tag:theconversation.com,2011:/au/topics/elementary-school-19945/articlesElementary school – The Conversation2024-03-24T11:53:19Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2222432024-03-24T11:53:19Z2024-03-24T11:53:19ZTeaching cursive handwriting to young children? Here’s how they learn, and resources for instruction<p>Good handwriting is not an end in itself. Rather, it is a means to literacy that fundamentally transforms the human experience. Developing control over the shape of the 26 letters of the alphabet ultimately unlocks the ability to engage in the world of fact, fiction — and endless possibilities of the imagination afforded by written communication. </p>
<p>Legible, fluent handwriting <a href="https://learninglandscapes.ca/index.php/learnland/article/view/642/642">makes this possible</a>. Legible handwriting can be achieved by the vast majority of young learners by the end of Grade 2, given direct instruction and ample opportunities for practice. Fluency can follow in a similar fashion with continued instruction and practice. </p>
<p>Currently, far too many young children fail to achieve handwriting benchmarks to succeed with <a href="https://theconversation.com/young-childrens-words-predict-reading-ability-5-ways-parents-and-caregivers-can-help-grow-them-205730">the academic written demands of Grade 4</a>. </p>
<p>Cursive handwriting was reintroduced on the Ontario Grade 3 curriculum in June 2023, soon <a href="https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20240122-california-signs-cursive-writing-into-law-what-are-the-brain-benefits">followed by California</a>. Yet school instruction in cursive is <a href="https://theconversation.com/cursive-handwriting-is-back-in-ontario-schools-its-success-depends-on-at-least-5-things-209078">bound for failure unless strong resource support is provided for kindergarten to Grade 3 teachers</a>. </p>
<h2>Open-access resources for cursive handwriting</h2>
<p>I collaborated with volunteers from the Bow Valley Calligraphy Guild in Calgary, Alta., and drew on more than 10 years of tracking and <a href="https://doi.org/10.20360/langandlit29392">publishing data on</a> young children’s handwriting to create <a href="https://hdl.handle.net/1880/118259"><em>Teaching Handwriting to Young Children</em>, an open-educational resource</a>.</p>
<p>Our <a href="http://www.bvcg.ca/p/kids-handwrite.html">resource, downloadable in</a> 15 user-friendly files, covers concepts and skills
leading up to and including cursive handwriting in the kindergarten to Grade 3 years. </p>
<h2>Proficiency grows gradually</h2>
<p>Becoming proficient in handwriting is a gradual, protracted process. It must begin early and align with developmental markers of children’s neuromotor and cognitive readiness to engage with the unfolding demands of handwriting. In turn, there are also demands of generating quality text.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00220679809597556">Research suggests that</a> a hybrid script, described as a clean, uncluttered manuscript-cursive hand, will most readily <a href="http://doi.org/10.1002/pits.21691">develop legibility and fluency</a>. Legibility and fluency of handwriting in turn create <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/the-athletes-way/202010/why-cursive-handwriting-is-good-your-brain">neuronal patterns and networks</a>. These support complex processes of organizing, planning, revising and retrieving precise and nuanced vocabulary. </p>
<p>We focus on instructing children in italic printing and cursive or connected script for a variety of reasons: </p>
<ul>
<li>economy of effort, ease of execution and demand on young learners’ musculature and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1167/15.12.76">visual motor memory</a>;</li>
<li>ease in transitioning from print to cursive hand by learning only a few connector strokes;</li>
<li>the elegance and simplicity of the script itself. </li>
</ul>
<h2>Strong foundational skills</h2>
<p>The three-part resource comprehensively mobilizes research to explain the “how and why” of teaching cursive handwriting. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583281/original/file-20240320-24-dnv5zu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An illustrated cat with many dots next to it in the same shape" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583281/original/file-20240320-24-dnv5zu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583281/original/file-20240320-24-dnv5zu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583281/original/file-20240320-24-dnv5zu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583281/original/file-20240320-24-dnv5zu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583281/original/file-20240320-24-dnv5zu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583281/original/file-20240320-24-dnv5zu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583281/original/file-20240320-24-dnv5zu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Connecting dots helps children learn to draw, play independently, focus and improve hand-eye co-ordination. It also introduces children to moving pencils between a defined start and end point.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It introduces cursive handwriting instruction and includes specific lessons to use with children, from “pre-printing” activities (like colouring, tracing and connecting dots) to lined sheets demonstrating script and letter spacing. Resources are accessible with rich use of photos, illustrations of children’s work, easy layout and design. </p>
<p>The resource combines theory and practice to help teachers or parents instruct children in developmentally progressive ways, beginning with <a href="https://theconversation.com/writing-and-reading-starts-with-childrens-hands-on-play-125182">setting in place strong foundational skills</a>. </p>
<p>At school, the focus is: </p>
<h2>In kindergarten:</h2>
<ul>
<li>on fine <a href="https://www.nifdi.org/resources/hempenstall-blog/809-handwriting-worth-the-trouble-these-days.html">motor manipulative and fine motor literacy skills</a> supported by <a href="https://theconversation.com/changes-are-coming-to-ontarios-kindergarten-program-what-parents-and-caregivers-need-to-know-222846">hands-on, play-based learning and direct instruction</a>;</li>
<li>shape recognition;</li>
<li>“path of movement” work (referring to the direction of letter strokes, to ultimately build habits that will allow children later to join letters); </li>
<li>and letter tracing, copying and printing from memory.</li>
</ul>
<p>Children must be able to reconstruct internal mental models of letters seen on a page, and then with fine motor control, reproduce letters onto a page.</p>
<p>When a child can print their name at the size of about three-quarters of an inch, this is a key <a href="https://www.naeyc.org/resources/pubs/yc/nov2017/emergent-writing">indicator</a> the child has developed <a href="https://www.readingrockets.org/reading-101/reading-and-writing-basics/print-awareness#">basic print concepts</a>. This means they understand print is a representational system of <a href="https://www.readingrockets.org/reading-101/reading-and-writing-basics/sight-words-and-orthographic-mapping">mapping sounds to letters</a>. They are in early stages of recognizing this through letters in their name, and so they learn to generalize to the entire alphabet. Shape recognition is really important here too, usually in early kindergarten. </p>
<p>By the end of kindergarten, young learners should be able to print most of the lower and upper case letters. This involves enormous amounts of tactile experiences with letter shapes, games and activities for developing a good pincer grip, using the tools of literacy (crayons, pencils) in developing control over fine motor skills such as <a href="https://www.amsterdamuas.com/urban-vitality/shared-content/contentgroup/writic/writic.html">drawing, colouring and “staying between the lines” tasks</a>. </p>
<p>A play-based approach that is engaging and fun for young children is important in motivating and creating a sense of confidence and agency in these early, emergent moments of written literacy learning. Training the muscle memory in these skills so they eventually come automatically are the keys to the next step in literacy development.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/to-help-children-learn-how-to-read-in-the-pandemic-encourage-writing-messages-as-part-of-play-153171">To help children learn how to read in the pandemic, encourage writing messages as part of play</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Grade 1</h2>
<p>Direct instruction in handwriting begins in Grade 1 with short, consistent lessons of 20 minutes, with another 40 minutes of practice opportunities during the day. Making labels, <a href="https://theconversation.com/handwritten-valentines-create-a-legacy-of-love-and-literacy-130365">greeting cards</a>, <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/ca/blog/the-athletes-way/201808/handwritten-thank-you-notes-have-surprising-consequences">thank you notes</a>, crafts and lists reinforce these foundational skills. </p>
<p>Handwriting should be legible at the end of Grade 1. </p>
<h2>Grade 2</h2>
<p>Grade 2 represents a transition point where the joins or ligatures are introduced. Again, this involves movement and patterning exercises for developing the muscle memory for connecting letters beginning with the diagonal move such as ai, an. </p>
<p>Making connections and minimizing the number of “lift offs” (where pencil must lift from the page) facilitates developing speed, thus opening precious working memory space for other demands of generating text such as retrieving and mobilizing precise and nuanced vocabulary choices. Young learners continue to work on letter shape and size. </p>
<h2>Grade 3</h2>
<p>Grade 3 consolidates these foundational skills by making increased numbers of connections and control over shape, size, space and slant of handwriting — with indicators of speed or fluency of hand. </p>
<p>It becomes clear that developing fluent handwriting imposes many competing demands on young learners. Early, direct, programmatic, developmentally progressive, sustained instruction with ample practice opportunities throughout the school day can go a long way toward realizing better handwriting outcomes among our young learners and in turn, better academic outcomes. </p>
<p>Good instruction and resource support are key to achieving this success.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222243/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hetty Roessingh receives funding from SSHRC. A Werklund School of Education Teaching and Learning Support Grant provided funding for the development of the resource discussed in this story.</span></em></p>Developmentally progressive instruction allows children to learn handwriting. An open-educational resource by literacy and writing experts supports instruction for kindergarten to Grade 3 children.Hetty Roessingh, Professor, Werklund School of Education, University of CalgaryLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2220442024-02-28T12:34:10Z2024-02-28T12:34:10ZHow educator Gloria Jean Merriex used dance, drills and devotion to turn around a failing elementary school in a year<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577609/original/file-20240223-16-smmyyk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C3%2C1311%2C531&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Movement was an essential part of Gloria Merriex's lessons at Duval Elementary School in Gainesville, Fla.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Courtesy of Boaz Dvir</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>When Duval Elementary – a school that served mostly Black and poor students in East Gainesville, Florida – failed the state’s <a href="https://www.fldoe.org/accountability/assessments/k-12-student-assessment/archive/fcat/">high-stakes standardized</a> test in 2002, district leaders pressured the school’s educators to more closely follow the curriculum.</p>
<p>But Gloria Jean Merriex, who taught third and fourth grade reading and fifth grade math, wasn’t interested. She argued that doing more of the same would yield more of the same results. She rebelled by creating a customized curriculum and going out of sequence, teaching the hardest units first.</p>
<p>Opting for a more kinetic approach to learning, she introduced music and movement. She revamped math and reading instruction by infusing the lessons with hip-hop, dance and other innovations.</p>
<p>And she got results, leading Duval from an <a href="https://www.gainesville.com/story/news/2004/03/02/fcat-season-has-arrived/31659297007/">F to an A in 2003</a> and maintaining that academic excellence until she died of a diabetic stroke in 2008. Her students <a href="https://www.gainesville.com/story/news/2008/05/21/duval-math-teacher-remembered/31566316007/">achieved the greatest gains in math among all of Florida’s fifth graders</a>. </p>
<p>As one who has spent years researching Merriex’s career for “<a href="https://vimeo.com/manage/videos/832309250">Class of Her Own</a>,” a documentary set for national release on April 16, 2024, I believe the example she set could help students from economically poor families make up the <a href="https://www.gse.harvard.edu/ideas/news/23/05/new-data-show-how-pandemic-affected-learning-across-whole-communities">considerable ground they lost</a> during the COVID-19 pandemic.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577582/original/file-20240223-18-59hove.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A movie poster shows a Black woman who is an educator with the words 'Class of her own' in a chalk-type font." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577582/original/file-20240223-18-59hove.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577582/original/file-20240223-18-59hove.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=864&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577582/original/file-20240223-18-59hove.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=864&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577582/original/file-20240223-18-59hove.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=864&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577582/original/file-20240223-18-59hove.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1085&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577582/original/file-20240223-18-59hove.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1085&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577582/original/file-20240223-18-59hove.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1085&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Gloria Jean Merriex is the focus of a documentary titled ‘Class of Her Own,’ which is set to be released in April 2024.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Courtesy of Boaz Dvir</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The pandemic cost these students three-fourths of a year in math and more than a third of a year in reading, according to the <a href="https://educationrecoveryscorecard.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/ERS-Report-Final-1.31.pdf">Education Recovery Scoreboard</a>, a collaboration between educational researchers at Harvard and Stanford who are examining learning loss and recovery across the country. These students suffered more than twice the pandemic-induced math skills erosion than students from families of great economic means, the scoreboard shows.</p>
<p>Merriex’s students <a href="https://www.tmea.org/wp-content/uploads/Advocacy/CollegeBoardVoices_in_the_arts.pdf">consistently outscored their peers</a> until her <a href="https://www.gainesville.com/story/news/2008/05/23/duval-teacher-gloria-merriex-dies-at-58/31566470007/">death at the age of 58</a>.</p>
<p>Based on what I learned of her approach in the classroom, here are some of the most important takeaways from Merriex’s life and career:</p>
<h2>1. Meet your students where they are, from where you are</h2>
<p>Merriex breathed new life into this somewhat vague cliché by being uncompromisingly authentic. She wasn’t always that way. For much of her time at Duval, she followed the cookie-cutter curricula. But when Duval failed the Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test, she felt she’d been letting down her students all those years. </p>
<p>Merriex started incorporating community and cultural concepts into her curriculum. </p>
<p>A church choir member, she also began keeping her students on task by snapping her fingers, lighting a fire under them by turning static class exercises into dance routines and engaging them in call-and-response. In one exchange depicted in the documentary, Merriex calls out “one-fourths equal,” “two-fourths equal,” and her class responds in unison “25%,” “50%” and so on until they reach 100%. </p>
<p>In another, after giving an incorrect answer, one of her fifth graders says: “I made a mistake.” Merriex calls out, “It’s OK. Why?” Her students respond, “Not too many.”</p>
<p>It was out of this authentic stance that Merriex wrote the <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lB7B_7JdHUI&t=10s">“Math Rap” and other hip-hop-fueled educational songs</a>. Her teaching style exemplifies research that has found Black students learn best through “<a href="https://ecommons.luc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1352&context=luc_diss">culturally relevant curriculum</a>” and by having classroom activities connected to “prior knowledge and … real life.”</p>
<p>Personally, <a href="https://www.centredaily.com/news/local/education/penn-state/article169726862.html">Merriex preferred other musical genres</a>, but she knew rap would resonate with her students. </p>
<h2>2. Make repetition a habit</h2>
<p>Merriex turned repetition into an art. She demonstrated that saying it once means simply mentioning it; to teach, you must repeat. And, through her reverse sequencing of teaching the most challenging concepts at the outset, she gave herself plenty of chances to revisit them throughout the year. </p>
<p>Several <a href="http://www.lingref.com/bucld/42/BUCLD42-16.pdf">domestic</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/175/1/012148">international</a> studies illustrate the benefits of repetition to a <a href="https://www.doi.org/10.1128/jmbe.00158-21">variety of students</a>.</p>
<h2>3. Get parents involved</h2>
<p>Merriex believed parental involvement boosted student success – a notion that is <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10648-005-3949-7">backed up by research</a>.</p>
<p>“If a kid forgot their homework, she’d get on the phone with their mom,” University of Texas at San Antonio assistant dean of research Emily Bonner says in the documentary.</p>
<p>To enable parents to keep up with their children, Merriex offered them evening math and reading classes. “And she sometimes used to go by their house, especially kids that are really going through a lot,” parent volunteer Anthony Guice says in the documentary.</p>
<p>Guice continues to share Merriex’s math and reading raps and dance routines with North Florida residents. </p>
<h2>4. Show you care</h2>
<p>Merriex provided free after-school tutoring and Saturday sleepover test prep at Duval. She sewed school uniforms and graduation gowns. She cooked meals. “She put us before anything, before her own health,” former student Brittany Daniels says in the documentary.</p>
<p>A diabetic, Merriex could ill-afford to do that. Research shows overwork can be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-005-3949-7">hazardous to your health</a>, potentially even deadly.</p>
<p>“She only missed three days out of 30 years of school,” her daughter, Tayana Davis, a certified nurse, says in the documentary. “That’s when she was in the hospital.”</p>
<p>Thus, Merriex has provided us with two lessons, one unintentionally: Care, in a multitude of ways, for your students – and yourself.</p>
<h2>5. Embrace standardized testing</h2>
<p>Critics have long called standardized testing <a href="https://www.ascd.org/blogs/15-reasons-why-standardized-tests-are-problematic">inequitable and unfair</a>. Their <a href="https://www.nea.org/professional-excellence/student-engagement/tools-tips/history-standardized-testing-united-states">criticism reached a crescendo with passage of President George W. Bush’s 2001 No Child Left Behind Act</a>, which required yearly assessments and carried consequences such as being forced to restructure or or replace staff, including the principal, for schools that didn’t make adequate yearly progress.</p>
<p>In recent years, states have opted for less ominous evaluations through the <a href="https://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/assessments/">National Assessment of Educational Progress</a>. Most universities have <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/michaeltnietzel/2022/11/15/more-than-80-of-four-year-colleges-wont-require-standardized--tests-for-fall-2023-admissions/?sh=5d7971887fb9">scrapped SAT and ACT requirements</a> from their applications. </p>
<p>Yet Merriex, who rejected other educational mandates, welcomed Florida’s standardized test. She viewed it as an equalizing factor. She used the exam to raise expectations and motivate her students. One of the means to a bigger end, it played a part in her mission to give her students the knowledge and skills needed to succeed in school and beyond.</p>
<p>Recent studies show she had a point. Researchers have found a correlation between <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.1315746110">how K-12 students do on standardized tests and how they do in college</a>. For this reason, some universities, such as <a href="https://fortune.com/2024/02/07/dartmouth-college-admissions-sat-testing-standardized-exams/amp/">Dartmouth</a> and <a href="https://sg.news.yahoo.com/yale-university-brings-back-standardized-200720370.html">Yale</a>, have reinstated the SAT and ACT. </p>
<p>Florida’s test certainly leveled the playing field for Merriex’s students. Their success transformed Duval from an underserved school into a well-funded <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AGFcXrLjKScC&pg=PA22&lpg=PA22&dq=On+the+2003+FCAT,+Merriex+led+Duval+from+an+F+to+an+A&source=bl&ots=MmUEPuN-8H&sig=ACfU3U3t-r3qFhHbMrUVONk1FeA9JkcZ0A&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjAnsyF0ryEAxVwrokEHZDjDtYQ6AF6BAgLEAM#v=onepage&q=Duval%20arts%20academy&f=false">magnet arts academy</a> in 2005.</p>
<p>It was quite telling that after her students took Florida’s state test every spring, Merriex continued drilling its concepts through the end of the year. </p>
<p>The most relevant Merriex lesson, however, has nothing to do with state tests or hip-hop or chanting. “You’ve got to know who your students are, and you need to teach those students,” Bonner, the research dean from Texas, says in the documentary.</p>
<p>Not every group of students responds to rap or chanting, but children respond to a teacher who knows and cares about them, seeks to genuinely connect with them and unleashes their true self in the classroom to bring out the best in them.</p>
<p>The year after Merriex died, 2009, <a href="https://www.gainesville.com/story/news/2010/03/06/students-pumped-up-about-fcat/31745230007/">Duval failed</a> the state test. The school never regained its academic footing and ultimately <a href="https://www.gainesville.com/story/news/2015/06/10/so-long-duval-elementary/31882978007/">closed in 2015</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222044/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Boaz Dvir receives funding from Kellogg and Smallwood Foundations for the production of the documentary </span></em></p>A new documentary highlights teaching techniques of an educator who went the extra mile for her students.Boaz Dvir, Associate Professor of Journalism, Penn StateLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2172472023-12-26T17:15:34Z2023-12-26T17:15:34ZHow counting by 10 helps children learn about the meaning of numbers<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564574/original/file-20231208-15-3eojg4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C242%2C4383%2C3017&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Using concrete tools or objects matters for fostering mathematical development – but how can children best learn to count by 10?
