tag:theconversation.com,2011:/au/topics/csiro-inventions-13693/articlesCSIRO Inventions – The Conversation2020-04-27T02:00:45Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1368592020-04-27T02:00:45Z2020-04-27T02:00:45ZCoronavirus lessons from past crises: how WWI and WWII spurred scientific innovation in Australia<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/330585/original/file-20200427-163098-1uy2hg4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=30%2C10%2C1675%2C2218&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.scienceimage.csiro.au/image/255/counting-influenza-cell-growth-in-cell-culture/">CSIRO Archives</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In the wake of COVID-19, we’re seeing intense international competition for urgently-needed supplies including <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-03-25/coronavirus-queensland-ppe-mask-shortage-doctors/12086562">personal protection equipment</a> and ventilators. In Australia, this could extend to other critical imports such as pharmaceuticals and medicines. And when our manufacturing sector can’t fill unexpected breaks in supply chains, we all face risk.</p>
<p>However, Australians have lived through crises of comparable magnitude before. During and after the two world wars, scientific innovation played a crucial role in reform. It led to the creation of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) and an array of subsequent discoveries. </p>
<p>Some may assume life will go back to normal once COVID-19 withdraws. But if the past is to be learnt from, Australia should prepare for a greatly different future – hopefully one in which science and innovation once more take centre stage.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-australia-played-the-worlds-first-music-on-a-computer-60381">How Australia played the world's first music on a computer</a>
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<h2>The birth of the CSIR</h2>
<p>It was WWI that heightened awareness of the role of science in defence and economic growth. In December 1915, <a href="https://csiropedia.csiro.au/our-origins-1901-1926/">Prime Minister William (Billy) Hughes announced</a> he would set up a national laboratory “which would allow men of all branches of science to use their capabilities in application to industry”. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/329959/original/file-20200423-47804-1d42y9a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/329959/original/file-20200423-47804-1d42y9a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/329959/original/file-20200423-47804-1d42y9a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/329959/original/file-20200423-47804-1d42y9a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/329959/original/file-20200423-47804-1d42y9a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/329959/original/file-20200423-47804-1d42y9a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=619&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/329959/original/file-20200423-47804-1d42y9a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=619&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/329959/original/file-20200423-47804-1d42y9a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=619&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">A CSIR council meeting in 1935, held at the McMaster Laboratory in Sydney.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.scienceimage.csiro.au/image/2407/a-csir-council-meeting/">CSIRO Archives</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
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<p>This led to the formation of the CSIR in 1926, and its <a href="https://www.csiro.au/en/About/History-achievements/Our-history">rebirth as the CSIRO in 1949</a>. <a href="https://csiropedia.csiro.au/csiro-annual-reports-1927-2000/">In the years after WW1</a>, the CSIR contributed greatly to improvements in primary production, including through animal nutrition, disease prevention, and the control of weeds and pests in crops. It also advanced primary product processing and overseas product transport.</p>
<p>In 1937, the CSIR’s <a href="https://www.defence.gov.au/news/raafnews/editions/2001/4308/story14.htm">mandate was expanded</a> to include secondary industry research, including a national Aircraft and Engine Testing and Research Laboratory. This was motivated by the government’s concern to increase Australia’s manufacturing capabilities and reduce its dependence on technology imports.</p>
<h2>War efforts in the spotlight</h2>
<p>The CSIR’s research focus shifted in 1941 with the attack on Pearl Harbour. Australian war historian Boris Schedvin <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/book/137/">has written</a> about the hectic scramble to increase the nation’s defence capacities and expand essential production following the attack, including expansion of the scientific workforce. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/329960/original/file-20200423-47832-1ca49za.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/329960/original/file-20200423-47832-1ca49za.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/329960/original/file-20200423-47832-1ca49za.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=863&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/329960/original/file-20200423-47832-1ca49za.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=863&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/329960/original/file-20200423-47832-1ca49za.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=863&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/329960/original/file-20200423-47832-1ca49za.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1084&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/329960/original/file-20200423-47832-1ca49za.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1084&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/329960/original/file-20200423-47832-1ca49za.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1084&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Minister John Dedman died in 1973.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dedman#/media/File:John_Dedman.jpg">Wikipedia (public domain)</a></span>
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<p>The John Curtin government was commissioned in October, 1941. Curtin appointed John Dedman as the Minister for War Organisation and Industry, as well as the minister in charge of the CSIR. Dedman’s department was concerned with producing military supplies and equipment, and other items to support society in wartime.</p>
