tag:theconversation.com,2011:/au/topics/email-134/articlesEmail – The Conversation2024-03-25T12:39:00Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2256182024-03-25T12:39:00Z2024-03-25T12:39:00ZI’ve been studying congressional emails to constituents for 15 years − and found these 4 trends after scanning 185,222 of them<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582872/original/file-20240319-26-phuyva.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=3%2C6%2C2299%2C1470&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Messages stream out from members of Congress to constituents around the country.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/illustration/washington-dc-background-royalty-free-illustration/1300184706">traffic_analyzer/DigitalVision Vectors via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Republicans in Congress use taxpayer-funded email messages to contact constituents more often, and perhaps more effectively, than their Democratic counterparts. </p>
<p>That’s what I’ve found over 15 years of compiling and analyzing the archive that I <a href="https://www.dcinbox.com/">call DCinbox</a>, a free and open real-time archive of every official e-newsletter sent by sitting members of Congress to their constituents. </p>
<p>To my knowledge, no other institution – not even the <a href="https://www.loc.gov/">Library of Congress</a> – digitally archives these significant historical government documents whose creation and distribution is funded by the American people. So far, my compilation includes more than 184,000 official e-newsletters, and it grows by about 30 messages each day.</p>
<p>These communications are a way for legislators to present themselves and their arguments directly to constituents, free from the oversight of a newspaper or magazine editor, and in ways that can put additional information just one hyperlink away. </p>
<p>The messages reveal fundamental differences in how each party seeks to connect with and inform their constituents: Republicans prefer visual elements and strategic timing, and Democrats prefer more text-heavy missives.</p>
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<h2>A public-minded legacy</h2>
<p>Direct ways for lawmakers to communicate with the public have a long and democratic history. When the United States was founded, members of Congress were allowed to adopt what had been a common practice in the British Parliament – using <a href="https://cha.house.gov/the-history-of-the-frank">taxpayer funds to send informational mailings</a> to constituents. This privilege, <a href="https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/IF/IF10489/3">called “franking</a>,” allowed a senator or representative to sign his or her name on an envelope’s top right corner in place of a stamp. There were rules, though – the messages had to be <a href="https://ethics.house.gov/official-allowances/frank">informational, not campaign material</a> or endorsements of other politicians.</p>
<p>In recent years, this practice has evolved into <a href="https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/IF/IF10489/3">sending constituents email messages</a> from House members’ and senators’ official email accounts. The rules still apply: Members of Congress who want to send campaign material or partisan political messages must do so <a href="https://cha.house.gov/communications-standards-commission">from their campaign accounts or personal accounts</a>, not email addresses ending in “@house.gov” or “@senate.gov.” </p>
<p>In 2009, I began collecting all of the official messages as a part of dissertation work, with the hopes of creating an archive for researchers to use and to answer my own questions about how legislators would “look” ideologically if all we had to go on <a href="https://www.lindseycormack.com/_files/ugd/f1b05b_258780c810564137a5c14f2a627e2a89.pdf">were the votes they decided to communicate to constituents</a>. At that time, I had to <a href="https://www.lindseycormack.com/_files/ugd/f1b05b_7c033f4587d844dd97dccdb40a33ce1c.pdf#page=27">manually enter my email address</a> into the website of every member of Congress. Now it’s easier to keep up, because I just sign up for new members’ lists after every election.</p>
<p>For years, I’ve shared various insights, analyzing <a href="https://twitter.com/DCInbox/status/677312070401056772/photo/1">word usage</a>, <a href="https://x.com/DCInbox/status/1206965493220958209?s=20">trends in geographical terms</a> and finer bits of information such as how many members of Congress talked about <a href="https://x.com/DCInbox/status/1343585291878195201?s=20">COVID-19 on a given day</a> during the pandemic. </p>
<p>From this work, I have developed a few major insights into how members of Congress use this free perk, offering a better understanding of contemporary political communication tactics. Here are four important points I’ve learned.</p>
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<h2>1. Republicans use email more – and with more strategic timing</h2>
<p>Over the past 15 years, Republicans have won <a href="https://github.com/unitedstates/congress-legislators">only slightly more seats</a> in the House and Senate than Democrats. But once in office, Republicans use this email perk far more than Democrats. </p>
<p>In every month I’ve been tracking these messages – except briefly in the middle of 2010, when Democrats held 59% of all the seats in Congress, and for nine of the 11 months at the start of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 and early 2021 – Republicans have sent many more official e-newsletters to constituents than Democrats have.</p>
<p>Republicans also tend to be more attuned to the leisure reading habits of people. They send a greater number of their <a href="https://x.com/DCInbox/status/1246432110677823489?s=20">emails on weekends</a> when people are likely to have weekend time to take them in. Democrats are more likely to send their messages during the work week.</p>
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<h2>2. Republicans tend to stay on message</h2>
<p>Republicans in Congress are more consistent in using key terms and phrases than Democrats.</p>
<p>For example, back in 2023 Republicans were unhappy with Democratic attempts to <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2023/01/11/politics/republican-irs-funding-87000-agents/index.html">boost the IRS’ efforts</a> to reduce tax evasion. A proposal included the projection that the IRS could <a href="https://time.com/6260075/irs-87000-agents-republican-lie/">hire an additional 87,000 workers</a> over the coming decade. Republicans took to e-newsletters to oppose that move <a href="https://x.com/DCInbox/status/1584340479130234880?s=20">and specifically used that number</a> as a rallying cry.</p>
<p>And in 2022 and 2023, as <a href="https://www.npr.org/2023/05/18/1176830906/overdose-death-2022-record">fentanyl deaths gripped news headlines</a>, multiple Republicans told constituents about how the volume of fentanyl in the U.S. could “kill every single American.”</p>
<p>By contrast, Democrats are far less likely to have overlapping term usage or phrasing. That suggests they are not as focused on coordinating constituent communications as Republicans.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582658/original/file-20240318-18-w9v0f0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A trio of screenshots of e-newsletters from Republican members of the House and Senate." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582658/original/file-20240318-18-w9v0f0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582658/original/file-20240318-18-w9v0f0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=192&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582658/original/file-20240318-18-w9v0f0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=192&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582658/original/file-20240318-18-w9v0f0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=192&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582658/original/file-20240318-18-w9v0f0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=242&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582658/original/file-20240318-18-w9v0f0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=242&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582658/original/file-20240318-18-w9v0f0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=242&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Republican e-newsletters tend to include eye-catching images up front.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Lindsey Cormack, DCinbox</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>3. Republicans also routinely co-opt opponents’ words</h2>
<p>GOP legislators tend to adopt phrases that originate with <a href="https://grist.org/article/whats-the-green-new-deal-the-surprising-origins-behind-a-progressive-rallying-cry/">policy oriented journalists</a>, <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/article/what-is-critical-race-theory.html">academics</a> and <a href="https://time.com/5936408/defund-the-police-definition-movement/">protesters</a> on the left into a convenient, and dismissive, shorthand. Terms like “<a href="https://x.com/DCInbox/status/1762522701233594855">Green New Deal</a>,” “<a href="https://x.com/FGawehns/status/1494700662604673027?s=20">critical race theory</a>,” “<a href="https://x.com/DCInbox/status/1529807563654586370?s=20">defund the police</a>” and “Bidenomics” are all used commonly in official Republican e-newsletters railing against Democratic policy proposals.</p>
<p>Democrats in Congress didn’t have a similar sort of concerted effort to use a Republican-originated word or phrase until 2022, when they began to use the <a href="https://x.com/DCInbox/status/1666065652489043968?s=20">term “MAGA</a>” as a way to tell constituents about parts of the Republican agenda they disagree with. And even then, only 292 e-newsletters from Democrats have used MAGA, while Republicans have sent 1,531 messages deriding the Green New Deal, 496 about critical race theory, 824 with defund the police and 330 saying Bidenomics.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582657/original/file-20240318-26-3gd12c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A trio of screenshots of e-newsletters from Democratic members of the House and Senate." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582657/original/file-20240318-26-3gd12c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582657/original/file-20240318-26-3gd12c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=247&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582657/original/file-20240318-26-3gd12c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=247&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582657/original/file-20240318-26-3gd12c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=247&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582657/original/file-20240318-26-3gd12c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=311&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582657/original/file-20240318-26-3gd12c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=311&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582657/original/file-20240318-26-3gd12c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=311&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Democratic e-newsletters tend to be text-heavy.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Lindsey Cormack, DCinbox</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>4. Official e-newsletters have changed with the internet</h2>
<p>Official e-newsletters have changed over time, as trends of online communication have shifted. But here again, Republicans are ahead of Democrats.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.dcinbox.com/email/?id=225840">Republicans use more images</a> than Democrats and tend to refer constituents to <a href="https://lindsey-cormack.medium.com/the-news-congress-pushes-to-constituents-30a84e5de639">more media outlets, including those that support right-wing views</a>.</p>
<p>This official e-newsletter archive allows researchers to better understand the evolving nature of online political communications and learn about how the parties use contemporary tools to connect with their constituents. In order for the public and historians to make sense of American politics, I believe it’s important to analyze what legislators say when acting in their official capacity.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225618/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lindsey Cormack does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>In taxpayer-funded email messages to constituents, Republicans prefer visual elements and strategic timing, and Democrats prefer more text-heavy missives.Lindsey Cormack, Associate Professor of Political Science, Stevens Institute of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2251812024-03-18T19:21:34Z2024-03-18T19:21:34ZDo you have 7,513 unread emails in your inbox? Research suggests that’s unwise<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581813/original/file-20240314-18-q0ect0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=60%2C13%2C2965%2C2018&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/email-inbox-phone-outdoors-list-new-2135776669">Tero Vesalainen/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>How do you manage your emails? Are you an “<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2021/oct/04/email-is-a-zombie-that-keeps-rising-from-the-dead-the-endless-pursuit-of-inbox-zero">inbox zero</a>” kind of person, or do you just leave thousands of them unread?</p>
<p>Our <a href="https://informationr.net/infres/article/view/604/326">new study</a>, published today in the journal <a href="https://informationr.net/infres">Information Research</a>, suggests that leaving all your emails in the inbox is likely to leave you dissatisfied with your personal records management. </p>
<p>In an exploratory survey, we asked participants how they dealt with their personal records such as bills, online subscriptions and similar items. Many of these <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2204.13282">arrive by email</a>.</p>
<p>We found that most respondents left their electronic records in their email. Only half saved items such as bills and other documents to other locations, like their computer or the cloud. But having a disorganised inbox also led to problems, including missing bills and losing track of important correspondence.</p>
<h2>The risk of losing track of your emails</h2>
<p>Receiving bills, insurance renewals and other household documents by email <a href="https://www.questline.com/blog/top-reasons-customers-choose-paperless-billing">saves time and money</a>, and reduces unnecessary paper use.</p>
<p>However, there are risks involved if you don’t stay on top of your electronic records. Respondents in our research reported issues such as <a href="https://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/news/nsw/drivers-fined-millions-since-new-no-vehicle-registration-sticker-system-introduced-in-nsw/news-story/040a82526edc73eb8c23bce47fd1b8f9">lapsed vehicle registration</a>, failing to cancel <a href="https://newsroom.ing.com.au/unused-subscriptions-and-forgotten-outgoings-could-cost-each-aussie-up-to-1261-a-year/">unwanted subscriptions</a>, and overlooking tax deductions because it was too much trouble finding the receipts. </p>
<p>This suggests late fines and other email oversights could be costing people hundreds of dollars each year.</p>
<p>In addition to the financial costs, research suggests that not sorting and managing electronic records makes it more difficult to put together the information needed at tax time, or for other high-stakes situations, such as loan applications.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-do-i-get-so-much-spam-and-unwanted-email-in-my-inbox-and-how-can-i-get-rid-of-it-208665">Why do I get so much spam and unwanted email in my inbox? And how can I get rid of it?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<h2>What did we find?</h2>
<p>We surveyed over 300 diverse respondents on their personal electronic records management. Most of them were from Australia, but we also received responses from other countries, such as the United Kingdom, United States, Switzerland, Portugal and elsewhere.</p>
<p>Two-thirds of the respondents used their email to manage personal records, such as bills, receipts, subscriptions and more. Of those, we found that once respondents had dealt with their email, about half of them would sort the emails into folders, while the other half would leave everything in the inbox.</p>
<p>While most sorted their workplace email into folders, they were much less likely to sort their personal email in the same way.</p>
<p>The results also showed that only half (52%) of respondents who left all their email in the inbox were satisfied with their records management, compared to 71% of respondents who sorted their email into folders.</p>
<p>Of the respondents who saved their paperwork in the cloud (Google Drive, iCloud, Dropbox and similar), 83% reported being satisfied with their home records management.</p>
<p>The study was exploratory, so further research will be needed to see if our findings apply more universally. However, our statistical analysis did reveal practices associated with more satisfactory outcomes, and ones that might be better to avoid.</p>
<h2>What can go wrong with an inbox-only approach?</h2>
<p>Based on the responses, we have identified three main problems with leaving all your email in the inbox.</p>
<p>First, users can lose track of the tasks that need to be done. For example, a bill that needs to be paid could slip down the line unnoticed, drowned by other emails.</p>
<p>Second, relying on search to re-find emails means you need to know exactly what you’re looking for. For example, at tax time searching for charity donation receipts depends on remembering what to search for, as well as the exact wording in the email containing the receipt.</p>
