tag:theconversation.com,2011:/au/topics/child-labour-13235/articlesChild labour – The Conversation2023-11-02T22:15:48Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2163222023-11-02T22:15:48Z2023-11-02T22:15:48ZHow Canadian companies can use tech to identify forced labour in their supply chains<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557005/original/file-20231101-19-pz1lh7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=29%2C37%2C4962%2C3293&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Canadian companies will soon be legally obligated to annually report on efforts to prevent and remediate forced and child labour in their supply chains. Technology could help them do this.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/how-canadian-companies-can-use-tech-to-identify-forced-labour-in-their-supply-chains" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>Levi Strauss Canada is yet another company facing <a href="https://core-ombuds.canada.ca/core_ombuds-ocre_ombuds/press-release-levi-strauss-communique.aspx?lang=eng">allegations of forced labour in its supply chain</a>. The allegations, <a href="https://www.ctvnews.ca/canada/corporate-ethics-czar-investigating-levi-strauss-over-alleged-links-to-forced-labour-1.6570081">which Levi Strauss denies</a>, centre on whether the company is working with suppliers using Uyghur forced labour. With over <a href="https://www.ilo.org/global/topics/forced-labour/publications/WCMS_854733/lang--en/index.htm">27 million people worldwide</a> in forced labour, we can expect to witness similar allegations elsewhere in the coming years. </p>
<p>While Canada enjoys strong protections against labour exploitation, the issue of involuntary work may hit closer to home than expected. The reality is that forced labour <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/companies-brands-china-supply-chains-illegal-forced-labor-2022-12">could have been used to produce many of our everyday items</a>, including clothing, electronics and vehicles. </p>
<p>Canada has taken a significant step in addressing this problem through the <a href="https://laws.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/F-10.6">Fighting Against Forced Labour and Child Labour in Supply Chains Act</a>. As of Jan. 1, 2024, companies with significant operations in Canada will be legally obligated to pay closer attention to the working conditions in their supply chains. </p>
<p>This act brings Canada’s efforts to address forced labour in alignment with other regions such as the <a href="https://www.cbp.gov/trade/forced-labor/UFLPA">United States</a>, the <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2015/30/contents/enacted">United Kingdom</a> and <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/C2018A00153">Australia</a>.</p>
<p>Under this act, any entity with significant operations in Canada will be obligated to annually report on its efforts to prevent and remediate forced and child labour in its supply chains. </p>
<p>This includes disclosing information about relevant policies, due diligence processes, supply chain hotspots, employee training and remediation measures. The act also includes provisions for corrective measures and punishment. </p>
<h2>Identifying forced labour with technology</h2>
<p>The complex nature of supply chains makes identifying when and where forced or child labour occurs a significant challenge. Supply chains can contain thousands of suppliers that span continents. Even major international companies like Levi Strauss, which has a strong <a href="https://www.levistrauss.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/LSCo_Code-of-Conduct.pdf">supplier code of conduct</a>, can end up facing allegations of violations in their supply chains.</p>
<p>To explore how forced and child labour can be identified in supply chains, we <a href="https://cmr.berkeley.edu/2022/03/modern-slavery-in-global-supply-chains-the-impact-of-covid-19/">conducted over 30 interviews with experts from around the world</a>. These experts included representatives from non-governmental organizations, companies and auditing bodies, providing insight into how emerging technologies can be used to support identifying such practices.</p>
<p>The difficulty of identifying far-flung suppliers, for instance, could be simplified by using DNA to identify a product’s origin, as is done with <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/04/07/business/economy/ai-tech-dna-supply-chain.html">cotton</a>, <a href="https://www.msc.org/media-centre/news-opinion/news/2020/02/21/how-dna-testing-works">seafood</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/chocolate-a-new-way-to-make-sure-your-favourite-bar-is-an-ethical-treat-163687">chocolate</a>.</p>
<p>Drones and satellite imaging can be used to identify potential forced labour hotspots, such as remote <a href="https://www.insider.com/pakistan-brick-kilns-debt-bondage-modern-day-slavery-2023-4">brick kilns</a>, <a href="https://us.macmillan.com/books/9781250284297/cobaltred">mines</a> or <a href="https://hai.stanford.edu/news/detecting-modern-day-slavery-sky">areas of illegal deforestation</a>. AI can also <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/01/how-ai-and-satellite-imaging-tech-can-put-an-end-to-modern-slavery/">predict areas at high risk of forced and child labor</a> and direct attention to these regions.</p>
<p>Additionally, emerging technologies can help identify some forms of deception. Blockchain technology, for example, can provide an <a href="https://widgets.weforum.org/blockchain-toolkit/data-integrity/index.html">unalterable ledger of transactions in real time</a>, preventing later manipulation. Artificial intelligence can quickly process immense quantities of data, which aids in <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/04/07/business/economy/ai-tech-dna-supply-chain.html">detecting unusual patterns indicating potential fraud</a>.</p>
<h2>Addressing the risk of deceptive practices</h2>
<p>In some cases, there are incentives for businesses to conceal illegal and immoral practices. Transparentem, a non-profit group focused on eradicating labour abuse, found <a href="https://transparentem.org/project/hidden-harm/">evidence of deception during supply chain audits in garment factories in India, Malaysia and Myanmar</a>. These deceptive practices include falsifying documents, coaching workers to lie and hiding workers who appeared to be unlawfully employed.</p>
<p>Based on in-depth interviews with auditors, suppliers, brand representatives and workers in the apparel industry, Human Rights Watch has found these risks are <a href="https://www.hrw.org/report/2022/11/15/obsessed-audit-tools-missing-goal/why-social-audits-cant-fix-labor-rights-abuses">elevated when companies have advance notice of an upcoming audit</a>. </p>
<p>Integrating sensors, cameras and other cloud technology can enable real-time monitoring of working conditions, mitigating the risks of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.120773">advance notice of audits</a>. Sensors and cameras, for example, have been used on <a href="https://teem.fish/vessels/">fishing vessels</a> to remotely transmit data in near real-time. </p>
<p>Worker voice platforms, such as those used in the <a href="https://www.responsiblebusiness.org/tools/voices/">electronics industry</a>, allow workers to provide feedback directly through smartphone apps. This can serve as a real-time whistleblower mechanism for workers trapped in forced labour.</p>
<h2>Technology is only part of the solution</h2>
<p>Despite its potential benefits, technology still has weaknesses, like high costs, susceptibility to manipulation and weak data security, that need to be addressed. Blockchain technology, for instance, <a href="https://widgets.weforum.org/blockchain-toolkit/data-integrity/index.html">can codify manipulated or incorrect data</a> unless the necessary precautions are taken.</p>
<p>Meeting the requirements of the Fighting Against Forced Labour and Child Labour in Supply Chains Act will require grounding technology in a broader risk-based approach consisting of supplier screening, monitoring and auditing. </p>
<p>In addition, even when technology does indicate the presence of forced or child labour, on-the-ground verification and follow-up is often required. Identification is just the first step. The act requires reporting on remediation, which is typically based on long-term collaborative relationships with local parties.</p>
<p>Addressing the issue of forced and child labour in supply chains is difficult and complex. While technology can help companies fulfil their reporting obligations under the act, identifying and remediating these crucial issues will require <a href="https://cmr.berkeley.edu/2022/11/65-1-transformational-transparency-in-supply-chains-leveraging-technology-to-drive-radical-change/">ongoing and concerted efforts</a>. </p>
<p>The first report is due on May 31, 2024, so companies have no time to spare in working to comply with the act.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/216322/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Cory Searcy receives funding from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Grant Michelson and Pavel Castka do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Supply chains can contain thousands of suppliers spanning continents. DNA testing, drones, satellite imaging and other technologies can help identify forced and child labour.Cory Searcy, Professor, Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, & Vice-Provost and Dean of Graduate Studies, Toronto Metropolitan UniversityGrant Michelson, Professor of Management, Macquarie Business School, Macquarie UniversityPavel Castka, Professor in Operations Management and Sustainability; Associate Dean Research at UC Business School, University of CanterburyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2100272023-08-01T14:44:38Z2023-08-01T14:44:38ZClimate change contributes to violence against children – here’s how<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539206/original/file-20230725-27-87y32l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Refugees, some of them children, in Hargeisa, Somaliland. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">EDUARDO SOTERAS/AFP via Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe id="noa-web-audio-player" style="border: none" src="https://embed-player.newsoveraudio.com/v4?key=x84olp&id=https://theconversation.com/climate-change-contributes-to-violence-against-children-heres-how-210027&bgColor=F5F5F5&color=D8352A&playColor=D8352A" width="100%" height="110px"></iframe>
<p>Every day of the northern hemisphere’s summer in 2023 seems to bring a calamitous headline about the climate: <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/live/2023/jul/17/europe-heatwave-2023-us-asia-heat-extreme-severe-weather-fires-flash-floods-flooding-record-breaking-heat-wave-stress-temperature-red-alert-climate-crisis">heatwaves</a>, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/jul/24/greece-wildfires-corfu-evia-rhodes-heatwave-northern-hemisphere-extreme-weather-temperatures-europe">wildfires</a>, massive <a href="https://news.sky.com/story/icy-water-courses-through-italian-streets-after-dramatic-hailstorm-12925407">hailstorms</a>.</p>
<p>Such scenes are set to become our global reality in the coming years. Scientists paint a <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/resources/spm-headline-statements/">grim picture</a> of how human-induced climate change, combined with wider environmental degradation, will affect us all.</p>
<p>That, of course, includes children. However, research is still in its early stages on how, precisely, both climate change and environmental degradation relate to violence against children.</p>
<p>It is crucial to explore these potential intersections to spur academic and political movement in this area. Findings from such reviews, and further research that may emerge from it, could help to inform policies and interventions that can protect and support children, particularly those most vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and environmental shocks. </p>
<h2>Our study</h2>
<p>We conducted an <a href="https://osf.io/preprints/socarxiv/zpxc8/">extensive scoping review of the literature</a> on the intersections of climate change, environmental degradation and violence against children, to see what’s known so far and what needs attention.</p>
<p>We explored both direct violence – physical, sexual and emotional – and structural violence; that is, rooted in inequitable and unjust systems and institutions. This approach allowed for a nuanced understanding of the implications for children in all countries. It also meant we could explore the causes and effects of climate change and environmental degradation in relation to systems, institutions, structures, norms and interactions.</p>
<p>The study identified five themes: hazards and disaster risk reduction; gender; climate-induced mobility or immobility; child labour; and health. What emerges clearly is that violence against children is not solely a phenomenon that intensifies during environmental shocks. It is deeply rooted in historical injustices, global systems and structures. That means it disproportionately affects those living in poverty. </p>
<h2>1. Hazards and disaster risk reduction</h2>
<p>Natural hazards, combined with large-scale humanitarian crises, pose immediate risks to health, life, property and the environment. </p>
<p><a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34247619/">Studies</a> have uncovered how increasing social, economic and emotional pressures in these situations expose children to higher risks of violence. This may occur in their homes or in relief shelters. It may be perpetrated by their peers, or by caregivers forcing them into labour because of the sudden need to rebuild or help make ends meet.</p>
<p>More knowledge is needed to inform integrated and culturally sensitive plans to protect children better from environmental hazards. </p>
<h2>2. Gender</h2>
<p>The effects of climate change and environmental degradation are not gender neutral. They can affect girls and boys differently. There is a <a href="https://gh.bmj.com/content/6/4/e004377">growing body of work</a> on gender-based violence and violence against women and girls in relation to climate change. </p>
<p>But this work tends to be centred on issues affecting female adults, conflating the term “gender” with “women”, without sufficient attention to the gendered effects of climate change on female and male children.</p>
<p>Existing <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17441692.2022.2095655">research</a> suggests that climate change can potentially exacerbate known drivers of child marriage in low- and lower-middle-income countries. But findings vary significantly by region. For example, there is an <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/48584105">observed increase</a> in child marriage motivated by the receipt of a bride price payment in sub-Saharan Africa during sudden periods of drought. In India, though, droughts have led to a decrease in child marriage to delay dowry payments. </p>
<p>Nuanced data about boys’ exposure to various forms of violence in the context of climate change is missing. That’s because studies tend to focus on males as perpetrators but not as victims of violence.</p>
<h2>3. Mobility and immobility</h2>
<p>The number of <a href="https://theconversation.com/as-more-climate-migrants-cross-borders-seeking-refuge-laws-will-need-to-adapt-159673">climate migrants</a> is rising. </p>
<p>Research we reviewed on migration, displacement and relocation due to climate change, natural or human-induced hazards points to increased risks of violence against children within migrating families and higher exposure to it in camps and shelters. Also, separation from families or caregivers renders children and young people extremely vulnerable to violence.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-change-migration-and-urbanisation-patterns-in-sub-saharan-africa-149036">Climate change, migration and urbanisation: patterns in sub-Saharan Africa</a>
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<p>Meanwhile, immobility – when people cannot or do not want to move – has been associated in some <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/disa.12441">studies</a> with child abuse, injuries and overcrowding in slum areas. </p>
<p>Fear of violence in shelters can lead women to remain at home after natural hazards, increasing children’s risk of harm from the hazard or other forms of violence. </p>
<h2>4. Child labour</h2>
<p>Existing <a href="https://www.ilo.org/ipec/Informationresources/WCMS_651800/lang--en/index.htm">research</a> indicates that child labour increases after natural hazards due to families’ reliance on child work and the absence of strategies to eliminate child labour entirely. Child labour is also prevalent in industries associated with climate change, such as agriculture, fisheries, mining, fashion and tourism. </p>
<p>The extent of child labour in this context, and its link to violence, remains inadequately explored in research, however, due to the hidden nature and contextual specificity of this issue.</p>
<h2>5. Health</h2>
<p>Children’s physical and mental health is affected by climate change. Natural hazards have been <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanplh/article/PIIS2542-5196(20)30274-6/fulltext">linked</a> to poor health outcomes and increased mortality among children, particularly those younger than five.</p>
<p>There is <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20337500/">emerging evidence</a> that mental health issues, stemming from climate and environmental shocks, can lead to increased perpetration of violence against children, including domestic violence. Rising <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2542519621002783">eco-anxiety</a> among children and youth, caused by awareness of climate change and environmental degradation and fears of its consequences, adds to mental health problems. </p>
<h2>Ways forward</h2>
<p>By shedding light on the magnitude and pathways of these relationships, we want to underscore the urgent need for context-specific approaches and further research. </p>
<p>Understanding these interlinkages is essential for informing policies and interventions that can protect and support children, particularly those most vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and environmental shocks. By addressing the root causes of violence and prioritising the wellbeing of children in these crises, we can strive towards a safer and more sustainable future.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/210027/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Simone Datzberger received funding for this research from UCL Grand Challenges. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jenny Parkes, Lottie Howard-Merrill, and Steven Kator Iorfa do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Exploring the potential intersections between climate change and violence against children is crucial.Simone Datzberger, Associate professor, UCLJenny Parkes, Professor in Education, Gender and International Development, UCLLottie Howard-Merrill, PhD Candidate, UCLSteven Kator Iorfa, Doctoral Researcher, University of PortsmouthLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1992422023-05-16T18:43:45Z2023-05-16T18:43:45ZCanada’s Modern Slavery Act is the start — not the end — of efforts to address the issue in supply chains<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526627/original/file-20230516-37075-dmbv3x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=14%2C0%2C4905%2C3253&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Canada has joined a growing list of nations that have introduced legislation to combat modern slavery in supply chains.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Paul Teysen/Unsplash)</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/canada-s-modern-slavery-act-is-the-start-—-not-the-end-—-of-efforts-to-address-the-issue-in-supply-chains" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>On May 3, Canada <a href="https://www.ctvnews.ca/politics/mps-pass-law-meant-to-curb-forced-labour-as-critics-decry-its-lack-of-teeth-1.6382930">passed legislation</a> aimed at addressing <a href="https://www.ilo.org/global/topics/forced-labour/lang--en/index.htm">modern slavery</a> — a term that typically encompasses forced labour, bonded labour and child labour — in supply chains. </p>
<p>By doing so, Canada has <a href="https://time.com/5741714/end-modern-slavery-initiatives/">joined a growing list of nations</a> that have introduced this type of legislation. <a href="https://www.parl.ca/legisinfo/en/bill/44-1/s-211">Bill S-211</a>, the Fighting Against Forced Labour and Child Labour in Supply Chains Act, received royal assent on May 11 and is slated to become law on Jan. 1, 2024. </p>
<p>As business and policy researchers interested in human rights and exploitation, we have studied modern slavery around the world, including the development of supply chain legislation, corporate efforts and other initiatives intended to address modern slavery. </p>
<p>We have been closely following this issue in Canada.</p>
<p>The enactment of what many are calling Canada’s Modern Slavery Act is without a doubt an important milestone. Yet we need to remain diligent and view it as the start — not the end — of efforts to address modern slavery in supply chains. Otherwise, we risk exacerbating the issue.</p>
<h2>Landmark legislation in Canada</h2>
<p>Forced labour and “<a href="https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_norm/---ipec/documents/publication/wcms_854733.pdf">situations of exploitation that a person cannot refuse or cannot leave because of threats, violence, deception, abuse of power or other forms of coercion</a>” are not relics of the past. They are ever-present issues linked to our lives through <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/jscm.12258">supply chains</a>.</p>
<p>Once Bill S-211 comes into effect, government institutions and Canadian-linked companies that <a href="https://www.parl.ca/DocumentViewer/en/44-1/bill/S-211/royal-assent">meet the act’s thresholds</a> will be required to submit an annual report that details their efforts to address forced labour and child labour in their supply chains.</p>
<p>Bill S-211 also amends the Canadian Customs Tariff to “<a href="https://www.parl.ca/legisinfo/en/bill/44-1/s-211">exclude goods that are mined, manufactured or produced wholly or in part by forced labour or child labour</a>.”</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A clock tower peeking through autumn foliage." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525977/original/file-20230512-8466-ekh0cr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525977/original/file-20230512-8466-ekh0cr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525977/original/file-20230512-8466-ekh0cr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525977/original/file-20230512-8466-ekh0cr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525977/original/file-20230512-8466-ekh0cr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525977/original/file-20230512-8466-ekh0cr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525977/original/file-20230512-8466-ekh0cr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Bill S-211 — Canada’s version of a Modern Slavery Act — is expected to come into effect as law on Jan. 1, 2024.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Kishore Uthamaraj/Unsplash)</span></span>
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<p>For years, Canada has been viewed as a laggard when it comes to supply chain legislation, <a href="https://theconversation.com/modern-slavery-bill-a-step-in-the-right-direction-now-businesses-must-comply-99135">trailing behind other jurisdictions</a> (e.g., Australia, Netherlands, United Kingdom and United States). This legislation is a step toward bringing Canada into sync with global regulatory trends.</p>
<p>Experts have advocated for more stringent legislation if Canada wants to “<a href="https://thetyee.ca/Analysis/2022/08/23/Canada-Needs-Get-Serious-Modern-Slavery/">get serious about modern slavery</a>.” </p>
<p>Reporting on modern slavery in supply chains will not be new for many companies, as <a href="https://modern-slavery-statement-registry.service.gov.uk/">many are already required to do so under legislation elsewhere</a>. But for some, this will be new territory. </p>
<p>Businesses that did not pay attention to modern slavery before this point now have no choice but to confront it.</p>
<p>A <a href="http://schulich.yorku.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Canadian-Business-Insights-on-Modern-Slavery-in-Supply-Chains-Full-Report.pdf">study of businesses in Canada</a> found some professionals have struggled to get buy-in from key stakeholders. These stakeholders are often dismissive of modern slavery because they either believe it’s irrelevant or that directing attention to it risks damaging their reputation.</p>
<p>Codifying forced labour and child labour in supply chains into legislation will help legitimize the issue in the eyes of otherwise reluctant decision-makers.</p>
<h2>Superficial reporting</h2>
<p>Years after the early pieces of transparency in supply chain legislation such as the <a href="https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10551-016-3364-7.pdf">California Transparency in Supply Chains Act</a>, <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/1758-5899.12398">U.K. Modern Slavery Act</a> and <a href="https://static1.squarespace.com/static/580025f66b8f5b2dabbe4291/t/6200d3d9db51c63088d0e8e1/1644221419125/Paper+Promises_Australia+Modern+_Slavery+Act_7_FEB.pdf">Australian Modern Slavery Act</a> have come into effect, there is little cause for optimism around their effectiveness.</p>
<p>Scholars have argued that transparency laws tend to lead to “<a href="https://static1.squarespace.com/static/6055c0601c885456ba8c962a/t/61d71e46967f033bb694f6e5/1641487943126/ReStructureLab_DueDiligence_April2021_AW.pdf">superficial reporting, focused on processes rather than outcomes</a>” and that this type of legislation “has failed to root out forced labour and exploitation from prevailing business models.”</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/modern-slavery-act-is-having-unintended-consequences-for-womens-freedom-in-sri-lanka-112258">Modern Slavery Act is having unintended consequences for women's freedom in Sri Lanka</a>
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<p>A lack of government enforcement, vague reporting requirements that don’t encompass key metrics most relevant to forced labour, and rampant non-compliance among businesses have fuelled ineffectiveness.</p>
<h2>Broken tools</h2>
<p>Transparency legislation has expanded companies’ reliance on tools to prevent and address forced labour in supply chains. The problem with this, however, is that many of these tools are broken.</p>
<p>In their rush to demonstrate they are taking action on forced labour by reporting on their efforts to address it, companies have been leaning heavily on social auditing and ethical certification programs.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/D09353629C19265CF1F136F90DEF5214/S0260210515000388a.pdf/benchmarking-global-supply-chains-the-power-of-the-ethical-audit-regime.pdf">Evidence suggests</a> these programs mask forced labour, rather than finding and fixing it. These programs give the impression there are effective monitoring systems in place, when there are not.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-businesses-fail-to-detect-modern-slavery-at-work-82344">Why businesses fail to detect modern slavery at work</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>A <a href="https://static1.squarespace.com/static/6055c0601c885456ba8c962a/t/62d746146f5dc5205a17621c/1658275349325/ReStructureLab_SocialAuditingandEthicalCertification_July2022.pdf">review of studies</a> on auditing and certification highlights the failures and flaws hardwired into these systems when it comes to detecting, preventing and remediating forced labour. These programs simply don’t work to improve labour conditions over time.</p>
<h2>Enabling business conditions</h2>
<p>Transparency legislation does nothing to tackle the organizational and <a href="https://theconversation.com/some-people-trapped-in-modern-slavery-are-underworked-and-they-pay-a-heavy-price-for-it-99863">commercial dynamics</a> that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1056492621994904">lead to businesses’ demand for forced labour</a> in supply chains, as our research has shown.</p>
<p>Supply chain complexity and informality have been repeatedly identified as key drivers of forced labour in supply chains. However, businesses continue to be structured to reap the benefits of such conditions.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A crane unloading cargo shipping containers from a ship at a dock." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526626/original/file-20230516-29-7895y7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526626/original/file-20230516-29-7895y7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526626/original/file-20230516-29-7895y7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526626/original/file-20230516-29-7895y7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526626/original/file-20230516-29-7895y7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=552&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526626/original/file-20230516-29-7895y7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=552&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526626/original/file-20230516-29-7895y7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=552&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Shipping containers are unloaded from a cargo vessel at the PSA Halifax Fairview Cove Terminal in Halifax in October 2022. Businesses continue to embrace complex supply chains that enable modern slavery to thrive.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Andrew Vaughan</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A decade into government efforts, there is <a href="https://static1.squarespace.com/static/6055c0601c885456ba8c962a/t/61f9d3eaf800aa5cc72766cd/1643762668092/ReStructureLab_CommercialContracts_July2021.pdf">alarmingly little evidence</a> demonstrating that companies have made any meaningful changes to their commercial designs or practices.</p>
<h2>What it takes</h2>
<p>If we have learned anything from the fight against modern slavery, it is that addressing the issue — even in a select few suppliers — takes extensive time, resources and long-term commitments.</p>
<p>Counter-intuitively, combating the issue doesn’t simply mean cutting ties with entities guilty of modern slavery. In fact, working with perpetrators long-term has been demonstrated to be an effective remedy.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/heres-what-businesses-and-consumers-can-do-to-tackle-modern-slavery-in-supply-chains-200694">Here's what businesses and consumers can do to tackle modern slavery in supply chains</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>For example, after <a href="https://www.patagonia.ca/stories/the-unacceptably-high-cost-of-labor-a-new-migrant-worker-standard-from-patagonia/story-17743.html">Patagonia detected labour violations</a> among a few of its suppliers in Taiwan, it documented and publicly reported on its multi-year effort to update its supplier code of conduct and work with the violators to ensure the issue was addressed. </p>
<p>Their extensive work resulted in the creation of their <a href="https://www.patagonia.com/static/on/demandware.static/-/Library-Sites-PatagoniaShared/default/dwd52f9d06/PDF-US/Patagonia-Migrant-Worker-Employment-Standards-V2-0-English.pdf">Migrant Worker Employment Standards</a> handbook, which has been applied to suppliers beyond Taiwan and shared with other companies in the industry.</p>
<p>While some legislation is better than none, we need to be aware of the pitfalls associated with current legislation and remain diligent moving forward.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/199242/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kam Phung has received research funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC) and Mitacs.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Genevieve LeBaron has received research funding from SSHRC, ESRC, Humanity United, Ford Foundation, among others.</span></em></p>If we have learned anything from the fight against modern slavery, it is that addressing the issue takes extensive time, resources and long-term commitments.Kam Phung, Assistant Professor of Business & Society, Beedie School of Business, Simon Fraser UniversityGenevieve LeBaron, Professor, School of Public Policy, Simon Fraser UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2014332023-04-30T09:08:16Z2023-04-30T09:08:16ZChild labour on farms in Africa: it’s important to make a distinction between what’s harmful, and what isn’t<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/515440/original/file-20230315-18-ui0gow.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Many children help out on family farms in Africa</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Nana Kofi Acquah/Flickr</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Children across the vast expanse of rural Africa hoe, dig, plant, carry, tend livestock, cook, scrub, care for their siblings, and undertake many other farm and domestic tasks. Most of their work is on the farms of parents or relatives, and in most rural communities, learning to work is a normal part of growing up.</p>
<p>We examined a number of dimensions of children’s work in African agriculture in papers published in <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0030727020930330">2020</a> and <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1468018121991813">2022</a>. It is certainly the case that some children are harmed by the work they do, and others may be forced to work, exploited or trafficked. </p>
<p>Yet, based on this and other work informed by extensive literature review and initial research, children who are harmed by working represent a minority of working children. And critically, neither their interests, nor those of other rural children, are necessarily served by ongoing efforts to eradicate child labour from African agriculture.</p>
<p>We are researchers in development studies with long-standing interests in the complex intersections of agriculture and social development in rural Africa. Between us we have researched and published extensively on poverty and vulnerability, land, rural youth, social protection, and policy across West and East Africa.</p>
<p>As part of our ongoing academic work we recently <a href="https://bristoluniversitypress.co.uk/childrens-work-in-african-agriculture">co-edited a book</a>, Children’s Work in African Agriculture: The Harmful and the Harmless. It is the first book that directly and singularly addresses children’s work in African agriculture. It puts the notions of “harm” and “harmful work” at centre stage, and argues that in most cases the work children do on farms does not result in harm. </p>
<p>Through a combination of thematic and case-based chapters the book seeks to re-frame the debate about children’s work and harm in African agriculture. We argue such a re-framing can help rural children in two ways. </p>
<p>First, by disrupting the dominant child labour discourse that pushes all children’s work, whether it be harmful or harmless, into the category of harmful child labour. </p>
<p>Second, by opening new avenues to more effectively address that portion of children’s work that is harmful. For example, by asking how the existing framework of international conventions, instruments and organisational mandates can be made more reflective of, and relevant to, the diversity of circumstances within which rural children and their families live and work. </p>
<p>But more fundamentally, re-framing can be a powerful tool if it more explicitly links the continued existence of children’s harmful work to multiple, interacting forms of power: discursive, economic, political and so on. The point is simple enough: we can expect little from policies, strategies and interventions that do not focus in on, disrupt and realign these power relations. </p>
<h2>Key insights: harm and the school-work dichotomy</h2>
<p>For the purposes of this article we highlight insights from two chapters. </p>
<p>Chapter 2 introduces the concept of “harm” that is foundational to understanding the “rights and wrongs of children’s work”. The authors - <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/roy-maconachie-142892">Roy Maconachie</a>, <a href="https://researchportal.bath.ac.uk/en/persons/neil-howard">Neil Howard</a> and <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13600818.2021.2004393">Rosilin Bock</a> – draw on their many years of research, activism and practice around children’s work in Africa. </p>
<p>They note that harm remains a contested concept, despite being central to efforts to define and eradicate child labour, and having been theorised within various academic disciplines. And harm arising from children’s work is likely to remain difficult to identify, assess and understand. </p>
<p>Nevertheless, progress could be made with an approach to harm which incorporates its subjective dimensions, including children’s lived experience of harm, and is focused on well-being. Such an approach would involve processes that prioritise the perspectives and voices of children themselves, as well as their families and communities.</p>
<p>Chapter 4 on children’s work and schooling is written by <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/mairead-dunne-1194300">Máiréad Dunne</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/sara-humphreys-1194304">Sara Humphreys</a> and <a href="https://www.ids.ac.uk/people/carolina-szyp/">Carolina Szyp</a>. Máiréad and Sara are international experts on the sociology of education, while Carolina is a young researcher.</p>
<p>The chapter highlights how the relationship between school and work is grossly oversimplified in much of what is written about child labour. For example, it is commonly asserted that a child’s place is in school, and any work that interferes with school harms the child, and must therefore be considered as child labour. </p>
<p>However, when the quality of schooling is low, as in much of rural Africa, children may have better opportunities for learning, skill development and future livelihood enhancement through their work on the family farm.</p>
<p>The simplistic school-work dichotomy is further undermined by the fact that for many children, periods of work are formally scheduled during the school day. They clean, farm, carry water and so on, either for the school or for individual teachers. There is also an assumption that while work is harmful, school is safe. </p>
<p>The reality is that harm is experienced at school, and while travelling between home and school, as bullying, gender violence and physical abuse. Girls and children with disabilities may be particularly vulnerable.</p>
<p>When children are not in school, or when they combine school and work, parents are blamed for not appreciating the value of schooling. But research suggests that they are well aware of the realities – both good and bad – of schooling. The problem is that the school-work dichotomy, and equating children’s work with child labour, leaves no room for the very real and difficult trade-offs and compromises that rural children and their families must navigate daily. </p>
<h2>Don’t cause further harm</h2>
<p>Reframing the debate about child labour in African agriculture, and how best to address it, is particularly timely. There are ongoing initiatives to eradicate child labour from a handful of global agricultural value chains, including the <a href="https://theconversation.com/child-slavery-in-west-africa-understanding-cocoa-farming-is-key-to-ending-the-practice-170315">cocoa chain in West Africa</a>. As long as such initiatives fail to appreciate that much of the children’s work is harmless, and indeed beneficial, they have the potential to cause significant negative consequences – in fact, to harm – rural children and their families.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/201433/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>James Sumberg received funding from Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office of the UK government.