<p>Dedman instructed the council to concentrate on “problems connected with the war effort”. The CSIR responded robustly. By 1942, the divisions of food preservation and transport, forest products, aeronautics, industrial chemistry, the national standards laboratory and the lubricants and bearings section were practically focused on war work full-time.</p>
<h2>Scaling up production</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://csiropedia.csiro.au/chemicals-and-polymers-1988/">Division of Industrial Chemistry</a> was the division most closely involved in actual production. It was formed in 1940 with Ian Wark as chief, who’d previously worked at the Electrolytic Zinc Company. </p>
<p>Wark was familiar with the chemical industry, and quickly devoted resources to developing processes (using Australian materials) to produce essential chemicals to the pilot plant stage. They were soon producing chemicals for drugs at the <a href="https://www.fishermansbend.vic.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0022/31675/Heritage-Study_Biosis_November-2016.pdf">Fishermans Bend site</a>, including the starting material for the synthesis of the anaesthetic drug <a href="https://www.healthline.com/health/how-long-does-novocaine-last">novocaine</a> (procaine). </p>
<p>The researchers developed a method to separate the drug <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/nursing-and-health-professions/ergot-alkaloid">ergot</a>, which is now essential in gynaecology, from rye. They also contributed directly to the war effort by manufacturing the plasticiser used in the nose caps of bullets and shells.</p>
<h2>CSIRO today</h2>
<p>In response to the current pandemic, CSIRO at the <a href="https://www.csiro.au/en/Do-business/Services/AAHL">Australian Centre for Disease Preparedness</a> in Geelong, Victoria, is working with the international Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness to improve understanding of the SARS-CoV-2 virus. They are currently <a href="https://www.csiro.au/en/News/News-releases/2020/CSIRO-begins-testing-Covid-19-vaccines">testing two vaccine candidates</a> for efficacy, and evaluating the best way to administer the vaccine.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/7_iY1dqxD9g?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">CSIRO’s directors Trevor Drew and Rob Grenfell share progress on COVID-19 vaccine testing being carried out at the Australian Centre for Disease Preparedness in Geelong.</span></figcaption>
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<p>Australian scientists have made monumental contributions on this front in the past. In the 1980s, CSIRO and its university collaborators began efforts that led to the creation of <a href="https://csiropedia.csiro.au/relenza/">anti-flu drug Relenza</a>, the first drug to successfully treat the flu. Relenza was then commercialised by Australian biotech company Biota, which licensed the drug to British pharmaceutical company GlaxoSmithKline. </p>
<p>The CSIRO also invented the Hendra virus vaccine for horses, launched <a href="https://www.csiro.au/en/Research/BF/Areas/Protecting-Animal-and-Human-Health/Zoonotic-capability/Hendra">in 2012</a>. </p>
<p>Prior to that, Ian Frazer at the University of Queensland developed the human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine which was launched in 2006.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-we-developed-the-hendra-virus-vaccine-for-horses-10429">How we developed the Hendra virus vaccine for horses</a>
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<h2>What can we take away?</h2>
<p>COVID-19 is one of many viral diseases that need either a vaccine or a drug (or both). Others are hepatitis B, dengue fever, HIV and the viruses that cause the common cold. Now may be Australia’s chance to use our world class medical research and medicinal chemistry capabilities to become a dominant world supplier of anti-viral medications. </p>
<p>As was the case during WWI and WWII, this pandemic drives home the need to retain our capabilities at a time of supply chain disruption. While it’s impossible for a medium-sized economy like Australia’s to be entirely self-sufficient, it’s important we lean on our strengths to not only respond, but thrive during these complicated times. </p>
<p>In 2020, Australia has a much greater and broader research and production capacity than it did in 1940. And as we march through this pandemic, we can learn from the past and forge new paths to enhance our position as pioneers in sciencific innovation.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/136859/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>In the 1980s, CSIRO and its university collaborators set into motion a chain of events that would lead to the production of relenza, the first drug to successfully treat the flu.Tom Spurling, Professor of Innovation Studies, Swinburne University of TechnologyGarrett Upstill, Visiting Fellow, Swinburne University of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1240932019-10-18T02:02:38Z2019-10-18T02:02:38ZPenny Whetton: A pioneering climate scientist skilled in the art of life<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/297023/original/file-20191015-98661-10rim2o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Penny Whetton, right, addressing a March for Science rally. Her death last month shocked and saddened colleagues.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Supplied by family</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Last month we lost <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/penny-whetton-2595">Dr Penny Whetton </a>- one of the world’s most respected climate scientists and a brilliant mentor to the next generation of researchers. Penny will also be remembered as a passionate environmentalist, artist, photographer and champion of the transgender community.</p>
<p>Penny was at the forefront of climate change projection science for more than three decades. She played a key role in putting CSIRO, and Australia, on the map as a world-leading centre for climate change research. Her groundbreaking scientific work was among the first to raise awareness of the challenges of a warming world, laying the groundwork for possible solutions.</p>