<p>Third, many bills and statements are not sent as attachments to emails, <a href="https://publications.archivists.org.au/index.php/asa/article/view/10421">but rather as hyperlinks</a>. If you change your bank or another service provider, those hyperlinks may not be accessible at a later date. Not being able to access missing payslips from a former employer can also cause issues, as shown by the <a href="https://ia.acs.org.au/article/2019/court-finds-robodebt-unlawful.html">Robodebt scandal</a> or the recent case of the Australian Tax Office <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2024-03-14/ato-reignites-old-debts-individuals-businesses-struggle/103578746">reviving old debts</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581489/original/file-20240313-24-614jwk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=270%2C779%2C3168%2C2001&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Close-up of a mouse cursor selecting an inbox link with one unread email." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581489/original/file-20240313-24-614jwk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=270%2C779%2C3168%2C2001&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581489/original/file-20240313-24-614jwk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581489/original/file-20240313-24-614jwk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581489/original/file-20240313-24-614jwk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581489/original/file-20240313-24-614jwk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=512&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581489/original/file-20240313-24-614jwk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=512&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581489/original/file-20240313-24-614jwk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=512&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">You can apply a few simple practices to your email management to minimise stress and financial losses.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/email-menu-on-monitor-screen-127894817">kpatyhka/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>4 tips for better records management</h2>
<p>When we asked respondents to nominate a preferred location for keeping their personal records, they tended to choose a more organised format than their current behaviour. Ideally, only 8% of the respondents would leave everything in their email inbox, unsorted. </p>
<p>Our findings suggest a set of practices that can help you get on top of your electronic records and prevent stress or financial losses:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>sort your email into category folders, or save records in folders in the cloud or on a computer</p></li>
<li><p>download documents that are not attached to emails or sent to you – such as utility bills and all your payslips</p></li>
<li><p>put important renewals in your calendar as reminders, and</p></li>
<li><p>delete junk mail and unsubscribe, so that your inbox can be turned into a to-do list.</p></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/do-you-answer-emails-outside-work-hours-do-you-send-them-new-research-shows-how-dangerous-this-can-be-160187">Do you answer emails outside work hours? Do you send them? New research shows how dangerous this can be</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225181/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Matt Balogh previously received funding from an Australian Government Research Training Stipend Scholarship.</span></em></p>Managing our electronic records is a big task. But using a few simple tips to turn your inbox into a to-do list can save a lot of problems down the line.Matt Balogh, Adjunct Lecturer, University of New EnglandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2148152023-10-26T12:30:52Z2023-10-26T12:30:52ZHow often do you lie? Deception researchers investigate how the recipient and the medium affect telling the truth<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555683/original/file-20231024-17-ua983q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=292%2C0%2C5903%2C3935&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Hunter Biden has been charged with making a false claim on a federal firearms application.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/APTOPIXHunterBiden/8a209c980515489694a4607e62e4b782/photo">AP Photo/Julio Cortez</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Prominent cases of purported lying continue to dominate the news cycle. Hunter Biden was <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/09/14/us/politics/hunter-biden-indictment-gun-charges.html">charged with lying on a government form</a> while purchasing a handgun. Republican Representative George Santos <a href="https://nymag.com/intelligencer/article/guide-george-santos-lies.html">allegedly lied in many ways</a>, including to donors through a third party in order to misuse the funds raised. The rapper Offset <a href="https://people.com/offset-says-cardi-b-didnt-cheat-he-was-just-drunk-7568020">admitted to lying on Instagram</a> about his wife, Cardi B, being unfaithful.</p>
<p>There are a number of variables that distinguish these cases. One is the audience: the faceless government, particular donors and millions of online followers, respectively. Another is the medium used to convey the alleged lie: on a bureaucratic form, through intermediaries and via social media.</p>
<p>Differences like these lead researchers like me to wonder what factors influence the telling of lies. Does a personal connection increase or decrease the likelihood of sticking to the truth? Are lies more prevalent on text or email than on the phone or in person?</p>
<p>An emerging body of empirical research is trying to answer these questions, and some of the findings are surprising. They hold lessons, too - for how to think about the areas of your life where you might be more prone to tell lies, and also about where to be most cautious in trusting what others are saying. As the recent director of <a href="https://honestyproject.philosophy.wfu.edu/">The Honesty Project</a> and author of “<a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/honesty-9780197696040">Honesty: The Philosophy and Psychology of a Neglected Virtue</a>,” I am especially interested in whether most people tend to be honest or not.</p>
<h2>Figuring out the frequency of lies</h2>
<p>Most research on lying asks participants to self-report their lying behavior, say during the past day or week. (Whether you can trust liars to tell the truth about lying is another question.)</p>
<p>The classic study on lying frequency was conducted by psychologist <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=kCGIDeQAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">Bella DePaulo</a> in the mid-1990s. It focused on face-to-face interactions and used a group of student participants and another group of volunteers from the community around the University of Virginia. The community members <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.70.5.979">averaged one lie per day</a>, while the students averaged two lies per day. This result became the benchmark finding in the field of honesty research and helped lead to an assumption among many researchers <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.2009.01366.x">that lying is commonplace</a>.</p>
<p>But averages do not describe individuals. It could be that each person in the group tells one or two lies per day. But it’s also possible that there are some people who lie voraciously and others who lie very rarely.</p>
<p>In an influential 2010 study, this second scenario is indeed what Michigan State University communication researcher <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=TIqSMJoAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=sra">Kim Serota</a> and his colleagues found. Out of 1,000 American participants, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.2009.01366.x">59.9% claimed not to have told a single lie</a> in the past 24 hours. Of those who admitted they did lie, most said they’d told very few lies. Participants reported 1,646 lies in total, but half of them came from just 5.3% of the participants.</p>
<p>This general pattern in the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/hcr/hqab019">data has been replicated</a> several times. Lying tends to be rare, except in the case of a small group of frequent liars.</p>
<h2>Does the medium make a difference?</h2>
<p>Might lying become more frequent under various conditions? What if you don’t just consider face-to-face interactions, but introduce some distance by communicating via text, email or the phone?</p>
<p>Research suggests the medium doesn’t matter much. For instance, a 2014 study by Northwestern University communication researcher <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=s8zROxUAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">Madeline Smith</a> and her colleagues found that when participants were asked to look at their 30 most recent text messages, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.05.032">23% said there were no deceptive texts</a>. For the rest of the group, the vast majority said that 10% or fewer of their texts contained lies.</p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/are-people-lying-more-since-the-rise-of-social-media-and-smartphones-170609">Recent research by David Markowitz</a> at the University of Oregon successfully replicated earlier findings that had compared the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1145/985692.985709">rates of lying using different technologies</a>. Are lies more common on text, the phone or on email? Based on survey data from 205 participants, Markowitz found that on average, people <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/hcr/hqab019">told 1.08 lies per day</a>, but once again with the distribution of lies skewed by some frequent liars.</p>
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<p>Not only were the percentages fairly low, but the differences between the frequency with which lies were told via different media were not large. Still, it might be surprising to find that, say, lying on video chat was more common than lying face-to-face, with lying on email being least likely.</p>
<p>A couple of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1145/985692.985709">factors could be playing a role</a>. Recordability seems to rein in the lies – perhaps knowing that the communication leaves a record raises worries about detection and makes lying less appealing. Synchronicity seems to matter too. Many lies occur in the heat of the moment, so it makes sense that when there’s a delay in communication, as with email, lying would decrease.</p>
<h2>Does the audience change things?</h2>
<p>In addition to the medium, does the intended receiver of a potential lie make any difference?</p>
<p>Initially you might think that people are more inclined to lie to strangers than to friends and family, given the impersonality of the interaction in the one case and the bonds of care and concern in the other. But matters are a bit more complicated.</p>
<p>In her classic work, DePaulo found that people tend to tell what she called “everyday lies” <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.74.1.63">more often to strangers than family members</a>. To use her examples, these are smaller lies like “told her (that) her muffins were the best ever” and “exaggerated how sorry I was to be late.” For instance, DePaulo and her colleague Deborah Kashy reported that participants in one of their studies lied <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.74.1.63">less than once per 10 social interactions</a> with spouses and children.</p>
<p>However, when it came to serious lies about things like affairs or injuries, for instance, the pattern flipped. Now, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/01973533.2004.9646402">53% of serious lies were to close partners</a> in the study’s community participants, and the proportion jumped up to 72.7% among student volunteers. Perhaps not surprisingly, in these situations people might value not damaging their relationships more than they value the truth. Other data also finds participants tell <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.2009.01366.x">more lies to friends and family members</a> than to strangers.</p>
<h2>Investigating the truth about lies</h2>
<p>It is worth emphasizing that these are all initial findings. Further replication is needed, and cross-cultural studies using non-Western participants are scarce. Additionally, there are many other variables that could be examined, such as age, gender, religion and political affiliation.</p>
<p>When it comes to honesty, though, I find the results, in general, promising. Lying seems to happen rarely for many people, even toward strangers and even via social media and texting. Where people need to be especially discerning, though, is in identifying – and avoiding – the small number of rampant liars out there. If you’re one of them yourself, maybe you never realized that you’re actually in a small minority.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/214815/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>From 2020-2023, Christian B. Miller received funding from the John Templeton Foundation for the Honesty Project, which advancd research on the psychology and philosophy of honesty. </span></em></p>Researchers are interested in whether who you’re communicating with and how you’re interacting affect how likely you are to lie.Christian B. Miller, A. C. Reid Professor of Philosophy, Wake Forest UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2154442023-10-19T19:03:13Z2023-10-19T19:03:13ZNZ’s always-on culture has stretched the 8-hour workday – should the law contain a right to disconnect?<p>When Wellington carpenter Samuel Parnell began the struggle for an eight-hour working day back in 1840, he could have never foreseen how modern work culture would evolve. But he would no doubt empathise with the challenges faced by today’s workers.</p>
<p>History tells us that Parnell, recently arrived from London, agreed to take a job building a store on the proviso he only work eight hours a day. He <a href="https://nzhistory.govt.nz/people/samuel-parnell">reportedly told</a> his would-be employer:</p>
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<p>There are twenty-four hours per day given us; eight of these should be for work, eight for sleep, and the remaining eight for recreation and in which for men to do what little things they want for themselves.</p>
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<p>Given the scarcity of carpenters at the time, there wasn’t a lot of bargaining and Parnell was granted his wish. The idea gained momentum, with a meeting of Wellington workmen later that year resolving to work from 8am to 5pm.</p>
<p>They also agreed that anyone offending against this principle would be ducked in the harbour – one way of ensuring solidarity perhaps. The principle of an eight-hour day was picked up by various union campaigns, and over time <a href="https://www.parliament.nz/mi/get-involved/features/labour-day-celebrates-8-hour-working-day/">achieved some recognition in law</a>.</p>
<p>More than 180 years after Parnell made his stand, New Zealanders largely take the celebration of Labour Day for granted. But those able to enjoy the coming long weekend might also pause to reflect on what has happened to the eight-hour day in an era of constant digital connection and being “always on”.</p>
<h2>Constant connectivity</h2>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554619/original/file-20231018-19-hejpv0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554619/original/file-20231018-19-hejpv0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554619/original/file-20231018-19-hejpv0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554619/original/file-20231018-19-hejpv0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554619/original/file-20231018-19-hejpv0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554619/original/file-20231018-19-hejpv0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554619/original/file-20231018-19-hejpv0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554619/original/file-20231018-19-hejpv0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Samuel Parnell, 1890.</span>
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<p>When Samuel Parnell left work each day, neither his employer nor or his co-workers could contact him. Before any real rapid communications technology, let alone cell phones or email, he had no reason to contemplate the need for a “<a href="https://www.eurofound.europa.eu/en/european-industrial-relations-dictionary/right-disconnect">right to disconnect</a>”. </p>
<p>But our modern, digital work lives raise serious questions about how we reconcile the demands of work with the need for rest, recreation and family life. How do we limit after-hours contact to maintain a boundary between work and non-work time?</p>
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<em>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/do-you-answer-emails-outside-work-hours-do-you-send-them-new-research-shows-how-dangerous-this-can-be-160187">Do you answer emails outside work hours? Do you send them? New research shows how dangerous this can be</a>
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<p>As expectations of <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/277384882_The_Autonomy_Paradox_The_Implications_of_Mobile_Email_Devices_for_Knowledge_Professionals">constant connectivity and accessibility</a> have increased, that boundary has blurred for many workers. Research has shown how significant after-hours work communication creates <a href="https://theconversation.com/do-you-answer-emails-outside-work-hours-do-you-send-them-new-research-shows-how-dangerous-this-can-be-160187">high stress levels</a>, and long working hours are a health hazard that can even lead to <a href="https://www.stuff.co.nz/world/125155146/long-working-hours-linked-to-stroke-and-heart-disease-deaths--who-study">premature death</a>.</p>
<p>New Zealanders generally <a href="https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/national/443464/new-zealanders-working-harder-not-smarter-productivity-report">work more hours</a> than their OECD counterparts. And there is research that suggests the pressure to always be online is <a href="https://www.hcamag.com/nz/specialisation/mental-health/pressure-to-always-remain-online-driving-burnout-across-new-zealand/447321">driving burnout</a> around the country.</p>
<h2>A growing movement</h2>
<p>For all that, the regulation of working time in New Zealand is <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=706&langId=en&intPageId=205">relatively rudimentary and non-prescriptive</a> compared to other jurisdictions. It is covered by <a href="https://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1983/0115/latest/DLM74459.html">section 11B of the Minimum Wage Act</a>, which says employment agreements should be fixed at no more 40 hours a week unless both parties agree to more. </p>