</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rachel Sabates-Wheeler received funding from Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office of the UK government.</span></em></p>Children working on family farms is often mistaken for harmful child labour.James Sumberg, Emeritus Research Fellow, Institute of Development StudiesRachel Sabates-Wheeler, Research Fellow, Institute of Development StudiesLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2016822023-03-27T19:01:39Z2023-03-27T19:01:39ZAt chocolate time, we’ve discovered what the brands that score best on child labour and the environment have in common<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517549/original/file-20230327-16-jiore4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Pxfuel</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>What distinguishes a company that makes “good” chocolate (chocolate untainted by child labour, modern slavery, deforestation and the overuse of agrichemicals) from one that merely makes chocolate?</p>
<p>Our annual <a href="https://www.chocolatescorecard.com/">Chocolate Scorecard</a> investigation, which is a collaboration between <a href="https://www.beslaveryfree.com/">Be Slavery Free</a>, <a href="https://www.mq.edu.au/macquarie-business-school/our-research/impact-stories/who-likes-chocolate">Macquarie University</a>, <a href="https://www.uow.edu.au/media/2022/why-your-love-of-chocolate-could-be-bittersweet-.php">The University of Wollongong</a> and the <a href="https://business-school.open.ac.uk/research/activity/pufin/our-research-engagement">Open University</a>, suggests it might be a mission that goes beyond making food and profit.</p>
<h2>‘Good eggs’ trumpet ambition</h2>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517825/original/file-20230328-27-9cg5b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517825/original/file-20230328-27-9cg5b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517825/original/file-20230328-27-9cg5b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=927&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517825/original/file-20230328-27-9cg5b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=927&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517825/original/file-20230328-27-9cg5b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=927&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517825/original/file-20230328-27-9cg5b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1165&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517825/original/file-20230328-27-9cg5b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1165&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517825/original/file-20230328-27-9cg5b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1165&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
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</figure>
<p>Only five of the 38 leading global chocolate makers we assessed received our green “good egg” award for exemplary practices.</p>
<p>They are the Netherlands-based <a href="https://originalbeans.com/">Original Beans</a> and <a href="https://tonyschocolonely.com/int/en">Tony’s Chocolonely</a>, Madagascar’s <a href="https://beyondgood.com/">Beyond Good</a>, US-based <a href="https://www.alterecofoods.com/">Alter Eco</a>, and Switzerland’s <a href="https://www.halba.ch/en.html">HALBA</a>. </p>
<p>Original Beans are at the forefront of Europe’s artisan chocolate revolution. Its mission statement includes the words “<a href="https://originalbeans.com/pages/about-us">regenerate what you consume</a>”. Its website asks its customers to “<a href="https://originalbeans.com/pages/regeneration-catalogue">heal the future, don’t steal it</a>”.</p>
<p>Tony’s Chocolonely has as its <a href="https://tonyschocolonely.com/int/en/our-story/our-mission">mission</a> making slave-free chocolate and turning all chocolate slave-free. </p>
<p>It says 60% of the world’s cocoa comes from 2.5 million farms in West Africa that are placed under the kind of pricing pressure that leads to child labour and modern slavery. The average cocoa farmer earns less than US$1.20 per day, and women cocoa farmers are thought to earn around 50 cents per day.</p>
<h2>‘Broken eggs’ say little</h2>
<p>At the other end of the scale, firms such as <a href="https://www.unilever.com/">Unilever</a> (which makes Magnum icecreams) and <a href="https://www.mondelezinternational.com/">Mondēlez</a> (which makes Cadbury) were awarded “broken eggs” for not engaging with the survey. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.mondelezinternational.com/About-Us/Who-We-Are/Purpose-and-Mission">Mondēlez</a> describes its mission as going “the extra mile to lead the future of snacking around the world”, rather than tackling environmental or social concerns.</p>
<p>It’s a long way from Cadbury’s original mission. Founder John Cadbury was a Quaker “<a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/local/birmingham/hi/people_and_places/history/newsid_8412000/8412655.stm">driven by a passion for social reform</a>” who helped found the forerunner to the <a href="https://www.quakersintheworld.org/quakers-in-action/16/John-Cadbury">Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals</a> and planned a “<a href="https://www.cadbury.com.au/our-history">model village</a>” for his workers including schools, shops, parks and childcare.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517544/original/file-20230327-22-ubi7ph.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517544/original/file-20230327-22-ubi7ph.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517544/original/file-20230327-22-ubi7ph.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=266&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517544/original/file-20230327-22-ubi7ph.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=266&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517544/original/file-20230327-22-ubi7ph.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=266&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517544/original/file-20230327-22-ubi7ph.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517544/original/file-20230327-22-ubi7ph.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517544/original/file-20230327-22-ubi7ph.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cadbury founder John Cadbury.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.cadbury.com.au/our-history">Cadbury</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In 2022, Britain’s <a href="https://www.channel4.com/programmes/cadbury-exposed-dispatches">Channel 4</a> broadcast undercover footage from Ghana purporting to show children as young as 10 barefoot, wearing shorts and T-shirts, using machetes to harvest cocoa pods and sharpened sticks to extract beans that were eventually used in Cadbury chocolate.</p>
<p>Mondelēz said it was <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/law/2022/apr/03/cadbury-faces-fresh-accusations-of-child-labour-on-cocoa-farms-in-ghana">deeply concerned</a>. It explicitly prohibited child labour and had been making significant efforts to improve the protection of children in the communities where it sourced cocoa, including Ghana.</p>
<p>If such efforts are afoot, <a href="https://www.chocolatescorecard.com/">Chocolate Scorecard</a> would like to hear about them.</p>
<h2>‘Rotten eggs’ can improve</h2>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517543/original/file-20230327-20-ht1uqe.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517543/original/file-20230327-20-ht1uqe.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517543/original/file-20230327-20-ht1uqe.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=931&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517543/original/file-20230327-20-ht1uqe.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=931&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517543/original/file-20230327-20-ht1uqe.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=931&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517543/original/file-20230327-20-ht1uqe.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1170&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517543/original/file-20230327-20-ht1uqe.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1170&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517543/original/file-20230327-20-ht1uqe.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1170&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<p>Among those companies that did respond, there are signs of improvement. In 2020, <a href="https://bartalks.net/godiva-and-earthworm-foundation-work-on-traceability/">Godiva</a> received a “rotten egg” award for “failing to take responsibility for the conditions with which its chocolates are made despite making huge profits off its chocolate”.</p>
<p><a href="https://godiva.com.au/pages/story-of-godiva">Godvia</a> now says it is dedicated to “a sustainable and thriving cocoa industry where farmers prosper, communities are empowered, human rights are respected, and the environment is conserved”. </p>
<p>It has earned an “orange” rating, demonstrating that progress is achievable. </p>
<p>Similarly, <a href="https://www.sucden.com/en/products-and-services/cocoa/">Sücden</a> - a previous red “rotten egg” - improved to yellow in this year’s scorecard.</p>
<p>Nestlé’s inclusion in this years top ten gives us hope. </p>
<p>It now says its <a href="https://www.nestle.com/about/how-we-do-business/purpose-values">purpose</a> is to “unlock the power of food to enhance quality of life for everyone, today and for generations to come”. </p>
<p>Companies require profits to survive. But if profit and making chocolate are their only drivers, they are likely to hurt people and the environment while doing it.</p>
<p>This Easter it is possible to support firms that are making profits without hurting the planet or its inhabitants. Our scorecard finds there are more and more of them.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/want-to-buy-guilt-free-easter-chocolate-pick-from-our-list-of-good-eggs-that-score-best-for-the-environment-and-child-labour-180549">Want to buy guilt-free Easter chocolate? Pick from our list of 'good eggs' that score best for the environment and child labour</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/201682/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The firms that do worst on the environment and human slavery in the 2023 Chocolate Scorecard are those whose mission statements extend to little more than making chocolate.John Dumay, Professor - Department of Accounting and Corporate Governance, Macquarie UniversityCristiana Bernardi, Senior Lecturer in Accounting and Financial Management, The Open UniversitySamuel Mawutor, PhD Student in Geography and Geospatial Sciences, Oregon State UniversityStephanie Perkiss, Associate professor, University of WollongongLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2006942023-03-20T19:20:42Z2023-03-20T19:20:42ZHere’s what businesses and consumers can do to tackle modern slavery in supply chains<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/515300/original/file-20230314-20-lhl9m8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C359%2C3979%2C2484&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Forced labour, bonded labour and forced child labour affect millions of people worldwide.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/here-s-what-businesses-and-consumers-can-do-to-tackle-modern-slavery-in-supply-chains" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>Even though the practice of slavery has been formally abolished, an estimated <a href="https://www.ilo.org/global/topics/forced-labour/lang--en/index.htm">49.6 million people are in forced labour globally</a>, a quarter of which are children. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.un.org/en/observances/slavery-abolition-day">Modern slavery is an umbrella term</a> that refers to situations where exploited individuals cannot leave because of threats, violence, coercion or the abuse of power. It includes a variety of practices such as forced labour, bonded labour and human trafficking.</p>
<p>Modern slavery affects the supply chains of many goods and services used everyday. ChatGPT, which has an estimated 13 million daily users, was <a href="https://time.com/6247678/openai-chatgpt-kenya-workers/">developed using contractors from Kenya earning between $1.32 and $2 per hour</a>. </p>
<p>Such practices are similar to the labour violations <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/la-garment-factories-investigation/">found in fast-fashion supply chains</a>, where employees are unable to find fair-paying work and are trapped working for exploitative employers.</p>
<p>A third of the world’s cobalt supply, a key material in the manufacture of electric vehicles, <a href="https://www.reuters.com/markets/commodities/microsoft-calls-coalition-improve-congos-informal-cobalt-mines-2023-02-08/">comes from small-scale mines</a> associated with dangerous working conditions and labour abuses. </p>
<p>In 2019, it was reported that <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2019/aug/08/schoolchildren-in-china-work-overnight-to-produce-amazon-alexa-devices">school children were made to work overnight at Foxconn</a>, an Amazon supplier, in China to meet production targets for Alexa devices.</p>
<p>The question remains: what can both businesses and consumers do to remove slavery from supply chains? </p>
<h2>Types of modern-day slavery</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.state.gov/what-is-modern-slavery">Forced labour, bonded labour and forced child labour</a> are the labour abuses most prevalent in today’s global supply chains. While modern slavery is most commonly associated with forced labour, there are several other forms that it takes.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.ilo.org/global/topics/forced-labour/publications/WCMS_854733/lang--en/index.htm">Affecting an estimated 27.6 million people worldwide</a>, bonded labour — where a person is forced to work to pay off debt — is the most common form of slavery.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Pakistani women marching in the street holding signs that say 'Stop Bonded Labour BLLF'" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/515297/original/file-20230314-3226-9wnvag.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/515297/original/file-20230314-3226-9wnvag.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/515297/original/file-20230314-3226-9wnvag.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/515297/original/file-20230314-3226-9wnvag.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/515297/original/file-20230314-3226-9wnvag.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/515297/original/file-20230314-3226-9wnvag.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/515297/original/file-20230314-3226-9wnvag.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Pakistani activists protesting against bonded labour on International Women’s Day in Lahore, Pakistan in 2020.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/K.M. Chaudhry)</span></span>
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<p>Forced child labour, including the unlawful recruitment of child soldiers, affects at least 12.5 million children. </p>
<p>Child labour is a complicated topic for many, given that <a href="https://www.ilo.org/ipec/areas/Agriculture/lang--en/index.htm">children may work on family farms</a>. However, child labour specifically is identified as labour that is exploitative and may be physically dangerous or detrimental to the development of children. </p>
<p>The primary driver of child labour appears to be extreme poverty that requires families to use children as a much-needed income source. Arguably, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/21582041.2012.751501">weak state interventions into child labour</a> allow the practice to continue.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/public-safety-canada/campaigns/human-trafficking/sex-trafficking.html">Sex trafficking</a>, defined as a form of trafficking that “involves recruiting, moving, or holding victims for sexual exploitation purposes,” <a href="https://www.antislavery.org/slavery-today/modern-slavery/">affects a further 6.3 million people</a>.</p>
<p>Forced labour and domestic servitude account for the remaining 3.2 million people in modern slavery. <a href="http://www.endslaverynow.org/learn/slavery-today/domestic-servitude">Domestic servitude occurs primarily</a> in residences where individuals are hired to perform domestic work as live-in workers and unable to leave because their documents have been confiscated.</p>
<h2>Causes of modern-day slavery</h2>
<p>Modern supply chains are incredibly complex. Even a seemingly simple product such as the Barbie doll has a <a href="https://www.iberdrola.com/shapes-en/justin-wolfers-supply-chains-resilience-covid">global supply chain that spans over one hundred countries</a>. </p>
<p>Typically, organizations will outsource and engage in sub-contracting to manage the demands of complex supply chains. Because the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1758-5899.12398">parent organization is often distant from supplier organizations</a>, there are often <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-021-04878-1">transparency issues about the working conditions at suppliers</a>. </p>
<p>Complex supply chains can increase the risk of <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/ppn-0223-tackling-modern-slavery-in-government-supply-chains/ppn-0223-tackling-modern-slavery-in-government-supply-chains-guidance-html#section-3---identifying-and-managing-risks-in-new-procurements">modern slavery</a>. The use of labour recruiters or sub-contracted workers allows slavery to emerge and thrive. </p>
<p>In addition, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1108/SCM-06-2015-0201">forced and bonded labour is very difficult to detect</a> because of the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1108/MBR-04-2018-0032">complexities of modern value chains</a>. For example, there are over 6.3 million sellers on Amazon, <a href="https://www.helium10.com/blog/how-many-sellers-on-amazon">each with their own supply chains</a>.</p>
<p>A significant amount of financial and human resources is needed to detect modern slavery practices. The current global labour market conditions mean there is a lack of skilled purchasing professionals available to undertake these tasks.</p>
<h2>Anti-slavery legislation</h2>
<p>Some countries have legislation that attempts to dissuade some of the forms of slavery. However, <a href="https://antislaverylaw.ac.uk/resources/summary-of-findings/">only 24 of the 193 UN member states have provisions</a> that address each form of exploitation, and only five have criminal provisions addressing each of the five international instruments for addressing human exploitation. Only two states in the world have criminal provisions in place for all practices of slavery. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/slavery-is-not-a-crime-in-almost-half-the-countries-of-the-world-new-research-115596">Slavery is not a crime in almost half the countries of the world – new research</a>
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<p>In Canada, the third reading of <a href="https://www.ourcommons.ca/DocumentViewer/en/44-1/house/sitting-164/hansard">Bill S-211 — a supply chain transparency bill</a> — recently took place in the Canadian House of Commons. While all speakers agreed that modern slavery needs to be fought, there is disagreement about what exactly should be included in the legislation and how far such legislation can go. </p>
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<img alt="A harbour filled with shipping containers in a variety of colours" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/515299/original/file-20230314-20-3gwnjf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/515299/original/file-20230314-20-3gwnjf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=395&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/515299/original/file-20230314-20-3gwnjf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=395&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/515299/original/file-20230314-20-3gwnjf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=395&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/515299/original/file-20230314-20-3gwnjf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/515299/original/file-20230314-20-3gwnjf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/515299/original/file-20230314-20-3gwnjf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Shipping containers piled up in the harbour in Hamburg, Germany in October 2022. Modern supply chains are incredibly complex and can span over one hundred countries.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Michael Probst)</span></span>
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<p>As a transparency bill, Bill S-211 has no criminal provisions and places the responsibility for ensuring there is no slavery present in supply chains on the companies themselves. The bill will do this by requiring companies to report on their policies and due diligence activities.</p>
<p>However, only government departments and publicly traded companies listed on the Canadian stock exchange that do business, have a place of business or have assets in Canada are required to report.</p>
<p>If slavery is discovered, companies must report on how they intend to eliminate it. Only companies that meet at least two of the following conditions will be required to do this reporting: having at least $20 million in assets, generating at least $40 million in revenue or employing an average of at least 250 employees.</p>
<h2>What can companies do?</h2>
<p>While it may be challenging for organizations to manage all the activities within their global supply chains, there are best practices responsible firms can adopt. </p>
<p>First, <a href="https://www.bsr.org/en/blog/three-ways-business-is-combating-modern-slavery">organizations can create and manage supplier contracts</a> in a way that ensures suppliers recognize and adhere to international labour laws and modern slavery legislation.</p>
<p>Second, large private and public sector organizations can work with small-to-medium enterprises to <a href="https://www.gov.wales/preventing-modern-slavery-guidance-businesses">raise awareness of the risk factors</a> associated with modern slavery. </p>
<p>Some of these <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/ppn-0223-tackling-modern-slavery-in-government-supply-chains/ppn-0223-tackling-modern-slavery-in-government-supply-chains-guidance-html#section-3---identifying-and-managing-risks-in-new-procurements">high risk factors</a> include industries which are labour intensive, such as agriculture, mining, or construction, dangerous or physically demanding work, high numbers of temporary, seasonal, or agency workers, and operating in countries with inadequate labour laws and enforcement.</p>
<p>Additionally, organizations can ask their suppliers to report on the actions they are taking to remove modern slavery from their supply chains.</p>
<h2>What can consumers do?</h2>
<p>Arguably, organizations have the responsibility and the opportunity to remove modern slavery from their supply chains. However, recent research suggests <a href="https://doi.org/10.1108/EBR-05-2019-0092">consumer behaviour is the most powerful way</a> to reduce instances of modern slavery.</p>
<p>Indeed, the strongest motivation for an organization to take meaningful action to address modern slavery in their supply chains is consumer pressure. As has been witnessed <a href="https://www.thefashionlaw.com/visibility-is-central-to-a-successful-supply-chain-heres-what-brands-need-to-know/">in numerous recent examples</a>, negative media coverage is a strong motivator for organizations to take action. </p>
<p>Conversely, an <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-019-04318-1">ambivalent attitude from consumers is an enabler of modern slavery</a>. Eradicating modern slavery requires consumer action. When it comes to modern slavery, then, the power really is with the people.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/200694/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>While it may be challenging for organizations to manage all the activities within their global supply chains, there are best practices they can adopt to prevent modern slavery.Stuart Milligan, Associate Teaching Professor of Supply Chain Management, Thompson Rivers UniversityNancy Southin, Associate Professor of Supply Chain Management, Thompson Rivers UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1979332023-02-14T13:43:23Z2023-02-14T13:43:23ZAl-Shabaab attacks in Somalia affect communities as far as 900km away – aid agencies need to take note<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/506619/original/file-20230126-12-jm23rr.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A soldier stands guard at a makeshift camp in Somalia's Baidoa, a southwestern town frequently attacked by Al-Shabaab militants.