<p>Penny was a strong believer in the power of each person to make a difference, at work and elsewhere. Her professional career is a great example. She also encouraged those around her to seek out challenges that could benefit the world. That creative energy continues to flow through everybody who was close to her. </p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/297025/original/file-20191015-98640-vnb73z.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/297025/original/file-20191015-98640-vnb73z.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=432&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297025/original/file-20191015-98640-vnb73z.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=432&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297025/original/file-20191015-98640-vnb73z.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=432&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297025/original/file-20191015-98640-vnb73z.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=543&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297025/original/file-20191015-98640-vnb73z.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=543&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297025/original/file-20191015-98640-vnb73z.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=543&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Penny Whetton at Cradle Mountain in Tasmania. She was known as a passionate environmentalist.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Supplied by family</span></span>
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<h2>A global climate science pioneer</h2>
<p>Penny’s work focused on understanding the emergent threat of a changing climate on Australia and the region. She authored papers and reports that have become fundamental to our understanding of how climate change would affect us.</p>
<p>Penny was recruited to the CSIRO’s new climate impacts group in 1990, after completing a doctorate at the University of Melbourne. She rapidly established a reputation for high quality science and innovative thinking.</p>
<p>Penny was a senior leader for much of her career and managed many large collaborative projects with colleagues in CSIRO and the Bureau of Meteorology. After retiring in 2014, Penny became an honorary research fellow at CSIRO and the University of Melbourne, where she continued to be involved in climate research, advisory panels and consulting work.</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-projections-show-australia-is-heading-for-a-much-warmer-future-36776">Climate projections show Australia is heading for a much warmer future</a>
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<p>Over her 25 years at CSIRO, Penny drove innovation in making climate projections useful to decision makers. Her clear grasp of the science and its impact led to novel ways of communicating many complicated concepts.</p>
<p>One of Penny’s many great ideas was to combine historic climate observations with future projections in a single timeline of data - creating a seamless path from past to future. This visualisation method is now a standard part of the climate projections toolkit.</p>
<p>Penny led the development of national climate change projections for Australia in 1992, 1996, 2001, <a href="http://ccia2007.climatechangeinaustralia.gov.au/">2007</a> and <a href="https://www.climatechangeinaustralia.gov.au/en/">2015</a>. The 2015 projections remain the most comprehensive ever developed for Australia. They are widely used by the private sector, governments and NGOs and were one of Penny’s proudest achievements. </p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/296841/original/file-20191014-135501-v97glj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/296841/original/file-20191014-135501-v97glj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=339&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296841/original/file-20191014-135501-v97glj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=339&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296841/original/file-20191014-135501-v97glj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=339&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296841/original/file-20191014-135501-v97glj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296841/original/file-20191014-135501-v97glj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296841/original/file-20191014-135501-v97glj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">This style of representing the climate as a seamless path from past to future was one of Penny’s many great ideas.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.bom.gov.au/state-of-the-climate/future-climate.shtml">State of the Climate 2018</a></span>
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<p>Penny’s science was renowned internationally as well as at home. She spoke at dozens of international conferences, and workshops and journalists sought her out regularly for interviews.</p>
<p>She was a lead author for <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/reports/">three climate change assessments</a> by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, the world’s leading authority on the subject. Penny’s work was recognised many times, including with a Eureka Prize in 2003 and internationally as part of the IPCC team that won the <a href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/peace/2007/summary/">Nobel Peace Prize in 2007</a>.</p>
<p>More recently, Penny provided scientific assurance on the external advisory board for the <a href="https://www.eucp-project.eu/">European Climate Prediction</a> system, a project strongly influenced by methods and thinking developed under her leadership in climate projections for Australia.</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/297030/original/file-20191015-98653-60bjt.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/297030/original/file-20191015-98653-60bjt.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=303&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297030/original/file-20191015-98653-60bjt.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=303&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297030/original/file-20191015-98653-60bjt.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=303&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297030/original/file-20191015-98653-60bjt.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=380&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297030/original/file-20191015-98653-60bjt.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=380&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297030/original/file-20191015-98653-60bjt.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=380&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Penny Whetton taking part in a panel discussion at a CSIRO open day in Melbourne. Supplied by David Karoly.</span>
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<h2>Generous collaborator and mentor</h2>
<p>Penny was instrumental in forging links between researchers in CSIRO, the Bureau of Meteorology and universities. This led to several collaborative, high-impact reports on climate change projections.</p>
