tag:theconversation.com,2011:/au/topics/carbon-monoxide-8246/articlesCarbon monoxide – The Conversation2022-07-14T13:53:57Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1869492022-07-14T13:53:57Z2022-07-14T13:53:57ZCarbon monoxide: what is it and why is it deadly?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474089/original/file-20220714-17814-zo9g6r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Generators should not be used in confined and poorly ventilated spaces.
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Many of us are familiar with the typical results of burning fuels such as coal, natural gas and oil. The reaction produces heat which we harness to warm our homes, heat water and cook food, power vehicles and generate electricity. </p>
<p>Combustion also produces gases, most obviously carbon dioxide. This is produced when the carbon, locked away in the petrol, gas or wood, reacts with oxygen in the air. We can’t see or smell carbon dioxide – it’s non-toxic and is unreactive – so most of the time as it drifts away into the air around us and we don’t give it a moment’s thought. </p>
<p>But carbon dioxide isn’t the only gas that results from burning of fuels. Carbon monoxide can also be produced. This too is invisible, tasteless and odourless. Unlike its chemical cousin, though, carbon monoxide is extremely poisonous. </p>
<p>The difference between the two gases is small but very significant. </p>
<p>Carbon dioxide has a central carbon atom flanked by two oxygens, hence the “di” (meaning two) in the name, and the chemical formula CO₂. It is a very stable molecule because the carbon atom has fully reacted with the oxygens, leaving it with no potential to form bonds with anything else. </p>
<p>Carbon monoxide consists of a carbon and a single oxygen (hence the “mono” in the name and the formula CO). As a result the carbon is still able to react with other molecules. This reactivity is the root of its poisonous nature.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/473888/original/file-20220713-14-d3htnf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/473888/original/file-20220713-14-d3htnf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=361&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/473888/original/file-20220713-14-d3htnf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=361&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/473888/original/file-20220713-14-d3htnf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=361&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/473888/original/file-20220713-14-d3htnf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=454&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/473888/original/file-20220713-14-d3htnf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=454&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/473888/original/file-20220713-14-d3htnf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=454&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Carbon dioxide (top) and carbon monoxide (bottom).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author provided</span></span>
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<h2>Carbon monoxide poisoning</h2>
<p>Carbon monoxide poisoning results from the way it interacts with proteins that carry oxygen around your body. Normally haemoglobin in your blood binds oxygen as it passes through your lungs and then releases it where it is needed in the various organs of your body. Carbon monoxide also binds to haemoglobin, and it sticks over 200 times stronger than oxygen. This means it blocks the haemoglobin’s ability to bind oxygen and limits the body’s ability to move oxygen around the body. </p>
<p>The early symptoms of carbon monoxide poisoning include headaches or dizziness, breathlessness, nausea, tiredness, chest and stomach pains and visual problems. These are quite general and are easily confused with viral infections, food poisoning or just being tired. So low level poisoning is often overlooked. Higher doses result in loss of consciousness, long term heart and brain damage and death. </p>
<p>So how can we avoid being poisoned by this gas? Carbon monoxide is produced at high levels when fuels aren’t burnt correctly. This frequently occurs when wood, coal and charcoal fires are left to smoulder, or petrol, gas and kerosene appliances (such as boilers and space heaters) are not maintained properly. This is especially dangerous if generators, charcoal burners or barbecues are used in confined and poorly ventilated spaces such as tents and bars which allow CO to build up in the space with deadly consequences. </p>
<p>Early <a href="https://ewn.co.za/2022/06/30/carbon-monoxide-may-have-caused-enyobeni-tavern-deaths-paul-o-sullivan">media</a> reports suggest that carbon monoxide caused the deaths of <a href="https://www.news24.com/citypress/news/enyobeni-tavern-tragedy-what-we-know-so-far-20220627">21 young people</a> at a tavern (club) in South Africa’s Eastern Cape province in June. However, officials are still investigating and are yet to confirm the cause of these tragic deaths. </p>
<h2>Keeping safe</h2>
<p>Carbon monoxide poisoning is deadly, but it can also be easily avoided.</p>
<p><strong>Maintenance:</strong> Make sure your vehicles, boilers, chimneys, generators and space heaters are inspected and maintained by a qualified technician at least once a year. During the rest of the year, check that gas flames are blue and not yellow or orange. And look out for soot around appliances and pilot lights that go out frequently.</p>
<p><strong>Ventilation:</strong> Never use camp stoves, barbecues or charcoal heaters indoors or in tents. Only ever use petrol and diesel generators outdoors and well away from open windows and doors. Never use gas space heaters while you are sleeping, and only ever use them in well ventilated spaces. Never leave a vehicle running in a garage.</p>
<p><strong>Monitoring:</strong> Buy carbon monoxide monitors and install them near boilers, fireplaces and anywhere where you might use an indoor space heater.</p>
<p><strong>Seek treatment:</strong> If you think you or anyone near you is suffering from carbon monoxide poisoning then seek medical treatment.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/186949/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mark Lorch does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The early symptoms of carbon monoxide poisoning include headaches or dizziness, breathlessness, nausea, tiredness, chest and stomach pains and visual problems.Mark Lorch, Professor of Science Communication and Chemistry, University of HullLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1852702022-06-23T14:22:16Z2022-06-23T14:22:16ZCosmic dust from Venus is inspiring new air pollution-busting technology<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/470562/original/file-20220623-52339-jw2nyz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C6000%2C3089&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Venus has a thick, toxic atmosphere filled with carbon dioxide.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/thick-clouds-over-planet-venus-3d-1313293106">Jurik Peter/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Reducing carbon emissions from roads, railways and shipping requires implementing a range of solutions simultaneously. As far as cars are concerned, cutting the number of journeys altogether (by making it easier for people to walk and cycle and improving public transport), changing the fuel in vehicles and making the most of those vehicles already on the road must all play a part. None of these solutions are sufficient on their own.</p>
<p>In 2030, the sale of new diesel and petrol passenger cars <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/news/government-takes-historic-step-towards-net-zero-with-end-of-sale-of-new-petrol-and-diesel-cars-by-2030">will be outlawed</a> in the UK. The future of passenger motoring will be electric. But recent <a href="https://theconversation.com/electric-car-supplies-are-running-out-and-could-drastically-slow-down-the-journey-to-net-zero-182787">problems supplying parts</a> and the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/cje/article/44/4/953/5859377?login=true">high carbon cost of manufacturing</a> electric vehicles could delay the climate benefits of this transition.</p>
<p>To make best use of existing petrol and diesel burning vehicles – and the carbon that was invested in creating them – drivers and manufacturers can reduce the emissions of a family of compounds called nitrogen oxides, which are <a href="https://climatenexus.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/HumanHealthEffectsofAirPollutionKampaandCastanas.pdf">linked to respiratory diseases</a>, through better treatment of exhaust fumes. This way, the communities most blighted by air pollution can at least be protected before harmful vehicle emissions are finally eradicated.</p>
<p>My research team is developing a new generation of catalytic converters – the devices fitted to exhaust pipes to reduce the release of toxic gases. Inspired by chemistry observed on the surface of extremely hot planets such as Venus, we have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jastp.2016.08.011">produced a synthetic material</a> that could improve air quality. </p>