<p>Occupational health and safety law requires both employers and workers to take all practicable steps to ensure health and safety in the workplace, including a <a href="https://www.worksafe.govt.nz/topic-and-industry/fatigue/fatigue-quick-guide/">responsibility to manage fatigue</a>. </p>
<p>But there is no statutory right to disconnect, even though the concept has been <a href="https://www.afr.com/work-and-careers/workplace/why-there-s-a-growing-push-for-the-right-to-disconnect-20230807-p5duko">gaining traction overseas</a>.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/4-day-work-week-trials-have-been-labelled-a-resounding-success-but-4-big-questions-need-answers-201476">4-day work week trials have been labelled a ‘resounding success’. But 4 big questions need answers</a>
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<p>It was first proposed in France in 2013, with a <a href="https://www.eurofound.europa.eu/fr/node/18930">national agreement</a> encouraging businesses to specify periods when work communications devices should be switched off. This became law in 2017, regulated by a “Droit à la Déconnexion” (right to disconnect) article in the Labour Code, which refers to the need for “respect for rest, personal life and family”. </p>
<p>Several European nations <a href="https://cooperante.uni.lodz.pl/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/wpef20019.pdf">followed France’s lead</a>, and other countries (including <a href="https://www.ey.com/en_gl/tax-alerts/kenya-considers-legal-right-for-remote-workers-to-disconnect-and-establish-specific-working-hours">Kenya</a>, <a href="https://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-dna-explainer-now-you-will-have-right-to-ignore-employers-calls-after-office-hours-right-to-disconnect-bill-2922357">India</a>, <a href="https://www.loc.gov/item/global-legal-monitor/2020-08-24/argentina-new-law-on-telework-promulgated/">Argentina</a>, and <a href="https://www.gmanetwork.com/news/topstories/nation/818751/senate-bill-mandates-workers-rest-hours/story/">the Philippines</a>) have either implemented, or are considering establishing, such a right.</p>
<p>Early forms of regulation have been relatively light, simply requiring employers of a certain size to have a policy, or to consult with worker representatives about developing one.</p>
<p>But more prescriptive law is emerging. In Portugal, for example, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2021/nov/18/portugal-bosses-work-hours-right-to-disconnect">employers must not contact employees</a> outside working hours, except in emergencies. There are <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2021/nov/18/portugal-bosses-work-hours-right-to-disconnect">sanctions available</a> if employers transgress.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-businesses-can-best-help-employees-disconnect-from-work-174522">How businesses can best help employees disconnect from work</a>
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<h2>New Zealand lagging</h2>
<p>It isn’t only governments looking into a right to disconnect. Following the <a href="https://theconversation.com/as-boundaries-between-work-and-home-vanish-employees-need-a-right-to-disconnect-158897">example of the Victorian Police</a>, some of Australia’s <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-04-07/right-to-disconnect-fight-to-expand-trade-union-eba-push/100050264">biggest trade unions</a> are now bargaining to have the right included in enterprise agreements. </p>
<p>In the private sector, some progressive companies (<a href="https://www.hcamag.com/nz/specialisation/corporate-wellness/should-new-zealand-consider-a-right-to-disconnect-law/409567">including in New Zealand</a>) are beginning to get on board, voluntarily implementing their own policies.</p>
<p>But despite New Zealand workers being among the first in the world to fight for and claim the eight-hour working day, the right to disconnect has not appeared anywhere on the local policy horizon. It’s a conversation the country should have.</p>
<p>In the meantime, there are small steps we can take as individuals – starting with making work emails outside of working hours the <a href="https://www.emailcharter.info/">exception, rather than the rule</a>.</p>
<p>It might not change the world overnight. But if enough people join the movement, it could lead to healthier work-life balance for everyone. Samuel Parnell would surely approve.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/215444/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amanda Reilly does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>This Labour weekend we celebrate the eight-hour workday. But with technology blurring the line between job and home, we need to ask why our workplace law hasn’t kept pace with other countries.Amanda Reilly, Senior Lecturer in Commercial Law, Te Herenga Waka — Victoria University of WellingtonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2086652023-09-20T20:06:34Z2023-09-20T20:06:34ZWhy do I get so much spam and unwanted email in my inbox? And how can I get rid of it?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549270/original/file-20230920-21-1bu16q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=83%2C143%2C3910%2C2850&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Spam might not have brought an end to the internet or email, as some dire predictions <a href="https://www.zdnet.com/article/why-spam-could-destroy-the-internet/">in the early 2000s</a> claimed it could – but it’s still a massive pain.</p>
<p>Despite all the spam being removed by spam-filtering technologies, most people still receive spam every day. How do these messages end up flooding our inboxes? And are there any legal consequences for the senders?</p>
<h2>What is spam?</h2>
<p>The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) noted in 2004 “there does not appear to be a widely agreed and workable definition for spam” across jurisdictions – and this remains true today. </p>
<p>That said, “spam” generally <a href="https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/docserver/232784860063.pdf?expires=1693541947&id=id&accname=ocid177499&checksum=D0C5BDAC49951DF353618B8E38483253">refers to</a> unsolicited electronic messages. These are often sent in bulk and frequently advertise goods or services. It also includes scamming and phishing messages, according to the OECD.</p>
<p>Most people think of spam in the form of emails or SMS messages. However, what we now call spam actually predates the internet. In 1854, a spam telegram was sent to British politicians advertising the opening hours of dentists who <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2013/aug/09/why-spammers-are-winning-junk-mail">sold tooth-whitening powder</a>. </p>
<p>The first spam email came more than 100 years later. It was reportedly sent to 600 people on May 3 1978 <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080628205216/http://www.latimes.com/technology/la-fi-spam11may11001420,1,5168218,full.story">through ARPAnet</a> – a precursor to the modern internet. </p>
<p>As for how much spam is out there, the figures vary, possibly due to the various <a href="https://www.spamhaus.org/consumer/definition/">definitions of “spam”</a>. One source reports the average number of spam emails sent daily in 2022 was about <a href="https://dataprot.net/statistics/spam-statistics/">122.33 billion</a> (which would mean more than half of all emails were spam). As for text messages, another source reports a daily average of 1.6 billion <a href="https://thesmallbusinessblog.net/spam-text-statistics/">spam texts</a>. </p>
<h2>Where do spammers get my details?</h2>
<p>Each time you enter your email address or phone number into an e-commerce website, you may be handing it to spammers.</p>
<p>But sometimes you may even receive spam from entities you don’t recognise. That’s because businesses will often transfer customers’ contact information to related companies, or sell their data to third parties such as data brokers.</p>
<p>Australia’s Privacy Act 1988 somewhat limits the transfer of personal information to third parties. However, these laws <a href="https://theconversation.com/accc-says-consumers-need-more-choices-about-what-online-marketplaces-are-doing-with-their-data-182134">are weak</a> – and <a href="http://handle.unsw.edu.au/1959.4/unsworks_75600">weakly enforced</a>. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/this-law-makes-it-illegal-for-companies-to-collect-third-party-data-to-profile-you-but-they-do-anyway-190758">This law makes it illegal for companies to collect third-party data to profile you. But they do anyway</a>
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<p>Some entities also use “address-harvesting” software to search the internet for electronic addresses that are captured in a database. The collector then uses these addresses directly, or sells them to others looking to send spam. </p>
<p>Many jurisdictions (including <a href="http://www8.austlii.edu.au/cgi-bin/viewdoc/au/legis/cth/consol_act/sa200366/s19.html">Australia</a>) prohibit these harvesting activities, but they are still <a href="https://www.projecthoneypot.org/statistics.php">common</a>.</p>
<h2>Is spamming against the law?</h2>
<p>Australia has had legislation regulating spam messaging since 2003. But the <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/C2016C00614">Spam Act</a> surprisingly does not define the word “spam”. It tackles spam by prohibiting the sending of <a href="http://www8.austlii.edu.au/cgi-bin/viewdoc/au/legis/cth/consol_act/sa200366/s15.html">unsolicited commercial electronic messages</a> containing offers, ads or other promotions of goods, services or land.</p>
<p>However, if the receiver <a href="http://www8.austlii.edu.au/cgi-bin/viewdoc/au/legis/cth/consol_act/sa200366/sch2.html">consented</a> to these types of messages, the prohibition does not apply. When you buy goods or services from a company, you will often see a request to click on a “yes” button to receive marketing promotions. Doing so means you have consented.</p>
<p>On the other hand, if your phone or inbox are hit by commercial messages you haven’t agreed to receive, that is a breach of the <a href="https://austlii.edu.au/cgi-bin/viewdb/au/legis/cth/consol_act/sa200366/">Spam Act</a> by the sender. If you originally signed up to receive the messages, but then unsubscribed and the messages kept coming after <a href="https://austlii.edu.au/cgi-bin/viewdoc/au/legis/cth/consol_act/sa200366/sch2.html">five business days</a>, that is also illegal. Senders must also include a <a href="https://austlii.edu.au/cgi-bin/viewdoc/au/legis/cth/consol_act/sa200366/s18.html">functioning unsubscribe facility</a> in every commercial message they send.</p>
<p>Spammers can be penalised for breaches of the Spam Act. In the past few months alone, <a href="https://www.acma.gov.au/articles/2023-06/commonwealth-bank-penalised-355-million-spam-breaches">Commonwealth Bank</a>, <a href="https://www.acma.gov.au/articles/2023-08/doordash-penalised-2-million-spam-breaches">DoorDash</a> and <a href="https://www.acma.gov.au/articles/2023-06/mycar-tyre-auto-penalised-1m-spam-breaches">mycar Tyre & Auto</a> were fined more than A$6 million in total for breaches. </p>
<p>However, most spam comes from outside Australia where the laws aren’t the same. In the United States spam is legal under the <a href="https://www.ftc.gov/business-guidance/resources/can-spam-act-compliance-guide-business">CAN-SPAM Act</a> until you opt out. Unsurprisingly, the US <a href="https://talosintelligence.com/reputation_center/email_rep#spam-country-senders">tops the list</a> of countries where the most spam originates. </p>
<p>Although spam sent to Australia from overseas <a href="https://austlii.edu.au/cgi-bin/viewdoc/au/legis/cth/consol_act/sa200366/s16.html">can still breach</a> the Spam Act – and the Australian Communications and Media Authority (ACMA) co-operates with overseas regulators – overseas enforcement actions are difficult and expensive, especially if the spammer has disguised their true identity and location. </p>
<p>It’s worth noting that messages from political parties, registered charities and government bodies aren’t prohibited – nor are messages from educational institutions to students and former students. So while you might consider these messages as “spam”, they can legally be <a href="http://www8.austlii.edu.au/cgi-bin/viewdoc/au/legis/cth/consol_act/sa200366/sch1.html">sent freely without consent</a>. Factual messages (without marketing content) from businesses are also legal as long as they include accurate sender details and contact information. </p>
<p>Moreover, the Spam Act generally only covers spam sent via email, SMS/MMS or instant messaging services, such as WhatsApp. Voice calls and faxes aren’t covered (although you can use the <a href="https://www.donotcall.gov.au/">Do Not Call Register</a> to block some commercial calls).</p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/ai-generated-spam-may-soon-be-flooding-your-inbox-and-it-will-be-personalized-to-be-especially-persuasive-201535">AI-generated spam may soon be flooding your inbox -- and it will be personalized to be especially persuasive</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Staying safe from spam (and cyberattacks)</h2>
<p>Spam isn’t only annoying, it can also be dangerous. Spam messages can contain indecent images, scams and <a href="https://www.cyber.gov.au/learn-basics/explore-basics/watch-out-threats/phishing-emails-and-texts">phishing attempts</a>. Some have <a href="https://www.cyber.gov.au/threats/types-threats/malware">malware</a> (malicious software) designed to break into computer networks and cause harm, such as by stealing data or money, or shutting down systems. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.cyber.gov.au/protect-yourself/securing-your-email/email-security/protect-yourself-malicious-email">Australian Cyber Security Centre</a> and <a href="https://www.acma.gov.au/dealing-with-spam">ACMA</a> provide useful tips for reducing the spam you get and your risk of being hit by cyberattacks. They suggest to:</p>
<ol>
<li><p>use a spam filter and block spammers – email and telecommunications providers often supply useful tools as part of their services</p></li>
<li><p>unsubscribe from any emails you no longer want to receive – even if you originally agreed to receive them</p></li>
<li><p>remove as much of your contact details from websites as you can and always restrict the sharing of your personal information (such as name, birth date, email address and mobile number) when you can – beware of pre-ticked boxes asking for your consent to receive marketing emails </p></li>
<li><p>install cybersecurity updates for your devices and software as you get them</p></li>
<li><p>always think twice about opening emails or clicking on links, especially for messages promising rewards or asking for personal information – if it looks too good to be true, it probably is </p></li>
<li><p>use <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-multi-factor-authentication-and-how-should-i-be-using-it-191591">multi-factor authentication</a> to access online services so even if a scam compromises your login details, it will still be difficult for hackers to break into your accounts</p></li>
<li><p>report spam to your email and telecommunications providers, and to <a href="https://www.acma.gov.au/dealing-with-spam#complain-or-forward-spam-to-the-acma">ACMA</a>. </p></li>
</ol>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australians-lost-more-than-3bn-to-scammers-in-2022-here-are-5-emerging-scams-to-look-out-for-204018">Australians lost more than $3bn to scammers in 2022. Here are 5 emerging scams to look out for</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/208665/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kayleen Manwaring receives funding from the UNSW Allens Hub for Technology, Law & Innovation, and the Cyber Security Cooperative Research Centre.</span></em></p>One of the first ‘spam’ messages on record was sent in 1854.Kayleen Manwaring, Senior Research Fellow, UNSW Allens Hub for Technology, Law & Innovation and Senior Lecturer, School of Private & Commercial Law, UNSW Law & Justice, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1977372023-04-13T14:56:26Z2023-04-13T14:56:26ZWhen what you type doesn’t mean the same thing to the (older) person you’re texting or tweeting<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520252/original/file-20230411-28-xngq56.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/afro-american-latin-girls-using-mobile-1379846387">Marmolejos</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>On a day-to-day level, the way we interact with the people around us is shaped by our expectations, which are rooted in our experience. <a href="https://www.cogitatiopress.com/socialinclusion/article/view/4555/4555">Most adults</a> experience more regular and intensive contact with adults of roughly the same age as them. It is no surprise then – as a cursory glance at <a href="https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/laurenstrapagiel/gen-z-mocking-millennials">any multigenerational Twitter row</a> over the past decade clearly demonstrates – that our expectations tend to be skewed towards how our own age group expresses themselves. </p>
<p>This isn’t only evident on social media. Business insiders are quick to point out both the benefits and the challenges of a <a href="https://www.business.com/articles/hiring-multigenerational-workforce/">multigenerational workforce</a>. Communication is a key factor, here. There are subtle differences in how different generations use language. </p>
<p>Sometimes it’s a matter of unfamiliar words or peculiar grammatical constructions. Former UK prime minister David Cameron famously alternated between signing off with “DC” – clearly, his initials – and “LOL”, in text messages he was sending to the media executive Rebekah Brooks. The two are roughly the same age but one seems to have been much more up on text speak than the other. He thought this meant “lots of love”, Brooks <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/media/2012/may/11/rebekah-brooks-david-cameron-texts-lol">explained in 2012</a> “until I told him it meant <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-do-you-haha-lol-through-the-ages-41562">‘laugh out loud’</a> and then he didn’t sign them like that any more.” </p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Quarter life, a series by The Conversation" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