<p>Penny was generous with her time and guidance - committed to developing the next generation of climate change specialists. Always with a smile on her face, she combined a great intellect and strongly held opinions with a receptiveness to the ideas of others.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/can-art-put-us-in-touch-with-our-feelings-about-climate-change-77084">Can art put us in touch with our feelings about climate change?</a>
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<p>Many of us writing this were mentored by Penny at various stages in our academic careers. Anyone who’s studied for a Masters or PhD knows meetings with academic supervisors can be stressful. But meetings with Penny were quite the opposite - she was friendly, but academically rigorous. Collectively we owe her an immense debt of gratitude. </p>
<p>Penny’s diverse knowledge and skills – including geology, geography, meteorology, climate, history, carpentry, painting and photography – gave her unique perspectives to draw on when <a href="http://theconversation.com/warmer-wetter-hotter-drier-how-to-choose-between-climate-futures-39561">tackling the wicked problems</a> posed by climate change.</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/297026/original/file-20191015-98640-1b6wllj.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/297026/original/file-20191015-98640-1b6wllj.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297026/original/file-20191015-98640-1b6wllj.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297026/original/file-20191015-98640-1b6wllj.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297026/original/file-20191015-98640-1b6wllj.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297026/original/file-20191015-98640-1b6wllj.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/297026/original/file-20191015-98640-1b6wllj.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A painting completed by Penny Whetton in March 2018 titled ‘Liffey River downstream from the falls’. Acrylic on canvas.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Supplied by family</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Penny made our lives richer</h2>
<p>Penny was a real friend to many. Students became colleagues, colleagues became friends, and all of us were invited to be part of her life in a diverse extended family. We were pleased to support Penny in her own <a href="https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/HealthyLiving/Transgender-and-transsexuality">gender affirmation</a>, and for many LGBTIQA+ scientists, Penny was both role model and supportive friend.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/getting-projections-right-predicting-future-climate-1936">Getting projections right: predicting future climate</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Penny had a wonderful knack for making inclusive conversation, whether at work or over dinner. Her contributions were insightful and grounded in truth, very often tinged with humour, and always kind and understanding.</p>
<p>We all assumed there would always be another dinner, and another opportunity to enjoy her company and be fascinated by her conversation. Sadly, and shockingly, this possibility has been taken from us.</p>
<p>Penny made our lives richer, more interesting and more human. Her absence leaves a massive hole in our community and our lives. </p>
<p><strong>Penny Whetton is survived by her wife Janet and adult children John and Leon.</strong></p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/296989/original/file-20191014-135495-3dtirx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/296989/original/file-20191014-135495-3dtirx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296989/original/file-20191014-135495-3dtirx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296989/original/file-20191014-135495-3dtirx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296989/original/file-20191014-135495-3dtirx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296989/original/file-20191014-135495-3dtirx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296989/original/file-20191014-135495-3dtirx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Vale Dr Penny Whetton, 1958-2019.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Supplied by authors</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><em>The following people contributed significantly to this article:</em></p>
<p><em>Aurel Moise (Bureau of Meteorology), Barrie Pittock (retired), Chris Gerbing (CSIRO), Craig Heady (CSIRO), David Karoly (CSIRO), Debbie Abbs (retired), Dewi Kirono (CSIRO), Diana Pittock (retired), Helen Cleugh (CSIRO), Ian Macadam (University of New South Wales Sydney), Ian Watterson (CSIRO), Jim Salinger (University of Florence, Italy), Jonas Bhend (MeteoSwiss, Switzerland), Karl Braganza (Bureau of Meteorology), Kathy McInnes (CSIRO), Kevin Hennessy (CSIRO), Leanne Webb (CSIRO), Louise Wilson (Bureau of Meteorology), Mandy Hopkins (CSIRO), Marie Ekström (Cardiff University, UK), Michael Grose (CSIRO), Rob Colman (Bureau of Meteorology) and Scott Power (Bureau of Meteorology).</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/124093/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>John M Clarke receives funding from the Commonwealth and State governments. They are affiliated with CSIRO, which sponsors The Conversation. </span></em></p>Penny Whetton made the lives of those around her richer, more interesting and more human. Her death leaves a massive void.John M Clarke, Team Leader, Regional Projections, CSIROLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/392312015-03-31T01:02:38Z2015-03-31T01:02:38ZThe smell of rain: how CSIRO invented a new word<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/75794/original/image-20150324-17688-34w1fs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Rain: you can tell when rain is coming just by the smell.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/ulfbodin/7442413346">Flickr/Ulf Bodin</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Australia’s CSIRO has come up with some pretty amazing inventions over the past 86 years of research, from <a href="https://theconversation.com/proceeds-of-crime-how-polymer-banknotes-were-invented-34642">polymer banknotes</a> to <a href="http://www.csiropedia.csiro.au/display/CSIROpedia/Aerogard">insect repellent</a> and the world-changing <a href="http://www.csiropedia.csiro.au/display/CSIROpedia/Wireless+LANs">Wi-Fi</a>. But we can also lay claim to something a little more esoteric – we actually invented a whole new word. </p>