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Policymakers tend to assume that the effects of conflict are felt only where violence occurs. As a result, humanitarian aid, protection efforts or asylum policies largely focus on conflict-hit areas. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.who.int/">World Health Organisation</a>, for instance, provides emergency medical supplies in areas directly affected by violence. The <a href="https://www.unhcr.org/en-us/6328ce824.pdf">UN Refugee Agency</a> ties protection status to residing in areas hit by conflict. </p>
<p>Our <a href="https://docs.iza.org/dp15761.pdf">recent study</a> finds, however, that conflict negatively affects food security, nutrition, health and education outcomes of families living hundreds of kilometres away from the epicentre of violence. </p>
<p>This underscores the need to broaden policy responses to conflict and consider its ripple effects. </p>
<p>Our research in Somalia examined how the impact of violent conflict spread to distant locations. We looked specifically at conflict that affected Somalia’s food logistics network, which gets food to far-flung markets.</p>
<p>We focused on Somalia because of its high number of terror incidents arising from the government’s war with <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-drives-al-shabaab-in-somalia-foreign-forces-out-sharia-law-in-and-overthrow-the-government-191366">Al-Shabaab</a>, a militant group that has terrorised the country’s southern region for about 15 years.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/al-shabaab-is-just-a-symptom-of-somalias-tragedy-the-causes-are-still-in-place-197554">Al-Shabaab is just a symptom of Somalia’s tragedy – the causes are still in place</a>
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<p>We used data from the <a href="https://www.fao.org/home/en">Food and Agricultural Organisation</a>, which tracks food prices. Our results show that terrorist attacks that hit food transportation networks increased food prices in markets located up to 900km away (a 17-hour drive) from where the violence occurs. </p>
<p>In response to these terrorist attacks and resulting price increases, households in far-flung areas adjusted their eating patterns. They also reduced their non-food spending, primarily on health and education. </p>
<p>Yet, the responses to violent incidents by donor and aid agencies, as well as domestic policymakers, hardly take such ripple effects into consideration. </p>
<h2>Tracking conflict</h2>
<p>To track these ripple effects, we focused on the distribution of maize, a staple food eaten throughout Somalia. We got the geo-coordinates of maize growing areas, tracked how maize was transported by road to markets, and mapped the Al-Shabaab terrorist attacks that occurred along these transport routes. </p>
<p>This helped us map the impact of conflict on maize prices and the ripple effects on household welfare. </p>
<p><a href="https://fews.net/">The Famine Early Warning Systems Network</a> provides maps showing the exact routes taken by Somali drivers who are transporting maize. We drew a corridor of five kilometres around these roads and counted the number of violent incidents occurring each month between 2001 and 2018. The <a href="https://www.fao.org/home/en">Food and Agricultural Organisation</a> provided us with monthly maize price information for 10 markets across Somalia. </p>
<p>We combined this data with <a href="https://microdata.worldbank.org/index.php/catalog/3181">World Bank surveys</a> that recorded food consumption, eating patterns, and the health and education of Somali families. </p>
<h2>Our findings</h2>
<p>We <a href="https://docs.iza.org/dp15761.pdf">found that</a> conflict along transportation roads increased maize prices substantially, even in markets located hundreds of kilometres away. This finding is in line with studies on the impact of conflict on supply chain networks elsewhere in the world, such as in the <a href="https://theconversation.com/russia-ukraine-crisis-highlights-africas-need-to-diversify-its-wheat-sources-181173">Russia-Ukraine war</a>.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/russia-ukraine-conflict-is-driving-up-wheat-prices-this-could-fuel-instability-in-sudan-180878">Russia-Ukraine conflict is driving up wheat prices: this could fuel instability in Sudan</a>
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<p>During the height of the Al-Shabaab insurgency in Somalia (between 2016 and 2018), violent incidents occurring very close to transportation roads alone increased maize prices by around 11% over sustained periods of time.</p>
<p>During these times, we found violence en route had around half as large an impact on maize prices as rainfall, which the World Bank has highlighted as one of the most important <a href="https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/27379">determinants of food prices</a>. </p>
<p>We also scrutinised satellite images of nightlights emitted on transportation roads. We found that conflict along transit roads dimmed the light emitted on these roads several hundreds of kilometres away. This decrease in road traffic underscores a reduction in the quantity of maize transported along roads from growing areas to markets.</p>
<p>Looking at family welfare, we found that households reported having to adjust their eating patterns due to food price shocks. Families substituted the more expensive maize with sorghum. Still, we found that lower food security decreased the nourishment available to households.</p>
<p>Considering child outcomes, we found that far-away conflict along transit routes increased the incidence of diseases, such as gastroenteritis, malaria and typhoid. This is in line with <a href="https://gdc.unicef.org/resource/relationship-between-childhood-malnutrition-infectious-diseases">well-known links</a> between malnutrition and infectious diseases. </p>
<p>Finally, we also found a decrease in the school enrolment of children. Violent incidents along maize transportation routes reduced the probability of children joining primary and middle school hundreds of kilometres away. This is likely to be related to the economic effects of food price rises. This makes schooling less affordable and increases the incentives for child labour. </p>
<h2>Way forward</h2>
<p><a href="https://docs.iza.org/dp15761.pdf">Our study</a> has wide-ranging policy implications. </p>
<p>The ripple effects of violence have important welfare costs. The negative effects of conflict on human capital – particularly nutrition, health and education – are larger than commonly assumed. We estimate that these ripples add around 30% to the cost of locally occurring conflict. </p>
<p>Our findings also have important implications for the regional targeting of policies. </p>
<p>Humanitarian interventions or refugee policies most commonly focus on those locations where conflict occurs. The World Food Programme, for instance, provides nutritional assistance in areas around Mogadishu, in the south-west of Somalia where most conflict is concentrated. </p>
<p>Similarly, when evaluating asylum eligibility, the <a href="https://www.unhcr.org/en-us/6328ce824.pdf">UN Refugee Agency</a> highlights the south-west of Somalia as the area where individuals are at risk of serious harm. </p>
<p>By contrast, our results provide evidence that individuals can be affected by conflict even if it occurs far away. For instance, the city of Galkayo (700km from Mogadishu) is part of the north-eastern Puntland state. It isn’t covered by either the World Food Programme or the UN’s refugee policies. Yet conflict in the south-west increases food prices, decreases food security and erodes human capital in Galkayo. </p>
<p>This long reach of violence highlights the need to consider extending humanitarian aid, protection efforts or asylum status eligibility to areas further away from conflict epicentres.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/197933/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The negative effects of conflict on human capital – particularly nutrition, health and education – are larger than commonly thought.Marco Alfano, Lecturer, Lancaster UniversityThomas Cornelissen, Professor of Economics, University of EssexLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1926192022-11-08T09:04:59Z2022-11-08T09:04:59ZA dumpsite is no place for a child: study shows Nigeria’s young waste pickers are at risk<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491263/original/file-20221024-1609-y8vdtg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=7%2C0%2C2588%2C1715&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Children are among waste pickers exposed to hazards while working at the Olusosun landfill. Photo by: Lionel Healing/AFP.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/people-sift-through-rubbish-at-a-dump-17-april-2007-in-news-photo/73905533?phrase=olusosun%20dumpsite%20Lagos&adppopup=true">from www,gettyimages.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The Olusosun landfill sprawls across 100 acres (40ha) in Nigeria’s largest city, Lagos. Initially situated at the outskirts of the city, it is now at the city’s centre due to urban encroachment. Olusosun is often described as <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12011-021-02758-3">Nigeria’s biggest landfill</a>; it receives over one million tonnes of <a href="https://owlcation.com/stem/15-of-the-Worlds-Largest-Landfills">waste</a> annually. Most of this is electronic waste (such as lamps, televisions and laptops), municipal solid waste and construction waste.</p>
<p>Access to the dumpsite is not restricted. Waste pickers can go in and look for recyclable materials that can be resold. In most Nigerian cities, waste picking represents a vital survival strategy for the <a href="https://www.ijern.com/journal/March-2014/26.pdf">poor</a>.</p>
<p>It’s not only adults who operate as waste pickers. As we outline in our recent <a href="https://thescipub.com/abstract/10.3844/ajessp.2022.69.80">study</a>, children are also working at Olusosun. </p>
<p>We surveyed 150 of these child waste pickers; most were boys aged between 13 and 17. More than half (58.7%) of the children were not attending school. They worked at the dumpsite daily for social and economic reasons and their labour was physically taxing. They reported being bitten by insects and snakes. They slipped and sometimes fell. Many suffered from chronic headaches. For this they earned between N500 (US$1.20) and N1,600 (US$3.85) a day. </p>
<p>The use of a child for forced or <a href="https://www.scirp.org/journal/paperinformation.aspx?paperid=64999">exploitative labour</a> under section 28 (1) (a) of the Child’s Rights Act is an offence punishable with a fine or imprisonment. But in the informal sector of urban areas, Nigeria’s government has not made serious efforts to enforce this law to protect children.</p>
<p>A concerted effort is needed by government, civil society, and international organisations to eradicate waste picking by children. Financial aid could be offered to the children’s families so that they don’t feel they have no option but to let children work. And free, compulsory primary and secondary education is key to keeping children in the classroom rather than working.</p>
<h2>Huge health and safety risks</h2>
<p>Access to Olusosun landfill is unregulated, but there are informal systems in place to manage who can and cannot engage in waste picking. Our <a href="https://doi.org/10.3844/ajessp.2022.69.80">survey</a> confirmed that before any person could pick waste on this site, they had to register with an association. Unregistered people were not allowed to work on the site and if they did without permission, there would be a quarrel. </p>
<p>An informal association formed by the operators oversees the registration process. It is funded by membership fees and only registers adults. But once they are registered, those adults can hire children to do the work for them. They do this, we were told, to keep their costs low because they could pay children less than they would pay adults.</p>
<p>Information we obtained showed that child waste pickers’ minimum daily income was N500 (US$1.20); the maximum was N1,600 (US$3.85). The average daily revenue was N1,180 (US$2.84) – more than N30,000 (about US$72.20) per month. Although this amount is higher than the <a href="https://doi.org/10.3844/ajessp.2022.69.80">national minimum monthly wage</a> (N30,000) in the public sector, the work and the environment are hazardous and detrimental to the children’s health.</p>
<p>Children usually sorted the waste manually, with no protective equipment like gloves and face masks. They operated in an unsheltered environment regardless of conditions like rain, hot sun and cold weather. These conditions had resulted in gastrointestinal illnesses, skin diseases, stings and bites from insects. Many talked about suffering regular headaches.</p>
<p>Child waste pickers were also at risk of being pricked by sharp objects such as syringes, needles, surgical blades and broken bottles.</p>
<p>Despite all these hazards, the children continued working at the landfill because of chronic poverty. Some of the children’s parents were waste
pickers themselves. Many came from areas without <a href="https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/more-news/469581-less-than-40-of-lagos-residents-have-access-to-water-governor.html">potable water</a>, sanitation facilities or basic healthcare services. </p>
<h1>Recommendations</h1>
<p>In addressing the use of children for forced or exploitative labour, integrated approaches have
<a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5984577fe5274a1707000067/105-Interventions-on-Child-Labour-in-South-Asia.pdf">demonstrated</a> the most success in South Asian countries. (Afghanistan is an important exception.) These approaches can include, for example, conditional cash transfers combined with interventions such as providing education and healthcare services. </p>
<p>Thus, a pragmatic regulatory framework should be developed whereby different actors (government, civil society and international organisations) focus on eliminating the practice of waste picking by children. Such efforts require strong political backing and financial support. </p>
<p>Such a regulatory framework should also make provision for financial aid to the children’s parents through a direct assistance programme. </p>
<p>There is a need for a well-thought-out plan by the government to introduce free and compulsory primary and secondary education for every child. Making education compulsory, especially at the secondary level, is a way to keep children learning and, ideally, setting themselves up for safe, decently-paid future work.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/192619/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amos Oluwole Taiwo does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Employing children as waste pickers lowers costs but exposes them to hazards.Amos Oluwole Taiwo, Lecturer, Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago-Iwoye, Ogun State, Nigeria, Olabisi Onabanjo UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1831592022-05-29T08:26:05Z2022-05-29T08:26:05ZWhat coltan mining in the DRC costs people and the environment<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/464793/original/file-20220523-29403-72xrfn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption"> Alain Libondo (17) left, and Nsinku Zihindula (25), hammering at solid rock to find cassiterite and coltan at Szibira, South Kivu. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Photo by Tom Stoddart via Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) is rich in natural resources – its untapped deposits of minerals are estimated to be worth <a href="https://globaledge.msu.edu/countries/democratic-republic-of-the-congo/economy">US$24 trillion</a>. Gold, diamonds, cobalt and zinc are among them.</p>
<p>Another strategic mineral mined in the DRC is coltan – a name derived from “columbite-tantalite”. In 2021, the DRC’s coltan production amounted to an estimated <a href="https://www.theafricareport.com/203796/addressing-the-enablers-of-coltan-smuggling-in-the-drc-requires-holistic-solutions/">700 tonnes</a>, making the Central African country the world’s largest coltan producer by far.</p>
<p>Coltan is indispensable to the manufacture of all modern technological devices. The mineral is refined to tantalum powder, which is used to make heat-resistant capacitors in laptops, cellphones, and other high-end electronic devices. </p>
<p>The global coltan market was <a href="https://www.marketresearch.com/QYResearch-Group-v3531/Global-Tantalum-Capacitors-History-Forecast-13610585/">valued at</a> US$1,504.81 million in 2019. It is expected to reach US$1,933.92 million by the end of 2026, growing at a rate of 5.58% a year between 2021 and 2026. </p>
<p>But activists, journalists and scholars have found a relationship between coltan exploitation and large-scale environmental degradation, human rights abuses, violence and death. </p>
<p>This can be seen in violation of environmental laws, child labour on mining sites, and complicity of mining companies in the abuses of populations at risk. </p>
<p>In my <a href="https://enact-africa.s3.amazonaws.com/site/uploads/2022-05-03-research-paper-29-rev.pdf">new study</a>, I asked two research questions: what harms do coltan mining and trading cause to the environment and local people in north-eastern DRC? And what can the DRC government and private sector do to ensure responsible sourcing of coltan? </p>
<p>Coltan exploitation is destroying ecosystems and affecting wildlife habitats. Animals are being displaced from their natural habitat, leaving them vulnerable to poachers. The chemicals used in washing coltan are polluting water bodies and are harmful to people and animals. </p>
<p>My study raises awareness of the implications of this illicit mining and suggests multi-stakeholder interventions to halt environmental crime.</p>
<h2>Environmental crime</h2>
<p>The information for my analysis came from a qualitative field survey, legislation and UN reports on extractive conflicts in the DRC. </p>
<p>Data also came from interviews with officials of the Certification, Expertise and Evaluation Centre, the Ministry of Mines, civil society coalitions, the Congolese Environment Agency and nongovernmental organisations in North and South Kivu. </p>
<p>My study conceives environmental crime as activities that breach environmental legislation and cause significant harm or risk to the environment, human health, or both. </p>
<p>Coltan is mined through a fairly primitive process. Miners work together digging large craters in streambeds, scraping away soil from the surface to get to the coltan underground.</p>
<p>The indiscriminate exploitation of coltan is dramatically affecting environmental biodiversity and disrupting ecosystems around mining sites. </p>
<p>According to data available on the <a href="https://www.globalforestwatch.org/">Global Forest Watch</a> platform managed by the World Resources Institute, the DRC has lost 8.6% of its tree cover since 2000. One of the <a href="https://news.mongabay.com/2022/05/results-from-mining-tax-for-reforestation-in-the-drc-leave-more-questions-than-answers/">major causes</a> of deforestation in the DRC is mining.</p>
<p>Observers I spoke to note that environmental impact assessments are seldom carried out prior to coltan mining. Artisanal miners and foreign companies even violate sites of historical heritage such as <a href="https://news.mongabay.com/2022/01/what-went-wrong-with-conservation-at-kahuzi-biega-national-park-and-how-to-transform-it-commentary/">Kahuzi Biega National Park</a>. </p>
<p>The first impact of coltan mining is when miners remove vegetation and topsoil. This increases the rate of erosion.</p>
<p>Most of the artisanal coltan miners work on sites where there is no state control. They take as much coltan as they can without any regulation. For instance, while the Ministry of Mining <a href="https://enact-africa.s3.amazonaws.com/site/uploads/2022-05-03-research-paper-29-rev.pdf">recommends</a> that miners should dig no deeper than 30 metres below the surface, they sometimes dig as deep as 200 metres. </p>
<p>Environmental activists in Bukavu confirm that coltan exploitation has led to loss of trees. That is known to <a href="https://rainforests.mongabay.com/09-consequences-of-deforestation.html">destroy ecosystems</a>, decrease the carbon stock, disrupt the photosynthesis process and affect air quality. It is also affecting wildlife habitats. </p>
<p>For instance, North and South Kivu provinces contain most of the DRC’s coltan. Kahuzi Biega National Park, one of the last sanctuaries for the critically endangered eastern lowland gorilla, spans both provinces. Coltan mining has destroyed much of the gorillas’ natural habitat, leaving them vulnerable to poachers. The population of eastern lowland gorillas in the park <a href="https://www.newsecuritybeat.org/2008/12/coltan-cell-phones-and-conflict-the-war-economy-of-the-drc/">plummeted</a> from 8,000 in 1991, when coltan mining started there, to about 40 in 2005. The present population is now <a href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/137/">estimated</a> at 250. </p>
<p>The process of mineral separation, sieving and sorting is done manually through washing at streams and rivers. The chemicals used are polluting water bodies and are harmful to aquatic creatures. The chemicals are also known to produce radioactive substances that are <a href="http://cegemi.com/index.php/environmental-threats-and-respiratory-health-in-kivu/">detrimental</a> to human health. </p>
<h2>Human harms</h2>
<p>The activities of the coltan miners and the associated businesses are exploitative and impoverish communities. Observers note that coltan mining businesses <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214790X21000393">rarely compensate</a> affected communities by implementing development programmes, which is a statutory requirement in terms of the mining laws.</p>
<p>At Mwenga in Shabunda, <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/9/12/at-least-50-feared-dead-in-dr-congo-mine-collapse">50 artisanal miners died</a> in September 2020 as a result of coltan mining-related activities.</p>
<p>Holes dug by artisanal miners are rarely covered after mining activities have ceased. And <a href="https://enact-africa.s3.amazonaws.com/site/uploads/2022-05-03-research-paper-29-rev.pdf">landslides</a> have trapped miners underground. </p>
<p>Conflicts between members of an artisanal miners’ cooperative called Cooperamma and the coltan mining company SMB led to <a href="http://www.reuters.com/article/us-congo-mining-smb-idUSKBN23V1P5">violence</a> that claimed lives on the mining site at Rubaya in North Kivu.</p>
<h2>Child labour</h2>
<p>The DRC’s <a href="https://www.resourcedata.org/dataset/rgi-drc-mining-code-eng-version-">mining code</a> was reformed in 2017 to penalise the use of child labour or the sale of ore mined by children. Yet much of the country’s coltan is extracted through the labour of over <a href="https://issafrica.org/iss-today/child-miners-the-dark-side-of-the-drcs-coltan-wealth">40,000 child miners</a>. They work in dangerous conditions as washers and diggers. </p>
<p>Doing adults’ work in a hazardous environment, child miners face <a href="https://issafrica.org/iss-today/child-miners-the-dark-side-of-the-drcs-coltan-wealth">the risks</a> of ill health, harassment and abuse. They may either drop out of school or never have the opportunity to attend.</p>
<p>The quantity of coltan mined through child labour remains unaccounted for, uncertified and untraceable. It is traded in the underground economy and funnelled into the coltan global supply chain through smuggling, counterfeiting and collusion. </p>
<h2>Recommendations</h2>
<p>The approach to extractive reform in the DRC is currently inadequate to deal with the human and environmental harms associated with coltan mining. </p>
<p>My study provides specific <a href="https://enact-africa.s3.amazonaws.com/site/uploads/2022-05-03-research-paper-29-rev.pdf#page=16">recommendations</a> to address the identified challenges.</p>
<p>The government must reform the Congolese Environment Agency to enforce environmental impact assessments and implementation of environmental management plans. </p>
<p>Civil society organisations should train and equip observatory groups at the local level to monitor and report on coltan mining sites. This will provide a shadow report to compare with audits carried out by state agents. </p>
<p>In line with <a href="https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/31641/MR21F.pdf">global best practices</a> the upstream companies that mine and refine coltan are advised to mitigate environmental risks associated with their operations. </p>
<ul>
<li><em>The <a href="https://enact-africa.s3.amazonaws.com/site/uploads/2022-05-03-research-paper-29-rev.pdf">full report</a> was first published by the ENACT project, a partnership between the Institute for Security Studies, Interpol and the Global Initiative against Transnational Crime, funded by the EU.</em></li>
</ul><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/183159/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Oluwole Ojewale does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Coltan is indispensable to the making of modern electronic devices but its mining causes human and environmental disasters in the DR Congo.Oluwole Ojewale, Regional Coordinator, Institute for Security StudiesLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1805492022-04-08T09:03:14Z2022-04-08T09:03:14ZWant to buy guilt-free Easter chocolate? Pick from our list of ‘good eggs’ that score best for the environment and child labour<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457058/original/file-20220408-21-e0o04r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=651%2C128%2C2579%2C1312&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Eva Elija/Pexels</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>What do <a href="https://beyondgood.com/">Beyond Good</a>, <a href="https://alterecofoods.com.au/">Alter Eco</a>, <a href="https://tonyschocolonely.com/int/en">Tony’s Chocolonely</a> and <a href="https://www.whittakers.co.nz/en_AU/">Whittaker’s</a> all have in common? Besides producing delicious chocolate, they are the “good eggs” in this year’s <a href="https://www.chocolatescorecard.com/">chocolate scorecard</a>.</p>
<p>Each is an industry leader in producing sustainable chocolate. By “sustainable” we mean doing the right thing to the planet and its people on measures as important as child labour, pesticide use, and deforestation. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.chocolatescorecard.com/">Chocolate Collective</a>, made up of Australian charity <a href="https://www.beslaveryfree.com/chocolate">Be Slavery Free</a> and 20 other non-government organisations, with guidance from university experts and consultants, grades 90% of the industry and publishes the results in the lead-up to Easter, the biggest chocolate season of the year. </p>
<h2>How we determine what’s a ‘good egg’</h2>
<p>We scored 38 companies on six measures:</p>
<p><strong>Transparency and traceability.</strong> This is the big one. If companies don’t know where their cocoa comes from, they cannot truly ensure it isn’t tainted by child labour, deforestation, and other abuses.</p>
<p><strong>Child labour.</strong> More than <a href="https://www.norc.org/Research/Projects/Pages/assessing-progress-in-reducing-child-labor-in-cocoa-growing-areas-of-c%C3%B4te-d%E2%80%99ivoire-and-ghana.aspx">1.56 million</a> children work in the cocoa industry. Around 95% of them are exposed to at least one type of hazardous labour as defined by the International Labour Organization.</p>
<p><strong>Living income.</strong> Farmers are poor because of a combination of small farm size, low productivity, high costs, low prices and no alternative sources of income. Most earn about half of a so-called <a href="https://www.globallivingwage.org/about/living-income/">living income</a>, able to provide enough food, water, housing, education, healthcare and provisions for unexpected events.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/turning-to-easter-eggs-to-get-through-these-dark-times-heres-the-bitter-truth-about-chocolate-130295">Turning to Easter eggs to get through these dark times? Here's the bitter truth about chocolate</a>
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<p><strong>Deforestation and climate.</strong> In 2020 alone, more than <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-cocoa-ivorycoast-deforestation-idUSKBN2AJ0T6">47,000 hectares</a> of forest was lost in the cocoa growing areas of Côte d'Ivoire. We explored how companies are minimising their contribution to deforestation through programs such as satellite monitoring their plans to reach net-zero carbon emissions.</p>
<p><strong>Agroforestry.</strong> As opposed to pesticide-soaked monoculture, this is a more <a href="https://voicenetwork.cc/2020/07/cocoa-barometer-consortium-releases-consultation-paper-on-agroforestry-in-the-cocoa-sector/">ecologically sound</a> way of growing cocoa and restoring farm landscapes. We also looked at assessment, monitoring, and support to farmers using such methods. While we saw improvements, greater coordinated action is needed.</p>
<p><strong>Agrichemicals.</strong> This theme is appearing in the chocolate scorecard for the first time. Overall, companies scored poorly, with many still uncommitted to action to reduce agrichemicals and failing to adequately protect farmers (especially children and pregnant women) from being poisoned.</p>
<h2>And the winners are…</h2>
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<p><a href="https://beyondgood.com/">Beyond Good</a> receives this year’s “good egg” award for a business model which ensures people and the planet are respected and cared for. Its smaller size has enabled this model to be refined, and now it is looking to scale up.</p>
<p>We also gave honourable mentions to previous “good eggs”, <a href="https://alterecofoods.com.au/">Alter Eco</a>, <a href="https://tonyschocolonely.com/int/en">Tony’s Chocolonely</a> and <a href="https://www.whittakers.co.nz/en_AU">Whittaker‘s</a>.</p>
<p>Also <a href="https://www.nestle.com.au/en">Nestlé</a> receives an honourable mention for its huge steps to address the living incomes of farmers, and for its commitment to plant <a href="https://www.nestle.com.au/en/media/nestle-efforts-combat-climate-change">20 million</a> shade trees each year.</p>