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</figure>
<p><em><strong><a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/quarter-life-117947?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=UK+YP2022&utm_content=InArticleTop">This article is part of Quarter Life</a></strong>, a series about issues affecting those of us in our twenties and thirties. From the challenges of beginning a career and taking care of our mental health, to the excitement of starting a family, adopting a pet or just making friends as an adult. The articles in this series explore the questions and bring answers as we navigate this turbulent period of life.</em></p>
<p><em>You may be interested in:</em></p>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/a-dictionary-of-the-manosphere-five-terms-to-understand-the-language-of-online-male-supremacists-200206">A dictionary of the manosphere: five terms to understand the language of online male supremacists</a></em></p>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/how-do-you-haha-lol-through-the-ages-41562">How do you haha? LOL through the ages</a></em></p>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-cope-when-you-lose-access-to-a-digital-world-you-love-199447">How to cope when you lose access to a digital world you love</a></em></p>
<hr>
<p>Often, though, it stems from a misinterpreted intonation or a misunderstood intention. It’s not the meaning of the words used that causes the confusion, but how you said them.</p>
<p>When we speak, we convey information by all kinds of means besides the words we choose – volume and speed of speaking, facial expressions, body language, tone of voice. These are what linguists call “paralinguistic channels”. “I’m fine” thus comes across very differently when said in a happy voice than in a flat monotone, or when accompanied by exaggerated thumbs-up or other gestures. </p>
<p>In writing, things are more fraught. What internet linguist Gretchen McColloch, in her book Because Internet: Understanding the New Rules of Language, calls the <a href="https://gretchenmcculloch.com/book/">“typographical tone of voice”</a> is harder to convey, possibly because writing uses only one channel, the written word itself. </p>
<h2>Typographical tone</h2>
<p>Billions of emails and texts are sent every day – an estimated <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/456500/daily-number-of-e-mails-worldwide/">320 billion</a> and <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbestechcouncil/2021/01/06/the-past-present-and-future-of-messaging/">23 billion</a>, respectively. Research <a href="https://gretchenmcculloch.com/book/">shows</a> some quite consistent (and intuitive) ways in which people have communicated their intent through the ages. </p>
<p>If McCulloch <a href="http://clarkbuckner.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/McColloch-Because-Internet-04-Typographical-Tone-of-Voice.pdf">points</a> to text written in all caps, for instance, as expressing strong feelings, all-caps text has widely been meant and understood as shouting since the middle of the 20th century at least. Its use is documented as early as the 1850s: The Yorkville Enquirer of April 17 1856 describes a Dutchman <a href="https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn84026925/1856-04-17/ed-1/seq-4/">“shout(ing) it out in capital letters”</a>.</p>
<p>Context, however, is key. We interpret as shouting an all-caps email (“DON’T DO THAT AGAIN”), but <a href="https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2013/06/24/clarity-2">not necessarily</a> a sign (“PAPER AND CARDBOARD ONLY”). </p>
<p>Research has shown that the limitation in writing can, in fact, <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/pragmatics-in-english-language-learning/6545344362F3812D3A1A8D06BC6E39BD">flip the intended effect completely</a>. An emailed request in grammatically correct, clear and polite language (“Please tell me when we can meet”) can come across as rude if the recipient is used to more indirect wording (“I wonder if you could find time to meet with me”). </p>
<p>And that’s before you consider <a href="https://eu.usatoday.com/story/life/2020/09/28/texting-etiquette-what-exclamation-point-period-ellipses-mean-to-different-generations/3524169001/">the power of punctuation</a>. The journalist Grace Seger went viral in 2019 with a tweet describing her very cautious approach to using the right exclamation-point-to-full-stop ratio in work emails:</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1187428735496212481"}"></div></p>
<p>When texting or posting, an older person might use the standard punctuation rules they were taught in school, merely intending to present themselves as “proper” or to show respect to their recipients. </p>
<p>As a younger person, by contrast, you might be used to texting or posting without much punctuation. When receiving a overly punctuated text message, you might assume there’s a strong and serious reason for it – a hidden meaning. </p>
<p>In a 2018 piece entitled “Why… do old people… text… like this…? An investigation…”, tech journalist Paris Martineau <a href="https://theoutline.com/post/3333/why-do-old-people-text-like-this-an-investigation">reported</a> on the bafflement caused among young people by what she called their parents’ “chronic ellipsis overuse”. As one Twitter user Martineau quoted put it: “Why do old people use ellipses so much? My mom tells me she loves me and it sounds like she thinks I’m a huge disappointment.”</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1204630864837201920"}"></div></p>
<h2>Hidden meanings</h2>
<p>We all know that irony and sarcasm are hard to convey in writing. Research shows, however, that we are in fact <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0261927X04269587">more likely</a> to write something snarky than we are to say it. Here, the presumption of meaning behind non-standard features in text (that is, the elements that are not the words) is quite useful.</p>
<p>Written markers for irony or sarcasm arise quickly in a given community or interaction, to signal to the reader that there’s a meaning behind the words. This may be as explicit as an eye-rolling emoji or an obvious hashtag, say, #sarcasm. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A girl with blue hair in a blue hoodie in front of a graffitied wall." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520247/original/file-20230411-24-vrqa8k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520247/original/file-20230411-24-vrqa8k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520247/original/file-20230411-24-vrqa8k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520247/original/file-20230411-24-vrqa8k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520247/original/file-20230411-24-vrqa8k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=575&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520247/original/file-20230411-24-vrqa8k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=575&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520247/original/file-20230411-24-vrqa8k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=575&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">‘Even innocuous messages can be misunderstood.’</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/teenager-wearing-light-blue-oversize-hoodie-2123135423">Katrinshine</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It might also be more subtle. You might capitalise some words (going on a big date is serious, but <a href="https://mashable.com/article/capitalizing-first-letter-words-trend">“a Big Date”</a> is meant ironically). You might blatantly under-emphasise other words (<a href="https://twitter.com/kaiaaqm/status/1645739295452409861">a single “yay”</a>). Or, and contrary to the above-mentioned overuse of the ellipsis, you might just make a pointed use of <a href="https://issuu.com/shinycomm/docs/20220705_otd_july_2022_web/s/16399235#:%7E:text=Gen%20Z%20has%20adapted%20the,what%20it%20used%20to%20be.">three full stops</a> to point to something left unsaid, which, as McCulloch <a href="https://brands.wattpad.com/insights/the-new-rules-for-writing-for-gen-z-how-to-avoid-passive-aggressive-punctuation-and-other-lessons-from-an-internet-linguist">has said</a>, “could also come across as passive-aggressive in a certain context.” She gives “I can do that…” as an example, explaining that that “could mean they can do that but don’t necessarily want to”. </p>
<p>None of these are necessary to communicate the literal meaning of the written message. Instead, they tell the reader to look for an additional, hidden – or implied – meaning. </p>
<p>But you have to know to know. And if you don’t know, you’re lost. Research has shown how both humans and computers <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/220874376_Identifying_Sarcasm_in_Twitter_A_Closer_Look">struggle to consistently identify</a> sarcasm or irony in writing, because there are no universal features of sarcastic language. How we choose to express it depends on the subject and the cultural context of what we’re discussing, as much as it does on personal preferences. Thus, even innocuous messages can <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0261927X16662968">be misunderstood</a> as offensive. </p>
<p>When we notice that we’ve misunderstood someone or that they’ve misunderstood us, everyone benefits from a quick clarification. Not only does it improve the present situation, it also helps to avoid future pickles and broaden everyone’s experience base, which is valuable in itself.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/197737/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Daniel Bürkle does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Generational faultlines are made visible by the way we use punctuation and text formatting in online communication. Tone of voice is a tricky thing to convey.Daniel Bürkle, Senior Lecturer in Psycholinguistics, University of Central LancashireLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1938222022-12-14T21:35:01Z2022-12-14T21:35:01ZCan sending fewer emails or emptying your inbox really help fight climate change?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501113/original/file-20221214-13666-5pwq8e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=54%2C131%2C5121%2C3748&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Using electricity to manually delete emails can actually have a greater carbon impact than simply storing them.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Unsplash)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The massive carbon footprint left behind by emails has been widely discussed by the <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/ottawa/environmental-working-from-home-green-1.5997250">media</a>, but most of the time these discussions are exaggerated. </p>
<p>According to Agnès Pannier-Runacher, the <a href="https://twitter.com/AgnesRunacher/status/1529025579386867712">French minister of energy transition</a>, reducing the number of emails that are sent and deleting them would reduce the individual carbon footprint. News stories have voiced these ideas as well.</p>
<p>In a recently <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spc.2022.09.025">published paper</a>, we found that some iconic digital activities, such as sending email, contribute marginally to the annual carbon footprint of information and communication technology users. </p>
<p>As researchers working on the environmental impacts of our actions, we believe it is important to dispel this myth, which has persisted for several years, so that we can focus on curbing the bigger sources of carbon footprints.</p>
<h2>The carbon impact of emails</h2>
<p>The idea that sending less email would reduce a significant amount of greenhouse gases (GHG) was popularized by Mike Berners-Lee’s book <a href="https://howbadarebananas.com/"><em>How Bad Are Bananas? The Carbon Footprint of Everything</em></a>. </p>
<p>The book mentions that a <a href="https://www.pawprint.eco/eco-blog/carbon-footprint-email">person’s average annual email usage produces between three to 40 kilograms of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases or Carbon Dioxide Equivalent (CO2e)</a>, which is the equivalent of driving between 16 to 206 kilometres in a small petrol car. These figures were picked up by several media outlets around the world, which helped to reinforce this idea. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Two hands typing on a laptop." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501132/original/file-20221214-14933-cj9xs2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501132/original/file-20221214-14933-cj9xs2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501132/original/file-20221214-14933-cj9xs2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501132/original/file-20221214-14933-cj9xs2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501132/original/file-20221214-14933-cj9xs2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501132/original/file-20221214-14933-cj9xs2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501132/original/file-20221214-14933-cj9xs2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Quantifying the carbon footprint of sending emails, or any other digital service, is not an easy task.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Unsplash)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Carbon values, as seen in Berners-Lee’s book, have varied from <a href="https://unpointcinq.ca/agir/carbonoscope-1-5-calculer-empreinte-carbone-au-bureau/">0.3 to 50 grams of CO2e</a> per email. But these numbers are constantly changing and seem minute when compared to the carbon footprints of the so-called solutions. </p>
<p>Quantifying the carbon footprint of sending emails, or any other digital service, is not an easy task. The results depend heavily on the assumptions made and the data used. And the energy efficiency of data transmission and storage is constantly improving.</p>
<h2>Can sending fewer emails or deleting them really help?</h2>
<p>So, what would happen if we decided to send drastically fewer emails or delete emails that are no longer useful? Apart from freeing up some space in the servers that host them, there is no evidence that we could substantially reduce the energy consumption of digital infrastructure. Here is why:</p>
<ol>
<li><p><a href="https://www.carbontrust.com/our-work-and-impact/guides-reports-and-tools/carbon-impact-of-video-streaming">Digital data storage and transmission systems operate 24/7</a>, with a more or less constant base load of energy, even when not in use. Regardless of whether the email is sent or not, networks would use about the same amount of energy.</p></li>
<li><p>An incredible number of spam emails (<a href="https://dataprot.net/statistics/spam-statistics/">122 billion in 2022</a>) and genuine emails (22 billion) are sent every day. While these numbers seem alarming, email exchanges represent <a href="https://www.sami.eco/post/empreinte-carbone-email">only one per cent</a> of Internet traffic. In comparison, <a href="https://www.fiercevideo.com/video/video-will-account-for-82-all-internet-traffic-by-2022-cisco-says#:%7E:text=According%20to%20the%20company's%20newest,connections%20will%20be%20video%20capable">video streaming services account for about 82 per cent of internet traffic</a> and could increase further in the coming years.</p></li>
<li><p>Knowing that 85 per cent of email traffic is actually spam, sending fewer emails at the individual level would have a limited influence on decreasing the amount of email traffic on the web.</p></li>
<li><p>Regardless of whether an email is sent or not, our computers and routers are always on. Electricity consumption associated with electronic devices, therefore, would remain more or less always the same. Very rarely do we turn on a computer just to send an email.</p></li>
<li><p>Impacts that are associated with the use of data centres and transmission networks are extremely low. To give you an idea, driving a kilometre in a compact car emits as much CO2e as the electricity that is used to transmit and store 3,500 emails of five MB. The electricity needed to heat a cup of tea in a kettle consumes as much electricity as transferring and storing about 1,500 emails of one MB.</p></li>
<li><p>Deleting 1,000 emails would have a carbon benefit of about five grams CO2e. However, the impact of using a laptop for 30 minutes (to delete these emails) emits 28 grams of CO2e in <a href="https://www.cer-rec.gc.ca/en/data-analysis/energy-markets/provincial-territorial-energy-profiles/provincial-territorial-energy-profiles-alberta.html">provinces like Alberta that use high-carbon electricity</a>. In Québec, where the <a href="https://www.quebec.ca/en/government/policies-orientations/plan-green-economy/challenges-to-be-met#:%7E:text=Qu%C3%A9bec's%20electricity%20production%20sector%20has,99.8%25%20renewable%2C%20mainly%20hydropower.">electricity production sector has one of the lowest carbon footprints</a>, this figure amounts to about five grams of CO2e. So, manually deleting emails can actually have a greater carbon impact than simply storing them, since you spend more time using the computer.</p></li>
</ol>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A router" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501143/original/file-20221214-15254-f7lpo7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501143/original/file-20221214-15254-f7lpo7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501143/original/file-20221214-15254-f7lpo7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501143/original/file-20221214-15254-f7lpo7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501143/original/file-20221214-15254-f7lpo7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501143/original/file-20221214-15254-f7lpo7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501143/original/file-20221214-15254-f7lpo7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Electricity consumption associated with electronic devices remain more or less the same because our computers and routers are often left on.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Unsplash)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Reducing the carbon impact of our email use?</h2>
<p>In order to quantify the carbon footprint of an email, it is necessary to take into account all of the steps that are involved in its life cycle, ranging from writing to receiving and reading emails, to saving or archiving them.</p>