<p>And no, we’re not talking about one of these new-fangled internet words like “<a href="http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/YOLO">YOLO</a>”, “<a href="http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/selfie">selfie</a>” or “<a href="http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/totes">totes</a>”. </p>
<p>The word is “petrichor”, and it’s used to describe the distinct scent of rain in the air. Or, to be more precise, it’s the name of an oil that’s released from the earth into the air before rain begins to fall. </p>
<p>This heady smell of oncoming wet weather is something most Australians would be familiar with – in fact, some scientists now suggest that humans inherited an affection for the smell from ancestors who relied on rainy weather for their survival.</p>
<h2>Origins</h2>
<p>Even the word itself has ancient origins. It’s derived from the Greek “petra” (stone) and “ichor” which, in Greek mythology, is the ethereal blood of the gods. </p>
<p>But the story behind its scientific discovery is a lesser known tale. So, how is it that we came to find this heavenly blood in the stone? </p>
<p><a href="http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v201/n4923/abs/201993a0.html">Nature of Argillaceous Odour</a> might be a mouthful, but this was the name of the paper published in the Nature journal of March 7, 1964, by CSIRO scientists <a href="http://www.csiropedia.csiro.au/pages/viewpage.action?pageId=13172780">Isabel (Joy) Bear</a> and Richard Thomas, that first described petrichor. </p>
<p>Thomas had for years been trying to identify the cause for what was a long-known and widespread phenomena. As the paper opened:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>That many natural dry clays and soils evolve a peculiar and characteristic odour when breathed on, or moistened with water, is recognised by all the earlier text books of mineralogy.</p>
</blockquote>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/75798/original/image-20150324-17696-13ckld1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/75798/original/image-20150324-17696-13ckld1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/75798/original/image-20150324-17696-13ckld1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=405&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/75798/original/image-20150324-17696-13ckld1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=405&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/75798/original/image-20150324-17696-13ckld1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=405&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/75798/original/image-20150324-17696-13ckld1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=509&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/75798/original/image-20150324-17696-13ckld1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=509&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/75798/original/image-20150324-17696-13ckld1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=509&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Was it something in the soil that gave rise to the smell?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/georgiesharp/2998915972">Flickr/Georgie Sharp</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The odour was particularly prevalent in arid regions and was widely recognised and associated with the first rains after a period of drought. The paper went on to say:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>There is some evidence that drought-stricken cattle respond in a restless matter to this “smell of rain”. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>The smell had actually been described already by a small perfumery industry operating out of India, which had successfully captured and absorbed the scent in sandalwood oil. They called it “matti ka attar” or “earth perfume”. But its source was still unknown to science.</p>
<p>Joy and Richard, working at what was then our Division of Mineral Chemistry in Melbourne, were determined to identify and describe its origin.</p>
<p>By steam distilling rocks that had been exposed to warm, dry conditions in the open, they discovered a yellowish oil – trapped in rocks and soil but released by moisture – that was responsible for the smell.</p>
<blockquote>
<p>The diverse nature of the host materials has led us to propose the name “petrichor” for this apparently unique odour which can be regarded as an “ichor” or “tenuous essence” derived from rock or stone.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The oil itself was thus named petrichor -– the blood of the stone. </p>
<h2>Bring on the humidity</h2>
<p>The smell itself comes about when increased humidity – a pre-cursor to rain – fills the pores of stones (rocks, soil, etc) with tiny amounts of water.</p>
<p>While it’s only a minuscule amount, it is enough to flush the oil from the stone and release petrichor into the air. This is further accelerated when actual rain arrives and makes contact with the earth, spreading the scent into the wind. </p>
<p>According to the Nature Paper:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>In general, materials in which silica or various metallic silicates predominated were outstanding in their capacity to yield the odour. It was also noted that the odour could be obtained from freshly ignited materials rich in iron oxide, with or without silica.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>It’s a beautiful sequence of events, but one that may be hard to visualise.</p>
<p>Thankfully, in a testament to the ongoing scientific fascination with this finding, a team of scientists at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology have just this year released a super slow motion video of the petrichor process in motion. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/Waqmq_GTyjA?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>Using high-speed cameras, the researchers observed that when a raindrop hits a porous surface, it traps tiny air bubbles at the point of contact. As in a glass of champagne, the bubbles then shoot upward, ultimately bursting from the drop in a fizz of aerosols.</p>
<p>The team was also able to predict the <a href="http://newsoffice.mit.edu/2015/rainfall-can-release-aerosols-0114">amount of aerosols released</a>, based on the velocity of the raindrop and the permeability of the contact surface which may explain how certain soil-based diseases spread. </p>
<h2>Lasting legacy</h2>
<p>There’s a small body of research and literature on petrichor that’s fascinating in its own right, including Thomas and Bear’s subsequent paper <a href="http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v207/n5004/abs/2071415a0.html">Petrichor and Plant Growth</a> a year after they first named the smell. </p>