<p>Finally, <a href="https://www.ferrero.com.au/">Ferrero</a> now joins other companies whose cocoa is 100% or early 100% certified slavery-free, such as Hershey’s, Unilever, Ritter.</p>
<p>We also want to give a shout out to the best Japanese company, <a href="https://www.fujioilholdings.com/pdf/en/news/181119_02.pdf">Blommer/Fuji</a>. This company has made major improvements over the past year and did particularly well in some aspects of addressing child labour and agrforestry.</p>
<h2>And the losers…</h2>
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<p>“Rotten eggs” were awarded to Starbucks, General Mills, and Storck who did not disclose to us any improvements in their cocoa value chain. </p>
<p>Their online sustainability reports lack the details and transparency many other companies provide to their stakeholders, or are simply out of date. </p>
<p>If they are making progress on increasing the sustainability of their chocolate supply chains, then we (and presumably their customers) would like to hear more about it. There might be improvement, but they are not telling.</p>
<h2>What you do makes a difference</h2>
<p>The chocolate industry is laced with <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1045235420300770">unsustainable practices</a>. The farmers are extremely poor, and sustainability often takes second place to cheap cocoa. Our <a href="https://www.chocolatescorecard.com/">scorecard</a> can help.</p>
<p>Also, it helps to look out for products that are 100% organic. You might pay a little more, but you can enjoy your chocolate knowing that in itself protects the lives of farmers, children and the environment.</p>
<p>There’s plenty of room for improvement across the industry – if there’s enough consumer demand for change. For instance, the manufacturers of Cadbury and Lindt chocolate were not among the top band of good eggs, instead only scoring a “Starting to implement good policies”.</p>
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<p>As well as using <a href="https://static1.squarespace.com/static/621486a23f6a6b01d7dbfbe3/t/624e466982edf83f8762d67b/1649297046231/Chocolate+Scorecard+2022+-+Eng.pdf">our guide</a> to help your shopping choices, it might also help to send the scorecard to your favourite company via a tweet, Facebook post or Instagram, telling them you would prefer ethical chocolate.</p>
<p>Australians might be asking about local brands such as Darrell Lea, Haigh’s and Robern Menz. They are not big enough to be scored in the global scorecard, but the good news is each is taking sizeable steps. Ask them if you want to know more.</p>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Are the eggs you’re buying this Easter good for cocoa farmers, kids and the Earth – or actually doing harm? Our 2022 scorecard of the big brands can help you buy better than before.John Dumay, Professor - Department of Accounting and Corporate Governance, Macquarie UniversityCristiana Bernardi, Senior Lecturer in Accounting and Financial Management, The Open UniversityStephanie Perkiss, Senior Lecturer, University of WollongongLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1731112021-12-13T13:18:37Z2021-12-13T13:18:37ZIs your Christmas list supporting modern slavery? The dilemma of shopping ethically this festive season<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/436904/original/file-20211210-19-1jnn98f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C46%2C5230%2C3437&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/gift-boxes-large-red-bow-against-721090267">ESstock / Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>With Christmas coming soon and last-minute shopping underway, it is worth questioning the origin of some of our favourite holiday and gift items. It is highly likely that some of the gifts under your tree – including
<a href="https://campaign.worldvision.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/Forced-and-child-labour-in-the-cotton-industry-fact-sheet.pdf">clothing</a>, <a href="https://www.dol.gov/agencies/ilab/our-work/child-forced-labor-trafficking/child-labor-cocoa">chocolate</a> and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2018/oct/12/phone-misery-children-congo-cobalt-mines-drc">mobile phones</a> – will have been made by children working in exploitative or hazardous conditions of modern slavery.</p>
<p>It is difficult to tell what items from which businesses might be affected. This is because child exploitation usually takes place a long way down the supply chain (for example, in the cobalt mine or cocoa farm) and, unless brought to light through an investigation or exposé, is largely invisible.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.hull.ac.uk/work-with-us/research/institutes/wilberforce-institute/our-people">Our team</a> at the University of Hull’s <a href="https://www.hull.ac.uk/work-with-us/research/institutes/wilberforce-institute/wilberforce-institute">Wilberforce Institute</a> is working to uncover modern slavery practices around the world, and to improve how governments, law enforcement agencies, businesses and consumers combat child labour exploitation. </p>
<p>We developed a systemic model called the <a href="https://www.craigbarlow.co.uk/_webedit/uploaded-files/All%20Files/Shanna%27s%20Folder/Barlow%20et%20al%20Circles%20of%20Analysis%202021.pdf">circles of analysis</a> for investigating, protecting and prosecuting those involved in child criminal exploitation. This multi-agency framework explores interactions between child, perpetrator and the environment – such as by uniting law enforcement and child protection services – to understand when and why child criminal exploitation takes place.</p>
<h2>What is modern slavery?</h2>
<p>There are several categories of modern slavery and exploitation affecting millions of people worldwide:</p>
<p><strong>Modern slavery:</strong> the illegal exploitation of people for personal or commercial gain. Examples include human trafficking, forced labour, forced marriage and debt bondage.</p>
<p><strong>Child labour exploitation:</strong> when a child is forced to work under threat of punishment, usually with little or no payment.</p>
<p><strong>Child trafficking:</strong> the relocation of a child for the purposes of exploitation.</p>
<p><strong>Child sexual exploitation:</strong> a form of exploitation where children are forced into sex work for the profit of others.</p>
<p><strong>Child criminal exploitation:</strong> a form of exploitation where children are forced to commit crimes for the profit of others.</p>
<p>According to the <a href="https://www.ilo.org/global/about-the-ilo/lang--en/index.htm">International Labour Organisation</a>, a UN agency whose mandate is to advance social and economic justice by setting international labour standards, there are more than 40 million people in modern slavery across the globe, a quarter of whom are children. There are also nearly 25 million people trapped in forced labour.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_norm/---ipec/documents/publication/wcms_800278.pdf">160 million children</a> are in child labour, and 79 million of these working in hazardous conditions. Nearly 3 million children are subject to <a href="https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/documents/publication/wcms_575479.pdf">forced labour</a>.</p>
<h2>What can we do about it?</h2>
<p>Most advice will tell you to not buy cheap or “fast fashion” items that are more likely to have been made in sweatshops. You can also search a company’s website for a modern slavery statement that supposedly guarantees their <a href="https://www.gov.uk/guidance/publish-an-annual-modern-slavery-statement">supply chains are slavery free</a>. Or you can study up on business policies and practices so you can satisfy yourself you’re shopping ethically. </p>
<p>All of the above are good suggestions, but they’re not very practical due to three key conflicts: time, budget and profit. Christmas is a very busy time of year. While we might want to research businesses so we can shop ethically, the reality is we rarely have the time. Christmas is also a very expensive time of year, and for many, shopping ethically may not be financially possible. “Ethical” items are often pricier than items that may have been the product of child labour exploitation. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Close up of a man biting into a large bar of chocolate." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/436926/original/file-20211210-83493-1728y8b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/436926/original/file-20211210-83493-1728y8b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436926/original/file-20211210-83493-1728y8b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436926/original/file-20211210-83493-1728y8b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436926/original/file-20211210-83493-1728y8b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436926/original/file-20211210-83493-1728y8b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436926/original/file-20211210-83493-1728y8b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Do your research: the chocolate bar you’re about to enjoy could be a product of child labour.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/closeup-curly-hair-happy-bearded-man-431663104">BublikHaus / Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>Finally, Christmas is a very lucrative time of year for businesses – and cheap labour is one way to make money. We’ve seen examples of this in the UK with regards to minimum wage and zero hours <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-57157606">contracts</a>, and a <a href="https://modernslaverypec.org/resources/tisc-effectiveness">recent report</a> shows that the effectiveness of modern slavery statements is questionable because they have not delivered meaningful changes in corporate behaviour.</p>
<p>Instead, we suggest an easy way to take action and pressure businesses on the topic of modern slavery. While sitting in front of your telly in your Christmas jumper, drinking wine, eating chocolates and surfing the web, simply use your phone to do the following for the businesses you bought presents from:</p>
<ol>
<li><p>Online search for: [company name] child exploitation / modern slavery / forced labour.</p></li>
<li><p>Go to the company website and send this message: “As one of your customers, can you reassure me that you are 100% certain your products are free of child labour exploitation / modern slavery?”</p></li>
<li><p>Or, for a bit more detail, try this: “As one of your customers, how do you audit your supply chain -– and can you provide evidence that you’re 100% free of child labour exploitation / modern slavery?”</p></li>
</ol>
<p>Businesses monitor how their website and mobile apps are searched, visited and used. If enough of us take a moment to search or ask questions about child labour exploitation, businesses will prioritise it accordingly.</p>
<p>Shopping affordably and ethically can be a difficult balance to navigate, but by learning more about child exploitation and taking this small action, we can all play a part in a happier Christmas for all.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/173111/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Simon Green has received funding from the European Commission, British Academy and Leverhulme.
Simon Green is the Independent Chair of the Ethics and Scrutiny Board for the Humberside Police and Crime Commissioner.</span></em></p>Actions you can take to ensure modern slavery and child exploitation are not a part of your Christmas.Simon Green, Professor of Criminology & Victimology, University of HullLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1703152021-10-26T14:25:28Z2021-10-26T14:25:28ZChild slavery in West Africa: understanding cocoa farming is key to ending the practice<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/427758/original/file-20211021-27-1c1zyp6.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Cocoa farming in West Africa is tinged with socio-cultural activities that are misunderstood by the West</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cocoa_farmers_during_harvest.jpg">Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In 2000 and 2001, the use of child slaves on cocoa farms in West Africa was exposed in a series of <a href="https://www.truevisiontv.com/films/slavery-a-global-investigation">documentaries</a> and pieces of <a href="http://vision.ucsd.edu/%7Ekbranson/stopchocolateslavery/newsandinformation.html">investigative journalism</a>, sparking an international outcry .</p>
<p>This series of events was far from unprecedented. </p>
<p>As discussed in my <a href="https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-816">paper</a>, since the 19th century, when cocoa was first introduced to Africa (and despite the formal abolition of domestic slavery in the region), cocoa farming in West Africa has been linked to narratives of slavery and ensuing protests from chocolate consumers in Europe and America.</p>
<p>As recently as the early 20th century, the Portuguese were importing slaves into São Tomé and Príncipe to work on cocoa farms. This process was described by the British journalist <a href="https://www.ohioswallow.com/extras/0821416251_sample.pdf">Henry Woodd Nevinson</a> , who had been funded by Harper’s Magazine to investigate rumours of slave labour in cocoa plantations. On reaching São Tomé or Príncipe, each slave was asked whether they were willing to work there. Nevinson reported:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>In most cases no answer was given. If any answer was made, no attention was paid to it. A contract was then drawn out for five years’ labour.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>This allowed both the Portuguese and chocolate producers in Europe to argue that the workers were contracted labourers rather than slaves. However, the “contracts” produced were meaningless, as the slaves were not permitted to leave the plantations for five years.</p>
<p>Some things have changed since then. Modern slavery primarily involves the trafficking of children, who are treated as a “disposable” source of labour. However, some things remain the same. Cocoa buyers and chocolate manufacturers still use various strategies to deny, deflect and divert when the issue of child slavery is raised. </p>
<h2>Modern Slavery and chocolate manufacturers</h2>
<p>After the practice was exposed in the 2000 documentary <a href="http://www.endslaverynow.org/act/action-library/watch-slavery-a-global-investigation">Slavery: A Global Investigation</a>, the chocolate industry initially denied that trafficked children were involved in cocoa farming. In response, civil society groups in chocolate-consuming countries launched a campaign calling for the elimination of child slavery in the cocoa industry. </p>
<p>The campaign was particularly successful in the US due to its unique history of slavery. It led a US representative, Elliot Engel, to introduce <a href="https://www.slavefreechocolate.org/harkin-engel-protocol">legislation</a> requiring chocolate firms in the US to label their products “slave free” to prove that no child slaves were involved in their supply chains. </p>
<p>Chocolate companies first responded by hiring professional lobbyists to prevent the passage of the <a href="https://laborrights.org/sites/default/files/publications-and-resources/Cocoa%20Protocol%20Success%20or%20Failure%20June%202008.pdf">“slave free” legislation</a> in the US Senate due to the legal implication of such a label.</p>
<p>Subsequently, conceding that child slavery might actually exist in their supply chains, the companies took a different approach. They teamed up with various stakeholders to create the <a href="https://www.slavefreechocolate.org/harkin-engel-protocol">Harkin–Engel Protocol</a> , which effectively quelled the 2000–2001 campaign. But this was a tactics.</p>
<p>The Harkin–Engel Protocol set out six date-specific actions that were supposed to lead to the establishment of an industry-wide standard for product certification on July 1, 2005. However, the deadline was extended to 2008 and then to 2010. After 2010, the protocol was basically abandoned. </p>
<p>Following the missed deadline in 2005, some US campaigners turned to the courts, sponsoring former slaves to sue multinational chocolate companies directly. However, all hope of winning these cases was lost in June 2021, when the US Supreme Court <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-57522186">determined</a> that companies such as Nestlé and Cargill could not be sued for child slavery in their supply chains . </p>
<p>The campaigners were at a clear disadvantage compared with the chocolate makers, not least because they did not fully understand the root causes of child slavery in cocoa farming in West Africa.</p>
<h2>The causes</h2>
<p>The issue of child slavery in cocoa farming in West Africa has been only superficially addressed in the literature. Survey and survey-type studies have sought to determine the extent of child slavery (and child labour) in West African cocoa farming, but they have failed to consider its causes. </p>
<p>An example is a series of <a href="https://cocoainitiative.org/knowledge-centre-post/survey-on-child-labour-in-ghana-and-cote-divoire/">field surveys</a> conducted by Tulane University to ascertain the prevalence of the worst forms of child labour in cocoa farming in Ghana and Ivory Coast. </p>
<p>Meanwhile, investigative reports and televised documentaries have painted merely a qualitative picture of the phenomenon. An example is the 2010 documentary <a href="https://www.slavefreechocolate.org/dark-side-of-chocolate">The Dark Side of Chocolate </a>. This sought to provide visual evidence of child slavery in cocoa production in West Africa. Representatives of the chocolate industry declined both requests for interviews and invitations to watch the film. </p>
<p>The filmmaker, Miki Mistrati, broadcast the documentary on a large screen next to Nestlé’s headquarters in Switzerland , <a href="https://www.fawco.org/global-issues/human-rights/ending-violence-against-women-a-children/3008-the-dark-side-of-chocolate-child-labor-in-the-chocolate-industry">making it difficult</a> for employees to avoid catching glimpses of child slavery in the company’s supply chain.</p>
<p>Scholars, journalists and filmmakers addressing the topic of child slavery in West African cocoa farming have thus far failed to engage with the history of cocoa farming and the evolution of the process of cocoa cultivation.</p>
<p>Properly engaging with this history would help anti-child slavery campaigners understand what exactly they are fighting against. The conditions that created a demand for cheaper sources of labour in the past are still in place today, and nobody understands them better than chocolate multinationals.</p>
<p>This has been the subject of <a href="https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-816">my research</a>.</p>
<p>These conditions arise from changes in the ratio of labour to land needed to continue cultivating cocoa. The availability of forestland is the decisive factor. </p>
<p>Cocoa farming once involved the consecutive phases of boom and bust, followed by a shift to a new forest area (production shift), a different product in the same area (diversification) or a different system of cocoa cultivation requiring extra production factors. <a href="https://www.cabdirect.org/cabdirect/abstract/20056705004">Studies</a> of cocoa cultivation in West Africa have provided evidence of planters’ migrating to new forest after exhausting existing forestland, resulting in shifts in production centres within and between countries. </p>
<p>However, accessing new forestland is becoming ever more difficult, and far more labour is needed to replant cocoa than to plant on pioneer forest soil. </p>
<p>This labour problem is particularly pronounced in cocoa cultivation areas that depended on migrant labour in the past (such as Ivory Coast). Here, a reduction in migration over time, coupled with deforestation, has resulted in a labour crisis: although post-forest cultivation requires more labour than pioneer planting, less labour is now available. To continue cultivating cocoa, planters in these areas have turned to cheaper sources of labour, such as family members and children. </p>
<p>This change in labour relations seems to have led to an increase in child slave labour. </p>
<h2>Investing time</h2>
<p>Chocolate producers such as Mars and Nestlé are well aware of the labour problem in cocoa cultivation. Historically, this problem has led to diversification: when cocoa has become difficult to cultivate, planters have turned to other products. Although such diversification may be good for farming communities, it spells bad news for buyers of the raw material. This has led to multinationals intervening under the banner of sustainability to prevent diversification away from cocoa. Their <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323568630_Sustainability_winners_and_losers_in_business-biased_cocoa_sustainability_programmes_in_West_Africa">“sustainability” programmes</a> are ostensibly designed to combat child labour, slavery or trafficking or labour. They are, however, in fact productivity-boosting programmes with token anti-slavery components.</p>
<p>It is no longer sufficient merely to show that child slavery exists in cocoa farming in West Africa. To have any chance of combating these practices, campaigners must invest time and effort to truly understand the processes and conditions that create them.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/170315/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael E Odijie does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Cocoa buyers and chocolate manufacturers still use various strategies to deflect when the issue of child slavery is raisedMichael E Odijie, Research associate, UCLLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1685212021-10-03T08:32:26Z2021-10-03T08:32:26ZMeasuring child labour on Ivorian cocoa farms certified child-labour-free : the way you ask matters<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/423897/original/file-20210929-19-dyspc6.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The definition of child labour on cocoa farms in West Africa is still in dispute </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/cgiarclimate/25651592728">Dr.Richard Asare/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The evidence of <a href="https://fortune.com/2020/10/19/chocolate-child-labor-west-africa-cocoa-farms/">child labour on cocoa farms in West Africa</a> became public knowledge in the late 1990s. This followed press reports documenting the existence of hazardous child labour on cocoa farms. Pressure on the cocoa industry to end child labour has been growing ever since, particularly from civil society and more recently from both US and European regulators. </p>
<p>To meet consumer demand for more sustainable and ethical cocoa, the industry began using certification schemes in the late 2000s. Certification labels, such as <a href="https://www.rainforest-alliance.org/business/certification/difference-between-rainforest-alliance-certified-fair-trade/">Rainforest Alliance and FairTrade</a>, aim, among other goals, to guarantee cocoa produced without the use of child labour. </p>
<p>It is estimated that between <a href="https://www.voicenetwork.eu/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/2020-Cocoa-Barometer.pdf">one-third and one-half</a> of the cocoa sold worldwide is currently certified. </p>
<p>In September 2001, by ratifying the <a href="https://cocoainitiative.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/Harkin_Engel_Protocol.pdf">Harkin-Engel Protocol</a>, the cocoa industry committed to reduce the most hazardous forms of child labour by 70% by 2020. Yet, Côte d'Ivoire, the world’s largest cocoa producer, is still struggling with child labour on its cocoa farms. </p>
<p>Indeed, the number of children under the age of 18 working on cocoa farms (certified or not) actually <a href="https://www.norc.org/PDFs/Cocoa%20Report/NORC%202020%20Cocoa%20Report_English.pdf">increased between 2013 and 2019</a>, to reach an estimated 790,000. It’s believed that <a href="https://www.norc.org/PDFs/Cocoa%20Report/NORC%202020%20Cocoa%20Report_English.pdf">97%</a> of them are engaged in some of the most hazardous work, including clearing land, harvesting cocoa with a machete, or applying agrochemicals on cocoa farms. </p>
<p>My new <a href="http://bordeauxeconomicswp.u-bordeaux.fr/2021/2021-08.pdf">research paper</a> focusing on certified cocoa farmers in Côte d'Ivoire argues that the real number of child labourers is likely even higher, as measures of child labour may be biased. The results also suggest that certification is not working as intended when it comes to child labour.</p>
<h2>Child labour in cocoa</h2>
<p>I found that the prevalence of child labour is likely being underestimated by studies conducted by both researchers and the cocoa industry. This is due to a concept called <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2007-12463-007">social desirability bias</a> which occurs when people are reluctant to provide completely truthful answers about sensitive topics out of fear of negative consequences. </p>
<p>In the case of child labour on Ivorian cocoa farms, certified farmers may lie about their reliance on child labour as any type of child labour is prohibited by the certification schemes they belong to. Hazardous labour is also prohibited by national legislation. </p>
<p>Fear of legal, social, or economic repercussions is likely leading certified farmers to under report their use of child labour. This is making it harder to accurately measure the scope of the problem and to enact effective policies to fight it.</p>
<h2>Sensitive questions</h2>
<p>My <a href="http://bordeauxeconomicswp.u-bordeaux.fr/2021/2021-08.pdf">study</a> relied on a <a href="https://dimewiki.worldbank.org/List_Experiments">list experiment</a> survey method. It asks respondents about sensitive topics in a more indirect manner than standard surveys. </p>
<p>The prevalence of child labour use estimated using the indirect measure is twice as large as the one from direct questioning. Using list experiments, I find that between 21% and 25% of the surveyed cocoa farmers were relying on child labour during the past 12 months, depending on the type of work involved. This difference suggests that at least half of Ivorian cocoa farmers who use child labour on their certified farms are not willing to admit it.</p>
<h2>Why the reliance on children</h2>
<p>Main drivers include failures in labour markets, lack of school infrastructure and difficulties in monitoring the use of child labour by certified cocoa farmers, mainly because of the remoteness of the farms.</p>
<p>Cocoa production requires a significant amount of physical labour, as many tasks associated with cocoa farming are not mechanised. Additionally, as cocoa prices in Côte d'Ivoire are fixed seasonally, the only way for farmers to increase their cocoa-generated income is to increase their production. This requires increased labour. </p>
<p>At the same time, Ivorian cocoa farms tend to be clustered in cocoa-growing communities. This means that local adult labour is scarce because most able-bodied adults are employed on their own cocoa farms, and are not seeking labour on other farms.</p>
<p>This labour market failure —- more labourers are needed precisely where they are not available — results in more cocoa farmers relying on child labour. This phenomenon is even more important when cocoa farms are located in remote communities with difficult access to roads. The reliance on child labour by cocoa farmers is then partly due to adult labour shortages. This finding is further borne out by the fact that the presence of an additional adult in a cocoa-growing household reduced the likelihood of relying on child labour up to 4%.</p>
<p>I also found that the prevalence of child labour is higher on more remote farms, which can be explained by weaker law enforcement in these areas, fewer available adult labourers, and limited opportunity for children to attend school due to a lack of school infrastructure.</p>
<h2>Conclusion</h2>
<p>Taken together, these findings strongly suggest that child labour rates, and potentially other sensitive subjects, are not being measured accurately. In addition, they show that the issue of child labour remains rampant in Côte d'Ivoire, even on cocoa farms certified as child-labour-free.</p>
<p>Understanding the various reasons behind farmers’ continued use of child labour and reluctance to admit that use is an important first step in designing more effective policies. By taking the phenomenon of social desirability bias into account in future research, governments and development partners can lead to more accurate measures of the issue and inform more effective policymaking.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/168521/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Marine Jouvin works for Touton S.A. </span></em></p>Child labour rates, and potentially other sensitive subjects, are not being measured accuratelyMarine Jouvin, PhD Candidate in development economics, Université de BordeauxLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1636872021-07-14T13:53:51Z2021-07-14T13:53:51ZChocolate – a new way to make sure your favourite bar is an ethical treat<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/410596/original/file-20210709-17-gm8g2l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=239%2C89%2C3754%2C2568&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/composition-bars-pieces-different-milk-dark-1721265295">Shutterstock/ivan_kislitsin</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Chocolate has a special place in many of our lives. It is widely seen as an affordable and essentially harmless treat – a food of comfort, celebration and joy. But those bars, cakes and Easter eggs are also part of a <a href="https://www.icco.org/chocolate-industry/">£61 billion</a> a year global industry with a troubling history of social and environmental harm.</p>
