves between the largely defenceless genocide survivors and those who would wipe them out.</p>
<p>The actions of men such as Stanley Savige (later <a href="http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/savige-sir-stanley-george-11617">Sir Stanley George Savige</a>) should be a source of pride for all Australians: individuals standing up for what is right. Australia should draw inspiration from such men in the long fight against extremism that lies ahead.</p>
<p>There have been enough parallels with 1915. Time to break the cycle and save the fragments of Yazidi, Armenian and indigenous Assyrian civilisation that cling to existence in Iraq and Syria today.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/32146/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Panayiotis Diamadis receives funding from, and is affiliated with, the Australian Institute for Holocaust and Genocide Studies.</span></em></p>It’s another hot Australian New Year’s Day, and 1200 people are aboard a train bound for a picnic when a burst of gunfire shatters the festive atmosphere. Police return fire, killing the attackers – but…Panayiotis Diamadis, Lecturer, Genocide Studies, University of Technology SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.