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/how-counting-by-10-helps-children-learn-about-the-meaning-of-numbers" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>When children start school, they learn how to recite their numbers (“one, two, three…”) and how to write them (1, 2, 3…). Learning about what those numbers mean is even more challenging, and this becomes trickier yet when numbers have more than one digit — such as 42 and 608. </p>
<p>It turns out that the meaning of such “multidigit” numbers cannot be gleaned from simply looking at them or by performing calculations with them. Our number system has many hidden meanings that are not transparent, making it <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0001145">difficult for children</a> to comprehend it. </p>
<p>In collaboration with elementary teachers, the Mathematics Teaching and Learning Lab at <a href="https://www.concordia.ca/">Concordia University</a> explores tools that can support young children’s understanding of multidigit numbers.</p>
<p>We investigate the impact of using concrete objects (like bundling straws into groups of 10). We also investigate the use of visual tools, such as number lines and charts, or words to represent numbers (the word for 40 is “forty”) and written notation (for example, 42). </p>
<p>Our recent research examined whether the “hundreds chart” — 10 by 10 grids containing numbers from one to 100, with each row in the chart containing numbers in groups of 10 — could be useful for teaching children about counting by 10, something foundational for understanding how numbers work. </p>
<h2>What’s in a number?</h2>
<p>Most adults know that the placement of the “4” and “2” in 42 means four tens and two ones, respectively. </p>
<p>But when young children start learning about numbers, they do not naturally see 10s and ones in a number like 42. They think the number represents 42 things counted from one to 42 without distinguishing between the meaning of the digits “4” and “2.” Over time, through counting and other activities, children see the four as a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1053451221994827">collection of 40 ones</a>. </p>
<p>This realization is not sufficient, however, for <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/ssm.12258">learning more advanced topics</a> in math. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/mathematical-thinking-begins-in-the-early-years-with-dialogue-and-real-world-exploration-128282">Mathematical thinking begins in the early years with dialogue and real-world exploration</a>
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<p>An important next step is to see that 42 is made up of four distinct groups of 10 and two ones, and that the four 10s can be counted as if they were ones (for example, 42 is one, two, three, four 10s and one, two, “ones”). </p>
<p>Ultimately, one of the most challenging aspects of understanding numbers is that groups of ten and ones are <a href="https://doi.org/10.17226/12519">different kinds of units</a>. </p>
<h2>Numbers can be arranged in different ways</h2>
<p>The numbers in hundreds charts can be arranged in different ways. A top-down hundreds chart has the digit “1” in the top-left corner and 100 in the bottom-right corner. </p>
<p>The numbers increase by 10 moving downward one row at a time, like going from 24 to 34 using one hop down, for instance. A second type of chart is the “bottom-up” chart, which has the numbers increasing in the opposite direction. </p>
<h2>Counting by 10s</h2>
<p>Children can move from one number to another in the chart to <a href="https://doi.org/10.5951/teacchilmath.24.3.00e1">solve problems</a>. Considering 24 + 20, for example, children could start on 24 and move 20 spaces to land on 44. </p>
<p>Another way would be to move up (or down, depending on the chart) two rows (for example, counting “one,” “two”) until they land on 44. This second method shows a developing understanding of multidigit numbers being composed of distinct groups of 10, which is critical for an advanced knowledge of the number system. </p>
<p>For her master’s research at Concordia University, Vera Wagner, one of the authors of this story, thought children might find it more intuitive to solve problems with the bottom-up chart, where the numbers get larger with upward movement. </p>
<p>After all, plants grow taller and liquid rises in a glass as it is filled. Because of such <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/tops.12278">familiar experiences</a>, she thought children would move by tens more frequently in the bottom-up chart than in the top-down chart. </p>
<h2>Study with kindergarteners, Grade 1 students</h2>
<p>To examine this hypothesis, we worked with 47 kindergarten and first grade students in Canada and the United States. All the children but one spoke English at home. In addition to English, 14 also spoke French, four spoke Spanish, one spoke Russian, one spoke Arabic, one spoke Mandarin and one communicated to some extent in ASL at home. </p>
<p>We assigned all child participants in the study an online version of <a href="http://mathchart.ca/chart.html#nt">either a top-down</a> or <a href="https://mathchart.ca/chart.html#reversednt">bottom-up</a> hundreds chart, programmed by research assistant André Loiselle, to solve arithmetic word problems. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/ssm.12593">What we found surprised us</a>: children counted by tens more often with the top-down chart than the bottom-up one. This was the exact opposite of what we thought they might do!</p>
<p>This finding suggests that the top-down chart fosters children’s counting by tens as if they were ones (that is, up or down one row at a time), an important step in their mathematical development. Children using the bottom-up chart were more likely to confuse the digits and move in the wrong direction. </p>
<h2>Tools can impact learning</h2>
<p>Our research suggests that the types of tools used in the math classroom can impact children’s learning in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2008.03.005">different ways</a>. </p>
<p>One advantage of the top-down chart could be the corresponding left-to-right and downward movement that matches the direction in which children learn to read in English and French, the official languages of instruction in the schools in our study. Children who learn to read in a different direction (for example, <a href="https://escholarship.org/uc/item/4tt0k00j">from right to left, as in Arabic</a>) may interact with some math tools differently from children whose first language is English or French. </p>
<p>The role of cultural experiences in math learning opens up questions about the design of teaching tools for the classroom, and the relevance <a href="https://theconversation.com/culturally-responsive-teaching-in-a-globalized-world-109881">of culturally responsive</a> mathematics teaching. Future research could seek to directly examine the relation between reading direction and the use of the hundreds chart.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/217247/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Helena Osana received funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada for this research. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jairo A. Navarrete-Ulloa receives funding from the National Agency for Research and Development (ANID) in Chile. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Vera Wagner does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Findings of a study suggest using a ‘hundreds chart’ showing numbers one through 100, beginning with one in the top-left corner, fosters children’s counting by 10s.Helena Osana, Professor, Principal Investigator of the Mathematics Teaching and Learning Lab, Concordia UniversityJairo A. Navarrete-Ulloa, Adjunct assistant professor, Institute of Education Sciences, Universidad de O’Higgins (Chile)Vera Wagner, Research Assistant, Mathematics Teaching and Learning Lab, Concordia UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2134362023-09-29T12:23:41Z2023-09-29T12:23:41ZSci-fi books are rare in school even though they help kids better understand science<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/551054/original/file-20230928-25-qakotc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=61%2C33%2C4462%2C3953&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Sci-fi books are popular choices.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/surprised-boy-watching-colorful-characters-fly-out-royalty-free-image/546821353?phrase=sci+fi+books+kids&adppopup=true"> John M Lund Photography Inc./Stone via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Science fiction can lead people <a href="https://doi.org/10.22323/2.18040208">to be more cautious about the potential consequences of innovations</a>. It can help people <a href="https://theconversation.com/sci-fi-movies-are-the-secret-weapon-that-could-help-silicon-valley-grow-up-105714">think critically about the ethics of science</a>. Researchers have also found that sci-fi serves as a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244018780946">positive influence on how people view science</a>. Science fiction scholar <a href="https://sf-encyclopedia.com/entry/csicsery-ronay_istvan">Istvan Csicsery-Ronay</a> calls this “<a href="https://www.weslpress.org/9780819570925/the-seven-beauties-of-science-fiction/">science-fictional habits of mind</a>.”</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/meet.2008.1450450345">Scientists</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1115/1.2015-Feb-1">engineers</a> have reported that their childhood encounters with science fiction framed their thinking about the sciences. Thinking critically about science and technology is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1175/1/012156">an important part of education in STEM – or science, technology, engineering and mathematics</a>.</p>
<h2>Complicated content?</h2>
<p>Despite the potential benefits of an early introduction to science fiction, <a href="https://www.upress.state.ms.us/Books/E/Equipping-Space-Cadets">my own research on science fiction for readers under age 12</a> has revealed that librarians and teachers in elementary schools treat science fiction as a genre that works best for certain cases, like reluctant readers or kids who like what they called “weird,” “freaky” or “funky” books. </p>
<p>Of the 59 elementary teachers and librarians whom I surveyed, almost a quarter of them identified themselves as science fiction fans, and nearly all of them expressed that science fiction is just as valuable as any other genre. Nevertheless, most of them indicated that while they recommend science fiction books to individual readers, they do not choose science fiction for activities or group readings.</p>
<p>The teachers and librarians explained that they saw two related problems with science fiction for their youngest readers: low availability and complicated content. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A girl sits in a library reading a book." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/551057/original/file-20230928-27-822zw5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/551057/original/file-20230928-27-822zw5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/551057/original/file-20230928-27-822zw5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/551057/original/file-20230928-27-822zw5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/551057/original/file-20230928-27-822zw5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/551057/original/file-20230928-27-822zw5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/551057/original/file-20230928-27-822zw5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Realistic fiction books outnumber sci-fi books.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/portrait-of-a-young-school-child-black-reader-in-a-royalty-free-image/1496939521?phrase=sci+fi++kids+library&adppopup=true">Lorado/E+ via Getty Images</a></span>
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<h2>Why sci-fi books are scarce in schools</h2>
<p>Several respondents said that there simply are not as many science fiction books available for elementary school students. To investigate further, I <a href="https://www.upress.state.ms.us/Books/E/Equipping-Space-Cadets">counted the number of science fiction books available</a> in 10 randomly selected elementary school libraries from across the United States. Only 3% of the books in each library were science fiction. The rest of the books were: 49% nonfiction, 25% fantasy, 19% realistic fiction and 5% historical fiction. While historical fiction also seems to be in low supply, science fiction stands out as the smallest group.</p>
<p>When I spoke to a small publisher and several authors, they confirmed that science fiction for young readers is not considered a profitable genre, and so those books are rarely acquired. Due to the perception that many young readers do not like science fiction, it is not written, published and distributed as often.</p>
<p>With fewer books to choose from, the teachers and librarians said that they have difficulty finding options that are not too long and complicated for group readings. One explained: “I have to appeal to broad ability levels in chapter book read-aloud selections. These books typically have to be shorter, with more simple plots.” Another respondent explained that they believe “the kind of suppositions sci-fi is based on to be difficult for younger children to grasp. We do read some sci-fi in our middle grade book club.”</p>
<h2>A question of maturity</h2>
<p>Waiting for students to get older before introducing them to science fiction is a fairly common approach. <a href="https://www.bloomsbury.com/us/author/susan-fichtelberg/">Susan Fichtelberg</a> – a longtime librarian – wrote a <a href="https://www.bloomsbury.com/us/encountering-enchantment-9798216079095/">guide to teen fantasy and science fiction</a>. In it, she recommends age 12 as the prime time to start. Other children’s literature experts have speculated whether children under 12 <a href="https://keywords.nyupress.org/childrens-literature/essay/science-fiction/">have sufficient knowledge to comprehend science fiction</a>.</p>
<p>Reading researchers agree that comprehending complex texts is <a href="https://greatminds.org/english/blog/witwisdom/the-science-of-reading-what-is-prior-knowledge-and-why-is-it-important">easier when the reader has more background knowledge</a>. Yet, when I read some science fiction picture books with elementary school students, none of the children struggled to understand the stories. The most active child in my study often used his knowledge of “Star Wars” to interpret the books. While background knowledge can mean children’s knowledge of science, it also includes exposure to a genre. The more a reader is exposed to science fiction stories, the <a href="https://christopher-mckitterick.com/Essays/protocol.htm">better they understand how to read them</a>.</p>
<h2>A matter of choice</h2>
<p>Science fiction does not need to include detailed science or outlandish premises to offer valuable ideas. Simple picture books like <a href="https://worldcat.org/en/title/60590019">“Farm Fresh Cats” by Scott Santoro</a> rely on familiar ideas like farms and cats to help readers reconsider what is familiar and what is alien. <a href="https://worldcat.org/en/title/1122792103">“The Barnabus Project” by the Fan Brothers</a> is both a simple escape adventure story and a story about the ethics of genetic experimentation on animals.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/551058/original/file-20230928-15-abzpvk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A small girl on a foot stool reaches for a book on a library shelf." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/551058/original/file-20230928-15-abzpvk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/551058/original/file-20230928-15-abzpvk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=804&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/551058/original/file-20230928-15-abzpvk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=804&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/551058/original/file-20230928-15-abzpvk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=804&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/551058/original/file-20230928-15-abzpvk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1011&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/551058/original/file-20230928-15-abzpvk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1011&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/551058/original/file-20230928-15-abzpvk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1011&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Some educators are hesitant to introduce sci-fi books to young children.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/african-school-girl-taking-library-book-off-shelf-royalty-free-image/81715011?phrase=sci+fi++kids+library&adppopup=true">Dave & Les Jacobs/DigitalVision via Getty Images</a></span>
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<p>The good news is that elementary school students are choosing science fiction regardless of what adults might think they can or cannot understand. I found that the science fiction books in those 10 elementary school libraries were checked out at a higher rate per book than all of the other genres. Science fiction had 1-2 more checkouts per book, on average, than the other genres.</p>
<p>Using the lending data from these libraries, I built a statistical model that predicted that it is 58% more likely for one of the science fiction books to be checked out in these libraries than one of the fantasy books. The model predicted that a science fiction book is over twice as likely to be checked out than books in any of the other genres. In other words, since the children did not have nearly as many science fiction books to choose from, their readership was <a href="https://www.upress.state.ms.us/Books/E/Equipping-Space-Cadets">heavily concentrated on a few titles</a>.</p>
<p>Children may discover science fiction on their own, but adults can do more to normalize the genre and provide opportunities for whole classes to become familiar with it. Encouraging children to explore science fiction may not guarantee science careers, but children deserve to learn from science fiction to help them navigate their increasingly high-tech world.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/213436/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Emily Midkiff does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Despite their scarcity, science fiction books are highly sought after by elementary school students.Emily Midkiff, Assistant Professor of Teaching, Leadership, and Professional Practice, University of North DakotaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2116592023-08-30T12:16:25Z2023-08-30T12:16:25ZYear-round school: Difference-maker or waste of time?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/544849/original/file-20230826-23-6c5aya.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=10%2C43%2C7178%2C4613&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Not much evidence shows that modified school calendars lead to better academic performance.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/children-in-classroom-royalty-free-image/1271533302?phrase=school+classroom+&adppopup=true">Johner Images via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>Contrary to how it sounds, “year-round” school usually doesn’t mean students going to school throughout the year – or for more days than other students. Often it just means switching up the calendar so that there’s not such a long summer break. Below, two education experts – <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Nicole-Miller-10">Nicole Miller</a> and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=EzLkaxMAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">Daniel H. Robinson</a> – answer five questions about the modified school calendars known as year-round school.</em></p>
<h2>What kinds of year-round schools exist?</h2>
<p>The first is the <a href="https://www.sreb.org/sites/main/files/file-attachments/10s03_focus_school_cal_0.pdf?1459971827">“single-track”</a> modified calendar, also known as a “balanced calendar.” The second is the “<a href="https://www.sreb.org/sites/main/files/file-attachments/10s03_focus_school_cal_0.pdf?1459971827">multi-track calendar</a>.” Neither one is typically an extended year. Instead, both calendars involve moving the 180 school days around so that there are multiple short breaks as opposed to the typical long summer break.</p>
<p>Single-track calendars have all students following the same schedule. This balanced calendar often includes intersessions that provide additional opportunities for learning rather than “summer school.” With a multiple-track calendar, usually created to alleviate school overcrowding, some students are on campus while others are on break. </p>
<p>Balanced calendars often take the form of 45 school days followed by 15 days of break, or 60 school days followed by 20 days of break. Other kinds of modified calendars with shorter intersessions exist in states like <a href="https://www.starkvillesd.com/academic-calendar/index">Mississippi</a> and <a href="https://ed.sc.gov/data/other/school-calendars/2023-2024-composite-school-calendar/">South Carolina</a>.</p>
<h2>How prevalent is year-round school?</h2>
<p>Federal data shows year-round school has been <a href="https://nces.ed.gov/surveys/ntps/tables/ntps1718_20050401_s1n.asp">fading in popularity over the past decade or so</a>. In the 2007-2008 school year, 4.4% of schools were on a year-round cycle. By the 2017-2018 school year, that figure had dropped to 2.5%.</p>
<p>However, since the pandemic, there have been signs of renewed interest in single-track year-round calendars, at least in the Southeast.</p>
<p>For instance, in 2020, Louisiana modified its school statute to <a href="https://go.boarddocs.com/la/bese/Board.nsf/files/BUCTNV783CA6/$file/AGII_BalancedCalendarPP_1020.pdf">allow for more flexible calendars</a>. In Mississippi, a <a href="https://www.wlbt.com/2023/07/19/more-mississippi-school-districts-shifting-modified-school-calendars/">significant number of schools shifted</a> to a modified year-round calendar, with 29 of 137 districts using such a calendar in the 2023-2024 school year. In <a href="https://www.shawlocal.com/opinion/editorials/2022/08/15/schools-are-testing-out-year-round-calendar-but-benefits-not-guaranteed/">South Carolina</a>, as of 2022, <a href="https://ed.sc.gov/data/other/school-calendars/2023-2024-composite-school-calendar/">a quarter of school districts had shifted</a> to a modified year-round calendar. These modified calendars typically consist of nine weeks of school with a 5-to-8-day intersession, followed by another nine weeks of school each semester. </p>
<h2>Is there any evidence that it works?</h2>
<p>That depends on what you mean by “works.” If it means <a href="http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED330040.pdf">saving money</a> by avoiding having to add buildings, then it is possible for a school that normally serves 750 students to serve 1,000 when going to a year-round, multiple-track schedule. This is because the schedule has different students taking breaks at different times.</p>
<p>But if “works” means an improvement in student achievement, then there is <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.3102/00346543073001001?casa_token=6--3kEaZuX4AAAAA:LxKN9ObE12LlHNHvDO1DCAGb3csZRiOYbP8g_mSsZ6wM9P0O6WmhI8yeAeMw55CyJ50wGrOhcePd">insufficient data</a> to answer that question, especially for single-track calendars. One review found <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/cl2.1053">modestly higher student achievement</a> for year-round compared with traditional calendar schooling, but it was also plagued with what we believe were poor studies on which to base conclusions.</p>
<h2>What are the potential drawbacks?</h2>
<p>There are several challenges involved with switching to a year-round calendar. One is changing child care systems to work with the new calendar. Another is securing funding to provide meaningful learning experiences over the various breaks. Also, problems can arise if a family has children on different calendars.</p>
<p>There are also concerns about how high school students <a href="https://www.publicschoolreview.com/blog/year-round-or-traditional-schedule">have less time for summer jobs</a> and for students to participate in traditional summer activities such as summer camps.</p>
<p>Then there’s the issue of standardized tests. If schools take longer breaks, it could mean fewer days in school prior to test day. </p>
<p>Depending on the type of year-round calendar, changes can <a href="https://www.techlearning.com/news/year-round-schools-5-things-to-know">affect sports</a>, particularly practice schedules and game schedules. It can also be a problem if members of the same team are on different tracks.</p>
<p>Also, some schools <a href="https://www.techlearning.com/news/year-round-schools-5-things-to-know">may not have adequate air conditioning</a> to be open in the hot summer months.</p>
<p>Multi-track calendars might also <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/3497042.pdf">negatively affect efforts to keep teachers</a> from leaving the job.</p>
<h2>What are the potential gains?</h2>
<p>Based on prior research investigating learning schedules, a schedule that distributes instruction and practice <a href="https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED536925.pdf">more evenly over the calendar year</a> should result in better learning. </p>
<p>By having shorter breaks, there could be less learning loss from the extended break over the summers.</p>
<p>Finally, some school districts are hoping for a <a href="https://www.wlbt.com/2023/07/19/more-mississippi-school-districts-shifting-modified-school-calendars/">reduction in teacher turnover</a> by having more frequent breaks. There is some, but not extensive, evidence that modified year-round school does a better job of giving teachers a chance to recharge and come back to the classroom after each break feeling refreshed.</p>
<p>One study found that teachers perceived that they had <a href="https://www.ascd.org/el/articles/teacher-job-satisfaction-in-a-year-round-school">greater motivation to teach</a> and that <a href="https://aquila.usm.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1211&context=dissertations">student achievement was also positively impacted</a> when teaching in schools with modified year-round schedules.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/211659/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Two education researchers reviewed the evidence on year-round school. Here is what they found.Daniel H. Robinson, Associate Dean of Research, College of Education, University of Texas at ArlingtonNicole Miller, Associate Professor of Elementary and Middle School Education, Mississippi State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2099372023-07-27T20:10:12Z2023-07-27T20:10:12ZWhy B.C. has ended letter grades for younger students<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538780/original/file-20230721-17-c8rqc3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=1372%2C350%2C5108%2C3444&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">B.C. Premier David Eby signs a student's cast as he visits a classroom to mark the opening of the new Bayview Community Elementary School, in Vancouver, B.C., April 13, 2023. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Darryl Dyck</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/why-bc-has-ended-letter-grades-for-students-in-kindergarten-to-grade-9" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>In British Columbia, the province’s move away from letter grades for some students has <a href="https://globalnews.ca/video/9797857/mixed-opinions-on-students-moving-to-proficiency-grading-scale/">produced anxiety</a> or has been opposed by <a href="https://bc.ctvnews.ca/b-c-pursues-plan-to-end-letter-grades-despite-opposition-from-parents-teachers-students-1.6456772">some parents and teachers</a>. </p>
<p>“Beginning in the 2023/24 school year, all school districts in B.C. will no longer use letter grades for grades 4-9, and will implement the Provincial Proficiency Scale on report cards for students in grades K-9,” a spokesperson for the B.C. Ministry of Education and Child Care said in an email to <em>The Conversation Canada</em>.</p>
<p>“At least half of B.C. students are familiar with this type of report card as it is already in place in their school district.”</p>
<p>The B.C. changes reflect larger paradigm shifts in education. But for many people, letting go of the older model is not easy. </p>
<p>Anxiety and discomfort about this change <a href="https://globalnews.ca/video/9797857/mixed-opinions-on-students-moving-to-proficiency-grading-scale">could be alleviated by unpacking the rationale behind it</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A parent and child seen crossing a crosswalk to go to school." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538782/original/file-20230721-23-toota7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538782/original/file-20230721-23-toota7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538782/original/file-20230721-23-toota7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538782/original/file-20230721-23-toota7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538782/original/file-20230721-23-toota7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538782/original/file-20230721-23-toota7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538782/original/file-20230721-23-toota7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Letting go of a letter-grade model isn’t necessarily easy.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Jonathan Hayward</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Curriculum overhaul</h2>
<p>British Columbia’s kindergarten to Grade 12 education system has been undergoing <a href="https://www.bctf.ca/news-and-opportunities/news-details/2019/08/02/the-politics-of-curriculum-making-understanding-the-possibilities-for-and-limitations-to-a-teacher-led-curriculum-in-british-columbia">an overhaul</a> since 2010. </p>
<p>Roots of this transformation lie in the <a href="https://curriculum.gov.bc.ca/rethinking-curriculum">shifting needs of the economy, away from industrialization and towards a more “technologically-rich” world</a>. Adoption of the new curriculum occurred <a href="https://www.cotronline.ca/pluginfile.php/495272/mod_resource/content/1/BC%20K-12%20Curriculum%20Timeline%20of%20Rollout.pdf">in phases</a>, beginning in 2015 for kindergarten to Grade 9, and in 2019 for grades 10 through 12. </p>
<p>The move to proficiency scale assessment is one aspect of this larger transformation. The scale visualizes learning as a continuum where students progress through the stages of Emerging, Developing, Proficient and Extending.</p>
<h2>The rationale</h2>
<p>The centrepiece of B.C.’s new curriculum is a set of <a href="https://curriculum.gov.bc.ca/competencies">core competencies</a> — cross-curricular proficiencies for students in the domains of communication, critical thinking and social-emotional awareness and relations. Teachers will use the scale <a href="https://curriculum.gov.bc.ca/sites/curriculum.gov.bc.ca/files/pdf/assessment/a-framework-for-classroom-assessment.pdf">to assess how students are doing</a> in developing these competencies.</p>
<p>The scale operates from <a href="https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/education-training/k-12/administration/legislation-policy/public-schools/student-reporting-for-families">a strengths-based perspective</a> that views all students as coming to school with inherent skills. Classroom learning seeks to build upon this.</p>
<p>Proficiency scale assessment regards learning as ongoing, whereas the letter grade and percentages system viewed learning as an event with a definite end.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A classroom." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538781/original/file-20230721-6786-2w0qdx.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538781/original/file-20230721-6786-2w0qdx.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538781/original/file-20230721-6786-2w0qdx.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538781/original/file-20230721-6786-2w0qdx.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538781/original/file-20230721-6786-2w0qdx.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538781/original/file-20230721-6786-2w0qdx.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538781/original/file-20230721-6786-2w0qdx.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Scale-style assessment operates with the notion that all students come to school with inherent skills. A classroom is seen in Vancouver, B.C. in April 2023.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Darryl Dyck</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Letter grades: highlighting students’ deficits</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.weareuca.org/s/edutopiaorg-Will-Letter-Grades-Survive.pdf">Letter grades and percentages</a> position some students (with As or Bs) as having strengths, while other students (with Cs or Ds) are regarded as not even being on the continuum of learning. Letter grades highlight the deficits of underperforming students, thereby perpetuating a self-fulfilling prophecy of sorts. They also only give a snapshot of current achievement.</p>
<p>By contrast, scale-style assessment offers a broader outlook because it considers student learning over time. With the new curriculum, scores on tests are not all that matter. Teachers are encouraged to assign equal value to all the learning that happens between tests, including through <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-007-1727-5_11">formative</a> and <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2009-24359-004">descriptive feedback</a> that students subsequently reflect upon and implement to further refine their work. </p>
<p>Many <a href="https://www.bctf.ca/news-and-opportunities/news-details/2021/06/11/growth-not-grades-student-centred-assessment">educators observe that</a> continuous <a href="https://www.lifescied.org/doi/full/10.1187/cbe.cbe-14-03-0054">descriptive feedback</a> is more effective <a href="https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/education/administration/kindergarten-to-grade-12/information-for-parents-and-caregivers-what-is-descriptive-feedback.pdf">in helping students</a> concretely understand their strengths and shortcomings. </p>
<p>Although letter grades had the appearance of being definitive, they were ambiguous: students received the very visible stamp of a letter grade or percentage but had little understanding of how that grade came to be.</p>
<h2>Process of learning</h2>
<p>The most important aspect of the proficiency scale is its focus on the <a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/canada/article-school-report-cards-should-be-clear-not-confusing/">process of learning</a> itself. </p>
<p>For example, a student’s position on the scale in Language Arts is determined by more comprehensive measures that include: </p>
<ul>
<li>teacher observations of how well the student understands and can apply concepts; </li>
<li>conversations with the student in which the student communicates their understanding of a given concept;</li>
<li>class activities/assignments where the student gets to apply the concept and refine its usage;</li>
<li>any formal assessments, which may not be tests but rather projects where the student gets to robustly show their learning by integrating various concepts. </li>