<p>For example, there are now an estimated <a href="https://www.confectionerynews.com/Article/2020/05/07/New-report-reveals-child-labor-on-West-African-cocoa-farms-has-increased-in-past-10-years">two million child labourers</a> working on cocoa farms in west Africa. Some are <a href="https://laborrights.org/sites/default/files/publications-and-resources/cocoakit1_2.pdf">tricked or sold into slavery</a> on those farms where <a href="https://www.du.edu/korbel/hrhw/researchdigest/slavery/africa.pdf">they are forced</a> to carry heavy loads of cocoa, use harmful pesticides, and handle machetes. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.takepart.com/article/2015/07/31/cocoa-child-labor-report/">Reports suggest</a> the problem is getting worse, despite <a href="https://www.nestle.com/sites/default/files/asset-library/documents/creating-shared-value/responsible-sourcing/nestle-cocoa-plan-child-labour-2017-report.pdf">promises</a> from large chocolate producers. Multinational chocolate firm executives have admitted that the cocoa supply chain is “<a href="https://uk.reuters.com/article/us-cocoa-mars-sustainability/mars-aims-to-tackle-broken-cocoa-model-with-new-sustainability-scheme-idUKKCN1LZ1DZ">broken</a>”.</p>
<p>The high demand for chocolate products and volatile price of cocoa means that some traders seek to buy cheaper beans from deforested regions and lower quality plants. This affects the prices and practices of legitimate farmers, <a href="https://www.voicenetwork.eu/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/Raising-Farm-Gate-Prices-Cocoa-Barometer-Consultation-Paper-170419.pdf">reducing sustainability gains</a> that have been made, such as improved land management.</p>
<p>At the heart of this complex issue is the difficulty of tracing cocoa from farms to the end product. The majority of the world’s crop – <a href="https://chocolatephayanak.com/unkategorisiert/where-is-cocoa-grown-around-the-world/">around 70%</a> – is grown on small farms in remote areas of Ghana and Ivory Coast. </p>
<p>From those farms it is collected by small-scale traders and taken to larger facilities, where vast quantities are traded on international markets. With many different parties mixing crops early in the supply chain, tracing beans back to their farms of origin becomes extremely difficult. </p>
<p>So far, certification schemes such as Fairtrade, which aim to encourage responsible sourcing, appear to have <a href="http://www.msi-integrity.org/not-fit-for-purpose/">failed</a>. Some well-known chocolate brands <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/business/2020/jun/23/profoundly-disappointing-kitkat-cuts-ties-with-fairtrade">such as KitKat</a> have <a href="https://www.cips.org/supply-management/news/2020/june/kitkat-ends-partnership-with-fairtrade/">dropped ethical labels</a> and <a href="https://www.confectionerynews.com/Article/2019/04/30/Mondelez-adds-more-brands-to-its-Cocoa-Life-Program-as-new-report-shows-it-s-on-track-to-deliver-100-sustainability-by-2025">self-certification</a> has become increasingly popular, with the likes of the company which owns Cadbury Dairy Milk. </p>
<p>But <a href="https://doi.org/10.1108/SCM-11-2020-0583">our research</a> suggests a solution could now be within reach, with a reliable system that tracks the journey from cocoa trees to the chocolate in your fridge. </p>
<p>The system uses something called “biomarkers”, which are like biochemical fingerprints or bar codes extracted from the plant’s DNA. These provide a unique identifier of a plant that is also observed in its beans. The biomarkers in cocoa beans are so hardy they can even survive the industrial processes used in chocolate making. </p>
<h2>Test and trace</h2>
<p>This allows for the identification of an individual farm’s beans from a mixture of beans of different origins in the final product. The method has now been successfully tested in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1108/SCM-11-2020-0583">a study of cocoa supply chains</a>, tracing specific plants on individual farms through to chocolate products. </p>
<p>If a database was created with sufficient samples, chocolate bought anywhere in the world could be traced back to the farm where the cocoa was originally sourced. Chocolate producers and customers would know precisely where the raw material of their chocolate has come from. </p>
<p>While the solution has proved to be effective in our small pilot study, if the method can be scaled up effectively, there can be no excuses for continued abuses within chocolate supply chains. Claims that farms are too widespread or remote, or the cocoa supply chain too complex, become empty. </p>
<p>Such a biomarker database identifying the origin of cocoa products could be built by firms or done independently at an estimated cost of around £5 per farm – the cost of a box of chocolates. The industry’s serious challenges of child labour, modern slavery, and environmental degradation could then be addressed, with targeted audits of specific farms where chocolate producers source their cocoa. </p>
<p>The chocolate industry and governments need to face this ethical challenge. We have developed an effective tool for them to make progress – and drastically improve a trade that is rife with environmental destruction and human misery.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/163687/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael Rogerson receives funding from the Economic and Social Research Council (grant reference ES/P000630/1).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Glenn Parry receives funding from the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (UK) via the
Dynamic, Real time, On-demand Personalisation for Scaling (DROPS) EP/R033374/1, and the Next Stage
Digital Economy Centre in the Decentralised Digital Economy (DECaDE) EP/T022485/1. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Pedro Lafargue received funding for this research from the University of the West of England, Bristol, and would like to thank Tree of Wisdom Chocolate for its assistance in this research.</span></em></p>DNA testing for cocoa beans could fight slavery and child labour.Michael Rogerson, PhD Candidate, University of BathGlenn Parry, Professor of Digital Transformation, University of SurreyPedro Lafargue, Research Fellow, University of the West of EnglandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1532882021-05-10T05:19:48Z2021-05-10T05:19:48ZWant to save the children? How child sexual abuse and human trafficking really work<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/399649/original/file-20210510-19-1gvu7qn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C961%2C6000%2C3026&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source"> Sandor Szmutko/Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Millions of kidnapped children are imprisoned in underground tunnels, being sexually abused and tortured by a shadowy global cabal of paedophiles. </p>
<p>That, at least, is some of the misinformation about child sex trafficking being spread on social media. You’ll also see such ideas being promoted at protests from Los Angeles to London, with hashtags such as <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/09/28/technology/save-the-children-qanon.html">#saveourchildren</a> and #endchildtrafficking emblazoned on shirts and placards.</p>
<p>The thought of a child being abused, exploited or trafficked for sex elicits a powerful emotional response. These lurid tales have proven to be a potent gateway for <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-09-20/how-growing-conspiracy-movement-critical-to-us-election/12661592">mothers</a> (and others) to “go down the rabbithole”.</p>
<p>The tragedy is that misinformation is turning well-intentioned people into “digital soldiers” unwittingly working against genuine efforts to eliminate child sexual abuse and human trafficking. </p>
<p>Let’s try to untangle the misconceptions.</p>
<h2>The truth about child sexual abuse</h2>
<p>Statistics on child sexual abuse are never exact. Less than <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232602908_Disclosure_of_Child_Sexual_Abuse_What_Does_the_Research_Tell_Us_About_the_Ways_That_Children_Tell">40% of victims</a> report being abused when children. The average time before disclosure, according to Australia’s Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse, is about 20 years for women and 25 years for men. Some never disclose. </p>
<p>There are enough robust studies, however, to suggest about <a href="https://www.d2l.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/PREVALENCE-RATE-WHITE-PAPER-D2L.pdf">one in ten children</a> are sexually abused before age 18 – one in seven girls (14%) and one in 25 boys (4%).</p>
<p>Most typically the abuser is an adult known and trusted by the child and their parents. Then by a non-biological relative or in-law. In fewer than 15% of cases is the perpetrator a stranger.</p>
<p>A 2000 study for the <a href="https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/saycrle.pdf">US Bureau of Justice Statistics</a> found 7.5% of all known female victims under the age of 17, and 5% of male victims, were abused by a stranger. More recent data published in 2016 by the <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/crime-and-justice/personal-safety-australia/latest-release#experience-of-abuse-before-the-age-of-15">Australian Bureau of Statistics</a> found strangers accounted for 11.5% of sexual abuse of girls under the age of 16, and 15% of boys. </p>
<hr>
<p><iframe id="Z0cRu" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/Z0cRu/2/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<hr>
<p>The differences between these findings are most likely due to greater awareness reducing opportunities for abuse by “acquaintances” such as clergy, teachers and coaches. In the 2000 data, to illustrate, 69% of molested boys were abused by an acquaintance; in the 2016 data it was about 47%.</p>
<h2>Exaggerating stranger dangers</h2>
<p>Media coverage tends to distort understanding of child sexual abuse. It focuses on “<a href="https://www.nationalcac.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/child-sexual-abuse-myths-Attitudes-beliefs-and-individual-differences.pdf">stranger danger</a>” and amplifies the threat of children being molested at the park or shopping centre.</p>
<p>Even more intense coverage goes to the rarer cases where children are abducted or murdered. Think of the fascination with cases such as the 2007 disappearance of three-year-old <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-52910472">Madeleine McCann</a>. But such cases are memorable because they are so rare. </p>
<p>The so-called “Pastel-Q” conspiracy theory, however, asserts millions of children a year are being kidnapped and trafficked for sex. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-qanon-uses-satanic-rhetoric-to-set-up-a-narrative-of-good-vs-evil-146281">How QAnon uses satanic rhetoric to set up a narrative of 'good vs. evil'</a>
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<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="A QAnon meme about missing children based on misrepresenting missing persons statistics." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/399227/original/file-20210506-16-f4z8cx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/399227/original/file-20210506-16-f4z8cx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/399227/original/file-20210506-16-f4z8cx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/399227/original/file-20210506-16-f4z8cx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/399227/original/file-20210506-16-f4z8cx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=623&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/399227/original/file-20210506-16-f4z8cx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=623&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/399227/original/file-20210506-16-f4z8cx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=623&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A QAnon meme about missing children.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Facebook</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>This claim rests on <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/fact-checker/wp/2015/03/17/58000-children-abducted-a-year-yet-another-fishy-statistic/">misrepresented</a> numbers from missing persons reports. In the case of the US, for example, the claim is that 800,000 children disappear each year. (A similar rate applied globally would mean about 19 million children disappear every year.)</p>
<p>In fact, the FBI’s data shows the number of people under the age of 17 reported missing in the US <a href="https://www.fbi.gov/file-repository/2020-ncic-missing-person-and-unidentified-person-statistics.pdf/viewmore">in 2020</a> was about 365,000. In most cases (based on several decades’ of data) these missing reports involve a child <a href="https://www.missingkids.org/footer/media/keyfacts">running away from home</a> or being taken by a custodial parent. Almost half are found <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-missing-children-idUSBRE83P14020120426">within three hours</a>, and more than 99% are found alive. Since 2010, in the US <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-factcheck-more-global-covid-deaths-th-idUSKCN24I268">fewer than 350 people</a> a year under the age of 21 have been abducted by strangers. </p>
<h2>Sex trafficking in reality</h2>
<p>So no, there’s no evidence millions of children in wealthy nations are being kidnapped by paedophiles. </p>
<p>This is not to say child sex trafficking isn’t a serious concern. But it is a different problem to the Pastel-Q portrayal.</p>
<p>The United Nations’ <a href="https://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/protocoltraffickinginpersons.aspx">Trafficking in Persons Protocol</a> defines human trafficking as:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>This means human trafficking doesn’t necessarily require moving a person from one place to another, in the way we think of weapons and drugs being trafficked. It’s not the same as people smuggling. Nor is it exactly the same as modern slavery, although there is broad crossover in definitions. </p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-trafficked-children-are-being-hidden-behind-a-focus-on-modern-slavery-87116">How trafficked children are being hidden behind a focus on modern slavery</a>
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</p>
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<p>The crucial point of trafficking is the abuse of power to exploit another human being. It thrives in conditions of poverty, economic and gender inequality, corruption and instability. It requires systemic solutions, which the cartoonish constructions of Pastel-Q distract attention from.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A 'Save Our Children' protest outside the BBC's London headquarters. September 5 2020." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/399435/original/file-20210507-17-1bqhr1d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/399435/original/file-20210507-17-1bqhr1d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/399435/original/file-20210507-17-1bqhr1d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/399435/original/file-20210507-17-1bqhr1d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/399435/original/file-20210507-17-1bqhr1d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/399435/original/file-20210507-17-1bqhr1d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/399435/original/file-20210507-17-1bqhr1d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">A ‘Save Our Children’ protest outside the BBC’s London headquarters. September 5 2020.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Graham Hodson/Shutterstock</span></span>
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</figure>
<h2>Trafficking and modern slavery</h2>
<p>Accurately estimating the true scale of child sex trafficking is, like child sexual abuse, complicated. There is the <a href="https://polarisproject.org/recognizing-human-trafficking/">hidden nature</a> of these crimes, differences in policing and reporting between nations, and little uniformity in how statistics are compiled.</p>
<p>The United Nations’ <a href="https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/human-trafficking/global-report-on-trafficking-in-persons.html">Global Report on Trafficking in Persons</a> only reports on “detected” cases. There are no more than 25,000 cases each year. </p>
<p>But researchers have good reasons to believe this is just the tip of the iceberg. The most <a href="https://www.alliance87.org/global_estimates_of_modern_slavery-forced_labour_and_forced_marriage.pdf">commonly accepted estimates</a> of the true number of trafficking victims in the world is about 21 million. About 16 million have been trafficked for labour; about 3 million of these are aged under 18.</p>
<p>About 5 million are trafficked for sex – most typically by being coerced into sex work. More than 99% of sex-trafficking victims are women. More than 70% are in Asia, followed by Europe and Central Asia (14%), Africa (8%), the Americas (4%), and the Arab States (1%). About a million are aged under 18. </p>
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<p>We must be cautious about these total estimates. Nonetheless there is sufficient research to be confident only a very small percentage of cases involve scenarios like that in the movie <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uPJVJBm9TPA">Taken</a>, where Liam Neeson’s character uses his “very particular set of skills” to rescue his kidnapped 17-year-old American daughter from sex slavery. </p>
<p>More often, traffickers approach families living in poverty or <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3651545/#B3">socially and economically vulnerable</a> girls – such as runaways – offering false promises of affection, work and a better life. Instead the girls find themselves being pressured or coerced into sex work.</p>
<p>This was the case with the victims of Jeffrey Epstein, whose intermediaries lured girls aged 14 to 18 with cash to perform massages, then nude massages, then sex.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/jeffrey-epsteins-arrest-is-the-tip-of-the-iceberg-human-trafficking-is-the-worlds-fastest-growing-crime-120225">Jeffrey Epstein’s arrest is the tip of the iceberg: human trafficking is the world’s fastest growing crime</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>How do we address this?</h2>
<p>Child sexual abuse and child sex trafficking are both serious global problems. We should all be concerned about them. </p>
<p>But they can’t be divorced from the broader conditions that allow many more millions of children and adults to be trafficked and exploited as modern slaves. </p>
<p>They require sophisticated, holistic and broad-based legal and policy responses.
They will not be tackled by misunderstanding their reality and complexity, and indulging in false narratives that divert attention from the real issues. </p>
<p>Which is why more than <a href="https://freedomneedstruth.medium.com/freedom-needs-truth-5224c632557b">130 anti-trafficking organisations</a> have said anybody who lends credibility to these false claims “actively harms the fight against human trafficking”.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/153288/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alexandra Baxter is a member of ACRATH; however, does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article.</span></em></p>Child sexual abuse and child sex trafficking are serious problems. Misinformation is harming efforts to combat them.Alexandra Baxter, PhD Candidate in Criminology/Law, researching human trafficking and modern slavery in Australia, Flinders UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1501122021-01-13T16:52:56Z2021-01-13T16:52:56ZJoe Biden and Kamala Harris could transform American childhood<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/378313/original/file-20210112-23-1wlv14i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C718%2C6000%2C3269&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Children wave American flags before an event with President-elect Joe Biden in November 2020, in Wilmington, Del. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Andrew Harnik)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Inauguration Day approaches in the United States after a bitterly divisive election and the unprecedented events surrounding <a href="https://theconversation.com/pro-trump-rioters-storm-u-s-capitol-as-his-election-tantrum-leads-to-violence-149142">the confirmation of Joe Biden’s electoral college victory</a>. The world is waiting to see what changes a Joe Biden/Kamala Harris administration might bring to the beleaguered nation. </p>
<p>Many believe that the president-elect bears the responsibility for the <a href="https://www.thenation.com/article/politics/trump-coup-election-michigan/">future of American democracy</a>, while others assert that what’s at stake is the fate of the nation’s <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-biden-administration-must-double-down-on-science/">scientific capacity</a> to respond both to the pandemic and to the climate crisis. </p>
<p>As researchers who study childhood, we believe that the new administration could also play an important role in determining the future of another important ideal — the “<a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0003-066X.34.10.815">American child</a>.” What happens over the next four years could have a lasting impact on how childhood is understood and experienced in the United States and beyond.</p>
<h2>Inventing the ‘American child’</h2>
<p>Children were central to political debate throughout the 2020 presidential election. From unfounded fears of a <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/27/technology/pizzagate-justin-bieber-qanon-tiktok.html">bogus child-trafficking conspiracy</a> to inspiring messages of <a href="https://www.parents.com/news/kamala-harris-acceptance-speech-was-a-message-of-hope-for-kids-of-all-genders-this-is-a-country-of-possibilities/">possibility and equity</a>, the child was an important campaign tool for winning hearts and minds on both ends of the political spectrum. </p>
<p>As Yale psychologist William Kessen pointed out more than four decades ago, the “<a href="https://quote.ucsd.edu/childhood/files/2013/04/kessen-amerchild.pdf">American child</a>” at the heart of these debates is a cultural invention. What Kessen was pointing out was that childhood is not an undisputed truth, but a malleable and changing social construct. </p>
<p>In the U.S., and in the western world more broadly, one of the most common beliefs about childhood has been that it should be a <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0907568218811484">universal time of innocence</a>, or separation from “adult” realities like work, politics and war. This belief became widespread in the late 19th century when concern over the living and working conditions of the poor led to a crusade for child protection. </p>
<p>The preservation of childhood innocence became a guiding factor for laws and policies on child care, education and labour. </p>
<h2>Questioning innocence</h2>
<p>In recent decades, this assumption of innocence has increasingly been recognized as a myth. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/coronavirus-isnt-the-end-of-childhood-innocence-but-an-opportunity-to-rethink-childrens-rights-134478">Coronavirus isn't the end of 'childhood innocence,' but an opportunity to rethink children's rights</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Particularly in 2020, given the twin crises of the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/31/us/george-floyd-protests-coronavirus.html">COVID-19 pandemic and police violence</a> in the U.S., it’s clear that few people, including children, escape adversity. Yet innocence is a persistent fantasy that has real consequences. </p>
<p>As the articles featured in the newest issue of <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/rcui20/50/4?nav=tocList"><em>Curriculum Inquiry</em></a> illustrate, the myth of childhood innocence is continually employed as a political tool that diminishes difficult lived experiences, limits historical understanding and shapes social interactions. In other words, advocating for the protection of innocence does not actually protect children. </p>
<p>As we observe in the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03626784.2020.1851521">issue’s editorial</a>, when childhood innocence is held up as an unquestioned ideal, its politics — the colonial and racist beliefs and practices on which it is founded — are erased.</p>
<p>More specifically, campaigning for the protection childhood innocence can be understood as an act of <a href="https://www.huffpost.com/entry/preserving-my-childrens-innocence-is-an-act-of-preserving_b_57d2d8f4e4b0273330ac3dae">preserving white supremacy</a>, as seen numerous times in outgoing President Donald Trump’s political rhetoric. </p>
<h2>Strict immigration policies</h2>
<p>In 2016, Trump <a href="https://www.politico.com/story/2016/08/donald-trump-immigration-address-transcript-227614">campaigned on strict immigration policies</a>, in part, he claimed, as a response to the loss of innocent lives due to insecure borders. He described the need to control future immigration as an obligation to the American children of newcomers “to ensure assimilation, integration and upward mobility.” </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">At the 51-minute mark, Trump talks about the obligation to American-born children. Via CNN.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Once elected, Trump made it clear which children he believed were entitled to innocence and protection with the enactment of his <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2021/jan/04/trump-administration-family-separation-immigrants-joe-biden">family separation policy</a> that tragically split <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/more-5-400-children-split-border-according-new-count-n1071791">more than 5,400 children</a> from their parents at the U.S.-Mexico border. </p>
<p>Trump’s supposed efforts to protect innocent children have actually undermined children’s safety and well-being. His exclusionary actions, including <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/31/us/politics/trump-travel-ban.html">Muslim and African travel bans</a>, his repeated attempts to repeal the <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/jemimamcevoy/2020/06/18/all-the-times-trump-promised-to-repeal-daca/?sh=66d6f26d679a">Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals program (DACA)</a> and his frequent refusals to <a href="https://www.npr.org/2020/09/30/918483794/from-debate-stage-trump-declines-to-denounce-white-supremacy">denounce white supremacy</a> have <a href="https://www.newyorker.com/news/our-columnists/donald-trump-asks-children-to-build-the-wall-on-halloween">normalized cruelty and incited fear</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A Guatemalan mother cries at a news conference." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/378187/original/file-20210112-13-5fr021.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/378187/original/file-20210112-13-5fr021.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/378187/original/file-20210112-13-5fr021.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/378187/original/file-20210112-13-5fr021.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/378187/original/file-20210112-13-5fr021.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=487&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/378187/original/file-20210112-13-5fr021.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=487&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/378187/original/file-20210112-13-5fr021.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=487&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A mother from Guatemala who was separated from her two children after entering the U.S. in May 2018 weeps while speaking at a news conference in Boston in September 2018. She was among plaintiffs in a lawsuit against Trump’s administration for separated kids from their parents at the border.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Steven Senne)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Not only have Trump’s attacks on racialized people left marginalized children afraid for themselves and their families, they have also made racial hostility and violence more acceptable. </p>
<p>As former first lady Michelle Obama pointed out in a <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2016/oct/14/michelle-obama-speech-transcript-donald-trump">high-profile speech</a> in 2016 in support of Hillary Clinton, electing Trump would mean telling “kids that bigotry and bullying are perfectly acceptable in the leader of their country.” While <a href="https://news.un.org/en/story/2020/06/1065572">racism and violence</a> have a long history in the U.S., Trump’s tenure may mark the first time that young American children have regarded <a href="https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/early-childhood/news/2017/01/27/297352/when-president-trump-speaks-our-children-are-listening/">their president as someone to fear</a>.</p>
<h2>Choosing justice over innocence</h2>
<p>Although the impact of the Trump presidency will not be easily overcome, a Biden-Harris administration offers hope for the nation’s children. Biden has vowed to “<a href="https://joebiden.com/immigration/">reverse the Trump administration’s cruel and senseless policies that separate parents from their children at our border</a>” and to reinstate the DACA program. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Joe Biden speaks from a stage with Kamala Harris on video screen behind him." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/378182/original/file-20210112-19-wgzv8l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/378182/original/file-20210112-19-wgzv8l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=433&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/378182/original/file-20210112-19-wgzv8l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=433&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/378182/original/file-20210112-19-wgzv8l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=433&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/378182/original/file-20210112-19-wgzv8l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=544&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/378182/original/file-20210112-19-wgzv8l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=544&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/378182/original/file-20210112-19-wgzv8l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=544&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Biden speaks as Harris looks on via video during a news conference in Wilmington, Del., in December 2020.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Kevin Lamarque/Pool via AP)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>He’s also committed to <a href="https://joebiden.com/racial-economic-equity/">advancing racial equity</a> by addressing racial disparities in health care, policing and education. </p>