<h2>From Venus to vehicle exhausts</h2>
<p>The Sun’s light destroys carbon dioxide (CO₂) in the atmospheres of planets, producing carbon monoxide (CO). Not fast enough to avert climate change, but enough that atmospheres like Venus should contain far more CO than we observe there.</p>
<p>Our group studies the effects of meteoric material (dust arriving from space) in atmospheres. An iron silicate powder we made which replicates this dust <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2017.06.005">can speed up</a> the conversion of CO to CO₂. This is what the first catalytic converters in cars were designed to do, since CO is a toxic gas. </p>
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<img alt="A series of metal chambers and pipes on the underside of a car." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/470558/original/file-20220623-51616-f12k26.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/470558/original/file-20220623-51616-f12k26.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/470558/original/file-20220623-51616-f12k26.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/470558/original/file-20220623-51616-f12k26.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/470558/original/file-20220623-51616-f12k26.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/470558/original/file-20220623-51616-f12k26.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/470558/original/file-20220623-51616-f12k26.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Catalytic converters turn toxic gases generated in petrol and diesel engines into safer alternatives.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/catalytic-converter-exhaust-system-modern-car-1651656655">Ulianenko Dmitrii/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>That got us thinking about whether this material could help with other problems, such as nitrogen oxide pollution, which <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/mar/04/uk-has-broken-air-pollution-limits-for-a-decade-eu-court-finds">exceeds legal limits</a> in the air of many UK cities. Poor air quality from vehicle exhausts costs <a href="https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/air-quality-in-europe-2021/health-impacts-of-air-pollution">tens of thousands of lives annually</a>. </p>
<p>We’ve found that not only can the powder <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S138589472103391X">simultaneously clean up</a> CO and nitrogen oxide emissions, but it can convert nitrogen dioxide (NO₂, a harmful gas which is specifically regulated) to harmless molecular nitrogen (N₂) and water at room temperature.</p>
<p>Catalysts for processing nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions installed in modern diesel vehicles only work at exhaust temperatures above 150°C. Even if your car uses an additive fluid to reduce nitrogen oxide emissions, it’s unlikely to work while driving slowly when the exhaust is cooler. This is when vehicles emit the most NO₂ – often in traffic jams where the most polluted air can accumulate.</p>
<p>When the electricity grid is decarbonised and sufficiently robust to charge millions of electric vehicles, catalytic converters capable of removing nitrogen oxides may still be important. For example, the natural gas fuel in industrial furnaces <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/824592/industrial-fuel-switching.pdf">is likely to be replaced</a> with hydrogen. </p>
<p>Unlike buses and cars running on hydrogen, which produce energy via a reaction in a fuel cell, larger applications such as furnaces in steelworks will burn hydrogen fuel directly. This high-temperature combustion will convert molecular nitrogen in the air to nitrogen oxide pollution, which will need to be removed.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/hydrogen-where-is-low-carbon-fuel-most-useful-for-decarbonisation-147696">Hydrogen: where is low-carbon fuel most useful for decarbonisation?</a>
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<p>That’s why we’re excited to be developing a prototype emissions converter that can work in most situations, with the potential to radically reduce toxic emissions from combustion engines and other sources in the future.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/185270/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alexander James is a listed inventor on the patent protecting intellectual property on LowCat. He and his team received funding from the Science and Technology Funding Council.</span></em></p>New catalytic converters can remove toxic chemicals from the exhaust fumes of combustion-engine cars.Alexander James, Research Fellow in Atmospheric Chemistry, University of LeedsLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1253372020-02-04T10:26:53Z2020-02-04T10:26:53ZCarbon monoxide poisons thousands every year – and there are no good treatments<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/305900/original/file-20191209-90557-1bi9p2d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=5%2C348%2C3747%2C1856&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/download/confirm/104381117?src=57cd42cc-ea50-45cb-afe4-a3406b643358-2-5&size=huge_jpg">Sinelev/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Carbon monoxide is an undetectable yet lethal gas, often produced by incomplete combustion of carbon-based fuels, such as coal, gas and wood. It kills about <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/Carbon-monoxide-poisoning/">60 people a year in the UK</a>, according to the NHS. </p>
<p>Although statistics on unintentional exposure to carbon monoxide are hard to come by, about <a href="https://www.headway.org.uk/about-brain-injury/individuals/types-of-brain-injury/carbon-monoxide-poisoning/?gclid=EAIaIQobChMI-bzVm_uo5wIVAbDtCh3k3wqzEAAYASAAEgLR2fD_BwE">4,000 people are thought to attend A&E each year</a> as a result of exposure to the gas. The true figure is probably much higher because the symptoms of exposure to the gas aren’t specific.</p>
<p>There is no antidote for carbon monoxide poisoning, nor is there any treatment for injury caused by exposure. </p>
<p>One of the ways that carbon monoxide causes harm is by combining with a protein called haemoglobin in red blood cells to form carboxyhaemoglobin. This prevents the blood from carrying oxygen and prevents the tissues from using oxygen effectively, so people with carbon monoxide poisoning are essentially at risk of suffocation. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/312570/original/file-20200129-92969-1gqnmwl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/312570/original/file-20200129-92969-1gqnmwl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/312570/original/file-20200129-92969-1gqnmwl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/312570/original/file-20200129-92969-1gqnmwl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/312570/original/file-20200129-92969-1gqnmwl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/312570/original/file-20200129-92969-1gqnmwl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/312570/original/file-20200129-92969-1gqnmwl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Patient in a hyperbaric chamber.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperbaric_medicine#/media/File:HyperBaric_Oxygen_Therapy_Chamber_2008.jpg">James Heilman/Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span>
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<h2>Not the whole picture</h2>
<p>But the formation of carboxyhaemoglobin is only a part of the picture – carbon monoxide also binds to other proteins in the body. The binding of carbon monoxide and haemoglobin begins to be reversed once the person is removed from the source of the gas, but the binding to other proteins can take longer. Also, carbon monoxide exposure causes an immune response and inflammation and so has a direct toxic effect on cells as a result. It is, in effect, a multifactorial poison. </p>
<p>Carbon monoxide exposure <a href="https://www.bmj.com/content/bmj/365/bmj.l2299.full.pdf">can cause harm</a> whether people are exposed to high concentrations over a short period or low concentrations over a long period. Either method of exposure can lead to long-term health problems, <a href="https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/779017?src=trendmd_pilot">including neurological complications</a>, such as difficulties with memory and attention, as well as psychological and emotional problems. </p>
<p>Further difficulty exists because we can only measure carboxyhaemoglobin from blood samples. There are no other biomarkers that doctors can use to measure the existence and extent of carbon monoxide exposure. And any long-term health problems from exposure <a href="https://oem.bmj.com/content/59/10/708">don’t necessarily correlate with carboxyhaemoglobin levels</a>. </p>
<p>Also, even the measurement of carboxyhaemoglobin is complicated by how much time has elapsed between removing the person from the source of exposure and testing for the presence of carboxyhaemoglobin. Two minutes from removal to testing has been <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26563790">suggested as optimal</a>, meaning that the diagnosis of carbon monoxide exposure may be missed altogether while harm from that exposure may still be significant but not immediately apparent.</p>