</ul>
<p>B.C.’s scale-based assessment helps students <a href="https://doi.org/10.1207/s15430421tip4104_4">to not only understand facts</a>, but also the processes behind how those facts come to be. By teaching students about the process behind various concepts, the intention is that they will be able to transfer those skills across various areas of schooling, which previously were subject specific.</p>
<h2>Particular criticisms, questions</h2>
<p>One source of parental anxiety relates to <a href="https://globalnews.ca/news/9792360/parent-student-react-no-letter-grades/">the feeling that the scale is subjective and unclear</a>. To this end, <a href="https://theconversation.com/are-top-scholar-students-really-so-remarkable-or-are-teachers-inflating-their-grades-191035">all forms of assessment and reporting are subjective to some degree</a>. Scale-based assessment, through its use of descriptive feedback, hopes to clarify the basis of assessment.</p>
<p>I’ve heard other parents express concern around the flip-flop between how the scale is applied in kindergarten to Grade 9, but not in grades 10 through 12 or post-secondary institutions. </p>
<p>They wonder: How will children in B.C. fare when for the first 10 years of their education experience they were assessed using the proficiency scale, only to have to revert to letter grades for grades 10 through 12 and post-secondary? </p>
<p>They’re also concerned that the proficiency scale may cause students to lose their <a href="https://vancouver.citynews.ca/2023/06/26/bc-parents-student-letter-grades/">competitive edge</a>, given that it values independent learning over competition. </p>
<p>Scale-based assessment does not necessarily ignore competition. Instead, it asks students to consider their competitive relationship with themselves first, before considering it with others.</p>
<h2>Face-to-face conversations needed</h2>
<p>My unique vantage point as both an educator and researcher enables me to see how policies translate in living classrooms and in the public at large. I have a helpful tip for the Ministry and schools, and this relates to communication. </p>
<p>The anxieties of stakeholders largely relate to people not understanding the rationale behind this change or how to interpret it. Some anxiety and criticism about the change is grounded in how entrenched letter grades have been in B.C.’s education system — and indeed, in mainstream western education. </p>
<p>The ministry, school district leaders, principals and educators need to do a better job communicating the intentions of this change. <a href="https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/education/administration/kindergarten-to-grade-12/unpacking-the-proficency-scale-support-for-educators.pdf">Online information may be helpful</a>, but ongoing old-fashioned face-to-face conversation is also required. </p>
<p>Parents, especially parents of English-language learners, need to directly hear from teachers and administrators via open houses or parent advisory councils because of the fog which surrounds this change. </p>
<p>Lifting this fog and bringing B.C.’s Proficiency Scale out from the shadows and into the sunlight will likely reduce anxieties and increase its acceptance as an effective tool for learning.</p>
<p><em>This is a corrected version of a story originally published on July 27, 2023. The earlier version said B.C. has ended letter grades for students in kindergarten to Grade 9, instead of in grades 4 to 9.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/209937/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Victor Brar does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Parents need to directly hear from teachers and administrators via open houses or parent advisory councils to lift the fog of confusion and concern surrounding this change.Victor Brar, Adjunct Professor, Faculty of Education, University of British ColumbiaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2090782023-07-11T21:39:41Z2023-07-11T21:39:41ZCursive handwriting is back in Ontario schools. Its success depends on at least 5 things<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536924/original/file-20230711-23-8sett2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C143%2C5045%2C2922&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A student practises cursive handwriting at P.S. 166 in the Queens borough of New York in 2017. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Mary Altaffer)</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/cursive-handwriting-is-back-in-ontario-schools-its-success-depends-on-at-least-5-things" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>For many, the return of <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/cursive-writing-ontario-1.6885628">mandatory cursive handwriting instruction in the Ontario curriculum</a>, starting in Grade 3, is a welcome and long-overdue move on the part of the Ministry of Education. It is a re-emphasis on direct instruction in foundational skills. </p>
<p>Handwriting is a learned skill and it must be taught through <a href="https://www.griffinot.com/teaching-handwriting-to-children-what-every-teacher-must-know/">direct, explicit, programmatic, developmentally progressive, consistent and sustained instruction</a> — it will not simply be “caught” incidentally.</p>
<p>It is also not an end in and of itself, but a means to an end. It is not about presentation effects and looking pretty on the page. Rather, it is a powerful tool that affords a child a growing sense <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-19899540">of confidence, pride and agency that their thoughts matter</a>. </p>
<p>Here are some considerations about the significance of this announcement, and what will be needed to effectively implement the curricular shift.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536913/original/file-20230711-19-vfn0ew.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=8%2C249%2C5309%2C2666&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536913/original/file-20230711-19-vfn0ew.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536913/original/file-20230711-19-vfn0ew.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536913/original/file-20230711-19-vfn0ew.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536913/original/file-20230711-19-vfn0ew.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536913/original/file-20230711-19-vfn0ew.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536913/original/file-20230711-19-vfn0ew.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Learning how to write fluently by hand affords a child a growing sense of confidence. A Grade 3 student practises cursive handwriting at P.S. 166 in the Queens borough of New York in 2017.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Mary Altaffer)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>How one writes connected to what one can say</h2>
<p>Steve Graham, an expert in how writing can be used to support reading and learning, has spent decades of his scholarly life studying children’s handwriting. He finds that a <a href="https://www.aft.org/sites/default/files/graham.pdf">legible, fluent/fast script contributes significantly to the quality of text generated</a>. </p>
<p>My own research findings accord with those reported by Graham: in a study of writing by 245 Grade 4 students, fewer then 50 per cent of those <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10573569.2018.1499160">students’ handwriting was under sufficient control to express their ideas on paper</a>. Research suggests this can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1468798414522825">impede their academic success</a> as the demands for written literacy accelerate over time, beginning in Grade 4. </p>
<p>For young learners, handwriting is a complex, demanding skill that involves integrating and mobilizing a host of neuromotor, visuospatial and cognitive skills, all in working memory. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Children seen at a school." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536932/original/file-20230711-26-gym9fy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536932/original/file-20230711-26-gym9fy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536932/original/file-20230711-26-gym9fy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536932/original/file-20230711-26-gym9fy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536932/original/file-20230711-26-gym9fy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536932/original/file-20230711-26-gym9fy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536932/original/file-20230711-26-gym9fy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Literacy demands accelerate over time, beginning in Grade 4.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Research in neuro and cognitive sciences</h2>
<p>The resurgence of handwriting comes with evolving research in the neuro and cognitive sciences that underscore its importance in its connection to learning to read and as a cognitive tool. Researchers Daniel J. Plebanek and Karin H. James, experts in psychology and brain sciences, use functional magnetic resonance imaging to study brain activity. They <a href="https://kids.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/frym.2022.623953">report enhanced ability to recognize symbols when they are handwritten</a>.</p>
<p>Note-taking by hand <a href="https://theconversation.com/note-taking-by-hand-a-powerful-tool-to-support-memory-144049">improves students’ ability to remember and retrieve information</a> — and gives them a processing advantage. Handwriting lays down <a href="https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/191866/the-hand-by-frank-r-wilson">the neurocircuitry to the brain to make meaning, store and retrieve information</a>.</p>
<h2>Teaching handwriting has been marginalized</h2>
<p>Teaching handwriting has long been marginalized in school curriculum, often trivialized <a href="https://theconversation.com/teaching-cursive-handwriting-is-an-outdated-waste-of-time-35368">as just an outdated skill</a>. </p>
<p>Handwriting became crowded out by keyboarding and <a href="https://www.oecd.org/publications/21st-century-readers-a83d84cb-en.htm">digital literacies associated with “21st century”</a> learning goals and the shift <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1997/11/the-reading-wars/376990/">to teaching “whole-language pedagogy” that emphasized context and meaning making</a>, often at the expense of the underlying skills required to do so. Yet research reports young students write <a href="https://doi.org/10.1348/000709906x116768">faster and produce better quality text when written by hand in comparison to using a keyboard</a>. </p>
<p>It’s no surprise, then, that in a study from the United States, few teachers <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-007-9064-z">report feeling prepared to teach handwriting</a>. My own research with Grade 2 teachers found many were <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0162353217701201">unaware of how important direct and sustained instruction is</a> for children’s learning trajectories. </p>
<p>In response to the ministry’s announcement about adding cursive instruction, a spokesperson for Elementary Teachers’ Federation of Ontario said the rollout was rushed and “<a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/cursive-writing-ontario-1.6885628">the province’s expectation that educators will be ready to teach the overhauled language curriculum</a> beginning this September is absurd.” </p>
<p>The success of introducing cursive back onto the Ontario curriculum is dependent on a number of key considerations.</p>
<p><strong>1) What script style will be taught?</strong></p>
<p>Various cursive scripts are available. Graham suggests a <a href="http://www.uobabylon.edu.iq/eprints/publication_12_8303_47.pdf">clean, uncluttered, utilitarian/functional script which he describes as mixed mostly manuscript</a>. </p>
<p>With some cursive styles, <a href="https://www.typolar.com/about/stories/index.php?story=alku-handwriting-system">like the Alku style</a>, an economy of effort and ease of execution is afforded by the continuous stroke and the connections between the letters (known as ligatures). These features make the Alku style less demanding on the musculature of little hands and on the shift from visual to motor memory. </p>
<p>Fewer lift-offs from the page, together with making connections, support fluency of hand. Making twists, turns and loops is onerous for young learners. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A hand seen writing connected letters." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536929/original/file-20230711-21-liflwa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536929/original/file-20230711-21-liflwa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536929/original/file-20230711-21-liflwa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536929/original/file-20230711-21-liflwa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536929/original/file-20230711-21-liflwa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536929/original/file-20230711-21-liflwa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536929/original/file-20230711-21-liflwa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Some cursive styles are less demanding on the musculature of little hands.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong>2) Professional development of kindergarten to Grade 3 teachers.</strong></p>
<p>Many early childhood education practitioners lack <a href="https://childrensliteracy.ca/cclf/media/PDFs/ECE-Survey.pdf">the insights, pedagogical knowledge and skill to teach early literacy skills to young learners</a>. Initial teacher preparation programs at colleges and universities may not place sufficient emphasis on teaching early literacy skills, leaving these to the professional development needs of teachers. </p>
<p><strong>3) Teachers need good learning resources.</strong></p>
<p>Sample scripts for both lower and upper case, and manuscript to cursive hand will be necessary. Tracing sheets that reinforce direction and stroke sequence, copying exercises and illustrative exemplars of progress that show students what to look for will also be helpful for teachers. Script strips to tape onto each student’s desk and a wall chart will be helpful as permanent external memory supports.</p>
<p><strong>4) Interventions in the preschool years.</strong></p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.naeyc.org/resources/pubs/yc/nov2017/emergent-writing">foundations of cursive handwriting are optimally learned in early childhood</a>, with emergent writing that reflects their understanding of print as symbolic markings, and the beginnings of movement for drawing shapes. These understandings and skills are highly predictive of later success in written literacy development. </p>
<p><strong>5) Making the time!</strong></p>
<p>For teachers, it does not take a lot of time — 20 minutes of direct instruction daily, plus 40 minutes of extension and practice activities. This could involve a variety of printing and handwriting activities that are meaningful and purposeful for students. It could look like making cards and posters, partner and group activities that work on fine motor skills (like how many gummy bears can you pick up with a pair of chopsticks). Children need to automatize and create the muscle memory of how a letter is traced, and the direction and path of strokes. With worksheets, children can be asked to circle their best letter. </p>
<p>While cursive has been undervalued and misunderstood for many years, there <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/the-athletes-way/202010/why-cursive-handwriting-is-good-your-brain">is a compelling case for cursive handwriting on the curriculum</a>.</p>
<p>Can we get it right this time?</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/209078/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hetty Roessingh receives funding from SSHRC</span></em></p>Handwriting is a learned skill that must be taught through direct, developmentally progressive, consistent and sustained instruction. Teachers will need professional development and resources.Hetty Roessingh, Professor, Werklund School of Education, University of CalgaryLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2057332023-06-19T20:48:59Z2023-06-19T20:48:59ZHow Canadian and Chinese teachers’ reciprocal learning can benefit students<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532467/original/file-20230616-17-nw47xo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=30%2C814%2C5673%2C3420&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Working to understand and appreciate differences between western and Chinese approaches to education could contribute to the cross-cultural understanding we need to address global crises.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>What makes a good elementary teacher, and how can teaching systems support this?</p>
<p>Ontario has a generalist teaching model at the elementary level, meaning elementary teachers have a foundational understanding of most subjects. A 2014 report commissioned by the Elementary Teachers’ Federation of Ontario noted there was “<a href="https://www.etfo.ca/getmedia/dcdb69d0-fb8c-44bb-9f93-d8875e90b24f/161123_ReviewSpecTeacher.pdf">increasing pressure on public elementary teachers to be generalist practitioners in all areas of a highly specialized and progressively complex elementary curriculum</a>.”</p>
<p>In April, Ontario’s minister of education announced <a href="https://news.ontario.ca/en/release/1002937/ontario-launches-plan-to-boost-math-writing-and-reading-skills">funding to “boost math skills”</a> by hiring more school math coaches in classrooms, identifying a math lead per board and “enhancing skills of new teachers.”</p>
<p><a href="https://www.oecd.org/china/Education-in-China-a-snapshot.pdf">China’s elementary teachers are primarily specialist teachers</a> with expert understanding in specific fields. Chinese teachers are trained to focus on content knowledge and basic skills, and around <a href="https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/The-Cross-national-Comparison-of-Pre-service-and-Chen-Mu/ab343d162d286f763515bab5bac23740555e620e">60 per cent of their post-secondary study courses are subject knowledge courses</a>. </p>
<p>However, Naiqing Song, an education scholar, proposes that <a href="https://chn.oversea.cnki.net/KCMS/detail/detail.aspx?dbcode=CJFD&dbname=CJFDLAST2022&filename=JIJX202204001&uniplatform=OVERSEA&v=GUJP9vbvq0OBy-kCTHOiuvGbfilvZKJHWrVDlBKS8bHGdqQrhq9O2pfJrn3-rS-f">more than 90 per cent of Chinese elementary teachers should be trained as generalist teachers</a> in the next decade. </p>
<p>It is essential to understand generalist and specialist models of teaching through reciprocal learning. These approaches need not be treated as dichotomized or opposed to each other.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A teacher and students outdoors." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532457/original/file-20230616-11631-7qstn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C58%2C3000%2C1854&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532457/original/file-20230616-11631-7qstn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=433&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532457/original/file-20230616-11631-7qstn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=433&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532457/original/file-20230616-11631-7qstn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=433&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532457/original/file-20230616-11631-7qstn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=544&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532457/original/file-20230616-11631-7qstn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=544&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532457/original/file-20230616-11631-7qstn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=544&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Varied approaches to teaching need not be treated as opposed to each other. Kindergarten teachers and children outdoors at the Ritan Park in Beijing in 2012.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Andy Wong)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Reciprocal learning</h2>
<p>Shijing Xu, Canada Research Chair in International and Intercultural Reciprocal Learning, and one of the authors of this story, and Michael Connelly, an education professor emeritus at Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, research reciprocal learning. This is “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-59533-3_37-1">a concept and an approach for international and cross-cultural teacher education and school education for bridging the West-East dichotomy…</a>.”</p>
<p>Their research has addressed harmonizing eastern learning and western knowledge with mutual respect and appreciation, and determining what generalist and specialist teachers can reciprocally learn from each other. A book series, <a href="https://link.springer.com/series/15114"><em>Intercultural Reciprocal Learning in Chinese and Western Education</em></a>, shares findings from this work.</p>
<p>Chenkai Chi, the lead author of this story, is doing doctoral research as part of Xu and Connelly’s research project, titled <a href="https://www.reciprocal-learning.ca/pages/">Reciprocal Learning in Teacher Education and School Education Between Canada and China</a>. </p>
<p>This research is based on intensive six-year fieldwork in <a href="https://reciprocal-learning.ca/show/sisterSchool-W-C.html">a Windsor primary school and a Chongqing primary school, a Canada-China sister school pair that is part of the larger study</a>. </p>
<h2>Sharing learning</h2>
<p>Policymakers sometimes stress essential differences in curricular and teaching approaches, depending on the policy paradigms they embrace: <a href="https://interdisciplinarystudies.org/docs/Vol28_2010/28_OntarioSchools.pdf">“accountability” paradigms (often using language of “back to basics”) or student-centred paradigms</a>. Some scholars highlight that such framings <a href="https://theconversation.com/6-changes-in-ontarios-not-so-basic-new-elementary-math-curriculum-148878">may exaggerate differences</a> in curriculum or what teachers actually do.</p>
<p>Still, there are lessons that teachers and teaching systems can share. One important lesson that Canadian generalist teachers can learn from specialist teachers in China is teachers’ collaboration with each other, seen, for example, in collective lesson planning. </p>
<p>Education researcher <a href="https://cies2023.org/program/keynote/">Linda Darling-Hammond</a> has outlined some examples of what she observed in Shanghai about teacher collective lesson plans, and has highlighted the importance of teacher mutual support. </p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/HP0wItXjALA?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">‘Transforming Education for a More Equitable World,’ featuring education researcher Linda Darling-Hammond.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Specialist teachers in China should also learn how Canadian generalist teachers develop the whole child. This approach focuses on priorities such as children’s <a href="https://www.ontario.ca/document/health-and-physical-education-grades-1-8/social-emotional-learning-sel-skills">social emotional learning needs</a>, developing a <a href="https://www.ontariovirtualschool.ca/understanding-developing-growth-mindset/">growth mindset</a>, and the importance of <a href="https://doi.org/10.20935/AL387">transdisciplinary thinking</a>. </p>
<h2>Trust and collaboration</h2>
<p>Generalist and specialist teaching both have advantages and disadvantages. Mutual and appreciative learning and sharing should be based on trust.</p>
<p>Educators need to uphold the spirit of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/13540602.2019.1601077">reciprocal learning</a>. We need educators who can dedicate themselves towards harnessing diversity in a variety of academic disciplines.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Catherine Febria of the Great Lakes Institute for Environmental Research presents as part of Asian Heritage Month 2023 on the subject of harnessing diversity in freshwater science.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>By highlighting appreciative learning, educators can gain insights across cultures to understand how to focus on <a href="https://sdgs.un.org/goals">urgent issues of today for sustainable development</a>.</p>
<p>As education scholars Yishin Khoo and Jing Lin argue, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-023-09827-3">people need to see themselves as citizens of Earth to solve the issues with “we-togetherness” thinking</a>. </p>
<p>We human beings should think beyond anthropocentrism, and our own comfortable cultural frameworks, and act collaboratively in a harmonious way. In so doing, together we can find ways <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AbuaU6IYV2I&t=44s">to address climate change</a>, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FEwzoairmQk">racism and prejudice</a>, <a href="https://www.uwindsor.ca/vp-equity-diversity-inclusion">and equity, diversity and inclusion</a>. We can then significantly positively impact people’s lives and the next generations.</p>
<p>With mutual appreciation and through relationships, school teachers, teacher educators and policymakers can work collaboratively to build an education system that is holistic, inclusive, reciprocal and equitable.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/205733/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Chenkai Chi is a research assistant in Xu and Connelly's SSHRC Partnership Grant Project and has received a SSHRC Doctoral Fellowship and an Ontario Graduate Scholarship.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Shijing Xu has received research funding from SSHRC Partnership Grant and Canada Research Chair Program for research in international and intercultural reciprocal learning in education. </span></em></p>Teachers in Ontario elementary schools can learn from how teachers in China approach collaboration as subject area specialists, while Chinese teachers can learn about developing the whole child.Chenkai Chi, PhD candidate, Faculty of Education, University of WindsorShijing Xu, Canada Research Chair, Faculty of Education, University of WindsorLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2054522023-06-02T12:39:40Z2023-06-02T12:39:40ZHow teachers can stay true to history without breaking new laws that restrict what they can teach about racism<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529148/original/file-20230530-17-vjqji5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C25%2C5600%2C3697&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A growing number of states have passed laws that restrict what teachers can teach about racism.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/portrait-of-concerned-black-ethnicity-student-royalty-free-image/1279902711?phrase=social+studies+class&adppopup=true">FangXiaNuo via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When it comes to America’s latest “<a href="https://www.newyorker.com/news/daily-comment/the-fog-of-history-wars">history war</a>,” one of the biggest consequences is that it has made many K-12 educators <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/education/2022/02/14/critical-race-theory-teachers-fear-laws/">scared and confused</a> about what they can and can’t say in their classrooms.</p>
<p>Since 2021, at least <a href="https://crtforward.law.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/UCLA-Law_CRT-Report_Final.pdf">28 states</a> have adopted measures that restrict how teachers can teach the history of racism in the U.S. Many more states have proposals on the table. The laws have been portrayed in the media as measures that would prevent teachers from teaching “<a href="https://www.edweek.org/policy-politics/legal-challenges-to-divisive-concepts-laws-an-update/2022/10">divisive concepts</a>” or lessons that would cause “<a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/history/2022/02/09/florida-history-discomfort/">discomfort, anguish or guilt</a>.”</p>
<p>As a historian who studies some of the most brutal aspects of American history – from <a href="https://www.press.uillinois.edu/books/?id=p063459">anti-Black lynching in the South</a> after the Civil War to the <a href="https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674244702">use of torture</a> during the war on terror – I don’t believe teachers have as much to worry about as <a href="https://kappanonline.org/wexler-no-anti-crt-laws-dont-actually-outlaw-lessons-that-might-make-students-uncomfortable-russo/">many may think</a>. Some observers have posited that the wave of new education laws will have a <a href="https://theconversation.com/bans-on-critical-race-theory-could-have-a-chilling-effect-on-how-educators-teach-about-racism-163236">chilling effect</a> on how history is taught. But a close look at these laws shows that they are generally written so broadly that they can’t effectively stop teachers from teaching history in a way that’s fair, accurate and true.</p>
<h2>Weaknesses seen</h2>
<p>I’m not the first to make this point. For instance, one media critic has noted that coverage of the laws has “<a href="https://kappanonline.org/wexler-no-anti-crt-laws-dont-actually-outlaw-lessons-that-might-make-students-uncomfortable-russo/">focused more on educators’ perceptions</a> of and emotions about the legislation than on the actual language.” A law professor has argued that the mainstream media “<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-the-public-doesnt-get-anti-crt-lawmakers-are-passing-pro-crt-laws-171356">distorts reality by mischaracterizing the laws</a>” as bans against critical race theory, or CRT. Critical race theory is a concept that holds that racism is not just something that takes place among individuals, but rather has been <a href="https://www.edweek.org/leadership/what-is-critical-race-theory-and-why-is-it-under-attack/2021/05">embedded in American law and policy</a>.</p>
<p>Some, such as law professor Jonathan Feingold, go so far as to say most of the laws actually call for <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-the-public-doesnt-get-anti-crt-lawmakers-are-passing-pro-crt-laws-171356">more CRT, not less</a>. I wouldn’t go that far. However, I do see a lot of leeway and loopholes in the laws. Here, I offer several examples of ways teachers can introduce difficult subjects that involve racism in the U.S. without violating the new laws that govern how teachers can discuss it.</p>
<h2>Focus on the free market</h2>
<p>In teaching about the history of American free markets, teachers would be justified to point out that slavery – and the associated industries of <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2014/12/empire-of-cotton/383660/">cotton</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.5309/willmaryquar.68.3.0327">tobacco</a>, to name just two – were all <a href="https://equitablegrowth.org/new-research-shows-slaverys-central-role-in-u-s-economic-growth-leading-up-to-the-civil-war/#:%7E:text=The%20estimates%20based%20on%20this,18.7%20percent%20and%2024.3%20percent.">major components of the economy</a> before the Civil War. </p>
<p>To make this more relatable to children, teachers could discuss something that every child understands: food and hunger. Historical records reveal that <a href="https://www.nber.org/system/files/chapters/c6966/c6966.pdf">slaveholders cut costs by underfeeding enslaved children</a>. They often did this until the children were old enough to become productive laborers. Slave owners also <a href="https://archive.org/details/adviceamongmaste0000unse">published extensive advice</a> on how to reward and punish the people they had enslaved. Teachers can point out that for all the prowess of America’s free market, before the Civil War, that free market was <a href="https://equitablegrowth.org/new-research-shows-slaverys-central-role-in-u-s-economic-growth-leading-up-to-the-civil-war/#:%7E:text=The%20estimates%20based%20on%20this,18.7%20percent%20and%2024.3%20percent.">largely dependent on the violence and forced labor</a> that slavery involved.</p>
<h2>Examining the concept of liberty</h2>
<p>Considerable debate has taken place as of late over <a href="https://fee.org/articles/forcing-children-to-pledge-allegiance-is-undesirable-and-unconstitutional-so-why-is-it-still-happening/">whether students should be required to say the Pledge of Allegiance</a> – a daily school ritual that ends with the reciting of the words “and liberty and justice for all.”</p>
<p>Since liberty has been a long-standing pillar of American society, no teacher could be faulted for having students examine if and how the nation historically has lived up to the notion that liberty had truly been secured “for all.”</p>
<p>For instance, when Patrick Henry reportedly exhorted his fellow Virginians “<a href="https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/on-this-day-patrick-henrys-most-famous-quote#:%7E:text=On%20March%2023%2C%201775%2C%20Patrick,%2C%20or%20give%20me%20death!%E2%80%9D">Give me liberty, or give me death!</a>” in an effort to persuade them to declare independence from Great Britain, he was himself a slaveholder. So were <a href="https://chicago.suntimes.com/2019/9/10/20859458/fact-check-declaration-independence-slaves-trumbull-painting-arlen-parsa">most of the signers of the Declaration of Independence</a>, which famously describes liberty as an “inalienable” God-given right.</p>
<p>Teachers could also examine the starkly different visions of liberty that developed over time. For instance, students could compare and contrast the visions of liberty <a href="https://www.civilwarcauses.org/anderson.htm">espoused by Confederates</a> in relation to the views held by <a href="https://politicalrhetoricarchive.wcu.edu/speech/address-at-sanitary-fair-by-abraham-lincoln/">President Abraham Lincoln</a> and other Unionists.</p>
<h2>Paying homage to freed men in battle</h2>
<p>In an effort to encourage patriotism, the <a href="https://www.flsenate.gov/Session/Bill/2022/7/?Tab=BillText">“Stop Woke” law in Florida</a> – adopted in 2022 – requires teachers to educate students about the sacrifices that veterans and Medal of Honor recipients have made for democracy. This serves as a great reason to teach about <a href="https://www.cmohs.org/news-events/history/honoring-the-african-american-recipients-of-the-civil-war/">formerly enslaved men</a> – including <a href="https://www.cmohs.org/recipients/lists/black-african-american-recipients">those who were awarded the Medal of Honor</a> – who joined the Union army and helped defeat the Confederacy.</p>
<p>By studying these men and the reason they received these medals, students will learn the role that Black people themselves played in the abolition of slavery – the largest expansion of liberty in American history.</p>