<p>Overall, the carbon footprint of emails is mainly associated with the manufacturing of electronic devices that are used to write and read them. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1288015223799058433"}"></div></p>
<p>The actual use of the devices becomes more important, and may even be more important than manufacturing, because the electricity that is used to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spc.2022.09.025">power these devices is produced mainly from fossil fuels</a>.</p>
<p>The best way to reduce the carbon footprint of email is to buy fewer electronic products, retain these devices for as long as possible and use ones that consume less electricity.</p>
<p>Send emails when you need to or when you think the recipients will appreciate your message, even if it consists of just a simple thank you. Delete your emails if you want to save storage space, find what you are looking for more rapidly, or many other good reasons besides saving the planet.</p>
<p><em>Daria Marchenko, Founder of the Ecoist Club, also contributed to this article.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/193822/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Luciano Rodrigues Viana received funding from Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jean-François Boucher received funding from Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mohamed Cheriet does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Digital activities, like sending emails, contribute marginally to the annual carbon footprint of information and communication technology users.Luciano Rodrigues Viana, Doctorant en sciences de l'environnement, Département des sciences fondamentales, Université du Québec à Chicoutimi (UQAC)Jean-François Boucher, Professeur, Eco-consulting, Université du Québec à Chicoutimi (UQAC)Mohamed Cheriet, Professor, Engineering Department, École de technologie supérieure (ÉTS)Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1719322022-06-16T12:24:29Z2022-06-16T12:24:29ZWhen texts suddenly stop: Why people ghost on social media<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457764/original/file-20220412-14-7bq4mt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5607%2C3732&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Research suggests that many people prefer ghosting rather than open and honest conversations that might lead to conflict and stress.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/man-with-hands-pressed-up-against-glass-behind-royalty-free-image/1015921616?adppopup=true">Yifei Fang/Moment via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Check your phone. Are there any unanswered texts, snaps or direct messages that you’re ignoring? Should you reply? Or should you ghost the person who sent them? </p>
<p>Ghosting happens when someone cuts off all online communication with someone else, and without an explanation. Instead, like a ghost, they just vanish. The phenomenon is common on social media and dating sites, but with the isolation brought on by the COVID-19 pandemic – forcing more people together online – <a href="https://health.clevelandclinic.org/haunted-the-trend-toward-ghosting/">it happens now more than ever</a>. </p>
<p>I am a <a href="https://www.wesleyan.edu/academics/faculty/rtdubar/profile.html">professor of psychology</a> who studies the role of technology use in interpersonal relationships and well-being. Given the negative psychological consequences of thwarted relationships – especially during <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/2167696816658585">the emerging adulthood years</a>, ages 18 to 29 – I wanted to understand what leads college students to ghost others, and if ghosting has any impact on mental health. </p>
<p>To address these questions, my research team <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000343">recruited 76 college students</a> through social media and on-campus flyers. The sample is 70% female. Study participants signed up for one of 20 focus groups, ranging in size from two to five students. Group sessions lasted an average of 48 minutes each. Participants provided responses to questions asking them to reflect on their ghosting experiences. Here’s what we found. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/QW7rPIf2RBQ?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Millions have been ghosted by romantic partners, friends or potential employers.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The results</h2>
<p>Some students admitted they ghosted because they lacked the necessary communication skills to have an open and honest conversation – whether that conversation happened face to face or via text or email.</p>
<p>From a 19-year-old female: “I’m not good at communicating with people in person, so I definitely cannot do it through typing or anything like that.” </p>
<p>From a 22-year old: “I do not have the confidence to tell them that. Or I guess it could be because of social anxiety.”</p>
<p>In some instances, participants opted to ghost if they thought that meeting with the person would stir up emotional or sexual feelings they were not ready to pursue: “People are afraid of something becoming too much … the fact that the relationship is somehow getting to the next level.” </p>
<p>Some ghosted because of safety concerns. Forty-five percent ghosted to remove themselves from a “toxic,” “unpleasant” or “unhealthy” situation. A 19-year-old female put it this way: “It’s very easy to just chat with total strangers so [ghosting is] like a form of protection when a creepy guy is asking you to send nudes and stuff like that.”</p>
<p>One of the least-reported yet perhaps most interesting reasons for ghosting someone: protecting that person’s feelings. Better to ghost, the thinking goes, than cause the hurt feelings that come with overt rejection. An 18-year-old female said ghosting was “a little bit politer way to reject someone than to directly say, ‘I do not want to chat with you.’” </p>
<p>That said, <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2020/08/PSDT_08.20.20.dating-relationships.full_.report.pdf">recent data suggests</a> that U.S. adults generally perceive breaking up through email, text or social media as unacceptable, and prefer a person-to-person conversation. </p>
<p>And then there’s ghosting after sex. </p>
<p>In the context of hookup culture, there’s an understanding that if the ghoster got what they were looking for – often, that’s sex – then that’s it, they no longer need to talk to that person. After all, more talk could be interpreted as wanting something more emotionally intimate. </p>
<p>According to one 19-year-old female: “I think it’s rare for there to be open conversation about how you’re truly feeling [about] what you want out of a situation. … I think hookup culture is really toxic in fostering honest communication.”</p>
<p>But the most prevalent reason to ghost: a lack of interest in pursuing a relationship with that person. Remember the movie “He’s Just Not That Into You”? As one participant said: “Sometimes the conversation just gets boring.”</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/nirKw3mWB3I?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Breaking up is hard to do.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The consequences</h2>
<p>Attending college represents <a href="https://doi.org/10.15288/jsad.2014.75.580">a critical turning point</a> for establishing and maintaining relationships beyond one’s family and hometown neighborhood. For some emerging adults, romantic breakups, emotional loneliness, social exclusion and isolation can have <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17031116">potentially devastating psychological implications</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000343">Our research supports</a> the idea that ghosting can have negative consequences for mental health. Short term, many of those ghosted felt overwhelming rejection and confusion. They reported feelings of low self-worth and self-esteem. Part of the problem is the lack of clarity – not knowing why communication abruptly stopped. Sometimes, an element of paranoia ensues as the ghostee tries to make sense of the situation. </p>
<p>Long term, our study found many of those ghosted reported feelings of mistrust that developed over time. Some bring this mistrust to future relationships. With that may come internalizing the rejection, self-blame and the potential to sabotage those relationships. </p>
<p>However, just over half the participants in our study said being ghosted offered opportunities for reflection and resilience. </p>
<p>“It can be partly positive for the ghostee because they can realize some of the shortcomings they have, and they may change it,” said an 18-year-old female. </p>
<p>As for the ghoster, there were a range of psychological consequences. About half in the focus groups who ghosted experienced feelings of remorse or guilt; the rest felt no emotion at all. This finding is not entirely surprising, given that individuals who initiate breakups <a href="https://doi.org/10.1525/collabra.230">generally report less distress</a> than the recipients. </p>
<p>Also emerging from our discussions: The feeling that ghosters may become stunted in their personal growth. From a 20-year-old male: “It can [become] a habit. And it becomes part of your behavior and that’s how you think you should end a relationship with someone. … I feel like a lot of people are serial ghosters, like that’s the only way they know how to deal with people.”</p>
<p>Reasons for ghosting out of fear of intimacy represent an especially intriguing avenue for future research. Until that work is done, universities could help by <a href="https://www.affordablecollegesonline.org/college-resource-center/confidence-college-classroom/">providing more opportunities</a> for students to boost confidence and sharpen their communication skills. </p>
<p>This includes more courses that cover these challenges. I am reminded of <a href="https://www.trentu.ca/psychology/programs/undergraduate/undergraduate-course-listing">a psychology class</a> I took as an undergraduate at Trent University that introduced me to the work of social psychologist <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=eI8Fqo4AAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">Daniel Perlman</a>, who taught courses about loneliness and intimate relationships. Outside the classroom, college residential life coordinators could design seminars and workshops that teach students practical skills on resolving relationship conflicts. </p>
<p>In the meantime, students can subscribe to a number of <a href="https://www.gottman.com/blog/category/dating-premarital/">relationship blogs</a> that offer readers research-based answers. Just know that help is out there – even after a ghosting, you’re not alone.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/171932/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Royette T. Dubar does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>With online use ever-increasing, so is the rise of ghosting – when friends decide to disappear into the social ether.Royette T. Dubar, Professor of Psychology, Wesleyan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1733492021-12-07T15:33:25Z2021-12-07T15:33:25ZPing, read, reply, repeat: how to break bad email habits at work<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/436120/original/file-20211207-137612-wook1e.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Open all hours. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/young-woman-working-on-her-laptop-264184457">Mavo</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>It is an impressive feat that work email <a href="https://www.radicati.com/wp/wp-content/uploads/2021/Email_Statistics_Report,_2021-2025_Executive_Summary.pdf">has managed</a> to reign supreme as the most prolific and favoured communication tool in today’s digital working world, despite the emergence of arguably more functional alternatives like Slack, Yammer and MS Teams. </p>
<p>Yet it may not be through active choice that email continues to dominate our working lives. Many <a href="https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/abs/10.1287/orsc.1120.0806?casa_token=glgejXvtczIAAAAA:wPv7nSZE8cX-HTTU6VVS5PQNGfoY-2lohiB3JXOC1IcIItmVnlyikaxcTTFy_tLyhrEXNyOnsNfq">academic studies</a> have <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378720611000176?casa_token=yBpfv6F4cG0AAAAA:Z2F8kBuHcHdQbBnkIlOqagNYXqbJh5S_M2fiMzm6dTGm54pYotEj9up6qpaSNP51m23N8q30J3s">found that</a> there is a certain addictive, habitual component to our use of work email that might be difficult for us to change. At a time when there are so many concerns being raised about <a href="https://theconversation.com/remote-working-the-new-normal-for-many-but-it-comes-with-hidden-risks-new-research-133989">always-on work cultures</a> and our <a href="https://www.hr-inform.co.uk/news-article/what-is-the-right-to-disconnect">right to disconnect</a>, email is the bane of many of our working lives. </p>
<h2>Our research</h2>
<p>We were approached by an international UK-based charity that was concerned about recent staff survey results suggesting that email was making many of their employees feel stressed. Despite making a significant investment into alternatives to try to curb the heavy reliance on work email, many staff were still overusing it – such as sending messages to colleagues sitting nearby, using it for general chit-chat, or out of office hours. </p>
<p>We were asked to design a long-term intervention that could help the staff to change their work-email habits to improve their wellbeing and productivity. <a href="https://bpspsychub.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/joop.12363">We developed</a> a model using existing research on changing people’s habits, and how work email is used. </p>
<p>A key aspect of the model is that unlike, say, a health habit such as smoking, work habits are seldom good or bad per se, but depend on the worker’s role and work context. We consider that a work habit should only be defined as good or bad in relation to whether it helps or hinders someone from fulfilling their tasks and goals, and how it affects their wellbeing. </p>
<p>For example, for a person in a customer-serving role, responding immediately to email notifications can be a good habit as they achieve their central objective of being responsive and helpful to customers. But for a scientist or a writer, the same habit could be detrimental as it might distract them from concentrating on complex work for long periods. </p>
<p>We ran our model for a year with 127 employees at the charity. These workers had responded to an open call to engage in the research and were randomly assigned to an intervention or a control group that were roughly equal in size. For all participants, we measured their email habits and work goals before, during and after the programme. </p>
<p>We provided all workers in the intervention group with work-email tips over a period of about nine months, disseminating these one at a time on a regular basis. Tips included a suggestion to turn off work-email alerts, especially when doing something that demanded a lot of concentration, and to only manually check their inbox every 30-40 minutes. </p>
<p>As each participant received a tip, they had to confirm to us whether they would be implementing this suggestion or not. This meant they were given control over whether it would be appropriate for them and the work they do. Workers in the control group didn’t receive any tips. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/436121/original/file-20211207-25-90rci7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Someone working on their laptop with a coffee" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/436121/original/file-20211207-25-90rci7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/436121/original/file-20211207-25-90rci7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=463&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436121/original/file-20211207-25-90rci7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=463&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436121/original/file-20211207-25-90rci7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=463&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436121/original/file-20211207-25-90rci7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=582&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436121/original/file-20211207-25-90rci7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=582&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436121/original/file-20211207-25-90rci7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=582&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Keep typing.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/friendship-happiness-togetherness-children-casual-concept-349534082">Rawpixel.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Our results showed that workers who received the tips and expressly committed to using them were more likely to change their email behaviour overall. Those who changed their habits enjoyed an improved sense of wellbeing and their perceived ability to achieve work goals increased. </p>
<p>The participants who benefited most were the ones with the highest levels of self-efficacy (a belief in one’s ability to exert control over work and achieve desirable outcomes). In other words, only when people believe they can make the changes will they actually succeed and reap the benefits. </p>
<h2>Key messages</h2>
<p>Our research shows how important it is for initiatives aimed at changing employees’ habits to accommodate individual preferences so that they have control over what they change. To improve the email habits of workers, organisations should therefore provide plans to help them decide which habits might need altering, while leaving the decision to the individual about what to implement in the context of their role. </p>