<p>These efforts will go a long way toward assuring all children in the U.S. that they are valued members of society who deserve to have their <a href="https://theconversation.com/world-childrens-day-young-people-deserve-to-be-heard-during-covid-19-149904">rights supported and protected</a>. </p>
<p>However, we believe that there’s more Biden and Harris can do to transform childhood for the better. Instead of relying on the rhetoric of <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03626784.2020.1851521">childhood innocence</a>, we hope that the new administration focuses on justice. This requires asking questions that address children’s basic <a href="https://www.unicef.org/child-rights-convention/what-are-human-rights">human rights</a>, which include the right to be healthy, safe and free from discrimination.</p>
<p>As cultural historian <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/07/26/opinion/black-kids-discrimination.html">Robin Bernstein</a> explains: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“All children deserve equal protection under the law not because they’re innocent, but because they’re people.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Addressing racial and economic disparities in education, health care and criminal justice is a step toward expanding equal protection for all children, but true reform requires that politicians look to children themselves to inform the policies that govern their lives.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Children, one wearing red eyeglasses, wave U.S. flags." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/378184/original/file-20210112-15-1ri7liv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3099%2C2064&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/378184/original/file-20210112-15-1ri7liv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/378184/original/file-20210112-15-1ri7liv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/378184/original/file-20210112-15-1ri7liv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/378184/original/file-20210112-15-1ri7liv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/378184/original/file-20210112-15-1ri7liv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/378184/original/file-20210112-15-1ri7liv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Children join their parents watching Joe Biden speak during a campaign rally in March 2020, in Kansas City, Mo.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Charlie Riedel)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Harris’s <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2020/11/07/kamala-harris-victory-speech-transcript/">victory speech</a>, in which she spoke directly to kids, suggests a willingness to take seriously children’s rights and to address the doubts and fears that a Trump administration fuelled.</p>
<p>In her address, Harris invited children not simply to dream of what they can do in the future, but to be leaders and agents of change in this moment. Inviting young people into the political process in this way can undermine the political power of childhood innocence by recognizing children as knowing, experienced and capable human beings and valued members of society in their own right.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/150112/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Julie C. Garlen has received funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Neil Ramjewan does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>What happens over the next four years in Joe Biden/Kamala Harris administration could have a lasting impact on how childhood is understood and experienced in the United States and beyond.Julie C. Garlen, Associate Professor, Childhood and Youth Studies, Carleton UniversityNeil Ramjewan, PhD candidate, Pedagogy, Carleton UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1507712020-12-08T14:46:37Z2020-12-08T14:46:37ZWhy child protection efforts in African rural communities require a change of approach<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/372494/original/file-20201202-17-1dtkncf.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Community engagement is a key tool in building sustainable interventions</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Sampson Addo Yeboah</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Child-focused non-governmental organisations (NGOs) in Africa often use international policy guidelines in their effort to protect children. They also depend on international donors to fund their activities. </p>
<p>NGOs rely on standardised childhood policy frameworks, particularly the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC). Little attention is given to indigenous knowledge on childhood, and its inclusion in child-focused interventions. </p>
<p>We conducted a <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09614524.2020.1832045">study</a> to explore the interplay between these two worlds. The study, using an ethnographic method of participant observation and interviews, explored indigenous knowledge on child protection in a rural cocoa growing community of Ghana. We explored rural parents’ attitudes to an NGO intervention on children’s rights to basic schooling, and the illegality of child labour. We focused mainly on the effects of indigenous knowledge on the outcomes of a child-rights based intervention; and interactions between parents and staff of a child-focused NGO. </p>
<p>Using ethnographic methods enabled us to capture insights behind practices on rural childhood which would have been impossible with a quantitative approach.</p>
<p>Findings from the study shows that parents perspectives on child protection were fundamentally different from those promoted by NGO frontline workers and the UNCRC. Rural parents viewed child protection as providing for the physical wellbeing of children and making sure they were trained in the norms and customs of the community. </p>
<p>Based on our findings we recommended that for sustainable child protection interventions in rural Africa, Child-focused NGOs working in these settings should meaningfully merge local knowledge on childhood in their intervention programmes. This may ensure long term local ownership and sustainability of the intervention by rural stakeholders. </p>
<h2>The history</h2>
<p>The idea of a ‘normative child’ only came into being in Western Europe between <a href="https://books.google.no/books/about/A_History_of_Childhood.html?id=-oBhwnTQkbEC&redir_esc=y">the 17th and 19th century</a>. During this period, childhood was constructed as a distinct phase of life separate from adulthood and children were seen as needing an enabling environment to play, receive formal education and to be free from work. </p>
<p>Today these constructs are the embodiment of childhood in Western countries and are enshrined in documents such as the UNCRC which has become the conveying instrument of this approach. Organisations such as the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund and UK and US aid bodies work mostly with countries that have ratified the UNCRC. </p>
<p>In most African countries, too, the legal construction of what a proper childhood should be is guided by the UNCRC. </p>
<p>But, as realised in our study, traditional African childhoods different from the child-rights based UNCRC. The organisation and coherence of African childhoods are usefully oriented toward different contextual purposes to those reflected in the UNCRC approach. </p>
<p>In traditional African societies, children get to know the ways of their community through family traditions. They work alongside adults on daily routines. Children are thus seen as social actors with agency for the collective good rather than oriented towards individual interests. </p>
<p>Education is through hands-on practice, rather than mainly by attending school. </p>
<p>In spite of the difference between the Western and African childhood constructs, the work of local child-focused NGOs in rural Africa is often influenced by the Western narrative of children’s rights and the illegality of children’s work. At the same time, indigenous knowledge which underpins parental perspectives as enshrined in Article 31 of the African Charter of the Rights and Welfare of the Child, is ignored.</p>
<h2>The attitudes of rural parents</h2>
<p>Interactions with parents revealed that children learning through work was highly valued. This was due to the economic and cultural implications of children’s work for parents and children themselves. Children’s work was simply essential to their integration in the local community. </p>
<p>This meant that parents continued to engage their children in work even after being exposed to the child-rights based intervention of the NGO.</p>
<p>Observations further showed that local perspectives – which were largely embedded in indigenous knowledge – were ignored by the participating NGO. The foremost concern of the NGO was to show that the childhood interventions they implemented were aligned with the global policy framework. </p>
<p>Thus the participating local child-focused NGO for the most part rejected local knowledge or treated it as an obstacle to childhood development. This resulted in implementation of an intervention that did not address local realities.</p>
<h2>A sustainable way forward</h2>
<p>What then can be done to ensure sustainable NGO interventions in rural communities of Africa? </p>
<p>First, local child-focused NGOs should stop treating indigenous knowledge on childhood as obstacles to childhood development. They should not see the situation of children in rural communities of Africa as a result of the failings of rural parents. Rather they should make an effort to consider contextual reality, indigenous knowledge and the reasons behind childhood practices. </p>
<p>They should also value the importance of the skills children learn through work in relation to their context. </p>
<p>Secondly, NGOs should identify local structures that can handle local problems. They should work with these to improve the situation of children. These local structures should take the lead in implementing interventions in the local community with NGO staff serving as resource persons with an aim of establishing an intervention that seamlessly blends local and international knowledge on childhood development.</p>
<p>In addition, local child-focus NGOs should be realistic in the content of information they disseminate on childhoods. An example is parents constantly being told that children who work at the expense of schooling are bound to fail in life. This can raise expectations that are rather exaggerated and unsustainable given the low quality of rural formal education.</p>
<p>Child-focus NGOs in these instances should strive to disseminate knowledge that is practical and capable of shifting parents from old ways of caring for children. This would involve toning down the use of standardised best practices while factoring in the social structure and intergenerational relations within family systems in rural African communities.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/150771/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dr Sampson Addo Yeboah does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>In Ghana and elsewhere in Africa, NGO policies directing children’s welfare ignore indigenous knowledge on childhood, and how it can aid the sustainable implementation of interventions.Dr Sampson Addo Yeboah, Department of Applied Social Sciences, Hong Kong Polytechnic UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1508632020-11-30T14:48:13Z2020-11-30T14:48:13ZGrants and family support programmes can change lives. A South African case study<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/371279/original/file-20201125-23-1a1mtt5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Many poor families in South Africa's informal settlements survive on welfare grants.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">EFE-EPA/Kim Ludbrook</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Every day there is disheartening negative news about the plight of children around the world. Stories about <a href="https://theconversation.com/more-children-in-zimbabwe-are-working-to-survive-whats-needed-149033">child labour</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-link-between-violence-against-women-and-children-matters-heres-why-106942">violence against children</a> and the ongoing struggles of millions to access <a href="https://theconversation.com/car-a-society-without-authority-where-childrens-schooling-suffers-118421">good education</a> are everywhere.</p>
<p>But, as we have outlined in <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-linking-cash-grants-to-care-empowers-parents-and-makes-children-happier-113381">previous research</a>, there are a few green shoots – and potential solutions. Our new research, outlined in both an <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10560-020-00714-z">academic journal article</a> and a <a href="https://www.hsrcpress.ac.za/books/connected-lives">book chapter</a>, sought to evaluate the results of a family support programme delivered by social workers from the City of Johannesburg, South Africa, in partnership with the Centre for Social Development in Africa at the University of Johannesburg. The evaluation was done nine months after the programme ended.</p>
<p>Our results confirm that when communities, researchers and policymakers work together to strengthen and support families, both children and adults benefit.</p>
<p>The project in question is called <em>Sihleng’imizi</em> (meaning “we care for families” in isiZulu). It is designed to complement and scale up the positive benefits of South Africa’s <a href="https://www.sassa.gov.za/Documents/Grants-Documents/Child-Support-Grant.pdf">child support grant</a>, and to strengthen disadvantaged families to improve child wellbeing. </p>
<p>The programme addresses important knowledge and information gaps and skills in parenting. It covers areas such as managing the difficult behaviour of children, stress management, optimal use of resources and services, strengthening family and social support systems and learning about nutrition and money management. It was designed by the author and researchers at the Centre for Social Development in Africa. </p>
<p>The initial study was conducted in 2017. It involved a pretest at the start of the programme and a post-test at the end. This was targeted at child support grant beneficiaries aged between 6 and 8 and their families. <a href="https://www.uj.ac.za/faculties/humanities/csda/Documents/CSDA_Sihleng%27imizi_REPORT_ConnectCashwithCare_Feb2019_ONLINE.pdf">The findings</a> were published early in 2019. </p>
<p>The follow-up evaluation was concluded and <a href="https://www.uj.ac.za/faculties/humanities/csda/Documents/CSDA%20_%20Sihleng%27imizi%20_%20FULL%20REPORT%20_%20ConnectCashwithCare%20_%20July%202020%20_%20Web.pdf">published</a> in July 2020 and had three main aims. First, to assess whether participants in Sihleng’imizi retained what they had learned and were able to implement these learnings nine months after the intervention ended. Second, to compare these findings with a control group that wasn’t exposed to Sihleng’imizi. And, finally, to consider the policy implications of combining cash transfers – such as the child support grant – with family care programmes.</p>
<h2>Changing lives</h2>
<p>We found that the intervention had improved child-caregiver and family relations, strengthened networks of social support and caregiver engagement in schooling, and enhanced parenting and financial capabilities. The findings suggest that interventions like Sihleng’imizi, when paired with cash transfers, have a great deal of positive potential. </p>
<p>This is because while South Africa’s expansive social grants system improves material wellbeing, and has many other positive benefits for children and families, on its own it is not able to address the other multi-dimensional needs of children and their families.</p>
<p>The 60 families who took part in both the initial study and the follow-up evaluation were drawn from the poorest wards in the City of Johannesburg, which was an implementing partner.</p>
<p>The evaluation assessed the changes according to five dimensions: child-caregiver relations, the involvement of caregivers in a child’s education, social and community connectedness, financial capabilities and nutritional knowledge, and depression symptoms among caregivers.</p>
<p>In all five dimensions, participants were, for the most part, able to recall and implement what they learned when attending the Sihleng’imizi programme nine months earlier. This is an important indicator of the programme’s success.</p>
<p>Nine months on, we found that caregivers were still implementing many of the skills and positive approaches to care, support and use of alternative forms of discipline they learned as part of the programme, such as positive communication. They talked with and listened to children, set out to solve problems together with children, and set aside quality time to spend with children. </p>
<p>They also prioritised praise, love and encouragement. Some stopped using corporal punishment entirely while others reduced their use of it. In its place, caregivers used the “calm down corner”, which is a technique that parents can use to help children release tension and angry feelings. It was useful in helping both caregivers and children to settle down and recollect themselves.</p>
<h2>Building networks</h2>
<p>Caregivers reported that their children enjoyed going to school and were actively engaged in their schoolwork. Some had seen improvements in their schoolwork, and almost all the children’s behaviour at school had also improved.</p>
<p>Developing and calling on support networks was a key element of the Sihleng’imizi programme. Since the programme’s end, the evaluation found, caregivers had maintained contact with other participants on a WhatsApp group, through phone calls or by meeting them at school when fetching children. </p>
<p>Caregivers said their involvement in Sihleng’imizi had expanded their networks and strengthened bonds with other participants. The “buddy system” that emerged from the programme helped participants to communicate with and assist one another, especially when it came to parenting.</p>
<p>There were notable shifts in caregivers’ attitudes to money and managing money. Since attending Sihleng’imizi, participants said they had learnt the value of budgeting and were able to implement this practice in their lives. They were also now able to save despite having meagre sources of income.</p>
<p>Others tried to save money by joining a stokvel (a sort of informal credit union in which members contribute a fixed amount of money to a common pool weekly, fortnightly or monthly). Many said they’d become more aware of the negative consequences of borrowing money, especially from money lenders.</p>
<p>Part of Sihleng’imizi focused on nutrition education, and this too appeared to be sustainable nearly a year down the line. Participants said they now recognised the importance of eating breakfast. They had also started to pay more attention to the nutritional value of food than to the time or convenience involved in preparing a meal. They also gave the impression of having a good understanding of what constitutes a balanced meal for children. The control group also reported changes even though they did not have access to the programme. For this reason the nutrition results are treated cautiously. </p>
<p>One area of concern was depression among caregivers. There was a slight uptick in depressive symptoms during the follow-up evaluation. This may have to do with the continued pressures of parenting in vulnerable circumstances and points to a continued challenge that requires further intervention.</p>
<h2>Moving forward</h2>
<p>Although Sihleng’imizi had many positive outcomes, we do recognise that the COVID-19 pandemic and associated restrictions will have undermined many of these gains. Evidence from other research has shown how the pandemic and lockdown left many families <a href="https://cramsurvey.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/3.-Bridgman-G.-Van-der-Berg-S.-_-Patel-L.-2020-Hunger-in-South-Africa-during-2020-Results-from-Wave-2-of-NIDS-CRAM.pdf">struggling with income poverty and food insecurity</a>.</p>
<p>Overall, the findings of the follow-up evaluation show that social assistance policies ought to be complemented with child and family welfare services of this kind. This would address the broader care needs of families receiving the child support grant. </p>
<p>A comprehensive preventative family and community-based intervention such as Sihleng’imizi could be scaled up in urban areas using existing social service and development infrastructure. But it’s not clear what dynamics may be at play in rural contexts, and further research is needed to test the programme’s efficacy in rural areas.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/150863/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Leila Patel receives funding from the DST/NRF for her Chair in Welfare and Social Development. She also received funds from the Research Committee of the University of Johannesburg (UJ), the Faculty of Humanities at UJ including UNICEF South Africa </span></em></p>Some caregivers reported seeing improvements in their children’s schoolwork and behaviour at school.Leila Patel, Professor of Social Development Studies, University of JohannesburgLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1494862020-11-25T14:36:45Z2020-11-25T14:36:45ZAs cobalt demand booms, companies must do more to protect Congolese miners<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/368899/original/file-20201111-17-185lyem.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A "creuseur," or digger, descends into a tunnel at the mine in Kawama, Democratic Republic of Congo.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Michael Robinson Chavez/The Washington Post via Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The Democratic Republic of Congo is the major source of some of the minerals used to manufacture components in household appliances, mobile phones, electric vehicles and jewellery.</p>
<p>The mineral extraction industry is the backbone of the Congolese economy. Copper and cobalt, which is a by-product of copper, accounts for 85% of the country’s exports. Because of the huge mineral deposits available in the country, it is often the only sourcing option for companies.</p>
<p>Cobalt is an essential mineral for the lithium-ion batteries used in electric vehicles, laptops and smart phones. It offers the highest energy density and is key for boosting battery life.</p>
<p>The Katanga region in the south of the Democratic Republic of Congo is home to <a href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2020/mcs2020-cobalt.pdf">more than half</a> of the world’s cobalt resources, and over <a href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2020/mcs2020-cobalt.pdf">70%</a> of the current cobalt production worldwide takes place in the country. Demand for cobalt is <a href="http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_A_Vision_for_a_Sustainable_Battery_Value_Chain_in_2030_Report.pdf">projected</a> to surge fourfold by 2030 in pace with the electric vehicle boom.</p>
<p>However, mining in the Democratic Republic of Congo is risky because of the prevalence of artisanal small-scale mining. Artisanal mining is often carried out by hand, using basic equipment. It’s a largely informal and labour-intensive activity on which more than <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/5b37b5f5-a8c0-4047-8b4a-bc9914518ab8">two million Congolese miners</a> depend for income.</p>
<p>And this mining method comes with major human rights risks such as child labour and dangerous working conditions. Fatal accidents in unsafe tunnels <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-54132354">occur frequently</a>. And there are detailed <a href="https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/afr62/3183/2016/en/">reports</a> such as the one by <a href="https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/afr62/3183/2016/en/">Amnesty International</a> on the prevalence of child labour in these operations.</p>
<p>Because artisanal miners frequently extract cobalt illegally on industrial mining sites, human rights issues cannot be excluded from industrial production. Artisanally mined cobalt also often gets mixed with the industrial production when it is sold to intermediaries in the open market. Typically, it is then shipped to refineries in China for further processing and then sold to battery manufacturers around the world. In this complex supply chain, separating, tracking and tracing artisanally mined cobalt is almost impossible.</p>
<p>International human rights organisations have flagged human rights abuses, putting pressure on multinational corporations that buy Congolese cobalt. In response to these pressures, some automotive and electronics companies are currently not sourcing cobalt from the Democratic Republic of the Congo because they want to avoid tainting their brand image. </p>
<p>But that strategy won’t work for long, as no other country will be able to satisfy the rising demand for cobalt. The production of other cobalt-exporting countries such as Russia, Canada, Australia and the Philippines accounts for less than 5% of the global production.</p>
<p>How companies in the cobalt supply chain can source responsible cobalt from the Democratic Republic of the Congo amid these human rights risks is a question worth exploring. We address this question in a recent <a href="http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Making_Mining_Safe_2020.pdf">study</a>, in which we suggest companies should acknowledge the need for common standards for responsibly mined cobalt.</p>
<h2>Common standards</h2>
<p>Currently, there is no common understanding of what “responsible” artisanal cobalt should entail. The quest for responsible mineral sourcing is not a cobalt-specific challenge. The Congolese mining code establishes certain basic standards such as the prohibition of miners under the age of 18. There are also requirements to register as an artisanal miner and become a member of a mining cooperative.</p>
<p>One approach towards common standards is to mount “artisanal and small-scale mining formalisation projects”. The few existing projects establish rules for the mining site that are defined and enforced by the project partners. These usually consist of cooperatives, mine operators and buyers.</p>
<p>One of us visited two active formalisation projects in Kolwezi in Katanga province. Based on the observations during the September 2019 visit, we believe that formalisation is a viable path to making artisanal mining safe and fair.</p>
<p>Formalisation works because operational measures are put in place to mitigate safety risks. For example, the extraction is supervised by mining engineers. Also, the project site is fenced off and has exit and entry controls. This ensures that no underage, pregnant or drunk miners can work on site.</p>
<p>But for formalisation projects to yield “responsible” artisanal cobalt, common standards and consistent enforcement are necessary. Currently, formalisation means different things in different sites.</p>
<p>National standards for mine safety exist, but they need to be enforced uniformly. Where current standards fall short of reassuring buyers, further measures need to be developed by a consortium of the key players. This should involve mining cooperatives, concession holders, the government, civil society organisations, and other companies along the battery supply chain.</p>
<p>The 2018 amendments to the mining code introduced a legal basis for the subcontracting of artisanal miners by industrial mining companies. In January 2020, the Congolese government created an <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/congo-mining-cobalt-idUSL8N2E26D0">entity</a> that will oversee artisanal and small-scale mining activities. These are positive steps.</p>
<p>The development of artisanal mining standards through a process involving key players needs to build on and strengthen these existing national laws and strategies. Furthermore, private actors should support government efforts by identifying parameters and means of evaluation to ensure the consistent enforcement of these standards. A discussion about responsible sourcing strategies and practices is indispensable for all brands that care about the human rights implications of their operations.</p>
<h2>The way forward</h2>
<p>To illustrate how a multi-stakeholder discussion over responsible sourcing standards translates into practice, we can examine tunnel construction to extract the ores underground at artisanal and small-scale mining sites.</p>
<p>The first issue is whether tunnels should be allowed at all or whether responsible artisanal cobalt should take place exclusively from open pits. Open pits are considered significantly safer. If only open pits are considered responsible, who will pay for the earth-moving machines needed to create open pits?</p>
<p>If tunnels are allowed, how deep can they be? While relevant mining regulations limit tunnel depth to 30 metres and tunnel inclination to 15%, international buyers of cobalt do not consider this safe.</p>
<p>Given that horizontal tunnel construction is particularly dangerous, should horizontal tunnels be banned entirely from sites? If tunnels are permitted, should miners receive training on construction safety, and if so, who will pay for these programmes?</p>
<p>These processes and regulations must be standardised and widely adopted. Only when this happens will automotive and electronics companies be reassured that they are not contributing to human rights violations. And only then will they feel confident buying Congolese cobalt.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/149486/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Responsible sourcing of cobalt from the DRC is a fully independent research project.
The travel cost of the field research in the DRC were reimbursed by the World Economic Forum's Global Battery Alliance.