<p>So what happened to Joy Bear and Richard Thomas?</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/76098/original/image-20150326-8699-16g80yd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/76098/original/image-20150326-8699-16g80yd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/76098/original/image-20150326-8699-16g80yd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76098/original/image-20150326-8699-16g80yd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76098/original/image-20150326-8699-16g80yd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76098/original/image-20150326-8699-16g80yd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=947&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76098/original/image-20150326-8699-16g80yd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=947&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76098/original/image-20150326-8699-16g80yd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=947&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Richard Thomas with Joy Bear studying petrichor (date unknown).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">CSIRO</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Richard had actually retired from CSIRO in 1961 when he was First Chief of the Division of Minerals Chemistry. He died in 1974, aged 73.</p>
<p>Joy, aged 88, a true innovator and pioneer in her field, retired from CSIRO only in January this year, after a career spanning more than 70 years.</p>
<p>The joint discovery of petrichor was just part of a truly remarkable and inspiring career which culminated in 1986, with Joy’s appointment as a Member of the Order of Australia for services to science. </p>
<p>We are thankful to both for the lasting legacy on giving a name to the smell of rain and to Joy for the role model she has been to so many women in science.</p>
<hr>
<p>This is part of a series on <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/csiro-inventions">CSIRO Inventions</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/39231/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Howard Poynton does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Are you one of those people who can smell when the rain is coming? Ever wondered then what you’re actually smelling?Howard Poynton, Research Group Leader – Materials Characterisation, CSIROLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/342362014-12-02T03:14:26Z2014-12-02T03:14:26ZAustralia should export more ideas and fewer greenhouse emissions<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/65934/original/image-20141201-20565-uq0vyq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=42%2C28%2C4705%2C2752&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">CSIRO's solar-concentrating mirrors can be used for several purposes, including creating high-energy 'SolarGas'.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">CSIRO</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>As climate negotiators meet at the <a href="http://unfccc.int/meetings/lima_dec_2014/meeting/8141.php">United Nations’ Lima summit</a>, which comes hot on the heels of the landmark <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/us-china-climate-deal">US-China climate deal</a>, there is a renewed focus on how the world can move to a lower-emissions future. </p>
<p>As a global energy superpower, Australia can and should play a significant role in ensuring that its exports contribute as few greenhouse emissions as possible. Exporting ideas, technologies and solutions can play an important part in achieving this outcome. </p>
<p>One of Australia’s great strengths is its vast natural resources. <a href="http://www.bca.com.au/publications/australias-energy-advantages">Australia is a global top-three energy exporter</a>; by 2018, it is expected to be the world’s largest exporter of liquefied natural gas (LNG), the world’s second-largest exporter of coal, and world’s third-largest exporter of uranium. </p>
<p>All of these exports drive economic growth and a higher living standard, not only in Australia but also in our customer countries. According to <a href="http://www.worldenergyoutlook.org/publications/weo-2014">mainstream forecasts</a>, this growth is set to continue. </p>
<p>Given the impact of our exports on global emissions, there is debate over whether Australia’s responsibility ends at the harbour gate or extends well beyond. </p>
<p>There are widely diverging responses to this question, ranging from <a href="http://www.smh.com.au/federal-politics/political-news/coal-is-the-foundation-of-prosperity-for-foreseeable-future-says-prime-minister-tony-abbott-20141103-11gh7k.html">proactive support of exports in the name of economic growth</a>, to calls for an <a href="http://christine-milne.greensmps.org.au/content/media-releases/new-ipcc-report-unequivocal-coal-bad-humanity">end to fossil fuel exports</a>. Whatever your own position, there is one thing that everyone should be able to agree on: the need to accelerate the development and global deployment of cost-competitive, lower-emission energy technologies.</p>
<p>Developing cost-competitive clean energy technologies is no pipe dream. Australia can be proud of its impressive track record in this field. Take, for instance, <a href="http://www.engineering.unsw.edu.au/energy-engineering">solar photovoltaic technologies</a> that have been developed at the University of New South Wales and successfully commercialised in China – an Australian invention now underpinning a significant share of the rapidly growing global solar industry.</p>
<p>Australian ingenuity is a great strength of our nation. Yet when it comes to innovations in the energy sector, we can be bolder. We should stop thinking of ourselves as only a minor contributor to a global effort. We should instead play a role that is commensurate with our status as one of the world’s leading exporters of energy.</p>
<h2>A prosperous and sustainable future</h2>
<p>Based on our own work at CSIRO, I can see no shortage of potential new ideas that could deliver a prosperous and sustainable energy future. Let me give you three examples.</p>
<p>The high levels of air pollution in China, combined with a rising demand for carbon dioxide for enhanced oil recovery, present a significant opportunity to work with China to develop the next generation of cheaper carbon-capture technologies. Australia has been collaborating with China in this area since 2008, working on the establishment of China’s first <a href="http://www.csiro.au/Organisation-Structure/Divisions/Energy-Technology/CarbonCaptureMilestone.aspx">post-combustion carbon-capture pilot project</a>. In 2012, Australia helped to launch a second pilot plant that is currently operating in Jilin province, with the capacity to capture 600 tonnes of carbon dioxide per year.</p>