<p>Hyperbaric oxygen therapy has been thought to prevent some of the undesirable effects of carbon monoxide exposure and lessen the risk of further damage, as it is comparatively quicker at removing carboxyhaemoglobin than standard oxygen therapy. But its practical application has been limited by the time between diagnosis and treatment. </p>
<p>A Cochrane review (the gold standard for reviewing medical evidence) <a href="https://www.cochrane.org/CD002041/INJ_there-is-insufficient-evidence-to-support-the-use-of-hyperbaric-oxygen-for-treatment-of-patients-with-carbon-monoxide-poisoning">also failed to find enough evidence</a> to support the use of hyperbaric oxygen therapy for carbon monoxide exposure. Hyperbaric oxygen therapy is <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/Carbon-monoxide-poisoning/">no longer used by the NHS</a>. </p>
<h2>Light relief</h2>
<p>Recent research in animals investigated a way of clearing the gas from the bloodstream using visible light (photo) therapy, <a href="https://www.atsjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1164/rccm.201503-0609OC">which is known to disconnect carbon monoxide from haemoglobin</a>. The researchers involved in this study treated carbon monoxide exposure in mice by applying phototherapy directly to their lungs. As a result, carboxyhaemoglobin was lowered as the phototherapy removed the carbon monoxide from the haemoglobin and also doubled the rate of elimination of carbon monoxide from the bodies of the mice. The mice could exhale an increased quantity of carbon monoxide from their lungs, because of the phototherapy, when compared with the control group of mice which did not receive the phototherapy.</p>
<p>Another treatment, invented in the US in the 1970s, is called extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO). An ECMO machine is similar to the heart-lung bypass machine used in open heart surgery. Large cannulas (tubes) drain blood from the body. The machine then oxygenates the blood, removing carbon dioxide from haemoglobin. Used to treat many kinds of respiratory and cardiac problems in children and adults, <a href="http://rc.rcjournal.com/content/60/9/e155">ECMO has also been used to treat carbon monoxide exposure</a>. </p>
<p>However, ECMO is a complicated procedure and not an easy treatment for a sick person to endure. It is highly invasive and carries the <a href="https://www.annalsthoracicsurgery.org/article/S0003-4975%2813%2902005-5/pdf">risk of significant complications</a>, requires the person receiving it to be ventilated and sedated, and is usually reserved for those very sick people who would not survive without it. It is usually only used when there are no alternatives. </p>
<p>These early-stage treatments offer hope for those affected by carbon monoxide, and future research in these areas may see some important breakthroughs in alleviating the harm that is caused. This is encouraging; we can decrease our vulnerability to death and injury by increasing our knowledge. But these deaths and injuries across the world are often caused just by heating our homes and cooking our food and are almost always entirely preventable. </p>
<p>My primary area of research is with those who have survived exposure. In many cases, these people’s lives have been devastated and utterly fragmented by the experience. Any treatment that eased their suffering would be most welcome.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/125337/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Julie Connolly receives funding from th Gas Safety Trust. </span></em></p>Could we treat carbon monoxide poisoning with light?Julie Connolly, Senior Lecturer in Health and Social Care, Liverpool John Moores UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1104752019-02-14T15:48:14Z2019-02-14T15:48:14ZCarbon capture on power stations burning woodchips is not the green gamechanger many think it is<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/259036/original/file-20190214-1730-1miz45g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Drax biomass plant, Yorkshire. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/drax-power-station-cooling-towers-biomass-775570336?src=ZMUbgY5tJ_5v1CqampQ_Bw-1-2">Coatsey</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The UK’s efforts to develop facilities to remove carbon emissions from power stations took a step forward with <a href="https://www.newcivilengineer.com/latest/worlds-first-for-carbon-capture-at-drax-power-plant/10039829.article">news</a> of a demonstrator project getting underway at the Drax plant in north Yorkshire. Where most electricity carbon capture projects have focused on coal-fired power, the Drax project is the first to capture carbon dioxide (CO₂) from a plant purely burning wood chips – or biomass, to use the industry jargon. </p>
<p>This so-called Bio Energy Carbon Capture and Storage (BECCS) demonstrator is only a pilot project; it covers just a tiny proportion of emissions from the 4GW plant and Drax has no plan yet for storing the captured gas. But coming after a decade in which various other UK carbon capture initiatives and government competitions <a href="https://qz.com/972939/the-uk-could-have-changed-the-way-the-world-fights-global-warming-instead-it-blew-200-million/">have</a> ended up <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/carbon-capture-storage-technology-greenhouse-gases-climate-change-government-failure-cost-taxpayers-a7707416.html">scrapped</a>, it is certainly progress. </p>
<p>Some specialists <a href="https://www.bioenergy-news.com/display_news/14147/comment_why_beccs_will_be_critical_to_deliver_an_affordable_energy_system_transition_in_the_uk/">believe</a> this technology has a bright future in the UK, envisaging big wood-fired power plants whose carbon emissions are prevented from returning to the atmosphere. Other countries <a href="https://www.bioenergy-news.com/display_news/13867/indonesian_and_austrian_beccs_research_initiative_announced/">are looking</a> at it seriously, too, and Drax and its partners have been <a href="https://www.energy-reporters.com/industry/carbon-capture-pilot-launched-in-uk/">talking up</a> the <a href="https://www.drax.com/technology/negative-emissions-techniques-technologies-need-know/">prospect</a> of eventually achieving “negative emissions” at the plant in Yorkshire. But this is fundamentally misleading. Without wanting to reject carbon capture out of hand, it is time to get realistic about what can be achieved with this technology. </p>
<h2>The carbon capture delusion</h2>
<p>The logic of the negative emissions argument is that burning wood is “<a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-47163840">carbon neutral</a>” because trees absorb CO₂ from the atmosphere in the first place, and you are simply releasing it back. When you combine this with a carbon capture facility, it is argued, you are therefore removing CO₂ from the atmosphere overall. </p>
<p>But this view considers the process of burning wood in isolation. It ignores, just as an example, a wider chain of activities including planting and harvesting the trees, converting the wood into chips and then <a href="https://www.energy-reporters.com/industry/carbon-capture-pilot-launched-in-uk/">shipping them</a> to the power plant – not to mention storing and using the captured CO₂ once the wood has been burned. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/259051/original/file-20190214-1758-10i0a84.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/259051/original/file-20190214-1758-10i0a84.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/259051/original/file-20190214-1758-10i0a84.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/259051/original/file-20190214-1758-10i0a84.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/259051/original/file-20190214-1758-10i0a84.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/259051/original/file-20190214-1758-10i0a84.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/259051/original/file-20190214-1758-10i0a84.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/259051/original/file-20190214-1758-10i0a84.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Carbon neutral?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/backoe-pick-woodchips-trucks-storage-outdoor-1062737072?src=zLGWuR15nULI1tRBdhXXVQ-1-3">Amarin Jitnathum</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There is also a misconception that burning wood produces only CO₂ – a BBC News reporter was saying as much the other day. But if this were the case, we would not need to separate CO₂ from other flue gases. Some of the carbon in the wood could become carbon monoxide, for instance, which, if not captured, would <a href="https://esseacourses.strategies.org/module.php?module_id=170">indirectly contribute</a> to levels of greenhouse gases in the Earth’s atmosphere. The process also produces other noxious emissions, such as <a href="https://www.epa.gov/indoor-air-quality-iaq/technical-overview-volatile-organic-compounds">volatile organic compounds</a> and oxides of nitrogen, which are responsible for acid rain.</p>