All other funding for this research came from the University of Geneva, where I direct the Geneva Center for Business and Human Rights, and from the NYU Stern School of Business, where I am research director of the NYU Stern Center for Business and Human Rights.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Our Center has received funding from the World Economic Forum's Global Battery Alliance solely for the travel expenses related to the research trip to the DRC. I am a consultant at the Geneva Center for Business and Human Rights at the University of Geneva. </span></em></p>Companies can’t verify that their source didn’t involve artisanal mining. A discussion over responsible sourcing strategies and practices is needed.Dorothee Baumann-Pauly, Adjunct Professor and Director of the Geneva Center for Business and Human Rights, Université de GenèveSerra Cremer Iyi, Researcher, Université de GenèveLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1432302020-08-11T17:04:14Z2020-08-11T17:04:14ZPublic relations is bad news<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/351992/original/file-20200810-20-1fm63r2.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4000%2C2658&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A mourner in Calgary places flowers at a memorial for a Cargill worker who died from COVID-19. A PR campaign that alleged workers would rather collect government assistance than work failed to mention their employment in industries hit hard by COVID-19.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Jeff McIntosh</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>As the Canadian economy slowly recovers from COVID-19 lockdowns, <a href="https://www.cp24.com/news/some-employees-cite-cerb-as-reason-to-refuse-return-to-work-cfib-survey-says-1.5027100">there have been news articles</a> suggesting the Canada Emergency Response Benefit is <a href="https://globalnews.ca/news/7184365/businesses-staff-refusing-return-to-work-survey/">encouraging workers to stay off the job</a>. </p>
<p>But a peek behind the headlines reveals the source of the story to be a business lobby group using a powerful and classic public relations strategy — <a href="https://www.cfib-fcei.ca/en/media/news-releases/more-one-quarter-small-firms-report-workers-refusing-return-work-preference">the news release</a> — to manipulate headlines.</p>
<p>The Canadian Federation of Independent Businesses (CFIB) represents more than 100,000 members who operate small businesses across Canada. The association advocates for specific policy changes that advance the goals of their membership. </p>
<p>In recent years, the CFIB has lobbied <a href="https://www.cfib-fcei.ca/en/media/15-minimum-wage-job-killer-ontarios-youth-cfib-report">against increasing the minimum wage</a> and <a href="https://www.cfib-fcei.ca/en/media/new-federal-labour-law-changes-giant-step-backwards-innovation-and-productivity">against guaranteed personal leave for workers</a>, among other causes. </p>
<h2>Swaying public opinion</h2>
<p>To rally support for these changes, organizations like the CFIB employ public relations strategies designed to secure headlines that sway public opinion and put pressure on governments. This is especially important when their policy goal is at odds with public sentiment. </p>
<p>For example, polling suggests Canadians <a href="https://www.ipsos.com/en-ca/news-and-polls/Canadians-Split-On-Future-Of-CERB-Half-Believe-CERB-Should-Be-Discountinued-At-Its-Earliest">overwhelmingly support</a> the federal Canadian Emergency Relief Benefit, known as the CERB, which pays $500 a week to workers who are out of work due to the pandemic. </p>
<p>The CFIB, however, said in its news release that the CERB is a “disincentive” to work and wants to see wage subsidies expanded to include more profitable small businesses. To campaign for this, organizations like the CFIB use PR techniques to undermine public support for CERB and advocate for their own policy solutions.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="An employment insurance form on a laptop." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/351656/original/file-20200806-24-1u5r4kq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/351656/original/file-20200806-24-1u5r4kq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351656/original/file-20200806-24-1u5r4kq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351656/original/file-20200806-24-1u5r4kq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351656/original/file-20200806-24-1u5r4kq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=552&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351656/original/file-20200806-24-1u5r4kq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=552&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351656/original/file-20200806-24-1u5r4kq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=552&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The employment insurance section of the Government of Canada website is shown on a laptop in Toronto on April 4, 2020.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Jesse Johnston</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>PR makes it a challenge to know what is fact and what is spin, even from reputable news sources. Since the 1950s, critics have questioned the intent of PR practices. They have examined how organizations use the authority of mass media outlets to advance specific policy agendas that better fit their aims. </p>
<p>PR is a form of manipulation: it’s used to shift public opinion. It is expressly designed to benefit the organization wielding it.</p>
<p>This tension can be found in the early 20th century, when modern PR was established as a coherent set of business practices. During this period, activists and journalists alike pressured state and provincial governments into developing aggressive regulatory regimes that would soften the sharpest edges of industrial capitalism.</p>
<p>In the early 1900s, massive scandals fuelled public mistrust in business in North America. Labour activists, journalists and academic critics wrote shocking exposés that revealed the wealthy’s <a href="https://archive.org/details/historyofstandar00tarbuoft">gross consolidation of corporate power</a>, <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/54710/54710-h/54710-h.htm">their influence in municipal politics</a> and their attempts <a href="https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/Treason_of_the_Senate.htm">to game the highest levels of government</a>. </p>
<h2>Progressive policies</h2>
<p>To the dismay of wealthy capitalists, progressive governments responded to the revelations by developing policies that regulated <a href="https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=false&doc=59#">working conditions</a>, <a href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/221/1/">reined in corporate power</a> and bolstered the protections of ordinary people <a href="https://constitutioncenter.org/interactive-constitution/amendment/amendment-xvii">as citizens</a> <a href="https://www.visitthecapitol.gov/exhibitions/artifact/s-88-draft-bill-pure-food-and-drug-act-december-14-1905">and consumers</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Two boys working in a glass factory in the early 1900s." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/351659/original/file-20200806-16-3n0hhg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/351659/original/file-20200806-16-3n0hhg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351659/original/file-20200806-16-3n0hhg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351659/original/file-20200806-16-3n0hhg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351659/original/file-20200806-16-3n0hhg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351659/original/file-20200806-16-3n0hhg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351659/original/file-20200806-16-3n0hhg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Midnight at the glassworks in Indiana, with children on the job. Child labour was among the practices outlawed by progressive governments in the early 1900s.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Library of Congress)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As corporate interests lost public support, they fought back with canny public relations strategies designed to flip the story, framing business as a public service and businessmen and capitalists as allies, not enemies, to ordinary people.</p>
<p>These tactics were further formalized during the First World War when PR men, advertisers and government officials came together to form the United States federal government’s Committee on Public Information (CPI). </p>
<p>The CPI enlisted advertisers, commercial illustrators and public relations experts to build a home front propaganda campaign that would rally support for the war effort. CPI illustrator Charles Dana Gibson called for evocative campaigns that showed <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1918/01/20/archives/cd-gibsons-committee-for-patriotic-posters-artists-have-been.html">“the more spiritual side of the conflict.”</a></p>
<p>The success of the CPI helped legitimize the American advertising and PR industries. It taught public relations experts an invaluable lesson: It paid dividends to link their clients — titans of industry and major corporations — to the promise of democracy. </p>
<h2>Collective well-being</h2>
<p>It was only through the careful management of public opinion regarding industrial capitalism, PR experts began to argue in the 1920s, that true democracy and collective well-being was possible.</p>
<p>Today the news release, along with public opinion surveys, are immensely influential PR tools for shaping what gets covered as news and how it’s covered. </p>
<p>PR has become <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/14616700701767974">the backbone of news production</a> globally, capitalizing on underfunded newsrooms and overworked journalists. </p>
<p>The news release is designed to make life easy for the busy journalist. It provides them with ready-made narratives and interpretations that are easily translated to a news article. In fact, news releases are often presented as a standardized genre, with countless guides listing the same <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbescommunicationscouncil/2017/11/02/writing-a-press-release-14-elements-you-need-to-include/#4324c25b719f">10 to 14 elements</a> that <a href="https://www.shopify.ca/blog/how-to-write-a-press-release">every news release </a> should include in order to <a href="https://www2.le.ac.uk/offices/external/news/publicising/how-to-write-a-press-release/inverted-pyramid">quickly communicate</a> the organization’s point of view and message. </p>
<p>This standardization makes news releases easy to circulate and easy to critically examine. For example, the recent CFIB release announced both the results of their membership survey on the CERB and provided an interpretation of it. </p>
<p>The survey provides the gloss of objectivity (by allowing an organization to point to findings rather than blatant ideological posturing) while a pull-quote from their president offers an interpretation: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“It is clear that CERB has created a disincentive to return to work for some staff, especially in industries like hospitality and personal services … CERB was created as emergency support for workers who had lost their job due to the pandemic, not to fund a summer break. This is why it is critical that all parties support the government’s proposed change to end CERB benefits when an employer asks a worker to return to work.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The CFIB news release made for a quick and easy story turnaround.</p>
<h2>Misleading interpretations</h2>
<p>But we should be wary of such ready-made interpretations, because they’re often misleading. For example, the CFIB president’s commentary quickly fell apart when economist Armine Yalnizyan, an <a href="https://atkinsonfoundation.ca/atkinson-fellows/">Atkinson Fellow</a> on the Future of Work, <a href="https://twitter.com/ArmineYalnizyan/status/1284096946874068998">took a closer look</a> at the CFIB survey data. </p>
<p>The hardest jobs to fill were in meatpacking, hospitality and food processing, all jobs identified as <a href="https://theconversation.com/coronavirus-class-divide-the-jobs-most-at-risk-of-contracting-and-dying-from-covid-19-138857">high-risk for COVID-19 transmission</a>. It’s not that workers prefer a measly $500 a week over their regular paycheque. It’s that they feared for their lives.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A man wearing a mask carries a sign that says lives are more important than profits outside a Cargill meat-processing plant." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/351658/original/file-20200806-18-141pf4r.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/351658/original/file-20200806-18-141pf4r.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351658/original/file-20200806-18-141pf4r.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351658/original/file-20200806-18-141pf4r.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351658/original/file-20200806-18-141pf4r.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351658/original/file-20200806-18-141pf4r.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351658/original/file-20200806-18-141pf4r.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Protesters stand on the side of the road as workers return to the Cargill beef processing plant in High River, Alta., that was closed for two weeks because of a COVID-19, in May 2020.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Jeff McIntosh</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In 1959, <em>New York Post</em> columnist Irwin Ross sought to pull back the curtain on PR in <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/image-merchants-the-fabulous-world-of-public-relations/oclc/4840671&referer=brief_results"><em>The Image Merchants: The Fabulous World of Public Relations</em></a>.</p>
<p>“In an atmosphere drenched with the clichés of public relations,” he wondered in his book, how could anyone discern truth? </p>
<p>Today’s public relations techniques can be used by just about anyone. They are taken up by a host of organizations, from large corporations to unions to activist groups. </p>
<p>But the organizations that can most afford to hire expensive professionals stack the deck against smaller groups and officials. Even in the 1950s, “the biggest budgets, the highest priced and usually most expert talent are maintained by industry,” Ross wrote.</p>
<p>PR, he concluded, is a fundamentally hollow, anti-democratic enterprise. Corporate interest groups and politicians may state their commitments to the public good, but their real goal remains the “public acceptance of the status quo in our economic arrangements.” </p>
<p>Faced with a global pandemic that is laying bare the gross inequities of Canadian society, we would do well to heed his warning.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/143230/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dan Guadagnolo does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Public relations is a form of manipulation, used to shift public opinion. It is expressly designed to benefit the organization wielding it, something we’d be wise to remember during the pandemic.Dan Guadagnolo, Postdoctoral Fellow in American Studies, University of TorontoLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1302952020-04-07T02:48:50Z2020-04-07T02:48:50ZTurning to Easter eggs to get through these dark times? Here’s the bitter truth about chocolate<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/325930/original/file-20200407-74220-k5rqv6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4694%2C3253&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Pxfuel</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The coronavirus might make Easter celebrations a little subdued this year, but that doesn’t mean going without chocolate eggs. In fact, South Australia’s chief public health officer Nicola Spurrier reportedly said people should <a href="https://www.adelaidenow.com.au/news/south-australia/coronavirus-sa-dr-nicola-spurrier-gives-easter-pigout-pass/news-story/3f77065a4a46361487eb399a06c415b6">partake in the Easter treats</a> “to cheer ourselves up … I’ve certainly got a good supply of chocolate eggs already”.</p>
<p>But before you fill your shopping trolley (online or virtual) with chocolate, we urge you to think twice about whether it’s ethically produced.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/is-chocapocalypse-looming-why-we-need-to-understand-whats-at-stake-101548">Is ‘chocapocalypse’ looming? Why we need to understand what’s at stake</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Most chocolate consumed globally, including in Australia, comes from the <a href="https://theconversation.com/is-chocapocalypse-looming-why-we-need-to-understand-whats-at-stake-101548">Ivory Coast and Ghana</a> in West Africa - which together account for about 60% of global cocoa supply.</p>
<p>Cocoa farming is a <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11625-014-0282-4">major driver of deforestation</a> in the region. Despite growing global demand for chocolate, farmers <a href="https://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/pdf/10.1596/29014">live in poverty</a>, and <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-modern-slavery-bill-is-a-start-but-it-wont-guarantee-us-sweeter-chocolate-102765">child labour</a> continues to plague the industry.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/325931/original/file-20200407-96658-1w09qdz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/325931/original/file-20200407-96658-1w09qdz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325931/original/file-20200407-96658-1w09qdz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325931/original/file-20200407-96658-1w09qdz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325931/original/file-20200407-96658-1w09qdz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325931/original/file-20200407-96658-1w09qdz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325931/original/file-20200407-96658-1w09qdz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">More work is needed by big chocolate companies to ensure cocoa is produced sustainably and fairly.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">CHRISTOF KRACKHARDT</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Spotlight on Nestlé</h2>
<p>The US Department of Labor has estimated that <a href="https://www.dol.gov/agencies/ilab/our-work/child-forced-labor-trafficking/child-labor-cocoa">2 million children</a> carry out hazardous work on cocoa farms in Ghana and the Ivory Coast.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/340394344_A_Sticky_Chocolate_Problem_Impression_management_and_the_shaping_of_corporate_image">Our research</a> has examined Nestlé, which <a href="https://www.yorkpress.co.uk/business/news/14134353.nestle-to-use-sustainable-cocoa-in-its-chocolate/">claims</a> its chocolate produced for specific markets is sustainably sourced and produced. A number of its chocolate products are certified through the <a href="https://utz.org/what-we-offer/certification/products-we-certify/cocoa/?gclid=Cj0KCQiAjfvwBRCkARIsAIqSWlNZBYVygX7OW50BepsLoIRCaghfZKG58lt5AnFciy0pyIRsJB71Rg8aAh3CEALw_wcB">UTZ</a> and <a href="https://fairtrade.com.au/Fairtrade-Products/Chocolate-cocoa">Fairtrade</a> schemes.</p>
<p>Nestlé has adopted the Fair Labor Association (FLA) <a href="https://www.fairlabor.org/our-work/code-of-conduct">code of conduct</a> that forbids child or forced child labour, and requires certain health and safety standards, reasonable hours of work and fair pay. Nestlé’s <a href="https://www.nestlecocoaplan.com">Cocoa Plan</a> also outlines the company’s commitment to sustainability in its Ivory Coast cocoa supply chain. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/ghanas-cocoa-farmers-are-trapped-by-the-chocolate-industry-124761">Ghana’s cocoa farmers are trapped by the chocolate industry</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>But a <a href="https://www.fairlabor.org/report/standard-supply">2016 FLA report</a> said 80% of Nestlé’s cocoa procurement took place outside this plan. Of this part of the supply chain, just 30% was monitored by certification systems. </p>
<p>For the 70% of Nestlé cocoa farms outside certification programs, there was no evidence of training on labour standards or monitoring of working conditions. Assessors also found issues such as child labour, and health and safety issues.</p>
<p>More recently, Nestlé <a href="https://www.nestlecocoaplan.com/article-tackling-deforestation-progress-report-2020">has stated</a> its cocoa plan now covers 44% of its global cocoa supply, and the company is committed to sourcing 100% of cocoa under the plan by 2025.</p>
<p>On the issue of child labour, Nestlé <a href="https://www.nestle.com/sites/default/files/2019-12/nestle-tackling-child-labor-report-2019-en.pdf">last year reported</a> it was “not proud” to have found more than 18,000 children doing hazardous work since a monitoring and remediation system began in 2012.</p>
<p>However the company would continue trying to eradicate the practice, including “helping children to stop doing unacceptable activities and, where needed, helping them to access quality education.”</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/325934/original/file-20200407-103690-1vswz0o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/325934/original/file-20200407-103690-1vswz0o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325934/original/file-20200407-103690-1vswz0o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325934/original/file-20200407-103690-1vswz0o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325934/original/file-20200407-103690-1vswz0o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325934/original/file-20200407-103690-1vswz0o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325934/original/file-20200407-103690-1vswz0o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cocoa producers in West Africa are often poorly paid and subject to dangerous working conditions.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Sweet sorrow: an industry problem</h2>
<p>Other big chocolate players, such as Mars, Cadbury (owned by Mondelēz International), Hershey and Ferrero are also exposed to problems facing cocoa farming.</p>
<p>Many are taking action. <a href="https://af.reuters.com/article/investingNews/idAFKCN1TY1R5-OZABS">Mars recently supported</a> Ghana and the Ivory Coast in setting a floor price for cocoa, to increase the money paid to farmers. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.business-humanrights.org/en/ferrero-pledges-to-end-slavery-on-farms-that-supply-its-cocoa-by-2020-ahead-of-its-peers-can-it-deliver">In 2012</a>, Ferrero <a href="https://www.ferrerocsr.com/News-CSR/Ferrero-Takes-Action-Against-Child-Labour">promised</a> to remove slavery from its cocoa supply by 2020. </p>
<p>Others have made moves towards <a href="https://ethicalwarrior.com.au/blog/chocolate/are-child-slaves-making-your-chocolate">better certification</a>, including Hershey, <a href="https://www.thehersheycompany.com/en_us/sustainability/shared-business/cocoa-supply-chain-traceability.html">which says</a> it pays certification premiums to farmer groups who meet labour standards.</p>
<p>But despite years of pledges, progress across the sector is slow. The Washington Post <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2019/business/hershey-nestle-mars-chocolate-child-labor-west-africa/">last year reported</a> major chocolate companies had missed deadlines to remove child labour from their cocoa supply chains in 2005, 2008 and 2010. It said brands such as Hershey, Mars and Nestlé could still not guarantee their chocolates were produced without child labour.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/325936/original/file-20200407-160446-4dvvu5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/325936/original/file-20200407-160446-4dvvu5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325936/original/file-20200407-160446-4dvvu5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325936/original/file-20200407-160446-4dvvu5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325936/original/file-20200407-160446-4dvvu5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325936/original/file-20200407-160446-4dvvu5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325936/original/file-20200407-160446-4dvvu5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Child labour issues continue to plague the chocolate industry.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Public Domain Pictures</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Bad for the planet</h2>
<p>Cocoa farming is a major driver of deforestation as farmers <a href="http://jwsr.pitt.edu/ojs/jwsr/article/view/731/951">cut down trees</a> to clear farmland. For example in 2017, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/sep/13/chocolate-industry-drives-rainforest-disaster-in-ivory-coast">the Guardian reported </a> cocoa traders selling to Mars, Nestlé, Mondelez and other big brands had sourced beans grown illegally inside protected rainforest areas in the Ivory Coast.</p>
<p>Rising demand for chocolate - <a href="https://theprint.in/economy/india-china-to-sweeten-chocolate-sales-in-asia-as-global-production-falters/350115/">particularly in India and China</a> – also encourages farmers to increase cocoa yield by using fertilisers and pesticides.</p>
<p>A <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0963996918301273">2018 study</a> found the chocolate industry in the UK produces the equivalent of more than <a href="https://www.popsci.com/chocolate-carbon-emissions/#page-3">2 million tonnes</a> of carbon dioxide each year. It took into account chocolate’s ingredients, manufacturing, packaging and waste.</p>
<p>And <a href="https://theconversation.com/it-takes-21-litres-of-water-to-produce-a-small-chocolate-bar-how-water-wise-is-your-diet-123180">research last year</a> by the CSIRO showed it takes 21 litres of water to produce a small chocolate bar. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/tips-to-reduce-your-waste-this-easter-but-dont-worry-you-can-still-eat-chocolate-113916">Tips to reduce your waste this Easter (but don't worry, you can still eat chocolate)</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>In response to the problem, <a href="https://www.mars.com/news-and-stories/press-releases/action-plan-deforestation-free-cocoa-supply-chain">Mars</a> and <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-cocoa-deforestation-chocolate/nestle-says-cuts-deforestation-in-its-cocoa-supply-chain-idUSKBN21E1S6">Nestlé</a> have pledged to make their cocoa supply chain sustainable by 2025. Ferrero has <a href="https://www.ferrerocsr.com/our-responsibility/agricultural-practices/sustainable-raw-materials/?lang=EN">committed to source</a> 100% sustainable cocoa beans by 2020, and <a href="https://www.cocoalife.org/progress/CFIprogress2019">Mondelēz intends</a> to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 10% by 2025, based on 2018 levels.</p>
<p>But pledges do not necessarily transform into action. At a United Nations climate change conference in November 2017, big chocolate producers and the governments of Ghana and the Ivory Coast <a href="https://www.worldcocoafoundation.org/initiative/cocoa-forests-initiative/">committed to</a> stopping deforestation for cocoa production. A year later, satellite mapping <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/dec/07/africa-cocoa-industry-failing-deforestation-pledge-campaigners">reportedly revealed</a> thousands more hectares of rainforest in West Africa had been razed.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/325938/original/file-20200407-104477-1j7jp7p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/325938/original/file-20200407-104477-1j7jp7p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325938/original/file-20200407-104477-1j7jp7p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325938/original/file-20200407-104477-1j7jp7p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325938/original/file-20200407-104477-1j7jp7p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=535&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325938/original/file-20200407-104477-1j7jp7p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=535&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325938/original/file-20200407-104477-1j7jp7p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=535&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What’s a chocolate lover to do?</h2>
<p>Given the above, you might be tempted to stop buying chocolate brands that source cocoa from West Africa. <a href="https://www.upboostllc.com/blog/don-t-ban-cocoa-imports-invest-u-s-aid-better">But this would cut off the incomes of poor cocoa farmers</a>.</p>
<p>Instead, choose chocolate independently certified by the <a href="https://www.ethicalconsumer.org/food-drink/shopping-guide/chocolate">Rainforest Alliance</a>, <a href="https://utz.org/what-we-offer/certification/products-we-certify/cocoa/">UTZ</a> or <a href="http://fairtrade.com.au/Fairtrade-Products/Chocolate-cocoa">Fairtrade</a>. This increases the chance that the cocoa was produced with minimal environmental damage, and workers are treated well.</p>
<p>If you can, check if the company has direct connections with producers, which means farmers are <a href="https://www.ethicalconsumer.org/food-drink/shopping-guide/chocolate">more likely to be fairly paid</a>.</p>
<p>If all this sounds too hard to work out yourself, websites such as <a href="https://thegoodshoppingguide.com/subject/chocolate/">The Good Shopping guide</a>, <a href="https://www.ethicalconsumer.org/food-drink/shopping-guide/easter-eggs">Ethical Consumer</a> or <a href="https://guide.ethical.org.au/guide/">Shop ethical!</a> can help you find Easter eggs that are both ethically made, and delicious.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/it-takes-21-litres-of-water-to-produce-a-small-chocolate-bar-how-water-wise-is-your-diet-123180">It takes 21 litres of water to produce a small chocolate bar. How water-wise is your diet?</a>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Before you stock the pantry with chocolate this Easter, think twice about whether it’s ethically produced.Stephanie Perkiss, Senior Lecturer, University of WollongongCristiana Bernardi, Lecturer in Accounting, The Open UniversityJohn Dumay, Associate Professor - Department of Accounting and Corporate Governance, Macquarie UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1264272019-11-06T22:20:20Z2019-11-06T22:20:20ZThe end of dangerous working conditions starts with informed consumers<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/300353/original/file-20191105-88419-156urqx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=14%2C0%2C4888%2C3246&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Bangladeshi child labourers work at a balloon factory in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Consumers must demand products made under favourable working conditions.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/A.M Ahad)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Halloween has just passed and your kids are probably still polishing off this year’s candy haul. As recently reported in the <em>Washington Post</em>, there’s a good chance that some of those chocolate <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2019/business/hershey-nestle-mars-chocolate-child-labor-west-africa/">treats were made using child labour</a>. Would knowing that change your mind about purchasing that product?</p>
<p>What about reports of <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/bangladesh-factory-lululemon-1.5321405">beatings and abuse</a> of Bangladeshi textile workers sewing clothes destined for our closets? Should companies that produce goods responsibly be identified? How can consumers make the right choices?</p>
<p>Work causes more than <a href="https://www.ilo.org/global/topics/safety-and-health-at-work/lang--en/index.htm.">2.1 million deaths globally every year</a>, whether it’s due to the child labour used in the production of cacao or electronics, or <a href="https://www.thestar.com/news/canada/2019/09/25/labour-ministry-investigating-fatal-industrial-accident-at-fiera-foods.html">contract food preparation workers dying on the job in Canada</a>. The costs of work-related injuries account for about <a href="https://www.ilo.org/global/topics/safety-and-health-at-work/lang--en/index.htm.">four per cent of the total world GDP</a>.</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/300357/original/file-20191105-88414-pwgrgw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/300357/original/file-20191105-88414-pwgrgw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=443&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300357/original/file-20191105-88414-pwgrgw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=443&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300357/original/file-20191105-88414-pwgrgw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=443&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300357/original/file-20191105-88414-pwgrgw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=557&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300357/original/file-20191105-88414-pwgrgw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=557&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300357/original/file-20191105-88414-pwgrgw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=557&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Children living in a cocoa-producing village walk back from the fields on the outskirts of the town of Oume, Ivory Coast.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP/Photo Schalk van Zuydam, File)</span></span>