<p>Given the current political climate in the U.S., there is no reason to assume more laws that govern what can be taught in public schools will not be passed. But based on how the laws are being written, there are still plenty of ways for teachers to tackle difficult subjects, such as racism in American society</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/205452/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>W. Fitzhugh Brundage does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A history scholar sees leeway and loopholes in a wave of new state laws that seek to control what teachers can say about racism in America’s past.W. Fitzhugh Brundage, Professor of History, University of North Carolina at Chapel HillLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2009512023-03-27T20:27:35Z2023-03-27T20:27:35ZNewly linked data can reveal academic development from kindergarten to high school in 150,000 students<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/514026/original/file-20230307-28-cvuuzw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C39%2C2558%2C1730&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Early play-based learning helps children develop skills and knowledge before elementary school, and provides an essential foundation for learning in later years. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source"> THE CANADIAN PRESS/Lars Hagberg</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>If you observe a kindergarten classroom, its games, songs, <a href="https://theconversation.com/kindergarten-scrapbooks-arent-just-your-childs-keepsake-theyre-central-to-learning-117066">stories and activities</a> might seem to be just for fun. </p>
<p>But play-based learning helps children develop skills and knowledge before elementary school and provides an essential foundation for learning in later years. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.oise.utoronto.ca/atkinson/UserFiles/File/Resources_Topics/With_Our_Best_Future_In_Mind_-_Charles_Pascal.pdf">framework guiding Ontario’s full-day kindergarten</a> emphasizes play-based learning, which has demonstrated successful learning outcomes in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2016.1220771">kindergarten</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10671-022-09312-5">beyond</a>. </p>
<p>What if we could discover <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/cjbs2007001">key features of early child development</a> that correlate with strong learning pathways through high school? Educators could use that information to ensure all students, especially those who are struggling in school, are getting the supports they need, when they need them. </p>
<p><a href="https://ijpds.org/article/view/1843">Our research</a> documents how we established a valid data resource that could chart student learning over time. This research reports on the first steps of a much larger longitudinal study based at McMaster University and Ontario Institute for Studies in Education. </p>
<h2>Early support matters</h2>
<p>Research tells us that the earlier we provide individualized supports to students, the more <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000181">positive their effects</a>.</p>
<p>But to help achieve that goal, we need data — specifically data that tracks children’s development and learning from their early childhood through their adolescence. </p>
<p>Ontario is <a href="https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=1710000901">Canada’s most populous province</a>, yet for decades it has lacked such data. </p>
<p>Before our research started, we possessed two separate datasets that, if combined, would provide an array of crucial measures of children’s demographics, their perceptions of themselves as learners, their routines in and out of school, the languages they use at home and attributes of their neighbourhoods. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Hands of children seen in a circle." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/514692/original/file-20230310-20-48vocx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/514692/original/file-20230310-20-48vocx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514692/original/file-20230310-20-48vocx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514692/original/file-20230310-20-48vocx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514692/original/file-20230310-20-48vocx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514692/original/file-20230310-20-48vocx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514692/original/file-20230310-20-48vocx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Research is examining relationships between children’s readiness for school learning and their development across many areas and their later academic outcomes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Pexels/ Yan Krukau)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Data sources</h2>
<p>One dataset had been gathered using the <a href="https://edi.offordcentre.com/">Early Development Instrument (EDI)</a>. This is an assessment tool, validated by extensive research, that gauges early childhood development and readiness for school learning. In kindergarten, using the EDI, teachers assess children in five developmental domains: physical health and well-being, social competence, emotional maturity, language and cognitive development and communication skills and general knowledge.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/writing-and-reading-starts-with-childrens-hands-on-play-125182">Writing and reading starts with children's hands-on play</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The other dataset holds Ontario students’ literacy and numeracy achievement during primary, elementary and high school. These data were gathered through <a href="https://www.eqao.com/">Ontario’s Education Quality and Accountability Office (EQAO)</a>. </p>
<p>A core challenge has been successfully linking information from two datasets — one containing only kindergarten students and another containing only elementary and high school students — when both are anonymized and lack common identifiers. </p>
<h2>Half of students linked</h2>
<p>But by adapting extensive protocols developed by data scientists to link such datasets, we used information on students’ date of birth, sex, school board, school, language program and language background (if the student was learning the language of instruction, English or French, as a new language) to successfully link approximately half of all students, and then validate that linkage. </p>
<p>The team’s most recent paper <a href="https://doi.org/10.23889/ijpds.v8i1.1843">describes this protocol in detail</a>. </p>
<p>The EDI was administered in three-year cycles within Ontario in the time frame we studied, from 2004 to 2012. It was not possible to match all the cohorts completely, as some years were interrupted by job action and the COVID-19 pandemic. </p>
<p>The resulting dataset contains extensive information on over 150,000 children who started kindergarten from 2004 to 2012. Both the EDI and EQAO datasets cover all of Ontario 74 school districts, and although the process of linking necessarily resulted in a reduced dataset, the differences between linked and unlinked samples were small.</p>
<h2>Understanding where to allocate resources</h2>
<p>We will use linked data to examine which childhood indicators are associated with later success or struggles. The team is currently examining variation in high school literacy achievement that is associated with children’s language and cognitive development in kindergarten. Early results suggest these developmental skills measured in kindergarten are meaningful predictors of academic and other outcomes well into high school. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/new-research-shows-quality-early-childhood-education-reduces-need-for-later-special-ed-112275">New research shows quality early childhood education reduces need for later special ed</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The research plan is to examine different patterns of literacy achievement in elementary and high school, and to explore the predictive power (if any) of kindergarten linguistic and cognitive skills. </p>
<p>Such research can support school administrators and policymakers with solid evidence to allocate resources, starting with children’s earliest years in school.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/200951/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jeanne Sinclair receives funding from Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) of Canada.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Magdalena Janus receives funding from Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) of Canada.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Scott Davies receives funding from Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) of Canada.</span></em></p>A study following Ontario students between 2004 and 2012 can help policymakers ensure all students get the supports they need when they need them.Jeanne Sinclair, Assistant Professor, Faculty of Education, Memorial University of NewfoundlandMagdalena Janus, Professor, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioural Neurosciences, McMaster UniversityScott Davies, Professor, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, University of TorontoLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2011342023-03-22T12:38:51Z2023-03-22T12:38:51ZThis course uses ‘Abbott Elementary’ to examine critical issues in urban education<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516705/original/file-20230321-2560-fsrmj6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=3%2C2%2C676%2C380&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The hit TV show 'Abbott Elementary' explores a variety of issues in education.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://deadline.com/2022/07/abbott-elementary-season-2-episode-count-full-season-abc-comic-con-quina-brunson-1235074396/">ABC</a></span></figcaption></figure><figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Text saying: Uncommon Courses, from The Conversation" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/499014/original/file-20221205-17-kcwec8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/499014/original/file-20221205-17-kcwec8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499014/original/file-20221205-17-kcwec8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499014/original/file-20221205-17-kcwec8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499014/original/file-20221205-17-kcwec8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499014/original/file-20221205-17-kcwec8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499014/original/file-20221205-17-kcwec8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption"></span>
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<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/topics/uncommon-courses-130908">Uncommon Courses</a> is an occasional series from The Conversation U.S. highlighting unconventional approaches to teaching.</em> </p>
<h2>Title of course:</h2>
<p>“Public Education’s Possibilities and Predicaments: Exploring Portrayals of Critical Issues in ‘Abbott Elementary’”</p>
<h2>What prompted the idea for the course?</h2>
<p>When the first episodes of “Abbott Elementary” aired in January 2022 and the show began getting widespread <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/04/07/arts/television/abbott-elementary.html">praise</a>, I started having interesting conversations with folks about schools and teaching based on what they had seen on the show. After episodes aired, colleagues, friends and neighbors all wanted to talk about issues like funding inequities, teacher shortages and charter schools.</p>
<p>I began thinking about how the show integrates commentary on these critical issues into its lighthearted “<a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/abc-s-abbott-elementary-mockumentary-genre-are-match-made-tv-ncna1288793">mockumentary</a>” style, simultaneously entertaining viewers and inviting them to consider their own perceptions of urban public schools. As a show <a href="https://www.latimes.com/entertainment-arts/tv/story/2022-01-11/quinta-brunson-was-a-scaredy-cat-then-she-met-the-teacher-who-inspired-her-sitcom">inspired by a Black female teacher</a>, created by a Black female writer, Quinta Brunson, and led by a predominantly Black cast, it also tells the stories of an urban school in a way that highlights the humanity of students, teachers and communities who have elsewhere been portrayed negatively.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516446/original/file-20230320-2155-c7n9r5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A woman wearing a yellow dress stands at the microphone holding a trophy." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516446/original/file-20230320-2155-c7n9r5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516446/original/file-20230320-2155-c7n9r5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=404&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516446/original/file-20230320-2155-c7n9r5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=404&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516446/original/file-20230320-2155-c7n9r5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=404&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516446/original/file-20230320-2155-c7n9r5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=508&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516446/original/file-20230320-2155-c7n9r5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=508&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516446/original/file-20230320-2155-c7n9r5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=508&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Quinta Brunson, creator of ‘Abbott Elementary,’ accepts the award for Best Lead Performance in a New Scripted Series during the 2023 Film Independent Spirit Awards on March 4, 2023.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/quinta-brunson-accepts-the-best-lead-performance-in-a-new-news-photo/1471299603?phrase=Abbott%20Elementary&adppopup=true">Kevin Winter for Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>I wanted to design a course that would use the show as an entry point to critical conversations, connecting the issues in each episode to research and policy.</p>
<h2>What does the course explore?</h2>
<p>First, students are introduced to various education issues by reading selected academic book chapters and research articles. We explore how they have seen this issue portrayed in news coverage, television shows and movies. For example, we begin by taking a look at the <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2021/12/10/americas-public-school-teachers-are-far-less-racially-and-ethnically-diverse-than-their-students/">racial demographics of teachers and students</a>, particularly in urban schools.</p>
<p>According to the National Center for Education Statistics:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Overall, only 7% of public school teachers are Black, whereas 80% are white.</p></li>
<li><p>In urban public schools, 12% of teachers are Black, compared with 69% who are white.</p></li>
<li><p>In public schools with more than 90% of racial minority students, 20% of teachers are Black and only 43% are white.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>We also look at the <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1020655307664">portrayal of urban teachers in film</a>. The teacher-heroes of these films are generally white, middle-class outsiders. They are new to the school – or teaching, in general – and, through individual effort and a positive outlook, are able to transform a group of troubled students whom all the veteran teachers had failed.</p>
<p>We also use relevant episodes to explore issues such as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/001440290807400302">gifted programs</a>, the <a href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/709513">charter school movement</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X12473125">school discipline</a> and more.</p>
<p>At the end of the course, students work in groups to craft a pitch for a future episode of “Abbott Elementary” that addresses an issue not yet addressed by the show.</p>
<h2>Why is this course relevant now?</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.vulture.com/2022/11/abbott-elementarys-s2-premiere-breaks-records-for-abc.html">Millions of viewers</a> are tuning in each week to watch “Abbott Elementary.” It is a pop culture moment. However, the relevance of this course is not limited to the show’s popularity. Public education affects everyone. Education policies, such as <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/critical-race-theory-curriculum-transparency-rcna12809">what should or should not be taught</a> in schools, and <a href="https://nces.ed.gov/programs/statereform/2_sc.asp">school choice</a> initiatives, including increasing the number of charter schools and providing vouchers for students to attend private schools, continue to be at the forefront of local, state and national politics.</p>
<p>This course is relevant because it creates a space for students to learn more about these issues and engage in informed, critical discussions through an accessible medium.</p>
<h2>What’s a critical lesson from the course?</h2>
<p>While many issues, like school funding or discipline, are central to a single episode, the issue of charter schools is an <a href="https://www.newyorker.com/culture/cultural-comment/how-abbott-elementary-takes-on-the-charter-school-movement">overarching plot line</a> throughout Season Two. Understanding how charter schools operate, why they are marketed as a solution to troubled public schools and how they affect communities are all critical lessons from this course. </p>
<h2>What materials does the course feature?</h2>
<ul>
<li><p>“<a href="https://www.routledge.com/Anti-Racist-Educational-Leadership-and-Policy-Addressing-Racism-in-Public/Diem-Welton/p/book/9781138596993#">Anti-Racist Educational Leadership and Policy</a>,” a 2021 book co-authored by University of Missouri education professor Sara Diem and University of Wisconsin-Madison education professor Anjale Welton. The book breaks down complex policy issues by analyzing how policies address or fail to address racial equity.</p></li>
<li><p>“<a href="https://www.hepg.org/hep-home/books/start-where-you-are,-but-don%E2%80%99t-stay-there-(1)">Start Where You Are, But Don’t Stay There</a>,” an award-winning 2020 book by Vanderbilt University education professor H. Richard Milner IV. The book deals with what teachers and school leaders must know to effectively serve students of color. </p></li>
<li><p>“<a href="https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/237679/for-white-folks-who-teach-in-the-hood-and-the-rest-of-yall-too-by-christopher-emdin/">For White Folks Who Teach in the Hood … and the Rest of Y'all Too</a>,” a 2016 book by University of Southern California education professor Christopher Emdin. Among the insights the book offers are those on how teachers can better relate to and motivate young students of color.</p></li>
</ul>
<h2>What will the course prepare students to do?</h2>
<p>When it comes to education issues, it can often feel like you have to be either for or against something – whether that something is charter schools, teachers unions, or zero-tolerance discipline policies. This binary thinking can’t accurately represent the nuance and messiness that is the reality of public education.</p>
<p>By integrating the pop culture perspective of “Abbott Elementary” with interdisciplinary scholarly perspectives, students will learn how to take a more critical and nuanced look at education.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/201134/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sara Jones does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>An education professor explains how a hit TV show about a struggling school became a jumping-off point for a course about urban education.Sara Jones, Assistant Professor of Elementary Education—Literacy, Illinois State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1960222023-02-16T13:24:36Z2023-02-16T13:24:36ZDo elementary school students do better when taught by teachers of the same race or ethnicity? New research finds: Not that much<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/507919/original/file-20230202-7013-oi9sly.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5484%2C3727&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Many elementary school teachers in the U.S. are of ethnic or racial backgrounds different from their students.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/YearRoundSchool/2a073b6127e44837851a4faf1e83e30f/photo">AP Photo/Steve Helber</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/research-brief-83231">Research Brief</a> is a short take about interesting academic work.</em></p>
<h2>The big idea</h2>
<p>U.S. elementary school students <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2022.11.003">do not particularly benefit</a> from being taught by teachers of the same race or ethnicity. That’s the major finding from our new study, published in Early Childhood Research Quarterly. We analyzed a nationally representative sample followed from the start of kindergarten to the end of fifth grade.</p>
<p>Our findings indicate that <a href="https://www.edweek.org/leadership/recruiting-and-retaining-teachers-of-color-why-it-matters-ways-to-do-it/2020/06">calls to diversify</a> the teacher workforce are unlikely to meaningfully address large racial and ethnic <a href="https://www.nationsreportcard.gov/mathematics/nation/achievement/?grade=4">educational inequities</a> in U.S. elementary schools. </p>
<p>We compared the academic achievement, classroom behavior and <a href="https://developingchild.harvard.edu/science/key-concepts/executive-function/">executive functioning</a> of U.S. elementary school students across two naturally occurring conditions. </p>
<p>The first condition was when students were in grades taught by teachers of the same race or ethnicity. The second condition was when the same students were in grades taught by teachers whose race or ethnicity differed. We also controlled for other factors including a student’s age, their family’s economic resources and the teacher’s level of education and years of experience.</p>
<p>We analyzed data from three individually administered tests of academic achievement, five teacher ratings of classroom behavior and two independently assessed executive functioning tasks. We also examined whether students were placed in either gifted or special education classes. </p>
<p>Overall, we observed that being taught by teachers of the same race or ethnicity made little difference in whether students displayed greater achievement, better behavior or increased executive functioning or were more likely to be in gifted or special education classes. We occasionally observed positive as well as negative effects. Yet these effects were inconsistent and small in size. </p>
<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p>Educational inequities including those in achievement occur <a href="https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X16633182">as early as kindergarten</a> and continue throughout <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/00169862221128299">elementary school</a>. One common suggestion to <a href="https://www.hepg.org/hep-home/books/teacher-diversity-and-student-success">address these inequities</a> has been to increase the frequency that Black and Hispanic students are taught by teachers of the same race or ethnicity.</p>
<p>It is possible, for instance, that being taught by a teacher of the same race or ethnicity might help <a href="https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654319853545">lessen biases and cultural misunderstandings</a>, increase access to role models and mentors, and foster student engagement in classroom activities. Rigorous studies repeatedly find that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1162/003465304323023750">students of color</a>, particularly <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2021.102081">those who are Black</a>, benefit from being taught by teachers of the same race or ethnicity.</p>
<p>Yet the observed effects are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2015.01.007">often quite small</a> and more often observed on subjective measures <a href="https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654319853545">like classroom behavior</a> than on <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/14675986.2015.1048049">objective measures</a> of academic achievement. This is consistent with what we observed. </p>
<p>Our results also are consistent with <a href="https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831216635733">other studies</a> analyzing <a href="https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654319853545">nationally representative samples</a> that find student-teacher racial or ethnic matching <a href="https://doi.org/10.1162/003465304323031049">has only limited benefits</a> for students of color.</p>
<p>It may instead be that being taught by teachers of the same race or ethnicity is particularly beneficial in specific regional contexts. For instance, in the U.S. South, this may occur because of the region’s history of segregation and discriminatory practices. Most of the benefits of student-teacher racial matching have been observed in studies analyzing samples of <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4132809">students attending schools</a> in the <a href="https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654319853545">U.S. South</a>. </p>
<h2>What still isn’t known</h2>
<p>Although we analyzed a nationally representative sample and examined for treatment effects across many student groups, our study has several limitations. The data was collected only for elementary school students. The experiences and performance of U.S. middle and <a href="https://doi.org/10.3102/0162373719898470">high school</a> students <a href="https://doi.org/10.3102/01623737211032241">may differ</a>.</p>
<p>It is also possible that matching’s positive effects begin to emerge as students enter adulthood. For example, recent work finds that Black students taught by Black teachers are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1257/pol.20190573">more likely to graduate from high school</a> and enter college, particularly two-year colleges. </p>
<p>Long-term studies are needed that evaluate matching’s benefits. Additional studies are also needed of the potential benefits for students attending schools in the U.S. South. Preliminary work finds that matching’s effects may be specific to whether teachers attended <a href="https://hechingerreport.org/proof-points-black-and-white-teachers-from-hbcus-are-better-math-instructors-study-finds/">historically black colleges and universities</a>, regardless of their race or ethnicity.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/196022/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Paul L. Morgan receives funding from the U.S. Department of Education's Institute of Education Sciences, the National Science Foundation, and the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Eric Hengyu Hu does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Calls to increase the diversity of the teacher workforce are unlikely to meaningfully address large racial and ethnic educational inequities, at least not during elementary school.Paul L. Morgan, Professor of Education and Demography, Penn StateEric Hengyu Hu, Ph.D. Student in Educational Theory and Policy and Demography, Penn StateLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1956182023-02-06T16:59:09Z2023-02-06T16:59:09Z‘Numberless math’ gets kids thinking about and visualizing algebra<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/506189/original/file-20230124-16-w7tn0k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=797%2C0%2C5849%2C3536&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">In elementary school, algebra involves using mathematical models to represent and analyze mathematical situations.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Today, elementary mathematics classrooms look and sound very different than what many parents may have experienced. </p>
<p>Many mathematics education researchers note that getting learners <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-students-need-more-math-talk-104034">talking about mathematics</a> and developing their own explanations is important. </p>
<p>To build students’ comfort and capabilities talking about math, sharing tasks that involve only pictures — what we call numberless or textless tasks — can elicit fascinating mathematical ideas. This puts learners in the driver’s seat,
<a href="https://theconversation.com/mathematics-is-about-wonder-creativity-and-fun-so-lets-teach-it-that-way-120133">noticing, wondering and actually doing</a> mathematics for themselves.</p>
<p>Parents, caregivers and teachers can use these strategies to get learners
talking, explaining and visualizing important mathematical concepts while having quite a bit of fun!</p>
<h2>Making kids notice and wonder</h2>
<p>In our roles as mathematics education teachers at the university level (Marc and Evan) and in elementary school (Matthew), we all ask our students: <a href="https://www.nctm.org/noticeandwonder/">“What do you notice?”</a> and “What do you wonder?” to elicit mathematics conversations. This prompt is recommended by the National Council for Teachers of Mathematics.</p>
<p>Suppose we were asking this question about the picture shown below that features two different lines of images with seahorses, lobster and fish (we’re Maritimers, after all).</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Graphic showing two lines of images which include seahorses, lobster and fish. Each line is split in the middle with a small triangle. The first line shows a line of five seahorses on one side of the triangle and a lobster on the other, and the second line shows a lobster on one side of the triangle, and a seahorse and a fish on the other." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505518/original/file-20230120-16-yti1xv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505518/original/file-20230120-16-yti1xv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=487&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505518/original/file-20230120-16-yti1xv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=487&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505518/original/file-20230120-16-yti1xv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=487&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505518/original/file-20230120-16-yti1xv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=612&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505518/original/file-20230120-16-yti1xv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=612&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/505518/original/file-20230120-16-yti1xv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=612&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">What do you notice?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Marc Husband)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Almost immediately, we’d hear learners talk about mathematical ideas like these: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“It looks like a teeter-totter.”</p>
<p>“It’s a balance. The balance is even.”</p>
<p>“The right side of the scale weighs the same as the left side.” </p>
<p>“Five seahorses equals a lobster and a fish, and on the second balance, one lobster equals a seahorse and a fish.”</p>
<p>“These are two equations.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>These mathematical ideas provide the foundation for algebra. In <a href="https://school.nelson.com/good-questions-great-ways-to-differentiate-mathematics-instruction-3rd-edition">elementary school</a>, algebra involves using mathematical models: balances, in this case, to represent and analyze mathematical situations. </p>
<h2>Invites kids to ask their own questions</h2>
<p>Seeing the picture makes learners wonder and ask questions such as these: “What would happen to the balance if we removed a seahorse?” “How much does a seahorse weigh?” “How much does a fish weigh?” </p>
<p>We think this is significant because rather than the teacher or parent presenting questions for learners to solve, learners pose and investigate their own questions. </p>
<p>For example, we noticed students in our classrooms became super engaged in this task because the pictures prompted them to problem solve without us (their teachers) telling them the problem or how to solve it. </p>
<h2>Now you try</h2>
<p>Before reading further, try solving one of the above questions based on line one (with five seahorses), or line two (with one seahorse) with a friend or family member. </p>
<p>We recommend using paper cut-outs of the visual so you can move them around and record how you solved your problem.</p>
<p>Below are three different approaches for figuring out how much each item weighs.</p>
<h2>Assigning different values</h2>
<p>Learners assign values to the items and check whether their assigned guesses are true for each balance. </p>
<p>For example, if each seahorse is a one, a lobster might be two, and a fish might be three. We often hear, “Let’s check to see if this works on the second balance.” </p>
<p>When learners realize two does not equal three plus one, they reassign values to make the equation true. Interestingly, some learners guess by trying other numbers, such as one seahorse equals five or 10, and so on. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Graphic showing two lines of images which include seahorses, lobster and fish. Each line is split in the middle with a small triangle. The first line shows a line of five seahorses on one side of the triangle and a lobster on the other, and the second line shows a lobster on one side of the triangle, and a seahorse and a fish on the other. Both groups of sea creatures on the bottom line are circled and an arrow is pointing at the row above." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/504106/original/file-20230111-24-l6epd3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/504106/original/file-20230111-24-l6epd3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504106/original/file-20230111-24-l6epd3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504106/original/file-20230111-24-l6epd3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504106/original/file-20230111-24-l6epd3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=521&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504106/original/file-20230111-24-l6epd3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=521&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504106/original/file-20230111-24-l6epd3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=521&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">If five seahorses balance with one lobster and one fish, how might you start to think about their respective values?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Marc Husband)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Combining balances</h2>
<p>Learners combine balances by moving the items on the bottom to the top (or vice-versa) and then pulling items away to maintain the balance. </p>
<p>For example, the lobster in the second balance moves to the side of the five seahorses in the first balance, and the seahorse and fish move up to the fish and lobster side. </p>