<p>Too many people also tend to see wood as better than oil or coal because the amount of CO₂ produced by burning a given unit is much lower for wood. But this overlooks the fact that you get considerably more heat from burning a unit of oil or coal than from wood. In other words, you have to burn much more wood to produce the same amount of heat, so the carbon emissions are actually much more than they appear. This leads people to greatly underestimate the amount of land we will need for trees if biomass power is to become a much bigger part of the energy mix. The Drax plant alone <a href="https://www.energy-reporters.com/industry/carbon-capture-pilot-launched-in-uk/">uses</a> more wood than the UK produces every year, for instance. </p>
<p>The blinkered thinking around carbon capture also goes way beyond biomass power plants. There are now <a href="https://indd.adobe.com/view/2dab1be7-edd0-447d-b020-06242ea2cf3b">43 carbon capture facilities</a> either operating or in development – ten in the US, followed by Canada and Norway. <a href="https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=33552">Very few</a> are attached to power plants so far, with most instead removing CO₂ from <a href="https://www.bgs.ac.uk/science/CO2/home.html">oil fields</a> or <a href="http://www.dmp.wa.gov.au/Documents/Community-Education/Shute_Creek.pdf">gas processing plants</a>. But generous new subsidies in the likes of <a href="https://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/carbon-capture-gains-momentum#gs.Q8rt5vWM">the US</a> are making the industry optimistic about carbon capture in the power sector regardless of which feedstock is burned. </p>
<p>Across the board, there is the same tendency to ignore the carbon emissions in everything from coal/gas/oil extraction to CO₂ storage. We also hear very little about the solvents traditionally used to separate the CO₂ from the rest of the combustion gases. These amines are highly corrosive and bad for the environment, plus there are CO₂ emissions from producing them in the first place. </p>
<h2>A different approach</h2>
<p>My point is not that we should be against carbon capture plants; the technology is much needed, and pilots like the one at Drax are important for possibly scaling up the process and measuring what is achievable. But when scientists conduct these measurements, they need to consider the complete chain to look at all of components involved – including, in the case of wood, the land used for the trees, and the consequences of deforestation. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/259052/original/file-20190214-1717-1h02x7x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/259052/original/file-20190214-1717-1h02x7x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/259052/original/file-20190214-1717-1h02x7x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/259052/original/file-20190214-1717-1h02x7x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/259052/original/file-20190214-1717-1h02x7x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/259052/original/file-20190214-1717-1h02x7x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/259052/original/file-20190214-1717-1h02x7x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/259052/original/file-20190214-1717-1h02x7x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Fore!</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/area-illegal-deforestation-vegetation-native-brazilian-1156323859?src=sAzpQi5gEfzFJGzZoVWk2A-1-22">Tarcisio Schnaider</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We also need much more discussion and research into which solvents are the most environmentally friendly for gas separation: Drax <a href="https://www.drax.com/press_release/europes-first-bioenergy-carbon-capture-storage-pilot-now-underway/">claims</a> to be using a new solvent with environmental benefits, so it will be interesting to see what the results look like down the line. </p>
<p>Clearly, our society needs energy. We would never be able to sustain ourselves if we eliminated fossil fuels completely. Capturing carbon dioxide emissions certainly has a role to play in the energy systems of the future, but it needs to be appraised in a way that looks at the whole picture. </p>
<p>The reality is that if the UK and EU are <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-46360212">serious about</a> being completely carbon neutral by 2050, it will have to use a <a href="https://royalsociety.org/topics-policy/projects/greenhouse-gas-removal/?gclid=EAIaIQobChMI1J7396q74AIV6p3tCh0Awgu4EAAYASAAEgKg5vD_BwE">mixture</a> of methods and cut back more aggressively on the emissions <a href="https://theconversation.com/now-that-uk-nuclear-power-plans-are-in-tatters-its-vital-to-double-down-on-wind-and-solar-110253">being produced</a> in the first place. This is always going to be more efficient than any attempts to put the genie back in the bottle afterwards. Regardless of what anyone says about technological solutions to the carbon problem, it is almost impossible to get away from this basic fact.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/110475/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Raffaella Ocone does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The Drax biomass plant in Yorkshire is the first in the world to pioneer carbon capture and some specialists see it as it has a bright future. But hold the rosy headlines.Raffaella Ocone, Chair of Chemical Engineering, Heriot-Watt UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1034782018-09-20T12:21:03Z2018-09-20T12:21:03ZLow levels of carbon monoxide poisoning can be very difficult to spot – and can cause brain damage<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/237286/original/file-20180920-129853-rh5upp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">shutterstock</span> </figcaption></figure><p>Carbon monoxide (CO), like many gases, cannot be detected by our human senses. We cannot see it, smell it or taste it. But unlike many gases, small amounts are extremely harmful to us.</p>
<p>In 2015 (the most recent year for which statistics are available), <a href="https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/healthandsocialcare/causesofdeath/adhocs/006135numberofdeathsfromaccidentalcarbonmonoxidepoisoning">53 people</a> in the UK died from accidental carbon monoxide poisoning. This compares with 170 people <a href="https://www.cpsc.gov/Safety-Education/Safety-Education-Centers/Carbon-Monoxide-Information-Center/Carbon-Monoxide-Questions-and-Answers">in the US</a>. While this may not seem like a huge amount, deaths from carbon monoxide are largely preventable. There is, however, a general <a href="https://emj.bmj.com/content/19/5/386">lack of knowledge</a> about the dangers of carbon monoxide among both the general public and the scientific community.</p>
<h2>The symptoms</h2>
<p>We know the most about acute poisoning; we have some understanding of the wide range of symptoms and after effects that people who are poisoned in a single episode to a large amount of carbon monoxide suffer. But what we don’t know as much about are the effects of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3404310/">poisoning at lower levels</a>, where people are exposed to smaller amounts of carbon monoxide, sometimes over a lengthy period, that do not trigger their carbon monoxide alarm. </p>
<p>Such people suffer nonspecific but significant symptoms. They may well have engaged with healthcare professionals, and had their symptoms investigated, but the nature of such symptoms do not lend themselves to a straightforward diagnosis once obvious physiological causes have been discounted.</p>
<p>The symptoms of <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/carbon-monoxide-poisoning/">acute</a> poisoning may include headache, stomach upsets, dizziness, drowsiness, confusion, and seizure, leading to coma and death. These are the cases that are <a href="https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/fit-fiddle-father-who-died-1318615">more likely to be reported</a> by the media. </p>
<p>Those of <a href="https://cks.nice.org.uk/carbon-monoxide-poisoning#!topicsummary">chronic</a> poisoning, meanwhile are variable, somewhat vague, and nonspecific. People report fatigue, flu-like symptoms, memory issues, musculoskeletal pain, motor disorders and emotional (affective) disorders, where they may be irritable, moody or depressed. These symptoms vary widely from person to person, for reasons as yet not fully understood, but are not necessarily connected to the amount of carbon monoxide to which they have been exposed.</p>
<h2>Fine – or dead</h2>
<p>Another aspect of the lack of knowledge about carbon monoxide concerns the aftermath of poisoning. Carbon monoxide is understood <a href="https://www.msdmanuals.com/en-gb/professional/injuries-poisoning/poisoning/carbon-monoxide-poisoning">to leave the blood quickly</a> once the person is away from the source of poisoning.</p>