<p>Coupled with this, organisations should provide <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2018-30691-001">self-efficacy training</a> to <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/220495613_A_quasi-experiment_approach_to_study_the_effect_of_e-mail_management_training">give staff</a> the resources and confidence to change their habits. That will maximise the chances of success, helping as many people as possible to ditch those dysfunctional work-email habits and develop better, more effective ways of working.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/173349/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A research team reports on its one-year project to improve the email habits of a large UK charity.Emma Russell, Senior Lecturer in Occupational Psychology, University of Sussex Business School, University of SussexKevin Daniels, Professor of Organisational Behaviour, University of East AngliaMarc Fullman, Researcher in Organisational Behaviour, University of Sussex Business School, University of SussexTom Jackson, Professor of Information and Knowledge Management, Loughborough UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1698042021-11-01T12:26:32Z2021-11-01T12:26:32ZYou know how to identify phishing emails – a cybersecurity researcher explains how to trust your instincts to foil the attacks<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/427635/original/file-20211020-18-dqgrxx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5041%2C3343&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">If your gut says something is off about an email message, stop and investigate.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/close-up-of-mature-man-with-laptop-scratching-head-royalty-free-image/57226133">Jose Luis Pelaez Inc/DigitalVision via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>An employee at <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/edmonton/macewan-university-phishing-scam-edmonton-1.4270689">MacEwan University got an email</a> in 2017 from someone claiming to be a construction contractor asking to change the account number where almost $12 million in payments were sent. A week later the actual contractor called asking when the payment would arrive. The email about the account number change was fake. Instead of going to the contractor, the payments were sent to accounts controlled by criminals. </p>
<p>Fake emails that try to get people to do things they wouldn’t normally do, such as send money, <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/how-a-u-s-utility-got-hacked-1483120856">run dangerous programs</a> or <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2016/12/13/us/politics/russia-hack-election-dnc.html">give out passwords</a>, are known as <a href="https://www.consumer.ftc.gov/articles/how-recognize-and-avoid-phishing-scams">phishing</a> emails. Cybersecurity experts often <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0269758015571471">blame the people</a> who receive such messages for not noticing that the emails are fake. </p>
<p>As a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=ef0ApTwAAAAJ&hl=en">cybersecurity researcher</a>, I’ve found that most <a href="https://www.usenix.org/conference/soups2021/presentation/wash">people are good at almost all of the skills</a> that computer security experts use to notice fake emails in their inboxes. Making up the difference comes down to listening to your instincts.</p>
<h2>How the pros do it</h2>
<p>In earlier research, I found that when cybersecurity experts <a href="https://doi.org/10.1145/3415231">received a phishing email message</a>, they, like most people, assumed the email was real. They initially took everything in the email at face value. They tried to figure out what the email was asking them to do, and how it related to things in their life.</p>
<p>As they read, they noticed small things that seemed off, or different from what would typically be in similar email messages. They noticed things like typos in a professional email, or the lack of typos from a busy executive. They noticed things like a bank providing account information in an email message instead of the standard notification that the recipient had a message waiting for them in the bank’s secure messaging system. They also noticed things like someone uncharacteristically emailing them without mentioning it in person first.</p>
<p>But noticing these signs isn’t enough to figure out the email is a fraud. Instead, the experts just became uncomfortable with the email message. It wasn’t until they saw something in the message that reminded them of phishing that they became suspicious. They would see an anomaly like a link that the email was trying to get them to click. In their minds, these are commonly associated with phishing emails.</p>
<p>Combined with the uncomfortable feeling about the email message, this reminder prompted the experts to recognize that phishing might explain the weird things they noticed. They became suspicious of the message and investigated to figure out if it was a fraud.</p>
<h2>Good instincts</h2>
<p>If that’s how experts do it, then what do regular people do? When I interviewed people without computer security experience, I found <a href="https://www.ieee-security.org/TC/SPW2021/ConPro/papers/nthala-conpro21.pdf">a similar process</a>. Most people noticed things that seemed off, became uncomfortable with the email, remembered about phishing and investigated. </p>
<p>My research found that people are good at the first two steps: noticing things in the email that seem weird, and becoming uncomfortable. Almost everyone I talked to noticed multiple problems when they saw a fake email, and told me about feeling uncomfortable with the message. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/429191/original/file-20211028-23-ttwp60.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="screenshot of an email message with overlaid annotations" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/429191/original/file-20211028-23-ttwp60.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/429191/original/file-20211028-23-ttwp60.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/429191/original/file-20211028-23-ttwp60.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/429191/original/file-20211028-23-ttwp60.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/429191/original/file-20211028-23-ttwp60.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=627&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/429191/original/file-20211028-23-ttwp60.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=627&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/429191/original/file-20211028-23-ttwp60.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=627&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Aspects of an email message that seem off should prompt you to consider the possibility of phishing. The trick is remembering that phishing exists.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Rick Wash</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>And if people thought about phishing, they were also good at investigating. Instead of looking at technical details, though, most people either contacted the sender or asked others for help. But they were still able to correctly figure out whether an email message was a phishing attack.</p>
<h2>Phishing stories</h2>
<p>Most phishing training teaches people to look for problems in email. But for most people, the hard part about phishing isn’t noticing the weird things in an email message. People often deal with weird but real emails. Many messages feel a little bit off. Sometimes your boss is having a bad day, or the bank changes its polices. No email message is perfect, and people are often attuned to that. </p>
<p>[<em>You’re smart and curious about the world. So are The Conversation’s authors and editors.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=youresmart">You can read us daily by subscribing to our newsletter</a>.]</p>
<p>The challenge for most people was remembering that phishing exists, and recognizing that phishing might explain those weird things. Without that awareness of phishing, the weirdness in phishing messages can be lost in everyday email weirdness.</p>
<p>Most people I interviewed know about phishing in general. But the people who were good at noticing phishing messages reported stories about specific phishing incidents they had heard about. They told me about a time when someone at their organization fell for a phishing email, or about a news story of an incident like the one at MacEwan University. </p>
<p>Familiarity with specific phishing incidents helps people remember phishing generally and recognize that it might explain the weird things they notice in an email. These stories are key to people going from “something’s fishy” to “is this phishing?”</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/169804/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rick Wash receives funding from the National Science Foundation and from Google. He is affiliated with Association for Computing Machinery and the USENIX Association.</span></em></p>Weirdness is a clue about fraudulent email messages. But it takes more than a sense that something’s wrong to get people to investigate.Rick Wash, Associate Professor of Information Science and Cybersecurity, Michigan State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1659612021-08-20T01:03:51Z2021-08-20T01:03:51ZIt’s all too easy to be offended by an innocent work email — but there are ways to avoid it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/417108/original/file-20210819-27-t6rv7o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C17%2C5751%2C3811&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Most people use email frequently in their work, even more during lockdowns and with increased working from home. And all of us have heard tips for “netiquette” — those helpful hints for avoiding offence or miscommunication in the messages we send.</p>
<p>But here’s the thing. Offence is taken as well as given. Neither good intentions nor perfect email etiquette will necessarily avoid problems.</p>
<p>This is because email readers are often subject to what’s called “negative intensification bias”. They often read into messages negativity the sender didn’t intend, or they exaggerate even a hint of negativity.</p>
<p>Office workers spend about <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/annabelacton/2017/07/13/innovators-challenge-how-to-stop-wasting-time-on-emails/?sh=45c1a1bb9788">2.5 hours a day</a> reading, writing and responding to email. The vast majority report at least occasionally receiving emails they’d describe as offensive or disrespectful — in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378720609000925?casa_token=_8j-TYlujt0AAAAA:KoevsICN-mVxUImVdEK3vz_PDxZ6Q8uZB3G3psBFxfn2BPj7_6DFxDvop0SqZdqRrZ1x0BHtwo6A">one study</a>, 91% reported receiving such emails from their boss.</p>
<p>Given the volume of workplace emails, an occasional negative exchange is probably inevitable. However, certain features of email <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/00187267035611003">may make matters worse</a>, increasing the likelihood of miscommunication and conflict escalation. </p>
<p>For example, compared to face-to-face communication, email entails delayed feedback. In face-to-face communication we’re better able to monitor and repair misunderstandings in real time. </p>
<p>Emails also involve reduced “<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/computer-science/social-presence">social presence</a>” — the perception the other person is real and “there” in the interaction. Delayed feedback increases the chances of misunderstanding, and low social presence can lower inhibitions and encourage angry replies or “<a href="https://techterms.com/definition/flaming">flaming</a>”.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="two people talking in an office" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/417109/original/file-20210819-23-1pfxa6n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/417109/original/file-20210819-23-1pfxa6n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417109/original/file-20210819-23-1pfxa6n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417109/original/file-20210819-23-1pfxa6n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417109/original/file-20210819-23-1pfxa6n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417109/original/file-20210819-23-1pfxa6n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417109/original/file-20210819-23-1pfxa6n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Social presence: face-to-face interaction can save a lot of misunderstanding.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The risk of unintended meanings</h2>
<p>Everyone who sends and receives email at work knows the problems that can arise. A Google search will find hundreds of articles about how to avoid them. And there’s good reason for all that attention. </p>
<p>Workplace emails that people consider rude, insulting or impolite <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-psychological-toll-of-rude-e-mails/">create stress</a>, <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/bryanrobinson/2020/09/26/new-study-shows-rude-workplace-emails-can-harm-productivity-and-mental-health/?sh=3f74ad19b1ef">detract from productivity and affect wellbeing</a> — even outside the workplace.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/ten-rules-of-email-that-will-reduce-your-stress-levels-113670">Ten rules of email that will reduce your stress levels</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Email etiquette advice includes minimising “reply all” responses, being cautious with humour, assuming the message is not confidential and asking a colleague to read a difficult message before sending. </p>
<p>All sensible, but it gives the mistaken impression that constructing tactful messages is all that’s needed. It ignores the fact that people receiving email messages are active processors of information who bring their own sensitivities and background knowledge to their interpretation of a message.</p>
<h2>Perceiving negativity</h2>
<p>In <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0893318920979828?journalCode=mcqa">our research</a>, we asked 276 adults in New Zealand and Australia who used email regularly at work to provide an example of an email they had received that either conveyed or prompted negative emotion. </p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="reply all email symbol" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/417110/original/file-20210819-21-ve2t54.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/417110/original/file-20210819-21-ve2t54.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417110/original/file-20210819-21-ve2t54.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417110/original/file-20210819-21-ve2t54.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417110/original/file-20210819-21-ve2t54.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417110/original/file-20210819-21-ve2t54.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417110/original/file-20210819-21-ve2t54.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Email etiquette: beware the ‘reply all’ trap.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We asked them questions about the email and then asked objective observers to read the same messages. We found people who had received the emails directly rated the messages far more negatively than did the observers. </p>
<p>The difference was even greater when the participant’s organisation had a climate in which negative communication was common and when the email sender was in a higher position of power.</p>
<p>This shows a negative intensification bias — that is, an inclination to “read in” more negativity than is apparent in the objective features of the message. It shows context and relationships can influence just how much negativity we perceive.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/not-dead-yet-how-email-has-survived-and-continues-to-thrive-54407">Not dead yet: how email has survived and continues to thrive</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Power dynamics matter</h2>
<p>Some of the examples would be seen as negative by nearly everyone: “F*** you and your performance assessments!”</p>
<p>But many were outwardly civil and even polite: “We acknowledge that our request has a very short timeline and certainly appreciate that you are very busy.” Or, “Just wondering why no update has been received. No news is good news hopefully!”</p>
<p>In fact, a lack of overtly negative features in a message was a poor predictor of people’s negative perceptions.</p>
<p>Hyper-negative interpretations were most likely to come into play with ambiguous messages that could be interpreted in multiple ways. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/ten-ways-to-get-on-top-of-your-overloaded-email-inbox-that-actually-work-97498">Ten ways to get on top of your overloaded email inbox that actually work</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>This was especially true when the messages were short and impersonal and when the messages were from higher-ups in the organisation making requests or issuing directives, or when there was already tension in the relationship.</p>
<p>Interestingly, people’s awareness of the need for email etiquette seems to raise their expectation of what is acceptable. The participants’ explanations for why an email was seen as negative often cited rules for appropriate email behaviour. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="happy woman reading emails" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/417111/original/file-20210819-17-vl2wjr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/417111/original/file-20210819-17-vl2wjr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417111/original/file-20210819-17-vl2wjr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417111/original/file-20210819-17-vl2wjr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417111/original/file-20210819-17-vl2wjr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417111/original/file-20210819-17-vl2wjr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417111/original/file-20210819-17-vl2wjr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Workplace training in the dangers of negative intensification bias will help.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Making email safe again</h2>
<p>Because as a society we have developed views of what’s acceptable, a hastily written or abbreviated message can be read as an intentional slight.</p>
<p>If organisations want to reduce the likelihood of conflict over email communication, training in writing effective emails needs to be matched with similar attention to receiving email messages and the likelihood of negative intensification bias. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/tackling-burnout-how-to-deal-with-stress-and-safety-in-the-workplace-161852">Tackling burnout: How to deal with stress and safety in the workplace</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>It is impossible for even the most sensitive writer to anticipate all potential causes of offence. Communication training should aim to heighten awareness of the many opportunities for misinterpretation in email and the tendency of receivers to read unintended negativity.</p>