<p>We hear learners say, “If we remove the lobsters on both sides and one seahorse from each side, it will stay in balance with four seahorses on one side and two fish on the other.” </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Sea creatures on the bottom are circled with arrows pointing to the top balance." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/504107/original/file-20230111-34767-gmnxy9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/504107/original/file-20230111-34767-gmnxy9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=302&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504107/original/file-20230111-34767-gmnxy9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=302&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504107/original/file-20230111-34767-gmnxy9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=302&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504107/original/file-20230111-34767-gmnxy9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=380&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504107/original/file-20230111-34767-gmnxy9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=380&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504107/original/file-20230111-34767-gmnxy9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=380&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">What about moving creatures on the bottom?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Marc Husband)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Graphic showing one line with a triangle in the middle and one side is five lobsters and one seahorse, and on the other side of the triangle is a lobser, fish, seahorse and fish." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/504108/original/file-20230111-11-50ewoi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/504108/original/file-20230111-11-50ewoi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=211&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504108/original/file-20230111-11-50ewoi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=211&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504108/original/file-20230111-11-50ewoi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=211&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504108/original/file-20230111-11-50ewoi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=265&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504108/original/file-20230111-11-50ewoi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=265&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504108/original/file-20230111-11-50ewoi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=265&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The two balances combined.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Marc Husband)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Graphic image showing two lines; the top line shows four seahorses and two fish; the bottom line shows two lobsters atop two sea horses." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/504109/original/file-20230111-27936-z7fdw6.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/504109/original/file-20230111-27936-z7fdw6.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504109/original/file-20230111-27936-z7fdw6.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504109/original/file-20230111-27936-z7fdw6.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504109/original/file-20230111-27936-z7fdw6.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=498&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504109/original/file-20230111-27936-z7fdw6.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=498&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504109/original/file-20230111-27936-z7fdw6.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=498&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Could you remove items to maintain balance?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Marc Husband)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Based on this, learners often conclude that two seahorses equal one fish (or comparatively, for those who may be struggling still: a seahorse equals one, a fish equals two and a lobster equals five. </p>
<p>These approaches remind us that numberless/textless tasks get kids doing elimination in algebra without them knowing. </p>
<h2>Exchanging pictures</h2>
<p>Learners exchange the value of one picture with pictures of equal value. For example, seeing that a lobster is the same as a fish and a seahorse, learners replace the lobster in the first balance with a fish and an seahorse. This leads them to start pulling away, similar to the above strategy, taking one seahorse from each side and so on. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Two lines of images seen, with each line split by a triangle. The first one shows five seahorses on one side and on the other, one seahorse and one fish. The second shows one lobster on one side of the line and on the other, one seahorse and one fish." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/504110/original/file-20230111-4958-mqpabm.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/504110/original/file-20230111-4958-mqpabm.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=343&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504110/original/file-20230111-4958-mqpabm.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=343&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504110/original/file-20230111-4958-mqpabm.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=343&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504110/original/file-20230111-4958-mqpabm.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=431&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504110/original/file-20230111-4958-mqpabm.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=431&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504110/original/file-20230111-4958-mqpabm.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=431&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">How about exchanging one lobster for one seahorse and one fish?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Marc Husband)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Two lines of images seen, with each line split by a triangle. The first one shows five seahorses on one side and on the other, two seahorses and two fish. The second shows two lobsters." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/504111/original/file-20230111-47547-4cfph9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/504111/original/file-20230111-47547-4cfph9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=371&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504111/original/file-20230111-47547-4cfph9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=371&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504111/original/file-20230111-47547-4cfph9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=371&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504111/original/file-20230111-47547-4cfph9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=467&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504111/original/file-20230111-47547-4cfph9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=467&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504111/original/file-20230111-47547-4cfph9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=467&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Lobster and seahorse trade places.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Marc Husband)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="a line separated by a triangle in the middle shows four seahorses one one side and two fish on the other" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/504112/original/file-20230111-18-im7uuk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/504112/original/file-20230111-18-im7uuk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=253&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504112/original/file-20230111-18-im7uuk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=253&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504112/original/file-20230111-18-im7uuk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=253&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504112/original/file-20230111-18-im7uuk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=318&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504112/original/file-20230111-18-im7uuk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=318&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504112/original/file-20230111-18-im7uuk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=318&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Now you could remove items to maintain balance.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Marc Husband)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This approach reminds us that numberless/textless tasks get kids doing substitution in algebra without them knowing. </p>
<h2>Learners in charge</h2>
<p>We think selecting the right mathematics task for learners to work on with their peers is important because it engages them in fruitful conversations. </p>
<p>As the saying goes, “the person doing the talking is the person doing the learning”. Numberless/textless tasks get learners talking about mathematical ideas — in this case, with concepts like balance, same as and equal. </p>
<p>Learners actually see how to maintain balance by moving items on each side. This visual supports their understanding of an algebraic rule: “Whatever you do to one side of the equation, you need to do to the other side,” which parents might recall from memory. </p>
<p>This task sets the foundation for algebraic thinking without learners even knowing it. Algebra, often perceived as a scary word by many learners, becomes less scary through a numberless/textless task. This could be why many learners find themselves in the driver’s seat — talking, generating questions, visualizing and explaining mathematics!</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/195618/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Working with moveable pictures can help children learn an algebra rule: Whatever you do to one side of the equation, you need to do to the other. Here’s how teachers or caregivers can lead this.Marc Husband, Assistant Professor, School of Education, St. Francis Xavier UniversityEvan Throop Robinson, Associate Professor, School of Education, St. Francis Xavier UniversityMatthew Little, Masters of Education student, Faculty of Education, St. Francis Xavier UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1973922023-01-08T17:56:08Z2023-01-08T17:56:08ZFirst grader who shot teacher in Virginia is among the youngest school shooters in US history<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/503494/original/file-20230108-19-ebm248.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=4%2C12%2C2733%2C1822&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A school sign wishing students a Happy New Year stands outside Richneck Elementary School on Jan. 7, 2023, in Newport News, Virginia, where a 6-year-old boy reportedly shot his teacher after an altercation.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/police-tape-hangs-from-a-sign-post-outside-richneck-news-photo/1246066061?phrase=newport+news+shooting&adppopup=true">Jay Paul / Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>Barely a week into the new year, a <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/01/06/us/newport-news-school-shooting-virginia.html">6-year-old boy shot his teacher</a> at Richneck Elementary School in Newport News, Virginia, becoming one of the youngest school shooters in the nation’s history. While <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/01/07/us/virginia-shooting-richneck-elementary.html">details of the case are still emerging</a>, his teacher remains hospitalized with serious injuries. David Riedman, creator of the <a href="https://k12ssdb.org/">K-12 School Shooting Database</a>, discusses the relative rarity of school shooters under age 10 and the likely aftermath of the event.</em></p>
<h2>How rare is it to have a school shooter this young?</h2>
<p>This is the 17th shooting involving a student under the age of 10 at a school since 1970 – the first year for which my database keeps track. Most of these shootings were not intentional. But in 1975, a 9-year-old student at the Pitcher School in Detroit was in a fight with a 13-year-old, left campus, got a rifle from his house and came back to the school and shot the student in the head, killing him. </p>
<p>In 2000, a <a href="https://www.mlive.com/news/flint/2020/02/first-grader-kayla-rolland-was-fatally-shot-at-school-20-years-ago-heres-how-it-happened.html">6-year-old boy fatally shot his 6-year-old classmate, Kayla Rolland</a>, in their classroom at Buell Elementary School in Michigan while their teacher lined up other students in the hallway. The shooting <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rUsqghKKBfsC&pg=PA43&lpg=PA43&dq=kayla+rolland+playground+fight&source=bl&ots=S6A2xBTk5G&sig=ACfU3U2dIuDHD1ukKTBNTWXfPRo0OzSrSQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiipOfp27X8AhW1lGoFHc-gDwM4ChDoAXoECAMQAw#v=onepage&q=kayla%20rolland%20playground%20fight&f=falseon">followed a dispute on the playground</a>.</p>
<h2>How do kids this young typically get guns?</h2>
<p>In most school shootings, the gun is taken from the student’s home or from the house of a friend or relative. In the 2000 shooting at Buell Elementary, the student’s uncle pleaded guilty to involuntary manslaughter and was <a href="https://apnews.com/article/e4d184e6ebb0d5859636d05963c2daba">sentenced to prison for a minimum of two years</a> for leaving a firearm in an easily accessible place. </p>
<p>The 6-year-old shooter did not face charges due to his age.</p>
<h2>What stands out about this recent case?</h2>
<p>The most striking part of this shooting is that it appears to be <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2023/jan/06/virginia-school-student-shot-teacher">intentional</a>. While many details remain unknown, it is likely that the student had the gun with him the entire day, possibly multiple days, before shooting his teacher. In many states, the legal system assumes that young children are not capable of the thought and planning that goes into committing a violent crime. In Virginia, the <a href="https://virginiarules.org/varules_topics/introduction-to-juvenile-justice-in-virginia/">minimum age</a> to charge someone with a felony is 14 years old.</p>
<h2>Do schools need to start searching first graders?</h2>
<p>Despite the attention that they generated, school shootings at any age are relatively rare. There have been 17 shootings involving kids under 10 publicly reported across a 52-year period. <a href="https://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=55">More than 50 million students</a> attend schools every year, and fewer than 300 of them shoot someone on campus.</p>
<p>When most guns that end up in schools come from the home, I’d argue it is the responsibility of parents, relatives and older siblings to make sure that every firearm is locked, secured and accounted for.</p>
<p>The use of metal detectors has been shown to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0013124510380717">increase students’ anxiety</a> and are only effective with constant maintenance, training, staffing and screening procedures. Some of the incidents involving children have resulted from adults putting a firearm in the kid’s bag and the child firing it when they find the gun at school. </p>
<h2>What’s next for this boy?</h2>
<p>This remains unclear, and due to juvenile privacy laws, we may never know. The 6-year-old who killed his classmate at Buell Elementary in 2000 was not charged with a crime. In 2021 in Rigby, Idaho, a 12-year-old girl shot three people during a planned attack at Rigby Middle School. Based on her written plan, this young girl intended to <a href="https://localnews8.com/news/top-stories/2022/04/07/documents-shed-light-on-rigby-middle-school-shooting/">kill 20 students and wound 40 to 60 others</a>. She is <a href="https://www.idahoednews.org/news/rigby-school-shooter-still-in-state-custody/">being held in juvenile custody</a> until she turns 19 – and possibly until age 21 if she is not deemed fully rehabilitated – following a guilty plea to three counts of first-degree murder.</p>
<h2>What’s next for the school?</h2>
<p>While much attention is focused on the shooter and teacher, a classroom full of first graders witnessed their classmate shoot the teacher. She was <a href="https://www.wsaz.com/video/2023/01/07/teacher-critical-after-newport-news-school-shooting/">critically injured</a>, which means that it was likely a gruesome scene. These students will all need extensive counseling to understand and deal with this trauma. For the other students, teachers and parents, this is also a traumatic experience, and many students may no longer want to go to school. </p>
<h2>What does this case suggest for school safety in the US broadly?</h2>
<p>There were 302 shootings in school property in 2022, more than in any other year since 1970. Since 2017, the number of shootings each year has significantly increased. This pattern matches the <a href="https://www.americanprogress.org/article/the-recent-rise-in-violent-crime-is-driven-by-gun-violence/">spiking rates of violent crime and gun crime</a> across the country. It is important to remember that most shootings at schools are committed by current or former students, not outsiders breaking into the building. Because of this, school security plans need to include all levels of schools and shootings by all ages of students.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/197392/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Riedman does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Extremely young school shooters are not believed to be capable of forming criminal intent.David Riedman, Ph.D. student in Criminal Justice and Creator of the K-12 School Shooting Database, University of Central FloridaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1940162022-11-30T13:37:53Z2022-11-30T13:37:53ZSci-fi books for young readers often omit children of color from the future<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/497855/original/file-20221129-16-3k5ge2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=20%2C60%2C6689%2C4406&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Children of color are hardly ever central characters in sci-fi books for kids.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/pretty-schoolgirl-in-astronaut-costume-royalty-free-image/647798810?phrase=black%20girl%20space%20future&adppopup=true">SDI Productions via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>While visiting an elementary school library in 2016 to count the fantasy books for a graduate class on fantasy literature, I noticed there were hardly any science fiction books for readers under 12. This discovery prompted me to spend the next five years researching the <a href="https://www.upress.state.ms.us/Books/E/Equipping-Space-Cadets">shortage of science fiction books for children in this age group</a>. </p>
<p>I reached two big conclusions. First, I found that adults often think that kids can’t understand science fiction – but they can. Second, I found that authors and illustrators are not depicting characters from diverse backgrounds in children’s stories about the future. As a researcher who <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=aQeBzMoAAAAJ">specializes in children’s literature</a>, these findings make me wonder if the reason there is so little diversity in children’s science fiction is because authors don’t believe that their readers will be children from diverse backgrounds.</p>
<p>Out of the 357 science fiction children’s books that I read for my research, I found that only a quarter of them featured diverse characters. Less than half – 37% – featured a girl in a major role. While children’s science fiction books have lacked diversity historically, I found that those written in the 21st century are more diverse than children’s books overall.</p>
<h2>The case for diverse characters</h2>
<p>In 2014, authors Malinda Lo and Ellen Oh launched the ongoing <a href="https://diversebooks.org/">#WeNeedDiverseBooks</a> campaign to call for more children’s books with characters of various races, genders, cultures, religions and physical and mental disabilities. Since then, <a href="https://ccbc.education.wisc.edu/literature-resources/ccbc-diversity-statistics/">the number has risen</a> from 397 diverse children’s books published in 2014 to 1,155 books in 2021.</p>
<p>Diversity matters in children’s science fiction because it suggests who belongs in the future. </p>
<p>In recent years, some vocal fans have reacted negatively when major television and film series like “<a href="https://gizmodo.com/racist-star-trek-fans-decry-discoverys-diversity-revea-1795506110">Star Trek</a>,” “<a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2018/09/06/who-hates-star-wars-for-its-newfound-diversity-here-are-the-numbers/">Star Wars</a>” and <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/09/29/arts/television/the-rings-of-power-cast-diversity.html">other science fiction and fantasy television shows</a> cast actors of color to play main characters.</p>
<p>When fans refuse to accept non-white fantasy and science fiction characters, they demonstrate what children’s literature expert and professor <a href="https://www.gse.upenn.edu/academics/faculty-directory/thomas">Ebony Elizabeth Thomas</a> calls the “imagination gap.” Thomas explains that <a href="https://nyupress.org/9781479800650/the-dark-fantastic/">the imagination gap begins in childhood</a>. Children who rarely see diversity represented in their fantasy and science fiction books grow up to be adults who see diversity as out of place in their favorite stories.</p>
<h2>Imagined futures</h2>
<p>Diverse representation in science fiction is especially important because these authors are not only imagining futures, but also the sorts of people who create those futures. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/meet.2008.1450450345">NASA scientists</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1115/1.2015-Feb-1">mechanical engineers</a> have reported that their interest in science was fueled by their childhood encounters with science fiction.</p>
<p>When science fiction authors imagine a wide variety of people like women, people of color, disabled people and queer people as the scientists of the future, then they provide models for more children to imagine themselves in those careers. Research has shown that seeing female scientists in media <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1075547007306508">affects whether girls imagine themselves in STEM – science, technology, engineering and math – careers</a>. Even seeing just one positive character from a diverse background in science fiction <a href="https://genderandset.open.ac.uk/index.php/genderandset/article/view/265">can motivate young people to enter and persist in STEM careers</a>. The first Black female astronaut, Mae Jemison, says that she was able to imagine herself going to space <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WSOx3wtlRi4">because as a young person she saw Nichelle Nichols playing Lieutenant Nyota Uhura on “Star Trek.”</a></p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498019/original/file-20221129-14-a933ry.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An official portrait of a Black woman astronaut next to a portrait of a Black woman actor in a 'Star Trek' uniform." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498019/original/file-20221129-14-a933ry.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498019/original/file-20221129-14-a933ry.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498019/original/file-20221129-14-a933ry.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498019/original/file-20221129-14-a933ry.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498019/original/file-20221129-14-a933ry.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498019/original/file-20221129-14-a933ry.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498019/original/file-20221129-14-a933ry.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">NASA astronaut Mae Jemison says she was inspired by Nichelle Nichols’ Lt. Nyota Uhura character on ‘Star Trek.’</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nichelle_Nichols,_NASA_Recruiter_-_GPN-2004-00017.jpg">NASA via Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Yet children’s science fiction is more diverse than children’s literature at large. I compared the recent science fiction books in my sample published from 2001 through 2016 with <a href="https://ccbc.education.wisc.edu/literature-resources/ccbc-diversity-statistics/">the overall diversity in children’s books over those same 16 years</a>. I found that 19 percentage points more of the science fiction books contained diversity.</p>
<h2>Better representation</h2>
<p>I have found that the presence of girls and diverse characters in children’s science fiction has been slowly increasing over the last 90 years. The first science fiction picturebook, “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1353/chl.2004.0004">Little Machinery</a>,” written by Mary Liddell and published in 1926, avoids human diversity entirely through focusing on a robot and its animal friends. It is hard to include diversity in books with no human characters. </p>
<p>Even though the plot of the 1999 picturebook “<a href="http://graemebase.com.au/book/the-worst-band-in-the-universe/">The Worst Band in the Universe</a>” by Graeme Base is an analogy for the history of Black music in America, it contains only aliens from the planet Blipp. <a href="https://english.indiana.edu/about/faculty/kilgore-de-witt-douglas.html">De Witt Douglas Kilgore</a>, an expert on race in science fiction and a professor of English at Indiana University, says that science fiction <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199838844.013.0044">must include a variety of humans rather than a variety of aliens</a> to celebrate the potential of diversity in the future.</p>
<h2>Early efforts</h2>
<p>The earliest example from my sample to include diversity was a collection of “Buck Rogers” comic strips from 1929. It contained at least a few characters with different skin tones and some independent female characters. This is more than can be said for the other stories I read from the same era, like the “Flash Gordon” comics from 1934 and the “Brick Bradford on the Isles Beyond the Ice” comics from 1935. The women in the stories prior to the 1960s were often trying but failing to be independent. “Connie: Master of the Jovian Moons” from 1939 stood out for having an active and successful female protagonist and an elderly female scientist.</p>
<p>Only five books out of the 357 that I read had detailed non-white or non-European cultural content. The 2014 graphic novel <a href="https://www.chroniclebooks.com/products/lowriders-in-space">“Lowriders in Space”</a> by Cathy Camper and Raúl The Third, for instance, features <a href="https://latinosinkidlit.com/2022/08/31/latinxs-in-kid-lit-august-2022-newsletter/">Mexican American lowrider culture and rasquachismo</a>, which is a uniquely Chicano aesthetic that values survival and uses discarded and recycled materials in art in defiance of the perceived value of those materials. The illustrations in “Lowriders in Space” were drawn with ballpoint pens that Raúl The Third picked up from sidewalks.</p>
<p>The books that I read did not show any queer characters, but I found that recent children’s television has ventured into this type of representation. The cartoon “Steven Universe” uses the unlimited possibilities of the science fiction genre to <a href="https://www.routledge.com/The-Routledge-Companion-to-Gender-and-Science-Fiction/Yaszek-Fritzsche-Omry-Pearson/p/book/9780367537012">think about gender and queerness creatively</a>. For example, the aliens in “Steven Universe” can transform their bodies at will, and yet identify as female and have queer relationships.</p>
<p>Science fiction authors could be leaders in the efforts to diversify children’s books if creators fill the shortage of children’s science fiction with stories that include characters from diverse backgrounds. Inspired by my own research, I collaborated with illustrator <a href="http://labillustration.com/">Lauren A. Brown</a> to craft a <a href="https://emidkiff.wordpress.com/childrens-science-fiction/coming-soon/">picturebook</a> about a girl learning to care for an adorable stowaway alien. The girl is Black and disabled, but the story is about her discovery of life in space.</p>
<p>If the creators of children’s science fiction don’t diversify the genre, they risk perpetuating the idea that only some groups belong in science and in the future. The burden is not only on creators, though. Educators and parents also need to seek out science fiction with diverse characters in order to make sure that children’s book collections reflect a future that welcomes everyone.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/194016/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Emily Midkiff does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Science fiction books can inspire more children to become scientists if authors and illustrators do a better job of depicting characters from diverse backgrounds.Emily Midkiff, Instructor of Children's Literature, University of North DakotaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1919902022-11-10T13:43:35Z2022-11-10T13:43:35ZDisparities in advanced math and science skills begin by kindergarten<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/492335/original/file-20221028-40936-xe5ijo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=63%2C18%2C5975%2C3992&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A child's family background has a lot to do with how advanced their math knowledge is in kindergarten.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/side-view-of-a-cheerful-african-american-4-5-years-royalty-free-image/1310735857">Nitat Termmee/Moment via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/research-brief-83231">Research Brief</a> is a short take about interesting academic work.</em></p>
<h2>The big idea</h2>
<p>Racial and ethnic disparities in advanced math and science skills occur far earlier in the U.S. than previously known. Our new study finds that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/00169862221128299">13% of white students and 16% of Asian students</a> display advanced math skills by kindergarten. The contrasting percentage for both Black and Hispanic students is 4%.</p>
<p>These disparities then continue to occur throughout elementary school. By fifth grade, 13% of white students and 22% of Asian students display advanced math skills. About 2% of Black students and 3% of Hispanic students do so. Similar disparities occur in advanced science skills. </p>
<p>What explains these disparities? Factors that consistently explain these disparities include the family’s socioeconomic status – such as parental education and household income – and the student’s own understanding of math, science and reading during kindergarten. </p>
<p>We observed these findings in analyses of a nationally representative sample of about 11,000 U.S. elementary school students. The students were followed from the start of kindergarten until the end of fifth grade.</p>
<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p><a href="https://ncses.nsf.gov/pubs/nsf19304/digest/employment">Fewer than 10%</a> of U.S. scientists and engineers are Black or Hispanic. </p>
<p>Racial and ethnic disparities in advanced math and science skills are constraining the country’s <a href="https://academic.oup.com/qje/article/134/2/647/5218522">scientific innovation</a> and <a href="https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/12984/expanding-underrepresented-minority-participation-americas-science-and-technology-talent-at">economic competitiveness</a>. Students who display advanced math skills early are more likely to later obtain doctoral degrees in science, technology, engineering and math fields – collectively called STEM – and to become <a href="https://doi.org/10.1257/aeri.20190457">scientists</a> or <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjy028">inventors</a>. </p>
<p>Yet little has been known about how early racial and ethnic disparities in advanced math and science skills emerge. This information could help inform <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0016986216673449">efforts to support students of color</a> at a <a href="https://joanganzcooneycenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/jgcc_stemstartsearly_final.pdf">key</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X16633182">time</a> of child development.</p>
<p>Currently, most efforts by <a href="https://www.air.org/event/using-research-inform-policies-and-practices-stem-education">researchers</a> and <a href="https://www.congress.gov/bill/117th-congress/house-bill/204/text">policymakers</a> to address Black and Hispanic underrepresentation in STEM begin in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-018-9493-3">high</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1353/hsj.2020.0004">school</a> or <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2020.09.029">college</a>. Yet minority students’ <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/desc.12837">interest</a> in STEM careers begins to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.21231">decline</a> by middle school, with many students viewing scientists as stereotypically white.</p>
<p>Recent work suggests that racial and ethnic disparities in advanced math skills are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1932202X19864116">increasing in size</a> in the U.S. by the upper elementary grades. </p>
<h2>What still isn’t known</h2>
<p>We were able to identify the factors that mostly explained disparities in advanced math or science skills between Hispanic and white students during elementary school. These factors included the family’s socioeconomic status, the student’s emerging bilingualism, and the student’s early knowledge about math, science and reading. However, these same factors explained only some of the disparities between Black and white students.</p>
<p>Other factors we did not study could be involved, including the greater likelihood of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1162/003465304323031049">Black students</a> to attend <a href="https://pricetheory.uchicago.edu/levitt/Papers/FryerLevittFallingBehind2004.pdf">lower-quality</a> <a href="https://www.epi.org/publication/poor-black-children-are-much-more-likely-to-attend-high-poverty-schools-than-poor-white-children/">schools</a>. The emerging bilingualism of many Hispanic students may help facilitate advanced STEM skills through greater <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2017.12.007">mathematical reasoning</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandl.2014.07.005">procedural learning</a> and problem-solving. </p>
<p>To increase STEM representation in high school, college and the workforce, efforts by educators and policymakers to support talented students of color may need to begin by the elementary grades.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/191990/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Paul L. Morgan receives funding from the National Science Foundation, the U.S. Department of Education, and the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. </span></em></p>By kindergarten, white and Asian students are three to four times as likely as Black and Hispanic students to display advanced math skills.Paul L. Morgan, Harry and Marion Eberly Fellow, Professor of Education and Demography, Department of Education Policy Studies, Penn StateLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1911022022-10-20T19:59:07Z2022-10-20T19:59:07ZEven school boards are now experiencing severe political polarization<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490967/original/file-20221020-19-hip9f8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C361%2C3214%2C1865&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">School trustees play an important role in shaping education, yet during election time voters often have little awareness of trustee candidates.