<p>This is in line with the popular view of how we are poisoned, which is that the damage carbon monoxide causes results from oxygen starvation (hypoxia), as carbon monoxide binds with haemoglobin to form carboxyhaemoglobin. Oxygen cannot, therefore, be transported in to or out of the body’s organs and tissues. A person is essentially slowly suffocated.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/237175/original/file-20180919-158240-je5ghf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/237175/original/file-20180919-158240-je5ghf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/237175/original/file-20180919-158240-je5ghf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/237175/original/file-20180919-158240-je5ghf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/237175/original/file-20180919-158240-je5ghf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/237175/original/file-20180919-158240-je5ghf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/237175/original/file-20180919-158240-je5ghf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Not enough houses are fitted with carbon monoxide alarms.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/carbon-monoxide-alarm-mounted-interior-wall-498076648?src=Fukg4QIpQZd7wTVqbVDfWg-1-2">Abimages/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This line of thinking means that the assumption that once the person is away from the carbon monoxide, recovery will commence, is easily made. But mechanisms of poisoning are more complicated. Hypoxia undoubtedly plays a significant role, as does what is known as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reperfusion_injury">reperfusion injury</a>, which is further damage caused when oxygen returns to tissues that have been previously starved. Carbon monoxide, however, also binds to proteins other than haemoglobin, and it is a toxin which is known to affect cellular respiration and causes an inflammatory response. The brain and the heart seem <a href="https://www.atsjournals.org/doi/full/10.1164/rccm.201606-1275CI">most susceptible to damage</a>. </p>
<p>People who have been poisoned may therefore suffer from neurological or cognitive deficits, psychological effects and cardiovascular issues. Cruelly, such symptoms may occur <a href="https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2004-09/uopm-leo090304.php">weeks after initial poisoning</a> symptoms have abated, and for some people they will be permanent.</p>
<h2>Prolonged impact</h2>
<p>What also often remains unsaid but is crucial to consider is the emotional toll of poisoning. This is something that is evident from my ongoing research, which centres on collecting the accounts of those who have been affected by carbon monoxide poisoning. </p>
<p>One sufferer I’ve spoken to has had to change her career entirely, as she could no longer cope with the demands of running her own, previously very successful, business. A young teacher I met with struggles with hyperacuity, meaning that she has become extremely and painfully sensitive to all loud noises. Relationships can also be adversely affected, as people don’t have the same emotional behaviours, and memories are altered. A husband I spoke to completely forgot that his wife of 30 years had never liked drinking tea. It has a significant impact: people have to learn to live with what is in effect a <a href="https://www.headway.org.uk/about-brain-injury/individuals/types-of-brain-injury/carbon-monoxide-poisoning/carbon-monoxide-poisoning-symptoms-and-treatment/">brain injury</a>.</p>
<p>Such sufferers may not be able to communicate, work or perform their usual daily activities in the same way that they did before they were poisoned. Some of my participants had many months or even years of visiting GPs and having investigations, only to be told that there is nothing wrong to be found. It is natural, of course, for GPs to focus on the person in front of them, rather than that person’s environment. There is currently very little tailored support for people in this situation.</p>
<h2>Steps to take</h2>
<p>Carbon monoxide is common; our bodies generate very small, measurable <a href="https://www.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/japplphysiol.00174.2012">amounts</a>. Habitual tobacco users have higher quantities, but seemingly without the burdensome, nonspecific symptoms described here. In domestic settings, excess carbon monoxide is formed by the incomplete combustion of any carbon-based fuel; so any faulty heating or cooking appliance using gas, wood, coal or smokeless fuel, and so on, could be a risk. </p>
<p>Many homes in middle and low income countries rely on some sort of solid fuel for cooking, lighting and heating, with the result that significant quantities of carbon monoxide are released into the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3673244/">indoor environment</a>, although statistics are not always readily available for the burden of suffering that this causes.</p>
<p>In contrast, we know that <a href="https://www.staygassafe.co.uk/">one in six UK homes</a> are estimated to have a dangerous gas appliance. Gas appliances should ideally be serviced annually. This includes all of the mandatory safety <a href="https://www.gassaferegister.co.uk/help-and-advice/gas-safety-in-the-home/get-your-appliances-checked/">checks</a> and some manufacturer-specific checks to ensure that the gas is burning safely. </p>
<p>Carbon monoxide audible alarms and monitors also need to be in place, even in households that only use electricity as fuel, as carbon monoxide can travel between properties. Currently, less than half of <a href="http://www.hse.gov.uk/gas/domestic/index.htm">UK households</a> have a <a href="http://www.co-bealarmed.co.uk/2017/02/over-half-of-uk-population-at-risk-from-the-silent-killer/">carbon monoxide alarm</a>, compared with around three quarters of <a href="https://thenewdaily.com.au/life/wellbeing/2018/04/30/australians-lack-carbon-monoxide-nous/">Australian</a> homes. </p>
<hr>
<p><em>If you suspect a problem, call the gas emergency number on 0800 111 999, or the <a href="http://www.hse.gov.uk/gas/domestic/index.htm">Health and Safety Executive (HSE)</a> Gas Safety Advice Line on 0800 300 363.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/103478/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Julie Connolly receives funding from the Gas Safety Trust. </span></em></p>Low level carbon monoxide poisoning leads to a wide range of nonspecific but significant symptoms – making it very difficult to detect.Julie Connolly, Senior Lecturer in Health and Social Care, Liverpool John Moores UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/963502018-07-12T20:03:14Z2018-07-12T20:03:14ZCarbon monoxide exposure in homes is a risk – here’s how to protect yourself<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/225266/original/file-20180628-112611-i2zxrw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Faulty or unflued gas heaters can leak carbon monoxide, which is potentially fatal in high concentrations.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Winter is a good time to remind ourselves of the <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-06-05/four-in-hospital-with-suspected-carbon-monoxide-poisoning/9835166">potential risk</a> of carbon monoxide exposure from faulty or unflued gas heaters or other gas devices. </p>
<p>Carbon monoxide (CO) is an odourless, colourless and tasteless gas arising from incomplete combustion of fossil fuels. In a domestic setting, sources of CO include gas heaters (with and without flues), gas stoves, wood or charcoal heaters, tobacco smoke, and infiltration of car exhaust from attached garages. </p>
<p>Emissions in enclosed and unventilated domestic spaces can, and do, cause fatalities and hospitalisations.</p>
<h2>How does carbon monoxide harm?</h2>
<p>CO is the <a href="http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/%7E/media/OEH/Corporate%20Site/Documents/Air/clean-air-forum-2010-current-air-quality-nsw-100728.ashx">most abundant pollutant</a> (measured by mass) in the atmosphere. </p>
<p>Many heaters we use to heat our homes work by combusting gas. When gas is burned it releases carbon monoxide, as well as other gases, and if these are not flued to the outside of the home (a pipe or other mechanism to exhaust the smoke and gases to the outside of the home) or if the heater is faulty or old, and there is insufficient ventilation of the home, these gases can build up inside the home to hazardous levels.</p>
<p>When present at elevated levels, CO can diffuse rapidly into blood, binding with haemoglobin to form “carboxyhaemoglobin”. This reduces the capacity of blood to <a href="https://www.mja.com.au/journal/2014/201/4/think-carbon-monoxide">carry oxygen</a>, which our tissues need to survive. </p>
<p>It’s uncertain what the effects of CO are at <a href="https://oem.bmj.com/content/59/10/708">low concentrations</a>, but at very high concentrations CO can lead to unconsciousness and death, which can occur <a href="https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/4507433">within several minutes</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.mja.com.au/journal/2014/201/4/think-carbon-monoxide">Symptoms</a> of CO poisoning can be mistaken for the flu, and include dizziness, headaches, malaise and nausea. Potentially <a href="https://www.mja.com.au/journal/2014/201/4/think-carbon-monoxide">susceptible groups</a> include the elderly, people with health conditions, children, pregnant women and their unborn babies. </p>