<p>Acknowledging the role of power dynamics and the general climate in an organisation will also help. Demonstrating how internal tensions can be perceived in something as seemingly “innocent” as a brief email can also help improve workplace relationships in general.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/165961/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Theodore E. (Ted) Zorn does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>How we read messages is as important as what we write when it comes to happy workplace relations – especially in lockdowns or when working from home.Theodore E. (Ted) Zorn, Professor of Organisational Communication, Massey UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1601872021-07-13T02:07:26Z2021-07-13T02:07:26ZDo you answer emails outside work hours? Do you send them? New research shows how dangerous this can be<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/406697/original/file-20210616-22-mbob8a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Scott Howes/AAP</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>What could be so bad about answering a few emails in the evening? Perhaps something urgent pops up, we are tidying up an issue from the day, or trying to get ahead for tomorrow. Always being online and available is one of the ways we demonstrate our work ethic and professionalism.</p>
<p>But the creep of digital communications into our entire lives is not as harmless as we think. </p>
<p>Our new research shows how prevalent out-of-hours communication is in the Australian university sector. And how damaging it is to our mental and physical health. </p>
<h2>Our research</h2>
<p>Colleagues and I are studying how digital communication impacts work stress, work-life balance, health and sleep in the university sector.</p>
<p>We <a href="https://www.unisa.edu.au/research/cwex/projects/digital-communication-and-work-stress-in-australian-university-staff-a-multilevel-study/">surveyed</a> more than 2,200 academic and professional employees across 40 universities from June to November 2020. We specifically looked at universities given the advancing <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/20/education/learning/education-technology.html">technological</a> changes in the sector and importance of universities to our economic, social and cultural <a href="https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/au/Documents/Economics/deloitte-au-economics-importance-universities-australias-prosperity-011015.pdf">prosperity</a>. </p>
<h2>Our results</h2>
<p>We found high levels of stress along, with a significant amount of out-of-hours communication. This includes: </p>
<ul>
<li>21% of respondents had supervisors who expected them to respond to work-related texts, calls and emails after work</li>
<li>55% sent digital communication about work in the evenings to colleagues</li>
<li>30% sent work-related digital communication to colleagues on the weekends, while expecting a same-day response.</li>
</ul>
<p>Employees who had supervisors expecting them to respond to work messages after work, compared to groups who did not, reported higher levels of psychological distress (70.4% compared to 45.2%) and emotional exhaustion (63.5% compared to 35.2%). They also reported physical health symptoms, such as headaches and back pain (22.1% compared to 11.5%).</p>
<h2>It’s not just horrible bosses</h2>
<p>We also found the same pattern when it came to contact between colleagues. </p>
<p>Groups of employees who felt that they had to respond to work messages from colleagues outside of work hours, compared to groups who did not, also reported higher levels of psychological distress (75.9% compared to 39.3%). They also reported higher levels of emotional exhaustion (65.9% compared to 35.7%) and physical health symptoms (22.1% compared to 12.5%). </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/as-boundaries-between-work-and-home-vanish-employees-need-a-right-to-disconnect-158897">As boundaries between work and home vanish, employees need a 'right to disconnect'</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Although the project team surveyed university employees, this is likely to reflect a society-wide problem of digital communication out-of-work hours. An Australia Institute <a href="https://d3n8a8pro7vhmx.cloudfront.net/theausinstitute/pages/3395/attachments/original/1605571432/GHOTD_2020_formatted_FINAL_FOR_RELEASE.pdf?1605571432">survey</a> last year showed Australians were working 5.3 hours of unpaid overtime on average per week, up from 4.6 hours the year before. </p>
<p>Notably, 31% of employees in our sample reported a moderate or severe psychological disorder, and 62% said they thought the “<a href="https://www.stresscafe.com.au/8203psychosocial-safety-climate-psc.html">psychosocial safety climate</a>” – of their workplace — the degree to which it protected their psychological health — was “poor”. </p>
<p>By comparison, an <a href="https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/mental-health-services/mental-health-services-in-australia/report-contents/summary-of-mental-health-services-in-australia/prevalence-impact-and-burden">estimated 20%</a> of Australian adults have experienced a common mental disorder in the previous 12 months. A 2014 <a href="https://www.headsup.org.au/docs/default-source/resources/bl1270-report---tns-the-state-of-mental-health-in-australian-workplaces-hr.pdf?sfvrsn=8">beyondblue survey</a>, suggested 52% of employees find their workplace mentally healthy. </p>
<h2>What does this mean?</h2>
<p>The personal and social implications of blurred boundaries between home and work are serious. When employees are answering calls or responding to emails at home, this affects their recovery from work - both mentally and physically. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A man stretches on a beach." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/405855/original/file-20210611-15-an2rho.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/405855/original/file-20210611-15-an2rho.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/405855/original/file-20210611-15-an2rho.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/405855/original/file-20210611-15-an2rho.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/405855/original/file-20210611-15-an2rho.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/405855/original/file-20210611-15-an2rho.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/405855/original/file-20210611-15-an2rho.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">If you’re always checking emails, this means less space to recover from work.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Joel Carrett/AAP</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Being in a constant state of hyper-vigilance awaiting work notifications at home can affect metabolism and immunity, creating susceptibility to serious health problems such as infection, high blood pressure and depression. In fact, recent research by the World Health Organisation and International Labour Organisation suggest that long work hours may even increase the risk of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160412019331642">heart disease</a> and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160412019332118">stroke</a>. </p>
<p>Another problem is that when we get work calls or emails out of hours, this also reduces the time for recovery activities such as social interaction, physical exercise and spending time in natural settings. </p>
<p>These are critical activities to maintain physical and particularly psychological health. The personal and social ramifications of work intrusion into home life also have the potential to hurt family relationships, and community supports, like volunteering. </p>
<h2>Next steps</h2>
<p>So what needs to happen now? </p>
<p>We can focus on the immediate problem and reduce the extent of digital connectivity out of work hours. Negotiating work conditions to address the problem like the Victoria Police <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-04-06/right-to-disconnect-gives-workers-their-lives-back/100040424">has recently done</a> is a good start. Amending the National Employment Standards to enforce the “right to disconnect” will also protect vulnerable low paid, non-unionised workers who do not have the capacity to negotiate their own work conditions. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/long-hours-at-the-office-could-be-killing-you-the-case-for-a-shorter-working-week-116369">Long hours at the office could be killing you – the case for a shorter working week</a>
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<p>But while these industrial regulations prevent managers from getting in touch, it won’t change the behaviour of colleagues hassling each other. Or the inward pressure many of us feel to work out of hours. </p>
<p>Workplace expert professor Maureen Dollard argues the problem of digital connectivity outside of standard work hours reflects a broader issue around the workplace culture and <a href="https://www.unisa.edu.au/Media-Centre/Releases/2020/unisa-to-lead-world-first-observatory-to-measure-the-psychosocial-safety-climate-of-workplaces/">psychological health</a>. When an organisation values productivity over psychological health, then employees will feel more pressure to manage unrealistic deadlines. </p>
<p>Ultimately, our problem with out-of-hours emails and messaging reflects broader societal issues relating to the pressures of productivity, job insecurity and diminishing work resources.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/160187/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>This work is supported by an Australian Research Council Discovery Grant (DP190100853) (CIs Kurt Lushington, Tony Winefield, Silvia Pignata and Arnold Bakker) and the Australian Research Council Laureate Fellowship (FL200100025) awarded to Maureen Dollard. Research team members who have contributed to this work include Amy Zadow, Rachael Potter, Ali Afsharian and Amy Parkin.
</span></em></p>The creep of digital communications into our entire lives is not as harmless as we think.Amy Zadow, Research Fellow in Organisational Psychology, University of South AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1568642021-03-12T05:32:48Z2021-03-12T05:32:48ZSecurity flaws in Microsoft email software raise questions over Australia’s cybersecurity approach<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/389193/original/file-20210312-15-1qu4q0s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C16%2C5615%2C3715&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>On March 2, 2021, Microsoft published information about four critical vulnerabilities in its widely used <a href="https://www.microsoft.com/security/blog/2021/03/02/hafnium-targeting-exchange-servers/">Exchange email server software</a> that are being actively exploited. It also released <a href="https://techcommunity.microsoft.com/t5/exchange-team-blog/released-march-2021-exchange-server-security-updates/ba-p/2175901">security updates</a> for all versions of Exchange back to 2010.</p>
<p>Microsoft has told cybersecurity expert Brian Krebs it was <a href="https://krebsonsecurity.com/2021/03/a-basic-timeline-of-the-exchange-mass-hack/">notified</a> of the vulnerabilities in “early January”. The Australian Cyber Security Centre has also issued a <a href="https://www.cyber.gov.au/acsc/view-all-content/advisories/advisory-2021-002-active-exploitation-vulnerable-microsoft-exchange-servers">notice</a> on the vulnerabilities. </p>
<p>The situation has been widely reported in the general media as well as specialist cybersecurity sites, but often inaccurately. But the situation also highlights a contradiction in government cybersecurity policy. </p>
<p>When governments find flaws in widely used software, they may not publish the details in order to build up their own offensive cybersecurity capabilities, i.e. the ability to target computers and networks for spying, manipulation and disruption. Operations like this often rely on exploiting vulnerabilities in commercial software — thus leaving their own citizens vulnerable to attack as a consequence.</p>
<h2>What happened?</h2>
<p>Microsoft has issued patches to fix the vulnerabilities and provided advice on how to respond if systems have already been <a href="https://msrc-blog.microsoft.com/2021/03/05/microsoft-exchange-server-vulnerabilities-mitigations-march-2021/">affected</a>. </p>
<p>These vulnerabilities can be really damaging for anybody running their own Exchange mail server. Attackers can run any code on the server and fully compromise a business’s email, allowing them to impersonate anybody in the business. They could also read all email stored on the server and potentially compromise more systems within the businesses’ network. </p>
<h2>Who was affected?</h2>
<p>It’s important to clear up exactly who the vulnerabilities affected: anybody running their own instance of Exchange, and the risk was higher if web access was turned on.</p>
<p>An ABC/Reuters <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-03-06/white-house-fears-significant-hack-microsoft-exchange-email/13223508">report</a> said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>All of those affected appear to run Web versions of email client Outlook and host them on their own machines, instead of relying on cloud providers.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>But using a cloud-hosted version of Exchange wouldn’t necessarily solve the problem, as the vulnerabilities still exist. What’s more, larger enterprises will most probably still choose or be required by regulation to also run a local Exchange server that can be exploited in the same way. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/5-ways-the-covid-19-pandemic-has-forever-changed-cybersecurity-156170">5 ways the COVID-19 pandemic has forever changed cybersecurity</a>
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</em>
</p>
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<p>Another open issue with moving mail servers to the cloud is that it also gives the provider access to all unencrypted emails by default. End-to-end encryption would increase security, but this is not currently standard practice.</p>
<h2>Questions for Microsoft</h2>
<p>As vulnerabilities existed in versions of the software released as long ago as 2010, we can assume more skilled attackers have already used them. This raises a fundamental question about the quality of the software, which Microsoft has been developing since 1996. Why did Microsoft not spot these vulnerabilities earlier?</p>
<p>Another question: if Microsoft <a href="https://www.zdnet.com/article/everything-you-need-to-know-about-microsoft-exchange-server-hack/">knew about the vulnerabilities</a> in early January, why did it take two months to alert its customers?</p>
<h2>Questions for cybersecurity policy</h2>
<p>We also need to consider the bigger picture of how we deal with vulnerabilities in software that builds the backbone of our computer and network infrastructure. Obviously, these vulnerabilities would have been a great offensive cybersecurity tool for any number of actors. </p>
<p>There is a basic conflict between building offensive cybersecurity capabilities and protecting our own businesses and citizens. </p>
<p>Imagine you are tasked with building offensive cybersecurity capabilities. You discover these vulnerabilities in Microsoft Exchange. Would you alert the vendor, Microsoft in this case, to make sure they are fixed as soon as possible, or would you keep them secret to not to lose your great new cyber weapon? Secretly having access to an organisation’s email could be very valuable for law enforcement or intelligence agencies.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-solarwinds-hack-was-all-but-inevitable-why-national-cyber-defense-is-a-wicked-problem-and-what-can-be-done-about-it-153084">The SolarWinds hack was all but inevitable – why national cyber defense is a 'wicked' problem and what can be done about it</a>
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</p>
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<p><a href="https://www.homeaffairs.gov.au/cyber-security-subsite/files/cyber-security-strategy-2020.pdf">Australia’s Cyber Security Strategy 2020</a> does not address the contradiction between establishing offensive cybersecurity capabilities and protecting Australians from cybersecurity vulnerabilities.</p>
<p>The establishment of offensive cybersecurity capabilities is explicitly mentioned in the strategy. In contrast, the detection of vulnerabilities with the goal of mitigation is not a clear goal. </p>
<p>Nor is openness about existing vulnerabilities — which would empower Australian citizens to react to them — part of the strategy. Australia has the expertise across the public sector, private sector and civil society to have this important dialogue on how to best protect Australian citizens and businesses.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/156864/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Carsten Rudolph is affiliated with the Oceania Cyber Security Centre OCSC as their Director of Research. The OCSC is a not-for-profit collaboration of eight Victorian Universities. </span></em></p>Commercial software is vital to all of our cybersecurity. What should governments do if they find it has weaknesses?Carsten Rudolph, Associate professor, Monash UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1546462021-02-25T19:03:10Z2021-02-25T19:03:10ZFriday essay: how can the dead send us emails? The ethical dilemma of digital souls<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/385478/original/file-20210222-23-158tywl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=40%2C24%2C5398%2C3596&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://images.unsplash.com/photo-1503642551022-c011aafb3c88?ixid=MXwxMjA3fDB8MHxwaG90by1wYWdlfHx8fGVufDB8fHw%3D&ixlib=rb-1.2.1&auto=format&fit=crop&w=3150&q=80">Denys Nevozhai/Unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Tim Hart was sitting on his couch one evening in November 2011 when he got an email with the subject line: “I’m watching”. The message that followed was short and to the point …</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Did you hear me? I’m at your house. Clean your fucking attic!!!