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<p>In fact, studies have shown that the costs of workplace injuries are on par with those of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0009.2011.00648.x">all cancers combined</a>. A survey of more than 5,000 workers in Québec has found that <a href="https://www.inspq.qc.ca/pdf/publications/1356_EnqQuebCondTravailEmpSanteSecTravail_VA.pdf">one in five are suffering</a> from work-related musculoskeletal pain, particularly shoulder and back pain, with women being affected in greater numbers than men. </p>
<p>Workplace injuries also <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/hfm.20324">erode companies’ profits</a>. And this doesn’t begin to address the cost of mental health issues associated with work. Working environments should not cause pain and injury in employees — it’s bad for business.</p>
<h2>Consumers also to blame</h2>
<p>Bad work environments, and their associated burnout, injury, pain and fatalities, plague workplaces around the world. While it’s tempting to blame companies for egregious working situations, consumers should also look in the mirror.</p>
<p>Companies will provide you with goods according to your demands. If you don’t demand products made under good working conditions, then the all-too-common status quo — dangerous, dirty and demeaning conditions — is what you are supporting with your purchases.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00140139.2014.917203">Our research</a> has shown that consumers, when asked, would prefer goods made in favourable working environments. When we interviewed millennials, they expressed a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00140139.2016.1193634">willingness to pay 17.5 per cent more</a> on a $100 product for goods made under healthy conditions than those that are not. The main barrier noted in this research is access to trustworthy information about the working environments in production.</p>
<p>When we examined how 100 companies listed on the Toronto Stock Exchange are currently reporting on their working environments, we find almost <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.10.081">900 different indicators</a> reported, with almost no organizations using the same indicators in their reports. This makes it virtually impossible for a responsible consumer, or a company seeking a responsible supplier, to compare practices and make informed choices. A standard for reporting is needed.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/governments-know-work-and-living-conditions-can-kill-us-its-time-to-act-96518">Governments know work and living conditions can kill us -- it's time to act</a>
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<p>Recently the Canadian Standards Association has begun to lay the groundwork needed <a href="https://www.csagroup.org/article/exploring-the-need-for-a-work-environment-reporting-standard/">to create a standard providing advice and guidance</a> to help companies report on their working environments in a consistent and comparable manner. </p>
<p>When you consider the complexity of characterizing all of the physical, mental, environmental and social dimensions of a workplace, it’s clear that creating a consistent reporting approach remains a challenge. Further work is needed.</p>
<h2>Demonizing not enough</h2>
<p>Demonizing companies with poor working conditions and operational practices is not enough. We also need to support companies with good track records and work to foster favourable environments in our own workplaces. For companies trying to communicate the quality of their workplaces, <a href="https://www.csagroup.org/article/exploring-the-need-for-a-work-environment-reporting-standard/">there is a need for clear guidance</a> of what and how to report. </p>
<p>Without good reporting, consumers won’t trust companies, and the potential for consumers to become socially responsible disappears. Furthermore, a reporting standard would give companies with stellar workplaces a credible means to demonstrate their leadership to clients and customers.</p>
<p>There is a growing awareness that we, as consumers, can influence broad issues like climate change just by making smarter choices about where we spend our money. This is equally true for the working conditions of the people who produce our food and manufacture our products. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/300355/original/file-20191105-88372-8mqkek.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/300355/original/file-20191105-88372-8mqkek.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300355/original/file-20191105-88372-8mqkek.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300355/original/file-20191105-88372-8mqkek.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300355/original/file-20191105-88372-8mqkek.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300355/original/file-20191105-88372-8mqkek.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300355/original/file-20191105-88372-8mqkek.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">In this 2014 photo, a Honduran boy assembles an ice cream cart.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Esteban Felix)</span></span>
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<p>But we have not yet reached the tipping point of public opinion — and employees around the world are still literally <a href="https://www.gsb.stanford.edu/faculty-research/books/dying-paycheck">dying for a paycheque</a>.</p>
<p>Work shouldn’t hurt. The food we eat and the products we use should not be made in pain or contribute to human misery. While companies hold some blame, so do consumers who wilfully avoid dealing with the consequences of their purchasing decisions. </p>
<p>Access to reliable information on working conditions needs standardized reporting, and Canada is well-positioned to show leadership on this issue.</p>
<p>Without clear reporting, how are we to know about the conditions our food and goods are made in? Let’s make sure the chocolate we buy leaves no bitter aftertaste.</p>
<p>[ <em>You’re smart and curious about the world. So are The Conversation’s authors and editors.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/ca/newsletters?utm_source=TCCA&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=youresmart">You can read us daily by subscribing to our newsletter</a>. ]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/126427/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Patrick Neumann receives funding from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council. Funding for part of the research discussed in this article was provided by the Canadian Standards Association (operating as CSA Group).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Cory Searcy receives funding from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council. Funding for part of the research discussed in this article was provided by the Canadian Standards Association (operating as CSA Group). </span></em></p>The food we eat and the products we use should not contribute to human misery. While companies hold some blame, so do consumers who avoid dealing with the consequences of their purchasing decisions.Patrick Neumann, Professor, Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Toronto Metropolitan UniversityCory Searcy, Professor & Interim Vice-Provost and Dean of Graduate Studies, Toronto Metropolitan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1238902019-10-27T07:58:21Z2019-10-27T07:58:21ZWhy Nigerian women in Oyo state use child domestic workers<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/298267/original/file-20191023-119419-1t0l8x0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Child labour is still endemic in Nigeria. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Riccardo Mayer/Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Hiring domestic servants is a common phenomenon in Nigeria. More often than not this involves vulnerable children being made to work as live-in domestic servants mostly in middle class urban households. </p>
<p>Researchers <a href="https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/70575/WHO_RHR_HRP_11.05_eng.pdf">have investigated </a> what creates the supply of child labour, but few have attempted to understand the demand. My <a href="https://journals.uvic.ca/index.php/ijcyfs/article/view/11558">research</a> produced some pointers to why households use children as servants. This is why I chose to investigate factors that propel demand for domestic servants in Oyo State, southwest Nigeria. Oyo State is known as a <a href="https://punchng.com/oyo-becoming-hot-spot-of-girls-trafficking-nis/">hot-spot for child trafficking </a> – as source, transit and destination.</p>
<p>The results showed three categories of employers: newly married women, married women with grown-up children, and isolated widows and grandparents. Demand was driven by a number of factors, including having too much of a workload and the need for companionship. Another factor appeared to be the <a href="https://repository.upenn.edu/dissertations/AAI8316036/">declining </a> extended family structure and a growing preference for “outsiders” rather than family members to do household work. </p>
<p>Most of the children faced exploitation from traffickers as well as employers and lived in slave-like conditions. </p>
<p>Based on my findings I make some recommendations on what needs to be done – beyond Nigeria’s <a href="https://www.accesstojustice-ng.org/Child%20RIght%20Act%202003.pdf">Child Right Law</a>
which bans such practices – to prevent the exploitation of children. The study also recommends welfare programmes targeted at demanding households and an intervention strategy for the trafficked children. </p>
<h2>Hiring domestic servants</h2>
<p>Research participants listed a number of reasons they preferred a stranger to do the work in the house rather than a relative.</p>
<p>It meant that they could keep prying relatives at bay in the first months and years of their marriage. Also, they preferred an employee-employer relationship as this gave them more power over the individual. Also, some interviewees pointed out that they could mete out punishment to an employee that wouldn’t be tolerated by a family member. </p>
<p>However, not all employers were cruel. </p>
<p>The practice of fostering a member of the extended family has been widespread for centuries in Nigeria. But <a href="https://repository.upenn.edu/dissertations/AAI8316036/">the practice has been changing</a>.</p>
<p>Many of those I interviewed listed a number of reasons for not wanting to foster a relative. They cited cultural obligations and the enormous demands of having fostered children. This was particularly true if a child was orphaned. </p>
<p>The research found that age played a role in the demand for domestic servants. Young, newly married women said they took up paid employment once they had children. One respondent said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I never liked the idea of bringing a third party into my house but when we started bearing children and I have to go to work, I had no choice other than to secure an extra hand to help with the domestic demands. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Older women cited the need for companionship rather than performance of domestic chores. </p>
<p>The location of a husband’s job was also a factor. Women complained of boredom when their husbands were away at work stations outside the state. </p>
<p>Another critical factor was the number of children in a household, and their ages. The domestic tasks increase with the number of children; their age determines the attention they require. Pregnancy may also create a need for help <a href="https://journals.uvic.ca/index.php/ijcyfs/article/view/11558">with housework</a>. A respondent said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>The reason was that I was pregnant, creating the need for somebody to start taking care of the children. All along, I have sisters and another relative living with me but they have all left for school. Their absence created a vacuum and when I took in (became pregnant), it was obvious that I needed somebody to assist me so I will not cause complications by overworking. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Our research found that households where husbands assist in performing domestic duties, though not common, often didn’t see the need for a domestic servant.</p>
<h2>What needs to be done</h2>
<p>Nigeria enacted the Child Right Act in 2003 to protect children from being separated from their parents and exposed to hazardous works. Although the law exists, not all the states have adopted it. At least 11 states in Northern Nigeria are yet to pass it due to the fact that its provisions is claimed to negate cultural practices and their belief. </p>
<p>But even those states that have adopted the law not much is being achieved in checking human trafficking of children or for domestic work. </p>
<p>The government has a great deal of work to do. It needs to make a conscious effort to implement the law. Companies can also play a role. Childcare facilities must be established in organisations while closing hours for women should be reduced to enable them attend to domestic roles.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/123890/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Oludayo Tade does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Middle-class Nigerians employ children in their homes for a range of reasons.Oludayo Tade, Researcher in criminology, victimology, electronic frauds and cybercrime, University of IbadanLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1185272019-06-19T13:39:31Z2019-06-19T13:39:31ZStudy shines light on how vulnerable children are trafficked in Nigeria<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/279542/original/file-20190614-158967-1iwya16.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Trafficking is a very real threat for kids in Nigeria.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Paschal Okwara/Shutterstock/Editorial use only</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The international trafficking of children has received much attention in recent times. But, little attention has been paid to how it plays out and its unique dynamics in Nigeria.</p>
<p>Child trafficking is one of the most flourishing organised criminal enterprises in Nigeria. <a href="https://punchng.com/oyo-becoming-hot-spot-of-girls-trafficking-nis/">In Oyo State alone</a> (Nigeria has 36 states and a federal capital), the Nigerian Immigration Service rescued 464 trafficked children and arrested 101 traffickers and 120 end-users between 2016 and this year.</p>
<p>Nigeria is a source, transit spot and destination for human trafficking. Close to 1.4 million Nigerians live in <a href="https://www.globalslaveryindex.org/2018/data/country-data/nigeria/">slave-like conditions</a>.</p>
<p>An investigation into the recruiting strategies of traffickers and their networks could be helpful in arresting this menace.</p>
<p>With this in mind, I conducted <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10246029.2014.922107">research</a> in which I examined the recruitment strategies of trafficking networks. I interviewed drivers, domestic servants, those who employed domestic servants, and trafficking agents in two communities in Ibadan, Oyo State where the crime is endemic. </p>
<h2>Research findings</h2>
<p>My research found that traffickers have established markets where they supply trafficked children who are younger than 18. Their clients include plantation agriculturists, brothel house owners, and middle-class urban households. Based on their needs, the farmers, brothel owners and urban households contact traffickers to obtain children to work for them. </p>
<p>The brothel managers demand children for sexual exploitation. Farmers, meanwhile, use the trafficked children for cheap labour on plantations.</p>
<p>Households demand child domestic servants to lessen the burden of executing domestic chores while at the same time engaging in paid work. In deciding whether to hire domestic servants, households adopt the so-called “make or buy strategy”. Under the “make strategy”, households devise a plan to split housework and home management between family members. The “buy strategy” is adopted only when the activities go beyond what households believe they can manage – then, they “outsource” to a domestic servant.</p>
<p>If they decide to go this route, the household specifies the age and sex of the preferred domestic servant. For most employers, sex is considered alongside age. </p>
<p>Other required qualities include the ability to communicate in the employer’s language or <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-west-africas-pidgins-deserve-full-recognition-as-official-languages-101844">pidgin English</a>, good character, history or place of origin, and the ability to work under stress.</p>
<h2>Recruitment strategies</h2>
<p>Traffickers can recruit from child trafficking endemic communities in Oyo State or other states. Our respondents adopted two major strategies in recruiting children as domestic servants and child prostitutes. The first involves the use of relatives, coworkers, religious associates, club members and neighbours to lure children away.</p>
<p>The second strategy relies on recruiting agents or traffickers. The traffickers use field agents. Here, trust is vital. Without trust, it’s difficult for prospective employers to get to the traffickers. The agents ensure that prospective employers are genuine and not part of the security apparatus.</p>
<p>For traffickers who are indigene (that is, from the communities where the children are recruited from), the method is usually deception. They trick parents into releasing their children for supposed training in the city. A 16-year-old domestic servant affirmed:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>It was my uncle who came to Igede to tell my people that he wanted me to assist him with his business that was booming. He took me from Benue to Benin and dropped me with a woman at a brothel house. I was expected to sleep with men and pay money for the house I slept in every morning. I cried throughout the three days I stayed there … I ran away … I went back to Igede. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Another strategy is to use people from the recruiting community to get children to work in town. A trafficker stated:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I have one Alhaji (meaning a Muslim who has completed the holy pilgrimage to Mecca) in Benue State. We got to know each other through wheat trading. Any time I need people to work here (in Ibadan) … I will just call on him and since we have been able to establish trust and confidence, it is not difficult for him to get some of these children for me. </p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Trafficking season</h2>
<p>My research participants who recruit from Igede community in Benue state told me they are more likely to get more children during the <a href="https://www.nigeriagalleria.com/Nigeria/States_Nigeria/Benue/Igede-Agba-Festival-Benue.html">New Yam Festival</a> when people of Igede extraction return home to thank their communal deity for a bumper harvest before officially eating the new yam. </p>
<p>The traffickers and agents use this period to entrap new children. They come to Igede with lots of money to attract attention. I found that traffickers set out on the recruitment journey towards the end of the year and returned early in the year with newly trafficked children. A female domestic servant said all Igede indigene who live or work elsewhere were expected to return home to join in the Christmas festivities. Most of the traffickers can be seen in the community at this time, as often they bring the children home and then return with them to the city.</p>
<p>The traffickers or agents engage in house-to-house canvassing, asking and persuading people to release their children to them, usually on agreed terms. Once this is settled, the local community agent either transports the children on his or her own, or awaits a vehicle sent by an associate in Ibadan to transport the new recruits. </p>
<p>A private vehicle is usually hired from Ibadan, which is more than 500kms away, to avoid suspicion.</p>
<h2>Combating the scourge</h2>
<p>To combat trafficking, it’s important for the Nigerian government to understand and deal with the factors that predispose children to being trafficked. These include rural underdevelopment and poverty, for instance. The <a href="https://www.naptip.gov.ng/?page_id=112">National Agency for the Prohibition of Trafficking in Persons</a> needs to strengthen its campaign aimed at fighting the trafficking of people within Nigeria. </p>
<p>A good place to start would be to target festival periods to educate the communities from which children are sourced about the scourge of child trafficking. Such education needs to expose the gimmicks traffickers use to lure vulnerable children. The National Agency for the Prohibition of Trafficking in Persons may also need to revisit its current strategy and leverage more on inter-agency collaboration.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/118527/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Oludayo Tade does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>An investigation into the recruiting strategies of traffickers and their networks could be helpful in arresting this menace.Oludayo Tade, Researcher in criminology, victimology, electronic frauds and cybercrime, University of IbadanLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1117832019-03-19T20:34:03Z2019-03-19T20:34:03ZElectric vehicles as an example of a market failure<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/264679/original/file-20190319-60972-94akzm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C33%2C1500%2C992&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A Renault Zoe charging. It's currently one of the top-selling plug-in electric vehicles in Europe, but what would happen if subsidies dried up? </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fichier:Renault_Zoe_charging.jpg">Werner Hillebrand-Hansen/Wikipedia</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Electric vehicle revolution is well under way. Norway ambitiously heads toward having all new cars sold as zero-emission by 2025. China continues to be one of the major drivers of EV boom. The US market experiences strong growth, driven by models from <a href="https://www.myev.com/research/comparisons/best-selling-electric-vehicles">Tesla, Chevrolet and Nissan</a>. The United Kingdom and France have announced they would <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/07/26/world/europe/uk-diesel-petrol-emissions.html">ban new petrol and diesel vehicles sales by 2040</a>.</p>
<p>Electric cars are perceived as a <a href="https://econclassroom.com/market-failure-positive-externalities-of-consumption/">positive externality of consumption</a> on the society. To fight global warming, governments have implemented different policies to stimulate consumer demand.</p>
<p>But just how sustainable is demand for electric vehicles and how long will governments fuel it? There is also the question of hidden costs for stakeholders like the Democratic Republic of Congo, major supplier of cobalt used for EV batteries.</p>
<h2>Norway hits new highs with EV market penetration</h2>
<p>A stellar example of a country that’s fully charged to go electric is Norway. It has the highest number of electric vehicles per person in the world, with close to 300,000 registered units in its EV fleet in 2018. According to the <a href="https://elbil.no/english/norwegian-ev-market/">European Alternative Fuel Observatory</a>, almost 50% of the cars purchased in Norway in 2018 are electric.</p>
<p>What lies behind such impressive result that puts Norway ahead of others? Answer seems clear: change of consumer habits through <a href="https://elbil.no/english/norwegian-ev-policy/">comprehensive incentive package</a> introduced gradually since 1990s. One of the key policies is Norwegian car-taxation system, based on the principle that the more you pollute, the more you pay. Tax for a new car is calculated by combining weight, CO<sub>2</sub> and NO<sub>x</sub> emissions. It is progressive, making big cars with high emissions very expensive. This results in most electric vehicles becoming cheaper compared to similar petrol models.</p>
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<span class="caption">Illustration of Norway subsidy scheme, comparison of Volkswagen Golf petrol and electric model.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">https://elbil.no/english/norwegian-ev-policy/</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In addition, other incentives are in place such as 25% VAT exemption for new EV purchases, road toll exemption, low annual road tax, free access to municipal parking and ferries, access to bus lanes and good network of public charging stations.</p>
<h2>How long can it last?</h2>
<p>But how long will governments continue incentive schemes and can EV market roll on its own? The main concern with subsidies is they’re addictive – once put in place, they’re difficult to end. Budgets are also tight and incentives of this magnitude put pressure on public finances.</p>
<p>In October 2018, the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/oct/07/electric-car-prices-to-soar-low-emission-vehicles--subsidies-philip-hammond-budget">UK announced subsidy cuts</a> on electric and hybrid vehicles, making models such as Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV and the Toyota Prius Plug-in no longer eligible for grants. This adds thousands of pounds to the price of these cars, and many are concerned it could <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/760c487a-3a86-11e9-b72b-2c7f526ca5d0">turn customers away from less-polluting vehicles</a>.</p>
<p>China plans to <a href="https://asia.nikkei.com/Economy/China-to-slash-EV-subsidies-30-next-year">terminate EV subsidies by 2020</a>. The phase-out process is already in place, with 30% cuts planned for this year. The rationale is shift toward competitiveness, pushing car producers to find cost reductions of their own, as sales volume grows.</p>
<p>The Trump administration has also signalled a possible end of renewables subsidies in the near future. <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-trump-autos/white-house-seeks-to-end-subsidies-for-electric-cars-renewables-idUSKBN1O22D4">Announcements from the White House</a>, followed by a series of angry tweets from the president, followed General Motors’ announcement that it would end production in five automotive factories in the United States and Canada.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1067494682249318402"}"></div></p>
<p>Although Democrats will certainly fight any such eventuality, it brings uncertainty among US car manufacturers, who continue to lobby for additional incentives.</p>
<h2>Who bears the costs?</h2>
<p>Another question is, who benefits most from subsidies? A <a href="https://www.manhattan-institute.org/html/short-circuit-high-cost-electric-vehicle-subsidies-11241.html">Manhattan Institute report on EVs</a> highlights the fact that more than 50% of EV buyers in the United States lived in households with annual income of at least $100,000, and 20% had yearly incomes over $200,000. The conclusion is that subsides come at the expense of lower-income drivers of gasoline-powered cars who cannot really afford to buy any new vehicle, much less an electric one. It is they who end up paying for highway maintenance costs through fuel taxes.</p>
<p>Also, as more electric vehicles hit the streets, electricity replaces fuel consumption. The <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/fe0ce8fc-6394-11e8-90c2-9563a0613e56">International Energy Agency estimates</a> that by 2030, electricity could displace about 4,8 million barrels of petrol and diesel used per day. This could result in revenue loss of close to $100 billion in fuel taxes, major source of financing infrastructure development. Thus, governments need to find alternative taxation income and someone needs to bear this cost.</p>
<p>And while some nations embrace “going green”, others might get left behind. There is a need for discussion on how the shift from internal-combustion motors to electric vehicles can be inclusive of those who need it most.</p>
<h2>Darker side of the electric car bonanza</h2>
<p>While much of the developed world heads enthusiastically toward vehicles that pollute less, the celebration isn’t universal. The Democratic Republic of Congo supplies <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/business/batteries/congo-cobalt-mining-for-lithium-ion-battery/?tid=a_inl_manual">two-thirds of world’s cobalt</a>, essential for EV batteries. This Central African nation chronically suffers from “natural resource curse”: while “blessed” with richness in minerals, it remains among the <a href="https://eu.usatoday.com/story/money/2018/11/29/poorest-countries-world-2018/38429473/">poorest nations in the world</a>.</p>
<p>In the absence of formal employment, hundreds of thousands of Congolese turn to mining. <a href="https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2017/09/the-dark-side-of-electric-cars-exploitative-labor-practices/">UNICEF estimates</a> there are more than 40,000 children working in mines on jobs such as underground digging, transportation of heavy loads or washing mined cobalt in rivers.</p>
<p>Many adult and children workers have no modern machinery or even basic protective clothing, and the health consequences can be catastrophic. Cobalt even has disease named after it – <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/the-toll-of-the-cobalt-mining-industry-congo/">cobalt lungs</a>, a form of pneumonia caused by overexposure to cobalt dust that leads to permanent incapacity and in many cases, death.</p>
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<span class="caption">Children working in cobalt mines in the Democratic Republic of Congo.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Centre of the American Experiment</span></span>
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<p>Years of mining have also taken their toll on <a href="https://www.news24.com/Africa/News/democratic-republic-of-congo-city-poisoned-by-years-of-mining-20160822">Congolese environment</a>. Untreated waste and toxic substances pollute areas near the mines, exacerbating health problems of the locals. In addition, worrying radioactivity levels were reported in some of the mines, as southern Congo has vast deposits of not only cobalt and copper, but also uranium. In <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-11-06/glencore-s-congo-unit-katanga-halts-sales-of-radioactive-cobalt">November 2018, Glencore</a>, one of the world’s leading cobalt producers, temporarily suspended sales of cobalt from its Kamoto mine due to radioactivity detected in supplies.</p>
<h2>The long road ahead</h2>
<p>It may seem that electric cars are on the verge of replacing internal-combustion vehicles. But while their market share is growing, it still represents only 2% of car sales in 2018. Although there is raising awareness on environmental issues, we must remember that people tend to seek to maximise their personal utility. Because of this, electric vehicles can be considered an example of <a href="https://www.investopedia.com/terms/m/marketfailure.asp">market failure</a> – their benefits to society as a whole exceed those to individuals, so they’re undersupplied by a free market. Another example is vaccinations, which may require a shot (briefly painful to one person), but can help provide collective immunity (beneficial for all). Government regulations, subsidies and other methods can help insure that such failures of the free market are compensated for. </p>
<p>In the case of electric vehicles, however, once government subsidies are phased out, it remains to be seen whether consumers will perceive electric vehicles as economically viable option. A lot will depend on the ability of car manufacturers to cut production costs, and also how much countries have advanced in installing related infrastructure such as charging stations.</p>
<p>In any case, we are in for a long ride and a lot of uncertainties along the way…</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/111783/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jovana Stanisljevic ne travaille pas, ne conseille pas, ne possède pas de parts, ne reçoit pas de fonds d'une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n'a déclaré aucune autre affiliation que son organisme de recherche.</span></em></p>Electric vehicles are taking off, but will demand remain sustainable once governments phase out subsidies? And as the “hidden costs” of the EV revolution emerge, some might get left behind…Jovana Stanisljevic, Professor in International Business, Department People, Organization, Society, Grenoble École de Management (GEM)Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.