<p>India is not just focused on buying Australia’s coal – it is also interested in Australian technologies such as “<a href="http://www.csiro.au/Organisation-Structure/Flagships/Energy-Flagship/SolarGas.aspx">SolarGas</a>”, which uses hi-tech “mirrors” to turn solar heat, water and natural gas into a high-value feedstock for the chemical industry. After the successful trial of a 250 kilowatt system in Australia, CSIRO is now discussing plans to build a pilot-scale SolarGas plant in India, where there is a large chemical industry and plenty of sunshine. </p>
<p>Finally, a technology called DICE — which stands for <a href="http://www.csiro.au/Outcomes/Energy/Energy-from-coal/High-efficiency-low-emission-solutions/Advanced-carbon-power/Direct-Injection-Carbon-Engine.aspx">Direct Injection Carbon Engine</a> — has the potential to significantly reduce emissions from coal-fired power stations. DICE is a high-efficiency diesel engine powered by a coal slurry – a mixture of finely ground coal with water. It has the potential to cut carbon emissions by 20-35% from black coal and by 35-50% from brown coal, compared with technologies currently used in Australia. </p>
<p>Much greater emissions reductions are possible if biomass is used as a feedstock instead of coal. DICE should also be able to respond quickly to fluctuating power demand, making it well suited to supporting the integration of renewable generators into our electricity grids. </p>
<p>Following successful tests in Australia over the past few years, CSIRO has now partnered with the global diesel engine manufacturer <a href="http://dieselturbo.man.eu/">MAN Diesel & Turbo</a> to develop the technology on a commercial scale. The next step will be a commercial-scale demonstration in Japan, supported by Australian coal industry. If everything goes to plan, the technology could be commercially available by the end end of this decade. </p>
<h2>Unique challenges</h2>
<p>These are just three examples of many. Each technology faces its own unique technical and commercial challenges. Not everything will work, but neither will all of these attempts fail. By focusing on a mix of different technologies and approaches, I have no doubt that we will see several new technologies emerge that will help us not only to meet the growing energy needs of humankind, but also mitigate its negative environmental impacts. </p>
<p>New cost-competitive, low-emission technologies will be vital if Australia wants to continue to export fossil fuels. It is therefore in our interest to continue to collaborate with the world so that we can responsibly use these resources. </p>
<p>Frankly, our responsibility does not stop at the harbour gate.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/34236/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alex Wonhas works for CSIRO, which receives funding from a wide range of government and industry sources, including coal, gas and renewable energy companies.</span></em></p>As climate negotiators meet at the United Nations’ Lima summit, which comes hot on the heels of the landmark US-China climate deal, there is a renewed focus on how the world can move to a lower-emissions…Alex Wonhas, Executive Director, Energy & Resources, CSIROLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/346422014-11-25T19:20:38Z2014-11-25T19:20:38ZProceeds of crime: how polymer banknotes were invented<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/65437/original/image-20141125-8657-16mb4ya.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">They're waterproof and tough – not to mention colourful – but plastic notes were developed for their unforgeability.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/lastyearsgirl_/2822802586">Lis Ferla/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>Welcome to CSIRO Inventions, a series looking at the discoveries and innovations borne from Australia’s national science agency. In this first instalment, we outline the story behind the plastic money we use today – and the criminal world that drove its development.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>The Reserve Bank of Australia (<a href="http://www.rba.gov.au/">RBA</a>) and CSIRO’s 20-year “<a href="http://www.csiro.au/Organisation-Structure/Flagships/Future-Manufacturing-Flagship/Flexible-Electronics/World-first-polymer-banknote.aspx">bank project</a>” resulted in the introduction of the polymer banknote – the first ever of its kind, and the most secure form of currency in the world. </p>
<p>The project commenced in 1968 and continued until 1988 with the release of the A$10 bicentennial commemorative banknote. But it’s the story behind this story – a personal note of forgeries, underworld figures and CSIRO – that is just as impressive. </p>
<p>Australia’s transition from the pound to the dollar – on Decimal Day, February 14 1966 – was a momentous occasion. The new currency was seen as being a marker of our independence from the mother country, and the changeover from pound to dollar was well-planned and executed. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
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<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The first polymer banknotes. One side symbolised European settlement and the other, the original discovery and settlement of Australia 40–60,000 years earlier.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">RBA/Wikimedia Commons</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>(A little-known fact: a nationwide competition was held to find a name for our new currency with an “Australian flavour”. Among the more than 1,000 submissions were the “austral”, “boomer”, “kwid” and “ming”, but “dollar” was chosen.)</p>
<p>By April 1966 most of the old imperial banknotes had been removed from circulation, and a new range of state-of-the-art dollars and coins were doing the rounds of the nation’s tills, wallets and pockets. With designs by leading Australian artists and cutting edge security features such as watermarks and metal thread, things couldn’t have been better for the note-issuer, the RBA. </p>
<p>But the new notes were not infallible, and it didn’t take long for counterfeiters to strike. </p>
<h2>Enter the forgers</h2>
<p>By the end of the year, a team of amateurs from suburban Melbourne, armed with simple office equipment and a desire to make some money, were able to produce a batch of fake notes with no intaglio printing, no watermark and no metal thread that would net them almost A$800,000 worth of forgeries. (That figure’s not to be sneezed at – it would be worth <a href="http://www.rba.gov.au/calculator/annualDecimal.html">A$9.6 million</a> in 2013.)</p>