<h2>How common is CO in Australian homes?</h2>
<p>Previously CO was <a href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/work/22891457?q&versionId=27766738">measured</a> inside Australian homes during <a href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/work/32121937?q&sort=holdings+desc&_=1530080970412&versionId=45823526+50557052+252180518">studies</a> of unflued gas heater emissions.</p>
<p>In these studies, elevated CO concentrations were found in a minority of houses, but were almost always associated with the presence of unflued gas heaters. The most recent <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S135223101200146X">study</a> (conducted in 2010), which tested 40 homes that were not selected based on gas heater usage, reported lower CO levels than seen in the previous studies. </p>
<p>As far as we’re aware, no Australian studies have directly <a href="https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/4507433">investigated</a> the effects of indoor CO on health, as gas heater studies were primarily concerned with studying the effects of other gasses released by the heaters.</p>
<p>Of concern, though, is that CO concentrations in indoor environments can rise relatively quickly, and given it’s an odourless gas, elevated levels have caused accidental deaths in Australia, even over the last decade. These deaths have usually been associated with exposure to emissions from malfunctioning gas appliances or <a href="https://ris.pmc.gov.au/sites/default/files/posts/2012/06/05-Decision-RIS-Gas-Appliance-CO2-safety-strategy.pdf">inadequate ventilation</a> of rooms and <a href="https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/4507433">unflued gas heating systems</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/225627/original/file-20180702-116147-18r0221.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/225627/original/file-20180702-116147-18r0221.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/225627/original/file-20180702-116147-18r0221.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/225627/original/file-20180702-116147-18r0221.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/225627/original/file-20180702-116147-18r0221.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/225627/original/file-20180702-116147-18r0221.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/225627/original/file-20180702-116147-18r0221.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/225627/original/file-20180702-116147-18r0221.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Outdoor heaters must not be used indoors or in enclosed spaces.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/4507433">Deaths have occurred</a> in NSW, Victoria, WA, SA, QLD and New Zealand. And although <a href="https://ris.pmc.gov.au/sites/default/files/posts/2012/06/05-Decision-RIS-Gas-Appliance-CO2-safety-strategy.pdf">reporting</a> of fatalities associated with CO poisoning is reasonably accurate, there are also non-fatal poisoning events that are difficult to quantify due to inadequate reporting. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-06-05/four-in-hospital-with-suspected-carbon-monoxide-poisoning/9835166">Recent poisonings</a> have sparked a coronial inquiry into processes and procedures for gas heater testing. They have also prompted the Australian Gas Association and Energy Safe Victoria to recommend against the use of two specific gas heaters (Pyrox and Vulcan 48 series) and to issue <a href="http://housing.vic.gov.au/safety-alert-vulcan-heritage-gas-heaters">safety guidance</a> for consumers. These two heaters have now been withdrawn from sale.</p>
<p>Energy Safe Victoria has <a href="https://www.esv.vic.gov.au/safety-education/gas-safety-at-home/heating-your-home-with-gas/flues-and-ventilation/">said</a> it believes open-flued gas heating to be “incompatible with newer better sealed, energy efficient homes” given inadequate ventilation leads to highly elevated levels in these circumstances.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/nsw/couple-who-died-in-kurrajong-cabin-were-riding-off-into-the-sunset-together-20150611-ghl6id.html">Multiple incidents</a> of CO poisoning have also occurred after outdoor heating sources have been used in indoor environments. Examples include the use of <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/nsw/penrith-family-suffers-carbon-monoxide-poisoning-sleeping-around-charcoal-heater-20150623-ghuz9p.html">barbeque coals</a> used indoors to heat apartments.</p>
<h2>How can we prevent CO exposure?</h2>
<p>In response to a number of poisonings, organisations have produced <a href="http://www.health.nsw.gov.au/environment/factsheets/Pages/unflued-gas-heaters.aspx">fact sheets</a> to educate the public on the safe use of gas heaters and on the potential dangers of CO poisoning. </p>
<p>There are some simple ways we can safeguard against CO poisoning:</p>
<p>• have gas heaters (wall units, space units, central heating, gas water heaters) checked every two years by a licensed gas fitter and ask for a Compliance Certificate</p>
<p>• ask for a CO leakage test to be conducted</p>
<p>• ensure there is some fresh air intake periodically into your home</p>
<p>• don’t use a gas heater overnight or for extended periods</p>
<p>• minimise the use of exhaust fans at the same time heaters are used. Using exhaust fans in the kitchen or bathroom can create negative pressure and lead to gas heater emissions being sucked back into the house rather than allowing them to be exhausted to the outside air</p>
<p>• consider installing a CO alarm as an additional safety measure</p>
<p>• do not use an unflued heater in a bedroom and minimise daily usage of unflued heaters</p>
<p>• consider replacing old heaters.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/96350/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Christine Cowie receives funding from the NHMRC. She has previously received funding from the NSW Health Ministry,the NSW EPA and the Asthma Foundation.</span></em></p>Deaths from carbon monoxide poisoning in Australia in recent years have focused attention on faulty or unflued gas heaters - here’s what you need to know.Christine Cowie, Senior Research Fellow, Centre for Air Quality & Health Research and Evaluation, Woolcock Institute of Medical Research, University of Sydney; Senior Research Fellow, South West Sydney Clinical School, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/723442017-04-12T00:38:05Z2017-04-12T00:38:05ZWatching the planet breathe: Studying Earth’s carbon cycle from space<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/163694/original/image-20170403-21933-haeixy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Average carbon dioxide concentrations, Oct. 1 -
Nov. 11, 2014, measured by the Orbiting Carbon Observatory-2 satellite.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://images-assets.nasa.gov/image/PIA18934/PIA18934~orig.jpg">NASA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Carbon is a building block of life on our planet. It is stored in reservoirs on Earth – in rocks, plants and soil – in the oceans, and in the atmosphere. And it <a href="https://www.nrs.fs.fed.us/niacs/carbon/forests/carbon_cycle/">cycles</a> constantly between these reservoirs.</p>
<p>Understanding the carbon cycle is crucially important for many reasons. It provides us with energy, stored as fossil fuel. Carbon gases in the atmosphere help regulate Earth’s temperature and are essential to the growth of plants. Carbon passing from the atmosphere to the ocean supports photosynthesis of marine phytoplankton and the development of reefs. These processes and myriad others are all interwoven with Earth’s climate, but the manner in which the processes respond to variability and change in climate is not well-quantified.</p>
<p>Our research group at the <a href="http://www.ou.edu">University of Oklahoma</a> is leading NASA’s latest Earth Venture Mission, the Geostationary Carbon Observatory, or <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-announces-first-geostationary-vegetation-atmospheric-carbon-mission">GeoCarb</a>. This mission will place an advanced payload on a satellite to study the Earth from more than 22,000 miles above the Earth’s equator. Observing changes in concentrations of three key carbon gases – carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and carbon monoxide (CO) – from day to day and year to year will help us to make a major leap forward in understanding natural and human changes in the carbon cycle. </p>
<p>GeoCarb is also an innovative collaboration between NASA, a public university, a commercial technology development firm (<a href="http://www.lockheedmartin.com/us/ssc/atc.html">Lockheed Martin Advanced Technology Center</a>) and a commercial communications launch and hosting firm (<a href="https://www.ses.com/">SES</a>). Our “hosted payload” approach will place a scientific observatory on a commercial communications satellite, paving the way for future low-cost, commercially enabled Earth observations.</p>
<h2>Observing the carbon cycle</h2>