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Recently there has been a resurgence of movements across North America resisting anti-racist reforms such as the <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-critical-race-theory-should-inform-schools-185169">use of critical race theory in schools</a>. </p>
<p>These movements are often organized covertly, <a href="https://blueprintforcanada.ca/">using social justice language</a> and describing themselves <a href="https://ottawacitizen.com/news/polar-opposites-zone-6s-school-board-trustee-race-pits-woke-against-anti-woke">as “anti-woke.”</a></p>
<p>Groups that oppose the teaching of critical race theory and 2SLGBTQ+ supports in schools often position themselves as truly or more accurately in favour of social justice by co-opting social justice language, alleging <a href="https://www.thestar.com/local-perth/news/2022/05/16/2-lfk-candidates-vow-opposition-to-teaching-critical-race-theory-in-ontario-schools-oppose-bill-67.html?itm_source=parsely-api">critical race theory discriminates against white people</a>. School boards have been at the centre of these attacks. </p>
<p>As Ontario residents prepare to go to the polls in municipal elections on Oct. 24, CBC reports that “<a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/ontario-school-board-trustee-investigation-1.6622705">dozens of candidates are running on promises to roll back protections for transgender students</a>, part of a concerted effort by conservative lobby groups to undo policies aimed at addressing systemic discrimination.”</p>
<p>Currently, school boards are bearing the brunt of backlash because their role in the public education system is the most accessible for members of the public to voice their concerns and try to have direct influence over policy and practice. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1582835021068439552"}"></div></p>
<h2>Sites of contestation</h2>
<p>While school boards have always been sites of contestation, there has been a recent rise in hate directed at those in the system working towards social justice. This includes <a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/canada/article-why-a-waterloo-ont-school-board-has-emerged-as-a-battleground-for/">school board directors</a> and <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/tdsb-racist-hate-mail-newtonbrook-black-teachers-anti-black-racism-1.5922976">teachers</a> who have tried to enact anti-racist reforms in Ontario schools. </p>
<p>In Waterloo Region, the chairperson of the public district school board <a href="https://www.therecord.com/news/waterloo-region/2022/08/20/nails-in-tires-hate-mail-death-threats-public-school-board-chair-facing-continued-abuse-over-transgender-book-meeting.html">received death threats</a> and <a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/canada/article-why-a-waterloo-ont-school-board-has-emerged-as-a-battleground-for/">hate mail</a> after disallowing a now-retired teacher from presenting on books she felt weren’t age-appropriate that discussed asexuality and transgender identity. </p>
<p>In Chilliwack, B.C., a trustee received a message threatening to <a href="https://www.theprogress.com/news/chilliwack-school-trustees-encourage-filing-of-police-reports-as-book-debate-escalates/">report her to the RCMP sex crimes unit</a> after she argued against banning books with LGBTQ+ and anti-racist content.</p>
<p>This pushback against social justice work in schools is not new. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1108/JEA-07-2016-0075">Principals in Ontario</a> have been experiencing it for years. </p>
<h2>Political will of the public?</h2>
<p>School trustees occupy a space between politics and administration. They represent the political will of the public but are supposed to leave the actual running of the school district to the director of education and other education professionals. </p>
<p>Under this dichotomy, politics and policy are the domain of the school board, whereas the director and other district staff have authority over administration. In practice, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/15700763.2019.1585548">these boundaries are often blurred</a>. </p>
<p>Part of what complicates matters is the governance structure of school boards. School trustees (elected school board members) are <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3516033">locally elected but are tasked with working “as one body representing the entire community</a>.” </p>
<p>But given that they are each individually accountable to their constituents, some trustees prefer to take a hand-ons approach to addressing issues of local concern. </p>
<p>This complicates what might ordinarily be considered a <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24027683">“politics-administration dichotomy”</a> — a divide that some researchers note is questionable and contentious. </p>
<h2>Elected school boards in Canada</h2>
<p>Elected school boards have a history in Canada <a href="https://books-scholarsportal-info.proxy.bib.uottawa.ca/uri/ebooks/ebooks2/ogdc/2014-02-10/1/269864">that predates Confederation</a>. The idea behind the creation of school boards was for civic leaders to gather and decide how best to educate the children of the local community. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/quebecs-bill-40-further-undermines-the-provinces-english-language-school-system-131595">Québec's Bill 40 further undermines the province's English-language school system</a>
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<p>Historically, boards governed relatively small geographic areas and only a handful of schools. For example, in 1969, <a href="https://utorontopress.com/9780802081254/from-hope-to-harris">Ontario had around 3,500 school boards</a>.</p>
<p>In the 1960s, proponents of larger school systems argued that amalgamation would increase the financial resources of school boards which would <a href="https://www.biblio.com/book/how-big-too-big-problems-organization/d/521828576">allow for the hiring of specialized staff and an increase in the quality of services they could provide</a>.</p>
<p>From the 1960s to 1990s, Ontario went from over 3,500 school boards, to 230 county school boards, and finally down to the 72 district school boards that exist today. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A teen with blue hair seen facing a car with a rainbow poster." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490898/original/file-20221020-17-ep9n4a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490898/original/file-20221020-17-ep9n4a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490898/original/file-20221020-17-ep9n4a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490898/original/file-20221020-17-ep9n4a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490898/original/file-20221020-17-ep9n4a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490898/original/file-20221020-17-ep9n4a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490898/original/file-20221020-17-ep9n4a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">A teenager receives a card from a motorist during an anti-bullying parade in Mission, B.C., Jan. 17, 2021.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Darryl Dyck</span></span>
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<h2>Board mandates shifted</h2>
<p>During this time, the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/15700763.2019.1585548">mandate of school boards has grown considerably</a>. For much of their history, school boards were legally responsible for hiring teachers and furnishing schools.</p>
<p>Today’s school boards are also responsible for promoting student achievement, well-being, equity and inclusion, preventing bullying, providing for students with special education needs, ensuring community input through school councils, scheduling busing, establishing student dress codes and co-ordinating with child-care centres, among many other things. In Ontario, all of these responsibilities are highlighted in the <a href="https://www.ontario.ca/laws/statute/90e02">Ontario Education Act</a>. </p>
<p>As a result of these changes, school boards have become large and complex administrative units. This makes effective governance of school boards both challenging and important. </p>
<h2>Contentious position of board trustees</h2>
<p>Local school boards in Ontario are responsible for much of what happens in the day-to-day operation of schools, with members of the school board receiving their positions through municipal elections, a process that is often misunderstood. </p>
<p>The position of the school board trustee is contentious. Almost anyone <a href="https://elections.ontarioschooltrustees.org/BecomeATrustee/CandidateFAQs.aspx#:%7E:text=When%20filing%20a%20nomination%20a%20candidate%20must%20meet,by%20any%20legislation%20from%20holding%20school%20board%20office.">qualifies for a role</a> and obtains great power to influence educational policy and practice, raising questions about the tension between democratic control and expert authority. </p>
<p>While it’s clear that school trustees play an important role in shaping the education that children receive, during election time voters often have little awareness of their trustee candidates. </p>
<p>According to the Canadian Anti-Hate Network, this has provided an opening <a href="https://www.antihate.ca/confronting_preventing_hate_canada_school_boards">for far-right groups to try to stack school boards with candidates that harbour anti-equity ideologies</a>.</p>
<p>To help prevent this, the organization has come up with a framework for asking trustee candidates important questions that are centred around children’s rights. </p>
<h2>Student well-being</h2>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="A student seen walking in a hallway" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490896/original/file-20221020-1694-zk2zb1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490896/original/file-20221020-1694-zk2zb1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490896/original/file-20221020-1694-zk2zb1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490896/original/file-20221020-1694-zk2zb1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490896/original/file-20221020-1694-zk2zb1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=535&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490896/original/file-20221020-1694-zk2zb1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=535&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490896/original/file-20221020-1694-zk2zb1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=535&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">What about student well-being?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Graham Hughes</span></span>
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<p>While local democratic engagement is necessary, it is important that politics not be allowed to subsume school districts and distract from the core purpose of schooling — student learning and well-being. </p>
<p>Checks and balances are required to ensure that the focus remains on creating and sustaining a school system that all students deserve. </p>
<p>As our society rethinks possibilities for critical democratic engagement in schooling that attends to issues of power and identity, we invite rethinking school boards. Communities need to imagine decision-making structures that include students, community organizations, educational experts and elected officials.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/191102/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sachin Maharaj receives funding from SSHRC.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stephanie Tuters receives funding from SSHRC. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Vidya Shah receives funding from SSHRC. </span></em></p>According to the Canadian Anti-Hate Network, far-right groups have been trying to stack school boards with candidates harbouring anti-equity ideologies.Sachin Maharaj, Assistant Professor of Educational Leadership, Policy and Program Evaluation, Faculty of Education, L’Université d’Ottawa/University of OttawaStephanie Tuters, Assistant Professor, Teaching Stream in the Department of Leadership, Higher and Adult Education at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education (OISE), University of TorontoVidya Shah, Assistant Professor, Faculty of Education, York University, CanadaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1888672022-10-03T18:46:01Z2022-10-03T18:46:01ZWhy elementary and high school students should learn computer programming<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/479421/original/file-20220816-10908-uvh62x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C8%2C1000%2C589&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Ontario's elementary and secondary school curricula now include coding, a most basic aspect of learning programming. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Ontario recently announced a partial reform of its elementary and secondary school curricula to <a href="https://news.ontario.ca/en/release/1001722/ontario-modernizing-school-science-curriculum">include mandatory learning on coding</a>, as of September 2022. </p>
<p>As researchers with combined expertise in teaching computer programming and curriculum development, it’s clear to us that this curricula is about computer programming, despite the fact that the province only uses the term “coding.” Coding is a most basic aspect of learning programming. </p>
<p>Ontario’s decision is in line with those taken by <a href="https://curriculum.novascotia.ca/sites/default/files/documents/outcomes-indicators-files/Computer%20Programming%2012%20Outcomes%20%282015%29.pdf">Nova Scotia</a> and <a href="https://curriculum.gov.bc.ca/curriculum/adst/12/computer-programming">British Columbia</a>, which were the first and only Canadian provinces to make learning computer programming compulsory at the primary and secondary levels in 2015 and 2016 respectively.</p>
<p>In the rest of the world, many governments have also made this change, such as <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/parmyolson/2012/09/06/why-estonia-has-started-teaching-its-first-graders-to-code/?sh=39feb6a91aa3">Estonia as early as 2012</a>, the <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/national-curriculum-in-england-computing-programmes-of-study/national-curriculum-in-england-computing-programmes-of-study">United Kingdom in 2014</a>, and <a href="https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/How-S-Korea-implemented-its-CS-program_FINAL.pdf">South Korea in 2017</a>.</p>
<p>But what are the arguments put forward to motivate the integration of computer science, and more specifically computer programming, into the school curriculum of students? Research highlights three main arguments on this subject that will be discussed in this article.</p>
<p>The lead author of this story, Hugo, is a researcher at the UNESCO Chair in Curriculum Development and a lecturer in the Department of Didactics in Educational Technology. His thesis project in educational sciences at Université du Québec à Montréal focuses on the impact of learning computer programming on young learners.</p>
<h2>Meeting the growing needs of the job market</h2>
<p>The evolution of the global job market represents one of the motivations at the heart of the integration of programming in school curricula. This motivation, widely promoted by policy-makers, is essentially linked to the need to train more people with programming skills. Indeed, technological knowledge, particularly in the high-tech sector, has been driving economic growth in North America and elsewhere in the world for over 20 years. A growing number of jobs require a <a href="https://services.google.com/fh/files/misc/computer-science-education-in-us-k12schools-2020-report.pdf">deep understanding of technology</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465340/original/file-20220525-13-p54hmf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Abstract computer script code" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465340/original/file-20220525-13-p54hmf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465340/original/file-20220525-13-p54hmf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465340/original/file-20220525-13-p54hmf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465340/original/file-20220525-13-p54hmf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465340/original/file-20220525-13-p54hmf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465340/original/file-20220525-13-p54hmf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465340/original/file-20220525-13-p54hmf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">A growing number of jobs require a deep understanding of technology knowledge.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>This number of jobs is actually expected to increase in the coming years considering that data science, artificial intelligence and decentralization technologies (such as <a href="https://www.cpacanada.ca/fr/ressources-en-comptabilite-et-en-affaires/domaines-connexes/technologies-et-gestion-de-linformation/publications/introduction-a-la-technologie-de-la-chaine-de-blocs">blockchain technology</a>, on which cryptocurrencies are based) are becoming increasingly dominant areas of the economic sector. Teaching coding from an early age could thus be a way to facilitate <a href="https://gredos.usal.es/bitstream/handle/10366/131863/TACCLE3O5Literaturereview%20-%20final.pdf">countries’ immersion and performance in the digital economy</a>.</p>
<p>Some <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-52691-1_17">studies</a> also argue that exposing students to computer programming early in the school curriculum could have a positive impact on the identity they develop with respect to this field, considering that there are many stereotypes associated with it (mainly that “computer science is only for boys”). In this respect, arguments that go beyond the economic benefits can be evoked.</p>
<h2>Promoting social equity</h2>
<p>According to several authors, greater exposure to computer science by teaching young people how to program could also help promote greater social equity in terms of <a href="https://books.google.ca/books?hl=en&lr=&id=vmAwEAAAQBAJ">representation and access to technological professions</a>.</p>
<p>On the one hand, computer science skills can indeed provide access to well-paying jobs, which could help provide greater financial stability for marginalized groups who have not had the opportunity to accumulate wealth in recent generations. On the other hand, the increased participation of people from <a href="https://services.google.com/fh/files/misc/diversity-gaps-in-computer-science-report.pdf">under-represented groups</a> in computing (women, Indigenous people, Black people) could also promote diversity in the field, and ultimately result in an increase in the total number of workers.</p>
<p>In addition, there is a related argument that greater diversity within the workforce <a href="https://www.mckinsey.com/%7E/media/mckinsey/business%20functions/organization/our%20insights/delivering%20through%20diversity/delivering-through-diversity_full-report.ashx">would lead to better products</a>, accessible to a <a href="https://k12cs.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/K%E2%80%9312-Computer-Science-Framework.pdf">greater portion of consumers in the marketplace</a>. Too much homogeneity among workers leads to the design of products and services that cater to a relatively narrow spectrum of individuals and problems, which <a href="https://theconversation.com/comment-lintelligence-artificielle-reproduit-et-amplifie-le-racisme-167950">may reinforce some inequalities</a>.</p>
<p>Researchers advancing this equity argument argue that if early and intentional steps are not taken to foster greater diversity, this could result in a “digital gap” or an opportunity difference between dominant and marginalized groups, <a href="https://books.google.ca/books?hl=en&lr=&id=vmAwEAAAQBAJ">much more pronounced in the coming years</a>. <a href="https://cacm.acm.org/magazines/2016/9/206252-for-all-in-computer-science-for-all/fulltext">All youth learning to program</a> could in this sense represent a measure to decrease this gap and promote greater social equity, which is in line with <a href="https://sdgs.un.org/goals/goal4">United Nations’ Goal 4 about inclusivity and equality in education</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465341/original/file-20220525-17-n4zxhv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="robot and human pointing in the same direction on a screen" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465341/original/file-20220525-17-n4zxhv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465341/original/file-20220525-17-n4zxhv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=371&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465341/original/file-20220525-17-n4zxhv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=371&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465341/original/file-20220525-17-n4zxhv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=371&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465341/original/file-20220525-17-n4zxhv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=466&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465341/original/file-20220525-17-n4zxhv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=466&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465341/original/file-20220525-17-n4zxhv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=466&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Greater diversity in the tech community would help narrow the opportunity gap between dominant and marginalized groups.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Developing learners’ cognitive skills</h2>
<p>Finally, the most commonly mentioned argument concerns the role programming would play in developing <a href="https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Review-on-teaching-and-learning-of-computational-is-Lye-Koh/64b5f719a6f7bff3c58e620d859d7dd5a3d3fdc1">computational thinking in learners</a>. <a href="https://dl.acm.org/doi/fullHtml/10.1145/1118178.1118215">Defined and popularized in 2006</a>, the concept of computational thinking refers to the skills of “problem solving, system design, and understanding human behaviour based on the fundamental concepts of computer science.”</p>
<p>Several authors argue that the development of such computational thinking would be beneficial for the learners, as it would allow them to develop high-level reasoning skills <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1747938X17300350">that can be transferred to other learning</a>, such as problem solving, creativity and abstraction.</p>
<p>For these reasons, computational thinking is often embedded within new programming curricula, such as in <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/national-curriculum">England’s curriculum</a>, where it is stated that “high quality computer science education equips students to use computational thinking and creativity to understand and change the world.”</p>
<p>The introduction of programming into the school curriculum could therefore have a benefit for all students, even those who are not destined for a technological career, as they could benefit from computational thinking in their daily lives in a more cross-curricular way.</p>
<p>It is important to note, however, that these beneficial effects for the learner, although widely discussed and increasingly documented, still need to be shown through more research involving <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2018-52944-001">comparative and longitudinal aspects</a>. Hugo’s thesis project examines this perspective.</p>
<p>In sum, it appears that Ontario’s decision-makers have seen the potential triple benefit of youth learning computer coding for the future. However, the major challenge now facing the Ontario government is the lack of sufficiently qualified teachers to adequately introduce <a href="https://www.twistedsquare.com/CAS2.pdf">this complex discipline to students</a>.</p>
<p>Adequate staff training will be a key requirement for successful integration, as demonstrated <a href="https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/2602484">by a 2014</a> report about computer programming integration in the U.K. One potential solution could be to integrate programming into the initial university training of future teachers.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/188867/count.gif" alt="La Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hugo G. Lapierre received funding from CRSH (Programme de bourses d’études supérieures du Canada Joseph-Armand-Bombardier - Bourse au doctorat) and from FRQSC (Bourses de formation au doctorat).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Patrick Charland is co-holder of the Chaire UNESCO de développement curriculaire and director of Institut d'études internationales de Montréal at Université du Québec à Montréal. Several of his projects are funded by Fonds de recherche du Québec (Société et Culture) and by the Conseil de recherche en sciences humaines du Canada.</span></em></p>Teaching computer programming to youth can prepare them for the future job market, promote equity in tech professions and develop students’ computational thinking skills.Hugo G. Lapierre, Chargé de cours en technologie éducative; Doctorant en éducation (didactique de la programmation), Université du Québec à Montréal (UQAM)Patrick Charland, Professeur titulaire / Full professor, Département de didactique, Université du Québec à Montréal (UQAM)Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1881892022-08-21T13:09:25Z2022-08-21T13:09:25ZIf I could change one thing in education: Community-school partnerships would be top priority<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/479730/original/file-20220817-8128-s4twhd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=5%2C22%2C3529%2C1856&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">'Parent council meetings' need a name change to represent the wider spectrum of families and kinship invested in children and youth. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Students thrive in environments where they are seen and valued as contributing members of classroom communities. </p>
<p>A major aspect of social development in education is <a href="https://www.edutopia.org/blog/creating-an-identity-safe-classroom-becki-cohn-vargas-dorothy-steele">students’ identity formation</a>. At a very early age, students are asked <a href="https://www.dcp.edu.gov.on.ca/en/program-planning/considerations-for-program-planning/instructional-approaches">to make connections between</a> what they are learning, their lives and the world around them.</p>
<p>This is about more than just their sense of self. In classrooms, they seek to foster a <a href="http://studentexperiencenetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/Structures-for-Belonging.pdf">sense of belonging</a> and acceptance within their school and community, and learn how to negotiate their place in society. </p>
<p>But what happens when learners <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-curb-anti-black-racism-in-canadian-schools-150489">don’t see themselves reflected in what is being taught or don’t feel a sense of belonging</a>? Very early on, there is disengagement and disconnection. Both can have a lasting negative impact on student achievement and well-being. </p>
<p>I am a researcher focused on African, Afro-Caribbean and Black youth and families’ schooling experiences. If I could do one thing to change elementary education in Canada, I would appeal to school staff to understand the importance of the school-family-community partnership to improve the outcomes of all students. </p>
<h2>Go together</h2>
<p>There is an African proverb that states <a href="https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2016/07/30/487925796/it-takes-a-village-to-determine-the-origins-of-an-african-proverb">if you want to go fast, go alone and if you want to go far, go together</a>. How a community, including a school community, prioritizes the needs of students is critical for their success. </p>
<p>When schools, families, and communities work together as partners, students benefit. <a href="http://dropoutprevention.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Family_Involvement_Makes_a_Difference_20100914.pdf">The benefits</a> include safer school environments, strengthening parenting skills, encouraging community service, improving academic skills and achieving other desired goals that benefit students.</p>
<p>So, how do we do this partnership? </p>
<h2>Learn</h2>
<p>As the late cultural theorist and educator bell hooks tells us:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“When teachers teach with love, combining care, commitment, knowledge, responsibility, respect and trust, we are often <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Teaching-Community-A-Pedagogy-of-Hope/hooks/p/book/9780415968188">able to enter the classroom and go straight to the heart of the matter</a>, which is knowing what to do on any given day to create the best climate for learning.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Teachers are also learners. How effectively they learn is deeply influenced by everyday interactions between their students and themselves. </p>
<p>By taking time to learn about the students in classrooms, teachers gain a greater sense of students’ strengths and areas of need. It also means identifying any barriers that may hinder learning and participation. </p>
<p>Teachers have the opportunity to find out students’ interests, what excites them, and what is important to them and their families. <a href="https://www.edutopia.org/article/3-keys-evolving-lifelong-learner">Teachers who are lifelong learners</a> understand that <a href="https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED569110.pdf">family and community are critical</a> for the growth and development of students. </p>
<h2>Affirm student identities</h2>
<p><a href="https://etfovoice.ca/feature/culturally-relevant-and-responsive-pedagogy-early-years-its-never-too-early">Culturally relevant and responsive teaching</a> provides the framework to build learning environments that are inclusive and honour the lived experiences of learners and their families. </p>
<p>The idea of an inclusive education begins with affirming students’ identity <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-intersectionality-all-of-who-i-am-105639">and intersectionalities</a> — the whole of who they are and all facets of their lives. It centres on being concerned with what and how students learn. This simple yet transformative approach can help teachers rethink engaging students. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/479742/original/file-20220817-26-k2bynl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Students standing and waiting for a bus outside." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/479742/original/file-20220817-26-k2bynl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/479742/original/file-20220817-26-k2bynl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479742/original/file-20220817-26-k2bynl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479742/original/file-20220817-26-k2bynl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479742/original/file-20220817-26-k2bynl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479742/original/file-20220817-26-k2bynl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479742/original/file-20220817-26-k2bynl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Teachers have the opportunity to find out what excites students, and what is important to them and their families.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Brittainy Newman)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Knowledge holders are out there</h2>
<p>All families and communities are filled with resources and knowledge holders who could support classroom learning.</p>
<p>Their contributions not only build school capacity but respond to the needs of students — especially families of Black, Indigenous and racialized students. Schools can do this by establishing rapport, integrating families’ interests into the classroom and the curriculum <a href="https://teaching.betterlesson.com/strategy/146/creating-and-implementing-a-family-partnership-plan">and then taking action with them to solve problems together</a>. </p>
<p>When teachers and school staff consider the “family” as participants in a child’s education, they must think about how definitions of family vary across time and cultural contexts. This includes recognizing caregivers such as siblings, grandparents, aunts, uncles, and even community members as kin who often step in to care for children. </p>
<h2>Building relationships</h2>
<p>Families want to be involved and partner with school staff to ensure success for children and youth. That requires reciprocity and teachers co-ordinating relationships to build a bridge between home and school cultures. Developing such a relationship relies on interdependence, understanding and shared decision-making.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.panoramaed.com/blog/5-family-engagement-strategies">Collaborations with families</a> — especially people that are frequently positioned as passive or absent — will foster supportive and trusting relationships.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Two moms seen at a table with their little boy." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/479880/original/file-20220818-342-9bmlln.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/479880/original/file-20220818-342-9bmlln.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479880/original/file-20220818-342-9bmlln.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479880/original/file-20220818-342-9bmlln.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479880/original/file-20220818-342-9bmlln.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479880/original/file-20220818-342-9bmlln.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479880/original/file-20220818-342-9bmlln.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Engaging families only in one way assumes a limited picture of their realities.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Reduce the barriers</h2>
<p>Families do not show up in schools the same way. Engaging them only in one way assumes a limited picture of their realities. For example, <a href="https://www.edcan.ca/articles/overcoming-barriers/">2SLGBTQ+ families</a> and <a href="https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1238333.pdf">newcomers</a> encounter barriers and discrimination. </p>
<p>How might schools make “parent council meetings” more accessible and inclusive?