<p>The nucleus of this team were two “regular joes” with no real criminal history: Francis Papworth, an artist from Bentleigh, and Jeffrey Mutton, who owned a failing milk bar in Moorabbin near a printing plant where Papworth worked. </p>
<p>As with many great schemes, this one was hatched over a beer – Papworth and Mutton often met at the Boundary Hotel in East Bentleigh. It was January 1966, only a few weeks before the introduction of the dollar, and the two mates were looking for an easy way to reverse their fortunes. Papworth worked at a printing plant … so why not print some money? </p>
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<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The first A$10 notes, featuring architect Francis Greenway on the front and poet Henry Lawson on the back.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">RBA/Wikimedia Commons</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Deciding it was a “goer”, they enlisted a third contemporary, Dale Code, along with Ron Adam (a professional photographer) and Bert Kidd, a notorious career criminal who was to provide the funding for the scheme. Their original target was the ten shilling note, but on the release of the A$10 note on Decimal Day they decided that the new version was going to be even easier.</p>
<p>What followed was a tale of ingenuity, intrigue and deceit. Using only their basic printing equipment, the forgers were able to produce three batches of fake notes – each more sophisticated than the next – that would stay in circulation for many years. But despite their initial success, the authorities <a href="http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1300&dat=19670315&id=pxZVAAAAIBAJ&sjid=XJMDAAAAIBAJ&pg=6684,2632532">soon picked up</a> on their activities.</p>
<p>Adam, Code and Mutton were tried and found guilty of forgery in 1967 but Papworth, who had been a police informant, was found not guilty. Kidd was arrested in 1969 after Mutton, who was already serving time, gave evidence against him. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Paper dollars looked nice, but thanks to Mutton and his forging mates, were replaced by polymer.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>News of the forgery soon became public, and a period of unrest followed. Instructions were issued by the Reserve Bank on how to spot the forgeries, which were then to be handed to authorities. But anybody turning a note in would not receive a genuine note in return, so many continued to be circulated. </p>
<p>A general distrust of A$10 notes permeated Australian society – at one stage, members of the Amalgamated Engineering Union refused to accept them as part of their pay packet. </p>
<h2>Call in the scientists</h2>
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<figcaption>
<span class="caption">HC ‘Nugget’ Coombs.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/H._C._Coombs.jpg">Wikimedia Commons</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The RBA’s Governor, HC (Nugget) Coombs turned to science – or, more specifically, to CSIRO. The challenge was set: could we create the world’s most secure banknote? </p>
<p>After some preliminary planning, the “bank project” began. Coombs originally enlisted seven top Australian scientists – five physicists and two chemists – to help the RBA develop a more secure banknote. They met on April 1, 1968, and despite the date, these were no April fools – the two chemists were Jerry Price, who went on to become chairman of CSIRO, and Sefton Hamann, chief of the CSIRO Division of Applied Chemistry. </p>
<p>The group was introduced to the general principles of banknote design and production, and sent off to think about it before reconvening for a second meeting at Thredbo in June 1968. </p>
<p>Two more scientists were invited to Thredbo: Neil Lewis, recently retired from Kodak, and David Solomon, a young, award-winning polymer scientist from CSIRO. It was during these first few years that Dr Solomon first hit on the idea of a plastic banknote after being given a business card printed on plastic by a visitor from Japan. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">From polymer granules, notes grow.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>By February 1972, CSIRO and the RBA had agreed to commence a project to develop polymer banknotes with a range of optically variable security devices. The CSIRO team soon developed a “proof of concept” and presented it to the RBA. </p>
<p>The concept had:</p>
<ul>
<li>a see-through panel</li>
<li>diffraction grating (an optical component which splits and diffracts light into several beams) embedded in the note</li>
<li>and it was, of course, plastic. </li>
</ul>
<p>As well as being difficult to forge, these new notes were also more durable than the traditional “rag notes”, more environmentally friendly and less likely to carry dirt and disease. </p>
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<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Dr Spurling conducting a ‘feel test’ with Governor Phillips.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">CSIRO</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These technical improvements were made within the first ten years of the bank project, but behind-the-scenes delays prevented the issue of these revolutionary notes until the bicentennial year 1988. In a defiant gesture to Papworth, Mutton and co, the first note issued was – you guessed it – A$10. </p>
<p>Today, there are more than 30 different denominations totalling some three billion polymer notes in service in 22 countries worldwide.</p>
<p><em>For more information, <a href="http://www.publish.csiro.au/pid/6490.htm">The Plastic Banknote: from concept to reality</a> is available to buy from CSIRO Publishing.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/34642/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tom Spurling was employed by CSIRO during the development of the polymer banknote.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Solomon was employed by CSIRO during the development of the polymer banknote.</span></em></p>Welcome to CSIRO Inventions, a series looking at the discoveries and innovations borne from Australia’s national science agency. In this first instalment, we outline the story behind the plastic money…Tom Spurling, Professor of Innovation Studies, Swinburne University of TechnologyDavid Solomon, Professorial Fellow in Engineering, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.