<p>The famous “<a href="http://scrippsco2.ucsd.edu/history_legacy/keeling_curve_lessons">Keeling curve</a>,” which tracks CO2 concentrations in Earth’s atmosphere, is based on daily measurements at Mauna Loa Observatory on Hawaii. It shows that global CO2 levels are rising over time, but also change seasonally due to biological processes. CO2 <a href="https://scripps.ucsd.edu/programs/keelingcurve/2013/05/07/why-are-seasonal-co2-fluctuations-strongest-in-northern-latitudes/">decreases during the Northern Hemisphere’s spring and summer months</a>, as plants grow and take CO2 out of the air. It rises again in fall and winter when plants go relatively dormant and ecosystems “exhale” CO2. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/163729/original/image-20170403-21960-y6qai5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/163729/original/image-20170403-21960-y6qai5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/163729/original/image-20170403-21960-y6qai5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/163729/original/image-20170403-21960-y6qai5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/163729/original/image-20170403-21960-y6qai5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/163729/original/image-20170403-21960-y6qai5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/163729/original/image-20170403-21960-y6qai5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Recorded starting in 1958 by the late geochemist Charles David Keeling, the Keeling curve measures atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://scripps.ucsd.edu/programs/keelingcurve/wp-content/plugins/sio-bluemoon/graphs/mlo_full_record.png">Scripps Institution of Oceanography</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A closer look shows that every year’s cycle is slightly different. In some years the biosphere takes more CO2 out of the atmosphere; in others it releases more to the atmosphere. We want to know more about what causes the year-to-year differences because that contains clues on how the carbon cycle works.</p>
<p>For example, during the El Niño of 1997-1998, a sharp rise in CO2 was largely driven by <a href="https://theconversation.com/indonesia-at-risk-from-huge-fires-because-of-el-nino-43072">fires in Indonesia</a>. The most recent El Niño in 2015-2016 also led to a rise in CO2, but the cause was probably a complex mixture of effects across the tropics – including reduced photosynthesis in Amazonia, temperature-driven soil release of CO2 in Africa and fires in tropical Asia. </p>
<p>These two examples of year-to-year variability in the carbon cycle, both globally and regionally, reflect what we now believe – namely, that variability is largely driven by <a href="http://www.sysecol2.ethz.ch/Refs/EntClim/L/Le233.pdf">terrestrial ecosystems</a>. The ability to probe the climate-carbon interaction will require a much more quantitative understanding of the causes of this variability at the process level of various ecosystems.</p>
<h2>Why study terrestrial emissions from space?</h2>
<p>GeoCarb will be launched into <a href="http://www.space.com/29222-geosynchronous-orbit.html">geostationary orbit</a> at roughly 85 degrees west longitude, where it will rotate in tandem with the Earth. From this vantage point, the major urban and industrial regions in the Americas from Saskatoon to Punta Arenas will be in view, as will the large agricultural areas and the expansive South American tropical forests and wetlands. Measurements of carbon dioxide, methane and carbon monoxide once or twice daily over much of the terrestrial Americas will help resolve flux variability for CO2 and CH4.</p>
<p>GeoCarb also will measure <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/jpl/oco2/pia18935">solar induced fluorescence</a> (SIF) – plants emitting light that they cannot use back out into space. This “flashing” by the biosphere is strongly tied to the rate of photosynthesis, and so provides a measure of how much CO2 plants take in. </p>
<p>NASA pioneered the technology that GeoCarb will carry on an earlier mission, the <a href="http://oco.jpl.nasa.gov/">Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2</a> (OCO-2). OCO-2 launched into a <a href="http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/OrbitsCatalog/page2.php">low Earth orbit</a> in 2014 and has been measuring CO2 from space ever since, passing from pole to pole several times per day as the Earth turns beneath it.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/163731/original/image-20170403-21966-1bz553b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/163731/original/image-20170403-21966-1bz553b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/163731/original/image-20170403-21966-1bz553b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/163731/original/image-20170403-21966-1bz553b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/163731/original/image-20170403-21966-1bz553b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/163731/original/image-20170403-21966-1bz553b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/163731/original/image-20170403-21966-1bz553b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Geostationary satellites like Geo-Carb and the GOES weather satellites (shown here) are positioned over the equator at an altitude of about 36,000 km (or 22,300 miles) above Earth’s surface and orbit at the same speed as the Earth’s rotation, making them appear to stand still. OCO-2, like the Low Earth satellite shown here, samples a much narrower area.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.meted.ucar.edu/goes_r/envmon/print.php">UCAR</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Though the instruments are similar, the difference in orbit is crucial. OCO-2 samples a narrow 10-km track over much of the globe on a 16-day repeat cycle, while GeoCarb will look at the terrestrial Western Hemisphere continuously from a fixed position, scanning most of this land mass at least once per day. </p>
<p>Where OCO-2 may miss observing the Amazon for a season due to regular cloud cover, GeoCarb will target the cloud-free regions every day with flexible scanning patterns. Daily revisits will show the biosphere changing in near-real time alongside weather satellites such as <a href="https://www.nesdis.noaa.gov/content/goes-16-color-composite-images">GOES 16</a>, which is located at 105 degrees west, helping to connect the dots between the components of Earth’s system.</p>
<h2>Nuances of the carbon cycle</h2>
<p>Many <a href="https://www.nrs.fs.fed.us/niacs/carbon/forests/carbon_cycle/">processes</a> affect levels of CO2 in the atmosphere, including plant growth and decay, fossil fuel combustion and land use changes, such as clearing forests for farming or development. Attributing atmospheric CO2 changes to different processes is difficult using CO2 measurements alone, because the atmosphere mixes CO2 from all of the different sources together. </p>
<p>As mentioned earlier, in addition to CO2 and CH4, GeoCarb will measure CO. Burning fossil fuel <a href="https://www.nap.edu/read/10378/chapter/3">releases</a> both CO and CO2. This means that when we see high concentrations of both gases together, we have evidence that they are being released by human activities. </p>
<p>Making this distinction is key so we do not assume that human-induced CO2 emissions come from a decrease in plant activity or a natural release of CO2 from soil. If we can distinguish between man-made and natural emissions, we can draw more robust conclusions about the carbon cycle. Knowing what fraction of these changes is caused by human activities is important for understanding our impact on the planet, and observing and measuring it is essential to any conversation about strategies for reducing CO2 emissions.</p>
<p>GeoCarb’s measurement of methane will be a crucial element in understanding the global carbon-climate system. Methane is produced by natural systems, such as wetlands, and by human activities such as natural gas production. We do not understand the methane portion of the carbon cycle as well as CO2. But just as with CO2, methane observations tell us a lot about the functioning of natural systems. Marshes release methane as part of the natural decay in the system. The rate of release is tied to how wet/dry and warm/cool the system is. </p>