Start with a name change to make these more inclusive to represent the wider spectrum of families and kinship in real-world communities. </p>
<p>Such spaces are where community members might gain a deeper understanding of what is happening within the school. Yet “parent council” meetings are often poorly attended, for various reasons — time, lack of child care, limited <a href="https://kappanonline.org/race-power-minority-parent-participation-lee/">connection to the school community, dealing with racism and discrimination, and so on</a>. </p>
<h2>Invest in outreach</h2>
<p>Learn what days, times, and methods of communication are preferred. The pandemic opened our eyes to many possibilities and creative ways to communicate. Learn what strategies work best. Schools should be willing to change. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/5-ways-school-boards-can-address-racial-injustice-181994">5 ways school boards can address racial injustice</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Ask questions and actively listen. Discuss values and develop an understanding of how experiences of racism, power and classism play out in a school setting and affect communication and interaction. </p>
<p>To get a better understanding of the school climate and the concerns of families and students, schools or boards must offer opportunities for people to share their ideas. As an example, how could <a href="https://www.waldenu.edu/online-doctoral-programs/doctor-of-education/resource/using-surveys-to-increase-parent-involvement">surveys</a>, information materials available in multiple languages and mediums and even <a href="https://steinhardt.nyu.edu/metrocenter/ejroc/services/culturally-responsive-curriculum-scorecards">a commitment to auditing curricula</a> interrogate what is maintained as normative culture in our schools?</p>
<p>Oftentimes, there is a lack of a shared vision on how to support students. But there is a greater impact on the family as a whole when family are seen as important partners in supporting the overall development of their child. </p>
<p><em>Arianna Lambert, a passionate elementary school teacher and educator, co-authored this article.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/188189/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tanitiã Munroe does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>As a researcher focussed on African, Afro-Caribbean and Black families’ schooling experiences, I appeal to school staff to understand the importance of the school-family-community partnership.Tanitiã Munroe, PhD candidate and researcher, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, University of TorontoLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1885722022-08-12T12:37:22Z2022-08-12T12:37:22ZWorried about back-to-school inflation? Latest price data on backpacks, laptops and kids’ clothes offers some relief for parents<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478832/original/file-20220811-19-geqa37.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=42%2C36%2C3983%2C2981&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">While laptops have dropped in price, old-school supplies like pencils and markers are getting more expensive. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/BacktoSchoolInflation/571d8a959d874132a8c052bb6222eb01/photo?Query=back%20to%20school%20inflation&mediaType=photo&sortBy=arrivaldatetime:desc&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=22&currentItemNo=5">AP Photo/Marta Lavandier</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>As summer draws to a close, it is time for many to think about back-to-school shopping, such as notebooks, backpacks and new clothes.</p>
<p>As an <a href="http://businessmacroeconomics.com/">economist</a> who has studied consumer prices for years, I wondered how <a href="https://blogs.imf.org/2022/08/01/soaring-inflation-puts-central-banks-on-a-difficult-journey/">soaring inflation</a> was affecting the costs of typical back-to-school gear. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.bls.gov/news.release/pdf/cpi.pdf">Consumer prices rose</a> by about 8.5% in July from a year earlier, according to the latest data released on Aug. 10, 2022. But this figure is only an average. The <a href="https://www.bls.gov/news.release/cpi.t02.htm">price of some items</a>, like airline fares and gasoline, has jumped a lot more than that, while the cost of other items, like the price of televisions and phones, have actually fallen.</p>
<p>To determine how the cost of paying for what school children need has changed, I tracked two sets of prices: First, the cost of back-to-school necessities. Second, the price of school lunches – since learning on an empty belly is hard. </p>
<h2>Clothes and backpacks</h2>
<p>Children often seem to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3568055/">sprout during summer vacation</a>. This growth typically means they need new clothes for fall’s cooler weather. The U.S. government’s consumer price index has been following the price of both girls’ and boys’ clothes since 1977.</p>
<p>Government data shows the price of girls’ clothing peaked in 1992. The price of boys’ clothes peaked six years later, in 1998. Not only are clothes cheaper today than they were in the 1990s, but over the last 12 months prices for girls’ clothes have increased by less than 2% – compared with overall inflation of 8.5%. The price of boys’ clothes, however, jumped almost 5% last year.</p>
<p>Going back to school also means new shoes, since kids’ feet grow too. The <a href="https://www.bls.gov/news.release/cpi.t02.htm">average price for boys’ and girls’ footwear</a> has risen steadily since 1977. In the past year, the price of shoes and sneakers climbed by almost 8%.</p>
<p>As for school supplies, inflation has been a mixed bag. The price of notebooks and paper has soared in the past year, by 11%. And while the consumer price index doesn’t track pencils, markers and crayons, its close cousin, the <a href="https://www.bls.gov/ppi/">producer price index</a>, shows retailers are paying 11% more than they did last year for pencils and markers, while <a href="https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/PCU3399403399402">art supplies</a> have climbed almost 18%.</p>
<p>The prices of backpacks, on the other hand, increased at a much slower pace, up about 4% in July 2022 from 12 months earlier. And if your child needs a new laptop or tablet, you’re in luck. The <a href="https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/CUSR0000SEEE01">price of computers</a> has actually fallen by almost 4% from July 2021.</p>
<p>Putting these categories together into an equally weighted index suggests the cost of going back to school won’t hurt your wallet as much as parents might fear. My back-to-school index rose about 5.1% in July from a year earlier.</p>
<p>The index also shows prices are virtually unchanged from about a decade ago. This is small consolation for parents who didn’t have students in school 10 years ago. However, it does show that the prices of back to school items are not always increasing.</p>
<p><iframe id="eQ5pg" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/eQ5pg/4/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<h2>School lunches</h2>
<p>Another major cost when going back to school is buying lunch in school cafeterias. </p>
<p>Pre-pandemic data suggests <a href="https://progressivegrocer.com/npd-64-percent-students-will-buy-school-lunches">close to two-thirds of students</a> were buying lunch at school. Consumer price data shows the cost of food in urban elementary and secondary school cafeterias was down 43% in May 2022 from a year earlier – the latest figures available. </p>
<p>In fact, the index level is about the lowest since the index began tracking the data in 2005, primarily because there was <a href="https://theconversation.com/schools-will-stop-serving-free-lunch-to-all-students-a-pandemic-solution-left-out-of-a-new-federal-spending-package-179058">universal free lunch</a> during parts of the pandemic. That <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/darreonnadavis/2022/07/22/universal-free-school-lunches-will-end-soon-after-cuts-to-pandemic-era-spending/?sh=519f89474c11">program has now ended</a>, though some states are stepping in, so lunch costs are likely to climb in most school districts in the coming year.</p>
<p>For families who prefer to pack school lunches for their children, the data looks much worse. The average price of food purchased for home preparation <a href="https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/CUSR0000SAF11#0">surged 13.1% in July</a> from a year earlier, the fastest pace of inflation since 1979. </p>
<p>But since that may not reflect the actual cost of the food in a child’s lunchbox, I did my own calculation based on what my mother packed for me when I was a kid: peanut butter and jelly sandwiches, which remains a staple today – though not for my children. </p>
<p>My lunchbox typically consisted of a PB&J sandwich on white bread, apple slices, a few baby carrots, a bag of potato chips, 8 ounces of milk and a chocolate chip cookie - to keep me happy. Using the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s <a href="https://foodbuyingguide.fns.usda.gov/">school lunch buying guide</a>, I found the portions that would provide about 666 calories, a touch more than <a href="https://www.dietaryguidelines.gov/sites/default/files/2021-03/Dietary_Guidelines_for_Americans-2020-2025.pdf">recommended by the government</a>. My personal lunchbox index jumped by over 13%.</p>
<p>That was mainly driven by the jump in the <a href="https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/APU0000702111">price of bread</a>, peanut butter, <a href="https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/APU0000709112">milk</a> and potato chips, which all climbed by more than 14%.</p>
<h2>Choosy shopping</h2>
<p>While most prices for going back to school are rising more than usual, there are still bargains to be found, such as in children’s clothing and computers. </p>
<p>Or in the lunchbox example, you could add more apples, whose price has climbed only about 5%. Including more apple slices could not only ease your wallet but also improve your child’s nutrition.</p>
<p>Prices on most goods may be a lot higher than a year ago, but it’s important to remember that not everything is undergoing sky-high inflation. With careful shopping, even families on a tight budget can find what they need at a price they can afford.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/188572/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jay L. Zagorsky does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Inflation is soaring, but prices for typical back-to-school gear like backpacks, computers and new clothes are rising less than average – or even falling.Jay L. Zagorsky, Senior Lecturer in Markets, Public Policy and Law, Questrom School of Business, Boston UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1846122022-07-05T12:13:17Z2022-07-05T12:13:17ZWhy do kids have to go to school?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/471234/original/file-20220627-12-wphbh4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C2700%2C1665&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The core of education is to enable young learners to be kind, giving members of society.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/dbrewsterstartribune-com-wednesday_09-03-08_shakopee-a-news-photo/1155667206?adppopup=true">David Brewster/Star Tribune via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/curious-kids-us-74795">Curious Kids</a> is a series for children of all ages. If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, send it to <a href="mailto:curiouskidsus@theconversation.com">curiouskidsus@theconversation.com</a>.</em></p>
<hr>
<blockquote>
<p><strong>Why do us kids have to go to school? – Vanessa C., age 10, Gilbert, Arizona</strong></p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<p>Kids go to school for many reasons. Where and when depends on their age, location, parental preference and local policies. Parents send their kids to school to expose them to experiences that are different from their own at home and in their communities. Schools are designed to provide spaces for exploration, self-awareness and connection with other kids. Teachers encourage kids to strengthen the skills they have and help <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2008.09.002">them gain new ones</a> as they advance from grade to grade.</p>
<p>I have spent the last 20 years <a href="https://www.umassglobal.edu/about-umassglobal/our-people/hawani-negussie">studying and working with children</a> from birth to 21 years of age in a variety of settings. I often think about how to create the best learning environment for children, beginning with preschool. To me, that means ensuring that all children have the opportunity to be in a school that can fulfill their learning needs as well as their physical, social and emotional well-being at all stages of their lives.</p>
<h2>Preschool</h2>
<p>Around <a href="https://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=516">61% of 3-to-5-year-olds</a> in the U.S. are enrolled in some type of preschool. Because these are <a href="https://www.edutopia.org/article/why-ages-2-7-matter-so-much-brain-development">critical years for brain development</a>, attending a <a href="https://learningpolicyinstitute.org/product/building-blocks-high-quality-early-childhood-education-programs">high-quality learning program</a> is essential. </p>
<p>What makes a good program for young children? Since children learn through play, it’s important for <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2021.03.005">play to be the focus of most activities</a>. It’s also essential for teachers to interact with their young students and <a href="https://www.cde.ca.gov/pd/ee/responsiveteaching.asp">respond to each child’s needs</a>. </p>
<p>During this important developmental stage, children also form a <a href="https://illinoisearlylearning.org/ielg/self-concept/">sense of self</a>. For example, they might start to think of themselves as a big brother or sister if there’s another child at home. They also begin to connect more deeply with others, learn to communicate their feelings, <a href="https://www.naeyc.org/resources/pubs/yc/mar2018/promoting-social-and-emotional-health">practice sharing</a> and more. When schools include children’s identity, cultural norms and traditions in the classroom, students feel a sense of belonging and inclusion. This helps children form associations that are important for learning.</p>
<h2>Elementary school</h2>
<p>Children entering kindergarten at age 5 or 6 can have many different feelings, including nervousness and excitement <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2021.11.009">for this new experience</a>. Perhaps kids have heard adults say that starting kindergarten is the start of “real learning.” But this isn’t the case; <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/childdevelopment/early-brain-development.html">kids learn from the day they are born</a>.</p>
<p>With the transition to kindergarten, kids begin to work on personal and social skills, like managing their behaviors and reactions, problem-solving and logical thinking. Kids’ early experiences expand their ideas of how the world works. And as they mature they become better able to <a href="https://www.simplypsychology.org/preoperational.html">understand more complex thought processes</a>, like reversibility, or water turning to ice and then back to water. Another concept they may start to explore is how matter takes the shape of the space it occupies, like sand filling a star-shaped container, and why that happens.</p>
<p>As students advance through elementary school, their reading and comprehension skills improve and they are able to use different resources – from reading books and watching documentaries to taking trips to the museum – to help them understand ideas they encounter inside and outside of the classroom. The education students receive in school further builds on these experiences.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/472099/original/file-20220701-5543-lw7mpm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Three middle school students work on an assignment" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/472099/original/file-20220701-5543-lw7mpm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/472099/original/file-20220701-5543-lw7mpm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/472099/original/file-20220701-5543-lw7mpm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/472099/original/file-20220701-5543-lw7mpm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/472099/original/file-20220701-5543-lw7mpm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/472099/original/file-20220701-5543-lw7mpm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/472099/original/file-20220701-5543-lw7mpm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Middle school students begin to apply their skills and take on more schoolwork and school-related responsibilities, both inside and outside the classroom.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/female-students-studying-from-book-while-sitting-by-royalty-free-image/1214950752">Maskot/Maskot via GettyImages</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Middle school</h2>
<p>During the middle school years, when students are typically between 10 and 13 years old, kids and parents are both starting to interact with school in different ways. Teachers increasingly give more responsibilities to students, and they try their best to personalize what happens in the classroom to students’ talents and strengths. </p>
<p>As students become increasingly independent, parents often pass on more school-related responsibilities to them. Students feel capable and competent when <a href="https://www.ascd.org/el/articles/5-ways-teachers-can-bring-out-the-best-in-middle-school-students">their environment supports who they are</a> and encourages them to apply their existing skills at all levels, but especially in middle school.</p>
<p>Understanding all of the challenges kids are going through – like fitting in, maintaining friendships, puberty and others – can be overwhelming. But middle school also offers opportunities for students to sharpen their skills and talents. Some schools may offer band, theater or robotics and other new opportunities to learn, play and grow alongside their daily studies. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/472098/original/file-20220701-22-uy08n5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A student in a green sweatshirt raises her hand in a classroom full of students" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/472098/original/file-20220701-22-uy08n5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/472098/original/file-20220701-22-uy08n5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/472098/original/file-20220701-22-uy08n5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/472098/original/file-20220701-22-uy08n5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/472098/original/file-20220701-22-uy08n5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/472098/original/file-20220701-22-uy08n5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/472098/original/file-20220701-22-uy08n5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">High school helps students understand more about their own interests and passions while they continue learning how to critically think and communicate with others.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/high-school-student-raising-her-hand-in-class-royalty-free-image/1351983515">Willie B. Thomas/DigitalVision via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>High school</h2>
<p>High school is an exciting time for most students because it’s the final gateway to adulthood. Students may take on a heavier academic and extracurricular load as a way to <a href="https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/PracticeGuide/11">prepare for higher education</a>. In high school, students are able to choose from a range of courses that may include journalism, biology, an advanced foreign language class or world history. At the same time, students may begin taking part in specialized activities like volunteering or trips abroad that could expose them to fields they’d like to study if they choose to continue to college. </p>
<p>The core principle of education is to enable students to become <a href="https://www.pbs.org/education/blog/educating-hearts-and-minds-with-arthur">kind, giving and contributing members</a> of their community and the world. While not all students have the opportunity to attend great schools because of unequal circumstances, it is critical all children are afforded education, at home or at school, public or private. Schools are a tried-and-true place where kids gain new skills and knowledge that they continue to use and build on for the rest of their lives.</p>
<hr>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hawani Negussie is affiliated with Early Childhood Education Ethiopia. </span></em></p>The core principle of education is to enable students to become kind, giving and contributing members of their community and the world.Hawani Negussie, Chair and Assistant Professor of Early Childhood Education, UMass Global, University of MassachusettsLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1807332022-05-02T18:54:28Z2022-05-02T18:54:28ZDisruptive kindergartners are likely to be bullied later in elementary school<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/460414/original/file-20220428-24-xxymvo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5100%2C3825&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Misbehavior increases the risk of being bullied.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/children-at-school-royalty-free-image/83606485">Rubberball/Nicole Hill/Brand X Pictures via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Kindergartners who act out, disrupt classrooms, get angry and argue with their teachers are especially <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-022-09520-7">likely to be bullied</a> once they reach third, fourth and fifth grade, our research group has found. </p>
<p>We continue to investigate bullying in U.S. elementary schools, but our initial findings indicate that the odds that disruptive kindergartners will be shoved, pushed or hit, teased or called names, left out, and have lies told about them are roughly twice as high as for kindergartners who do not act out in classrooms. We observed this in analyses accounting for many other risk factors.</p>
<p>Our findings are consistent with, but also extend, prior research documenting that children who are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0044118X20932594">from poor families</a> or who are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2017.05.007">struggling academically</a> are more likely to be bullied than their peers who are from <a href="https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2014.301960">wealthier families</a> or who are more academically skilled. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acap.2020.10.011">As with older children</a>, we find that young boys are more likely to be shoved, pushed or hit, while young girls are more likely to be teased or called names, left out, and told lies about. Children with disabilities, particularly boys, are more likely to be frequently bullied. Black boys more frequently experienced other children telling lies about them than white boys, consistent with prior work finding that Black children are at greater <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-012-9843-y">risk of being bullied in adolescence</a>.</p>
<p>We believe our study represents the first analysis of a nationally representative sample that identifies which kindergartners are most likely to be bullied later in U.S. elementary schools. We hope the information helps parents and school staff identify and support young children who are especially likely to be bullied.</p>
<h2>The harms of bullying</h2>
<p>Schoolchildren who are frequently bullied are likely to later be <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/bul0000171">depressed</a>, anxious and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291716000362">suicidal</a> as well as to be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/obes.12432">unemployed</a>, impoverished and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2016-3426">abusing substances</a>. These risks are as large as those associated with being placed in foster care or <a href="https://doi.org/10.1097/HRP.0000000000000137">experiencing maltreatment</a>. </p>
<p>Early identification can help support those children who are being bullied and so limit the potential damage. Screening and prevention efforts are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2014.11.005">more effective</a> when delivered while children are still young. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2017-0504">Mental health supports</a> may be needed for those being frequently bullied.</p>
<p>And looking at specific types of bullying may help schools and parents more directly serve the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12621">different psychological needs</a> of children experiencing physical or nonphysical bullying.</p>
<p>The results suggest that <a href="https://www.childtrends.org/publications/what-works-for-reducing-problem-behaviors-in-early-childhood">the more schools can do</a> to help kindergartners learn to manage their disruptive behaviors, the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2019-2654">less likely</a> these children are to be bullied later on in elementary school.</p>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Paul L. Morgan has received funding from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development and the U.S. Department of Education's Institute of Education Sciences. </span></em></p>Children who are bullied in school are at higher risk for depression and anxiety later in life.Paul L. Morgan, Eberly Fellow, Professor of Education and Demography, and Director of the Center for Educational Disparities Research, Penn StateLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1747622022-01-27T13:29:23Z2022-01-27T13:29:23ZHow real is ‘Abbott Elementary?’ A former Philadelphia school teacher weighs in<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/442038/original/file-20220121-17-1hz41y3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=26%2C0%2C3000%2C1962&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">'Abbott Elementary' takes place in the Philadelphia school district. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.dgepress.com/abc/shows/abbott-elementary/photos/">ABC/Gilles Mingasson</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>ABC’s mockumentary <a href="https://abc.com/shows/abbott-elementary">“Abbott Elementary”</a> follows a group of dedicated teachers who work at a Philadelphia school. The show takes a comedic approach toward issues in inner city schools. Here, <a href="https://www.lynnettemawhinney.com/">Lynnette Mawhinney</a>, a former Philadelphia schoolteacher who is now an associate professor of Urban Education at Rutgers University - Newark, weighs in on whether the show accurately portrays the realities of educators in today’s schools.</em></p>
<h2>Is this show realistic in showing the challenges of urban schools?</h2>
<p>Yes, this show humorously speaks to the real-life experiences of teachers. The <a href="https://abc.com/shows/abbott-elementary/episode-guide/season-01/03-wishlist">pilot episode</a> begins with the main character, Ms. Janine Teagues, discussing how she is one of three teachers left from an initial group of 20 teachers hired the year before. This speaks to the issue of <a href="https://www.rutgersuniversitypress.org/there-has-to-be-a-better-way/9780813595276">teacher turnover</a>, a problem that costs schools an <a href="https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED498001">estimated US$7.34 billion annually</a>. These costs come from the <a href="https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X17735812">problems</a> that schools – and in particular, urban schools – have in keeping teachers on staff as they either move to other schools or leave the profession. Once a teacher leaves, school districts have to spend money to attract, hire and develop new teachers.</p>
<p>As I show in my book, “<a href="https://www.rutgersuniversitypress.org/there-has-to-be-a-better-way/9780813595276">There Has to be a Better Way: Lessons from Former Urban Teachers</a>,” urban teachers leave the profession due to exhaustion, disillusionment and conflicts with administration. In particular, teachers of color leave urban schools due to racial microaggressions.</p>
<p>“Abbott Elementary” also deals with themes of insufficient resources for teachers and students, as well as misappropriation of school funds. Journalist Dale Russakoff’s book, <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/prize-whos-in-charge-of-americas-schools/oclc/915774457">“The Prize: Who’s in Charge of America’s Schools”</a>, details how a <a href="https://www.vox.com/future-perfect/2019/7/3/18629810/mark-zuckerberg-cory-booker-newark-schools">$100 million gift</a> from Mark Zuckerberg to Newark Public Schools in 2010 was grossly misappropriated by upper administration to consultants and <a href="https://theconversation.com/lessons-from-newark-why-school-reforms-will-not-work-without-addressing-poverty-48212">rarely did the money serve the schools themselves</a>. </p>