<p>It is uncertain how much natural gas production contributes to methane emissions. One reason to quantify these emissions more accurately is that they represent <a href="http://www.washingtonpost.com/sf/brand-connect/wp/perspectives/curbing-fugitive-emissions-could-save-millions-for-local-economies/?utm_term=.d8c40f55b949">lost revenue</a> for energy producers. The Environmental Protection Agency estimates a U.S. leakage rate of around 2 percent, which could add up to <a href="http://www.forbes.com/sites/tomzeller/2015/04/21/natural-gas-leaks-a-30-billion-opportunity-and-global-warming-menace/#76d573df8f81">billions of dollars</a> annually. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/163736/original/image-20170403-21933-ygse3i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/163736/original/image-20170403-21933-ygse3i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/163736/original/image-20170403-21933-ygse3i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/163736/original/image-20170403-21933-ygse3i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/163736/original/image-20170403-21933-ygse3i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/163736/original/image-20170403-21933-ygse3i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/163736/original/image-20170403-21933-ygse3i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">These images of the Aliso Canyon, California methane leak, taken 11 days apart in January 2016, are the first time the methane plume from a single facility has been observed from space. Photos were taken by instruments on (left) a NASA ER-2 aircraft at 4.1 miles (6.6 kilometers) altitude, and (right) NASA’s Earth Observing-1 satellite in low-Earth orbit. Future instruments will provide more precise measurements.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://images.nasa.gov/#/details-PIA20716.html">NASA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We expect based on simulations that GeoCarb will produce maps that highlight the largest leaks with only a few days of observations. Finding leaks will reduce costs for energy producers and reduce the carbon footprint of natural gas. Currently, energy companies find leaks by sending personnel with detection equipment to suspected leak sites. Newer airborne sensors could make the process cheaper, but they are still deployed on a limited basis and in an ad hoc manner. GeoCarb’s regular observations will provide leakage information to producers in a timely manner to help them limit their losses. </p>
<h2>Watching the planet breathe</h2>
<p>With daily scans of landmasses in the Western Hemisphere, GeoCarb will provide an unprecedented number of high-quality measurements of CO2, CH4 and CO in the atmosphere. These observations, along with direct measurements of photosynthetic activity from SIF observations, will raise our understanding of the carbon cycle to a new level.</p>
<p>For the first time we will be able to watch as the Western Hemisphere breathes in and out every day, and to see the seasons change through the eyes of the biosphere. Equipped with these observations, we will begin to disentangle natural and human contributions to the carbon balance. These insights will help scientists make robust predictions about Earth’s future.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/72344/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Berrien Moore III receives funding from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and NASA.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sean Crowell works for the University of Oklahoma. He receives funding from NASA.</span></em></p>Why use satellites to study Earth’s climate? Researchers leading a new mission explain how images from space will help them analyze which parts of the Americas soak up the most carbon.Berrien Moore III, Vice President, Weather & Climate Programs; Dean, College of Atmospheric & Geographic Sciences; Director, National Weather Center, University of OklahomaSean Crowell, Research Scientist, University of OklahomaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/262032014-05-29T16:40:01Z2014-05-29T16:40:01ZRural networks can help prevent deaths from indoor pollution<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/49787/original/9y4y7k56-1401363670.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">One of the biggest killers.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/eileendelhi/185462923">eileendelhi</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The ineffective burning of wood in traditional stoves means that more people die around the world from pollution indoors than outdoors. There are simple, cleaner alternatives for sale, but encouraging the purchase of them has proved difficult. A project in India, however, is using rural women’s social networks to successfully change the situation and those selling improved stoves can learn from that project.</p>
<p>A <a href="http://www.cleancookstoves.org/blog/who-estimates-increased-hap-deaths.html">recent report</a> from the World Health Organisation (WHO) estimates around 4.3m deaths globally in 2012 due to indoor air pollution and almost all of them in low and middle income countries. In comparison, outdoor air pollution led to <a href="http://www.cleancookstoves.org/media-and-events/news/who-7-million-deaths.html">2.6m deaths</a>. </p>
<p>The WHO report believes that nearly <a href="http://www.cleancookstoves.org/blog/who-estimates-increased-hap-deaths.html">three billion poor people</a>, who rely on solid fuels for cooking and heating, are at risk of being affected by indoor pollution. Nearly <a href="http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs292/en/">50% deaths among children under five</a> in underdeveloped countries are the result of acute lower respiratory infections caused by indoor pollution in the form of carbon monoxide and particulate matter generated by burning biomass. Such biomass is the cheapest and most widely available fuel. Continuous exposure to such indoor pollution can lead to other health problems. Women – who spend more time near stoves – are particularly badly affected.</p>
<p>One solution to changing this is to use improved stoves. In most countries, these are available from governments and charities. Some provide them for free, but most places offer it at subsidised prices. </p>
<p>Improved stoves come in different designs, but the main idea is to ensure that the fuel is burned effectively, so that it does not create soot or toxic carbon monoxide. This is achieved by improving airflow near the site where the fuel is burnt. Some designs allow the removal of gases released from the burning fuel away from the person sitting near the stove.</p>
<p>The health benefits are usually long term, so people don’t always opt for the purchase even at subsidised rates. Even when they are provided for free, a lot of the people quickly <a href="http://ehs.sph.berkeley.edu/krsmith/publications/2011/ruiz_adoption.pdf">stop using them</a>. </p>
<p>The Indian government’s National Program on Improved Cookstoves is <a href="http://practicalaction.org/docs/energy/docs48/bp48_pp23-26.pdf">a good example</a> of the kind of government-led stove interventions that can go wrong. Although there was money available for the program, it failed because of poor stove design, misunderstanding of the community’s needs and poor distribution networks. NGOs do better, but often don’t have enough financial support.</p>
<h2>Power of networks</h2>
<p><a href="http://www.unilever.com/images/es_Project_Shakti_tcm13-141088.pdf">Project Shakti</a>, a programme launched by Hindustan Unilever, has found a way to use women’s social networks to bring about behaviour change and drive communities to adopt new products. Important insights can be drawn through this case and can be applied for sustained dissemination of improved cookstoves among such poor communities.</p>
<p>The project recruits influential women in rural communities who are called Shakti Ammas, where Shakti means “power” and Amma means “mother”. These Shakti Ammas have strong social network partnership with the other women in their communities. While earning a living from this programme, these Shakti Ammas influence the opinions of the peers in their networks. </p>
<p>In a country with the largest informal labour market, women often don’t find decent wages for their work. That is why even a small income can be a good driver. In this case, the influence leads to the purchase of Hindustan Unilever’s products, such as washing powders, soaps, shampoos or toothpastes, among the rural women in their networks. But there is much to learn from this marketing strategy to help other not-for-profit ideas to spread.</p>
<p>Penetrating the rural market in India has remained a big challenge because that population tends not to consume media and advertising in the way that urban folks do. But Project Shakti has been successful where most have failed. The strategy has been so effective that by 2013, more than 40,000 Shakti Ammas are working in 15 Indian states and these informal networks are changing behaviour in more than 100,000 villages.</p>
<p>Project Shakti provides two important insights for an effective dissemination of ideas and products. First, the influence of the group leader in informal community based networks has a marked prominence in dissemination of new products. Second, influential women within these social networks can become powerful agents to change traditions, culture, and social norms and can facilitate the uptake of new, cleaner products. These insights and cases such as Project Shakti are highly relevant to research studies focusing on the dissemination of improved cookstoves and eventually for causing a behavioural change among the rural communities to sustainably use these improved stoves. </p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/26203/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Praveen Kumar does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The ineffective burning of wood in traditional stoves means that more people die around the world from pollution indoors than outdoors. There are simple, cleaner alternatives for sale, but encouraging…Praveen Kumar, Ph.D. Student, Washington University in St. LouisLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.