<p>Nevertheless, as shown in <a href="https://abc.com/shows/abbott-elementary/episode-guide/season-01/03-wishlist">episodes one and three</a> of “Abbott Elementary,” urban teachers know how to make a way and get what they need for their classrooms – whether it’s through social media platforms, crowdfunding campaigns, or, to use street lingo, they know someone who can “get the hookup.” For example, when I taught high school in Philly through the early 2000s, I was the laptop “hookup” at my school. I had a family member who worked in corporate business where I would get their old laptops so students could use them in school. Ms. Thomas, down the hall, used to be the “hookup” for books to help stock teachers’ classroom libraries. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A Black woman sits on a hospital bed." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/442459/original/file-20220125-23-1d2c6n2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/442459/original/file-20220125-23-1d2c6n2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/442459/original/file-20220125-23-1d2c6n2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/442459/original/file-20220125-23-1d2c6n2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/442459/original/file-20220125-23-1d2c6n2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/442459/original/file-20220125-23-1d2c6n2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/442459/original/file-20220125-23-1d2c6n2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Teachers sometimes suffer from burnout due to their job duties.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.dgepress.com/abc/shows/abbott-elementary/photos/">ABC/Raymond Liu</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Another theme is how novice teachers can forget to practice self-care and <a href="https://journals.charlotte.edu/urbaned/article/view/907">burn out</a> quickly. In <a href="https://abc.com/shows/abbott-elementary/episode-guide/season-01/03-wishlist">episode two</a>, Janine skips multiple meals and goes above and beyond for the school but ends up sick. Her senior colleague, Ms. Melissa Schemmenti, reminds her, “We care so much, we refuse to burn out. If we burn out, who’s here for those kids? That’s why you gotta take care of yourself.” In this instance, I think the show tackles subtle issues for novice teachers that are not often known to the general public.</p>
<h2>What does this show mean to the teaching profession?</h2>
<p>In my view, the show represents a rare portrayal of Black teachers. The reality is that <a href="https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED571989">82% of U.S. teachers</a> are white compared to the 18% who are teachers of color. Although <a href="https://nces.ed.gov/programs/raceindicators/spotlight_a.asp">white women</a> make up a majority of elementary teachers in the United States, there are teachers of color and male educators who break this mold. </p>
<p>The presence of <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/education/2020/08/29/why-black-teachers-matter-black-white-kids-book-excerpt/">Black teachers is important for all students</a>, especially Black students. Research shows that Black boys in the third through fifth grades are almost <a href="https://www.nber.org/papers/w25254">40% less likely to drop out of school</a> and <a href="https://www.brookings.edu/blog/brown-center-chalkboard/2021/10/11/how-does-student-teacher-matching-affect-suspensions-for-students-of-color/">less likely to be suspended</a> if they have a Black teacher between third and fifth grade. Shows like “Abbott Elementary” will hopefully help to change media perceptions of elementary teachers and rebuild an interest for prospective teachers. </p>
<h2>Does it have the potential to educate people on the challenges in urban education?</h2>
<p>Yes, this show could be used as important discussion points for teacher education programs, policymakers, and the general public. The <a href="https://abc.com/shows/abbott-elementary/episode-guide/season-01/03-wishlist">first few episodes</a> of “Abbott Elementary” certainly portray the challenges of underfunded schools and the mismanagement of funds. </p>
<p>But I would argue that “Abbott Elementary” also highlights the beauty found in urban education. As Ms. Barbara Howard, one of the veteran teachers, states, “we talk about what they [the students] do have, not about what they don’t.” This advice comes after Janine keeps fixating about the classroom materials Barbara doesn’t have. Meaning, “Abbott Elementary” can be used to educate on how dedicated teachers find the beauty in urban spaces.</p>
<p><a href="https://abc.com/shows/abbott-elementary/episode-guide/season-01/03-wishlist">Episode two</a> demonstrates the beauty of how relationships are built between parents and teachers in order to best support students. Urban education should not always be seen in a negative light. I think that the show balances its humor with a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00131725.2017.1353323">positive lens</a> that is much needed in educating others about urban schools. </p>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lynnette Mawhinney does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>In ABC’s ‘Abbott Elementary,’ Philadelphia schoolteachers go above and beyond for their students – just like real-life urban schoolteachers do every day, says one scholar.Lynnette Mawhinney, Department Chair and Associate Professor of Urban Education, Rutgers University - NewarkLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1750062022-01-26T13:28:14Z2022-01-26T13:28:14Z‘Teaching has always been hard, but it’s never been like this’ – elementary school teachers talk about managing their classrooms during a pandemic<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/441300/original/file-20220118-27-q9jpij.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=19%2C38%2C6413%2C4243&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Joy Harrison, a second grade teacher in Oakland, California, helps a student.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/CaliforniaJobs/ef38ebcaf3f1443ba75c1518f0a18662/photo">Santiago Mejia/San Francisco Chronicle via AP</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>As the omicron wave spikes across the United States, K-12 education is one of many systems buckling under the weight of expanding needs. Recent headlines highlight <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/education/school-staff-shortages-bus/2021/12/03/05b88a0e-4cab-11ec-a1b9-9f12bd39487a_story.html">staff and busing shortages</a>, <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/01/04/us/school-closing-omicron-covid.html">parental anxieties about both in-person and distance schooling</a> and <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/01/08/world/chicago-shools-teachers-union-lightfoot.html">disputes between unions and districts</a>. Yet teachers’ experiences in their classrooms can be overlooked in these conversations.</p>
<p>As part of our research into teaching, since March 2020, <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=ac0O7OcAAAAJ">we</a> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=y_g0H1cAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">have</a> been following the experiences of a group of elementary school teachers in one suburban school district in the Midwest. </p>
<p>We’ve seen variations in teachers’ experiences and well-being over the course of the pandemic, yet <a href="https://www.edweek.org/teaching-learning/opinion-teachers-are-caring-more-than-ever-here-are-4-ways-to-care-for-them/2020/07">our research</a> suggests their situation continues to be incredibly challenging.</p>
<p>In January 2022 – halfway through the school year that was supposed to be a return to normal – teachers tell us they are barely hanging on.</p>
<h2>‘Trying to make up for the great divide’</h2>
<p>Teachers tell us they are more worried about student learning than ever before, and their <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/magazine/2021/10/18/teachers-resign-pandemic/">job duties keep expanding</a> while resources dwindle.</p>
<p>Struggling with the omicron surge, many previously hopeful teachers describe being utterly <a href="https://www.opb.org/article/2021/11/15/portland-teachers-are-at-a-breaking-point-say-the-results-of-a-recent-survey/">overwhelmed, overworked and exhausted</a>.</p>
<p>Now in their third disrupted school year, students in the same grade have even more widely varied academic achievement levels than usual.</p>
<p>Elementary school teachers in our study report needing to address up to nine different academic levels in a single classroom, when they may address two to three in a typical year. Yet they tell us they are <a href="https://www.wcia.com/news/ive-never-seen-teachers-just-so-done-extra-workload-pushing-teachers-to-exhaustion/">not getting the time, support or resources</a> to develop appropriately different lessons. </p>
<p>Teachers are constantly having to figure out how to teach material in appropriate sequences <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/schools-see-big-drop-in-attendance-as-students-stay-away-citing-covid-19-11641988802">while accommodating student absences</a>. One teacher told us, “It’s just hard when students are gone and I don’t know how much new content to teach when they’re away, and how to get them caught up afterwards.”</p>
<p>Teachers say learning gaps, <a href="https://www.minneapolisfed.org/article/2021/minnesotas-education-system-shows-persistent-opportunity-gaps-by-race">already wide</a> before the 2021-2022 school year, are <a href="https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/public-and-social-sector/our-insights/covid-19-and-learning-loss-disparities-grow-and-students-need-help">expanding even further</a>. </p>
<h2>‘It’s actually a nightmare right now’</h2>
<p>Beyond academics, teachers report having to <a href="https://hechingerreport.org/two-ways-schools-can-ease-covid-19s-trauma-for-students-and-one-for-teachers/">reteach basic school readiness skills</a>, such as raising hands, standing in line and taking turns.</p>
<p>Rachel, a fifth grade teacher in our study, described the challenges as follows: “It feels like the beginning of the year. So many unexpected behaviors and responses to redirection. I see a lot of social gaps – not knowing how to cooperate and problem-solve. Self-control needs to be retaught.”</p>
<p>Teachers say serious behavior issues like emotional dysregulation, disruption and defiance are more common than they used to be. Even in historically calm schools, <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/education/2021/10/26/schools-violence-teachers-guns-fights/">physical fights and verbal outbursts are becoming routine</a>. One teacher shared with us that a student spit in her eye right after returning from winter break. The next day, that student tested positive for COVID-19.</p>
<p>Teachers are thus forced to spend time restoring order before they can teach. One said, “I realize that so little of my day is spent on true, high-quality instruction.”</p>
<p><a href="https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/blogs/stateline/2021/11/08/covid-harmed-kids-mental-health-and-schools-are-feeling-it">Worries about students’ mental health</a> keep teachers <a href="https://www.minnpost.com/community-voices/2020/05/teachers-point-to-ways-minnesota-can-build-back-better/">up at night</a>. They tell us they see more kids than ever who are anxious, depressed and despondent, and suicidal thoughts are appearing at younger ages. Katie, a first grade teacher, shared with us: “There are many kids whose families face issues of food scarcity, job challenges, family relationships that are unstable, several who have suffered losses.”</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/441302/original/file-20220118-17-vfwdbx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A teacher sits with a group of students." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/441302/original/file-20220118-17-vfwdbx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/441302/original/file-20220118-17-vfwdbx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/441302/original/file-20220118-17-vfwdbx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/441302/original/file-20220118-17-vfwdbx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/441302/original/file-20220118-17-vfwdbx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/441302/original/file-20220118-17-vfwdbx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/441302/original/file-20220118-17-vfwdbx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A kindergarten teacher in Nashville interacts with her students.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/VirusOutbreak-Tennessee/3fb9259a24734edaaef9a4c97be6c03e/photo">AP Photo/John Partipilo</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>‘Our systems cannot support this reality’</h2>
<p>In the face of mounting crises, teachers would typically partner with school-based social workers, counselors and other support staff. Yet many counselors, administrators, behavior support staff, paraprofessionals and other specialists are being redeployed to <a href="https://edsource.org/2021/substitute-shortages-so-severe-some-districts-may-have-to-temporarily-close-classrooms/660540">classrooms with teachers out sick</a>. Teachers report students in crisis are left waiting.</p>
<p>Teachers describe giving up prep time to <a href="https://www.newyorker.com/news/annals-of-education/what-covid-burnout-is-doing-to-new-york-citys-schools">substitute for sick colleagues</a> and keeping obviously sick kids in class when the <a href="https://www.wbur.org/news/2022/01/12/massachusetts-school-nurse-coronavirus-emanuel">nurse’s office is full</a>. With the lack of time and training to teach the multiple levels in one class, teachers are scrambling to find ways to catch kids up. A fifth grade teacher shared that, after being denied funds from the district, her team used field-trip funds to purchase an online extension of their math curriculum to support differentiated learning.</p>
<p>Although teachers are used to getting by in underresourced systems, the teachers in our study tell us no amount of creativity will soon overcome the current crisis. As one teacher explained, “There were similar problems before, however with the added stressors of the pandemic, we’re at a breaking point and feel like saying no more.”</p>
<h2>‘I wonder what it’s all for’</h2>
<p>While the pandemic has always posed significant challenges, it used to be that even struggling teachers expressed optimism that things would eventually improve.</p>
<p>Now, as they contend with years of ever-increasing, cumulative needs colliding with the acute pressures of the omicron wave, teachers are left staggering and overwhelmed.</p>
<p>Rachel, the fifth grade teacher, explained: “We entered the year feeling depleted, and now so little is left. I wonder what it’s all for.”</p>
<p>Yet despite the scale of the challenges and the steep personal toll of this work, the teachers in our study and around the country keep showing up for students and families. We wonder how long they can continue. Moreover, we wonder about what will happen to those students and families if, or perhaps when, they can’t.</p>
<p>[<em>Get the best of The Conversation, every weekend.</em> <a href="https://memberservices.theconversation.com/newsletters/?nl=weekly&source=inline-weeklybest">Sign up for our weekly newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/175006/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Laura Wangsness Willemsen received funding from the American Educational Research Association.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Elisheva L. Cohen received funding from the American Educational Research Association to fund this study.</span></em></p>Halfway through the school year that was supposed to be a return to normal, teachers are barely hanging on.Laura Wangsness Willemsen, Associate Professor of Education, Concordia University, St. PaulElisheva L. Cohen, Postdoctoral Fellow in International Issues and Sustainable Development, Indiana UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1700052021-11-02T20:32:04Z2021-11-02T20:32:04Z‘Playground politics’ are anything but: For health’s sake, Ontario students need better schoolyards<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/429750/original/file-20211102-5521-1i37ydl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C44%2C2995%2C1302&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Unstructured outdoor play is an important part of a healthy childhood, but Ontario schoolyards are falling short.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Dave Chidley </span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Public health research shows a strong connection between <a href="https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/">outdoor play</a>, schoolyard quality and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/osp4.389">students’ health</a> — including <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/14733280903024423">physical activity</a>. But how are Ontario’s schoolyards doing?</p>
<p>We worked in partnership with <a href="https://www.ophea.net/">Ophea, a charity that</a> supports physical and health education and advocates for healthy schools, to find out. <a href="https://www.thestar.com/news/gta/2019/04/18/do-ontario-schoolyards-make-the-grade.html">We recruited</a> students, parents and educators to take a close look at their own schoolyards as “citizen scientists” — <a href="https://doi.org/10.1525/bio.2009.59.11.9">members of the public who collect data</a> as part of a public-interest research project. </p>
<p>To analyze schoolyards, we adapted a tool previously developed for this purpose. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2010.04.002">This tool</a> was based on evidence showing a relationship between schoolyard quality and physical activity. We used it to assess approximately five per cent of Ontario’s 5,000 schools. We audited 232 schools that were broadly representative of the distribution of average family incomes, public, Catholic and French school systems, and elementary and secondary schools.</p>
<p>Our results, relayed in our report, <em><a href="https://www.ophea.net/sites/default/files/pdfs/advocacy/adv_schoolyardscountreport_en.pdf">Schoolyards Count: How Ontario’s schoolyards measure up for health, physical activity and environmental learning</a></em>, show that Ontario schoolyards fall far short of “good enough.”</p>
<h2>Connection between outdoor play and health</h2>
<p>Other research points to the connection between students’ access to “everyday nature” in terms of both <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7721/chilyoutenvi.24.2.0010">environmental attitudes and knowledge</a>, and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2017.11.001">their well-being</a>. </p>
<p>The physical environment is not a silver bullet: Teaching, relationships and facilitation all make a difference. But physical environments are a key component of <a href="https://www.euro.who.int/en/data-and-evidence/evidence-informed-policy-making/publications/pre2009/what-is-the-evidence-on-school-health-promotion-in-improving-health-or-preventing-disease-and,-specifically,-what-is-the-effectiveness-of-the-health-promoting-schools-approach">health-promoting schools</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.33524/cjar.v14i2.82">good-quality recess</a> and physical education experiences.</p>
<h2>Many schools missing key elements</h2>
<p>We know that unstructured outdoor play <a href="https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2018-2058">enhances cognitive function</a>, <a href="https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/82-003-x/2016009/article/14652-eng.htm">promotes psychosocial development</a> and is an <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120606475">important component</a> of a healthy childhood. Our auditors assessed a quarter of schoolyards as “unsuitable” for play or games, and one in five as “unsuitable” for sports — a worrying finding. </p>
<p>Our research found that 73 per cent of audited schoolyards have an overall schoolyard quality score that is less than half of the optimal score of 88. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/428891/original/file-20211027-25-b8e37l.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Histogram showing the distirbution of Schoolyard Quality Scores across our sample with bar graphs" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/428891/original/file-20211027-25-b8e37l.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/428891/original/file-20211027-25-b8e37l.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=355&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/428891/original/file-20211027-25-b8e37l.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=355&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/428891/original/file-20211027-25-b8e37l.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=355&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/428891/original/file-20211027-25-b8e37l.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/428891/original/file-20211027-25-b8e37l.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/428891/original/file-20211027-25-b8e37l.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">There was an enormous variation in schoolyard scores. ‘Frequency’ shows the number of audits and the scores they captured. 73 per cent of schoolyards had an overall score that is less than half of the optimal score. Blue dashed line shows the mean at a score of 35.3, and the yellow line shows the mid-point of the scale at a score of 40.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Christine Corso)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Based on our audits, we found: </p>
<ul>
<li> 10 per cent of the schools have no fields;</li>
<li> 16 per cent have no courts for games like basketball;</li>
<li> 13 per cent of elementary schools have no play equipment (not even a simple monkey bars or tetherball post) and a quarter of schools don’t have multi-component structures (like a combined slide, bridge and climber); </li>
<li> 47 per cent of secondary schools have no track.</li>
</ul>
<h2>Outdoor spaces: An asset during the pandemic</h2>
<p>The pandemic has exacerbated <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-021-01744-3">psychological distress</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-020-00987-8">physical inactivity</a> in Canadian children and youth, <a href="https://doi.org/10.17269/s41997-020-00412-4">particularly in Ontario</a>. Many recommend outdoor learning and outdoor play as a key feature in COVID-19 <a href="https://www.sickkids.ca/en/news/archive/2021/let-children-play">safety and recovery responses</a>. Being in nature (not just wilderness, but also green spaces) leads to <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7721/chilyoutenvi.24.2.0010">improvements in mental health</a> among children.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/6-actions-school-systems-can-take-to-support-childrens-outdoor-learning-167745">6 actions school systems can take to support children's outdoor learning</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>For all too many Ontario schoolchildren, their main access to the outdoors at school is a paved, treeless expanse. In a third of schools, 50 per cent or more of the schoolyard surface is paved. Thirteen per cent of schools reported that they had no areas shaded by trees (only 20 per cent reported “lots” of shady areas). Paved treeless spaces are also a <a href="https://naturecanada.ca/news/blog/trees-help-fight-climate-change/">missed opportunity to mitigate climate change</a>.</p>
<p>In 2019, when we collected our data, only 37 per cent of schools had any sort of outdoor classroom. Other outdoor learning spaces were also limited — only 39 per cent of schools have themed gardens (like a garden for growing vegetables), and 56 per cent of schools have low-maintenance wildlife/biodiversity promoting areas (like a pollinator garden or a no-mow zone). </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Illustration of a vibrant schoolyard, showing diverse students playing on a field, a play structure, and with a garden area." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/428889/original/file-20211027-25172-1xewxs5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/428889/original/file-20211027-25172-1xewxs5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/428889/original/file-20211027-25172-1xewxs5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/428889/original/file-20211027-25172-1xewxs5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/428889/original/file-20211027-25172-1xewxs5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=488&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/428889/original/file-20211027-25172-1xewxs5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=488&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/428889/original/file-20211027-25172-1xewxs5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=488&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Being in green spaces matters to children’s health.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Flavia Lopez/Studio Blackwell)</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Active transportation</h2>
<p>One of the most important ways the built environment of a schoolyard and school community can contribute to student physical activity is by making it easy for students to walk or bike to school. </p>
<p>Instead, students face fast roads (37 per cent of schools have at least one adjacent road with a speed limit above 40 kilometres per hour), and limited traffic calming. Sixty-seven per cent of schools didn’t have anything like speed bumps or islands to slow down cars, and more than a third of schools didn’t have marked crossings.</p>
<p>Cycling provision is even poorer. Only 21 per cent of schools can be reached on a marked bike lane, and a third of schools don’t even have bike racks.</p>
<h2>Unequal opportunities for well-being</h2>
<p>Just as worrying as poor overall quality is that students experience vastly different opportunities for well-being, depending on which school they attend. Overall schoolyard quality scores range from a mere 14 to a high of 61. This is despite a provincial funding formula which, at least in theory, provides comparable resources across the province.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-fun-fair-and-all-school-fundraising-may-carry-hidden-costs-to-society-118883">The fun fair, and all school fundraising, may carry hidden costs to society</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p><a href="http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/parents/fund2012guideline.pdf">Largely unregulated</a> and <a href="https://peopleforeducation.ca/report/fundraising-and-fees-in-ontarios-schools/">increasingly unequal fundraising</a> may contribute to differences in quality between richer and poorer schools, especially in the absence of clearly articulated standards for quality.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/428888/original/file-20211027-17-1lxu6h8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Scatterplot with schools' median income (in thousands) plotted on the x-axis against schools' Schoolyard Quality Scores; line is fitted to data with positive slope" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/428888/original/file-20211027-17-1lxu6h8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/428888/original/file-20211027-17-1lxu6h8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/428888/original/file-20211027-17-1lxu6h8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/428888/original/file-20211027-17-1lxu6h8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/428888/original/file-20211027-17-1lxu6h8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=453&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/428888/original/file-20211027-17-1lxu6h8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=453&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/428888/original/file-20211027-17-1lxu6h8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=453&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Blue dashed line shows family median income in each school (in thousands) and schoolyard quality score.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Christine Corso</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There is a small but statistically significant association between family income and schoolyard quality. On average, a school with an average median family income of $40,000 is predicted to score 9.9 points (one standard deviation) lower than a school with an average median family income of $175,000.</p>
<h2>Minimum standards needed</h2>
<p>Engaging members of the public to work on projects related to our children’s health offers the opportunity to make systematic data personal. The picture we produced shows unequal and under-utilized opportunities to promote play and well-being at school.</p>
<p>We hope school communities can use this systematic picture to advocate locally for what they need in their schoolyards — from bike access and slower roads, to tree planting, more environmental learning opportunities or greater accessibility. </p>
<p>As citizens, all of us need to insist that policy ensures there are no schoolyards in our province that lack basic provisions for play such as play structures, basketball courts and supervised access to fields at recess.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/170005/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kelly Gallagher-Mackay received funding for this research from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council. The work was conducted in partnership with Ophea, Ontario's Healthy School Organization.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Christine Corso receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. </span></em></p>Problems include no fields, no courts for games, no playgrounds, no bike racks and no traffic-calming surrounding the school. Bringing in minimum standards is important.Kelly Gallagher-Mackay, Assistant Professor of Law and Society, Wilfrid Laurier UniversityChristine Corso, PhD Candidate in Educational Leadership and Policy, University of TorontoLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.