— Jack Froese</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Jack Froese had been a close friend of Hart’s since their teens. A few months earlier Froese and Hart had been up in Hart’s attic at his home in Dunmore, Pennsylvania. Jack had teased him then about how messy it was; now, it seemed, he was doing it again.</p>
<p>Except Jack was dead.</p>
<p>That June, Froese had died suddenly of a heart arrhythmia, at the obscenely young age of 32. Months later, <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/av/magazine-17348635">he started emailing people</a>. Those who replied to these emails never got a response, and the messages stopped as abruptly as they began.</p>
<p>Not long after Froese’s death, a group of philosophers gathered in a seminar room on the other side of the Atlantic to hear David Oderberg, Professor of Philosophy at the University of Reading, <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13347-011-0051-6">offer a curious thought experiment</a>: what if you received an anonymous email, containing information that you and you alone were privy to? </p>
<p>In Oderberg’s example, the email might say, “I know you felt like killing Mr Watson for failing you on your A-level English exam,” — something you’d never told anyone at all — “but you deserved to fail”.</p>
<p>Who could this message come from: God? Your future self? A spambot whose random message just happened, by mind-boggling coincidence, to describe your early life? The late Mr Watson, now posthumously aware of how you felt that day and eager to set the record straight?</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/385453/original/file-20210222-19-6s0bc3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/385453/original/file-20210222-19-6s0bc3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/385453/original/file-20210222-19-6s0bc3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=940&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385453/original/file-20210222-19-6s0bc3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=940&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385453/original/file-20210222-19-6s0bc3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=940&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385453/original/file-20210222-19-6s0bc3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1181&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385453/original/file-20210222-19-6s0bc3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1181&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385453/original/file-20210222-19-6s0bc3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1181&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://media.bloomsbury.com/rep/f/9781350139145.jpg">Bloomsbury Academic</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For the specific purpose of the interaction, says Oderberg, it doesn’t really matter, just as when a soldier receives an order on the battlefield it doesn’t matter whether the order comes from the colonel or the general.</p>
<p>Both options have what Oderberg dubs “telic possibility”. Something is telically possible if it might as well have been true. The purpose of the order is to command an action. It might as well have come from the colonel as from the general: an order’s an order.</p>
<p>Not infrequently, according to Oderberg, electronic communication is just like this. If all you want is to know how to drive to the nearest supermarket, GPS navigation with synthesised speech is just as effective as a human sitting next to you with a roadmap.</p>
<p>Someone under the misapprehension there is a flesh-and-blood person on the other end of the SatNav reading out driving instructions to them in real time will get to their destination just as quickly as someone who understands they’re listening to a computer. The voice might as well be a person as a piece of software. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/struggling-with-the-uncertainty-of-life-under-coronavirus-how-kierkegaards-philosophy-can-help-144671">Struggling with the uncertainty of life under coronavirus? How Kierkegaard's philosophy can help</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Planned or spammed?</h2>
<p>There are other plausible, earthly explanations for Jack’s emails, though not all of them check out. You can send an email after you die, if you’ve done a bit of planning. There are online services specifically <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/tech-news/digital-services-send-messages-your-loved-ones-after-you-die-n708871">designed to send pre-prepared messages</a> on your behalf after your death. </p>
<p>Some rely on a next of kin contacting the service to let them know the user has died. Others require the user to log in at set intervals or reply to periodic emails, and will assume the user has died if they don’t respond. (So if you’re keen to use such a service to tell people how much you secretly hated, cheated on, or lusted after them, just make sure you don’t fall into a long coma and then wake up. Things could get awkward.) </p>
<p>That would be a very neat explanation for Froese’s emails — except that an email his cousin received mentions an injury that happened long after Froese had died.</p>
<p>But what’s really interesting here is not how the emails came about, but the responses of the people who got them. Hart’s attitude was that, even if someone other than Jack wrote the emails, it ultimately didn’t matter: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>… we spoke to his mother, and she told us, you know, ‘Think what you want about it, or just accept it as a gift’.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>In other words, to use Oderberg’s language, Froese’s friends and family treated it as telically possible that the emails were from Jack. For the purpose of the communication, it didn’t really matter. They had the emails, and felt comforted by a sense of Jack’s persistence, whatever their origin.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/385488/original/file-20210222-15-1os1blh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="black keyboard with glowing keys" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/385488/original/file-20210222-15-1os1blh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/385488/original/file-20210222-15-1os1blh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=361&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385488/original/file-20210222-15-1os1blh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=361&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385488/original/file-20210222-15-1os1blh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=361&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385488/original/file-20210222-15-1os1blh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=454&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385488/original/file-20210222-15-1os1blh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=454&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385488/original/file-20210222-15-1os1blh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=454&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Jack’s mother told his friends they could accept each posthumous email as ‘a gift’.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://images.unsplash.com/photo-1555532538-dcdbd01d373d?ixid=MXwxMjA3fDB8MHxwaG90by1wYWdlfHx8fGVufDB8fHw%3D&ixlib=rb-1.2.1&auto=format&fit=crop&w=3231&q=80">Unsplash/Florian Krumm</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Ghosts in the machines</h2>
<p>The dead persist everywhere and nowhere, from the solidity of corpses to wispy traces in dreams, writing, building, and even in the faces of their descendants. </p>
<p>From the <a href="https://www.brown.edu/Departments/Joukowsky_Institute/courses/romanartandarch2011/14159.html">ancestor mask processions of the Romans</a> through to the <a href="https://www.biography.com/news/famous-death-masks">death masks of the royal and famous</a> that began to be produced during the late Middle Ages, from the earliest portraiture to photography and video, humans have found ways to preserve the phenomenality of the dead, the distinctive way they appear and sound.</p>
<p>New technologies allow the dead to persist among us in enhanced ways, yet risk turning the dead into <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2020/oct/30/robert-kardashian-resurrected-as-a-hologram-for-kim-kardashian-wests-birthday">mere fodder for the living</a>. Danger lies in the very thing that makes electronic communication so powerful: the transparency of the medium, the frictionless ease with which others appear to us, unburdened by distance and delay. </p>
<p>As the internet folds itself into the sinews of our everyday existence, as our flesh becomes increasingly digitised, the gap between electronic and face-to-face communication is closing. That makes it far easier for the dead to remain among the living. But it can also change our relationship to the dead in ethically troubling ways. </p>
<p>With every day that passes, the internet <a href="https://splinternews.com/we-calculated-the-year-dead-people-on-facebook-could-ou-1793855143">fills up more and more with dead people</a>, while our <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-global-tech-privacy-trfn-idUSKBN21Z0NF">ability to reanimate them</a> becomes ever more powerful. </p>
<p>The dead are both more robust and more vulnerable — and we’re not ready for any of this. We need, urgently, to understand what the internet era means for our relationship to the dead, and what new demands this makes of us.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/everything-dies-and-its-best-we-learn-to-live-with-that-59384">Everything dies and it's best we learn to live with that</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Talking to Edison</h2>
<p>It’s easy to lose sight of the fact that electric communication is now in its third century, reckoning from <a href="http://www.sirfrancisronalds.co.uk/tele.html">Francis Ronalds’ first working telegraph</a> of 1816, two decades before Samuel Morse. What’s perhaps even more remarkable is that, as the cultural historian Jeffrey Sconce demonstrates in his book <a href="https://www.dukeupress.edu/haunted-media">Haunted Media</a>, the idea of communicating with the dead became conceptually entangled with electric communication right from the start. </p>
<p>Commercial telegraph services began to appear at roughly the same moment as the table-turning craze, which began with the rapping “spirits” that <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-fox-sisters-and-the-rap-on-spiritualism-99663697/">plagued the Fox Sisters in Hydesville, New York in 1848</a>. The uncanny new technology of communication-at-a-distance provided a helpful structuring metaphor: the electric telegraph allowed the living to speak to each other across vast distances, while the “spiritual telegraph” of the séance room bridged the gulf between the living and the dead.</p>
<p>That association of the dead with electric communication, as Sconce notes, lingered right throughout the 20th century. Near the end of his life, Thomas Edison was speculating to reporters about the possibility of building a machine so sensitive it could <a href="https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/dial-a-ghost-on-thomas-edisons-least-successful-invention-the-spirit-phone">communicate with the dead</a>. Both Edison and Alexander Graham Bell, inventor of the telephone, experimented with telepathy by winding wires around people’s heads. (It didn’t work.) </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/385480/original/file-20210222-17-10k7p8o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="telephone lines against the sky" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/385480/original/file-20210222-17-10k7p8o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/385480/original/file-20210222-17-10k7p8o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385480/original/file-20210222-17-10k7p8o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385480/original/file-20210222-17-10k7p8o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385480/original/file-20210222-17-10k7p8o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385480/original/file-20210222-17-10k7p8o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385480/original/file-20210222-17-10k7p8o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">‘Oh, oh, telephone line, give me some time, I’m living in twilight.’ ELO (1976)</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://images.unsplash.com/photo-1611522116876-40c1215cceec?ixid=MXwxMjA3fDB8MHxwaG90by1wYWdlfHx8fGVufDB8fHw%3D&ixlib=rb-1.2.1&auto=format&fit=crop&w=1575&q=80">Levan Badzgaradze/Unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Many people found the telephone unsettling and even creepy the first time they heard it, reminiscent of the mysterious disembodied voices of the séance room. In particular, the entirely new phenomenon of white noise unnerved early telephone users; some came to interpret sounds within the phone line static as somehow connected to or even communications from the afterlife.</p>
<p>Electronic media collapses time and space, removes the tyranny of distance and absence; understandable, then, that overcoming the ultimate distance and the final absence, the chasm that separates us from the dead, would come to figure in the cultural imagination of the first generations of humans to live with this new technology. </p>
<p>But the dead do not just appear to us in terrifying visions or mysterious ciphers, but in the very real material and mental traces they leave behind. </p>
<p>Haunting is an everyday event, not an anomalous one. And with the digital age, the dead have found new ways to haunt us more comprehensively than ever before.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-month-at-sea-with-no-technology-taught-me-how-to-steal-my-life-back-from-my-phone-127501">A month at sea with no technology taught me how to steal my life back from my phone</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Digital grief</h2>
<p>Ancient questions about the metaphysical and ethical status of the dead collide with new ones about our relationship to our information and our ownership of digital property. </p>
<p>Anxieties about whether <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/wellness/grief-ginsburg-celebrity-famous/2020/09/22/0674c1fe-fd08-11ea-9ceb-061d646d9c67_story.html">public grief</a> is “real” and who has the right to grieve are amplified when mourning is instantaneous and global. Crucially, this is not just an academic concern, but an urgent practical one. How are we to meet the conceptual and ethical challenges of the world that is coming into view? Can people really survive death online? Should we let them?</p>
<p>In 2017, Australian journalist Mark Colvin died, aged 65. A universally admired broadcaster and author, Colvin was also an avid and highly responsive Twitter user. The news broke around 11:40am, and Twitter was immediately flooded with tributes. Then, at 1:18pm, Colvin’s account <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-05-11/mark-colvin-has-last-word-on-twitter/8517670">posted a single tweet</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>It’s all been bloody marvellous.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Had it been sent by a family member on his behalf? Had he, knowing the end was near, scheduled the tweet? Was the ghost of Mark Colvin somehow using his iPhone?</p>
<p>Nobody, it seemed, felt like asking. They all just wanted to say goodbye and explain what Colvin meant to them. It was what it was. “Think what you want about it, or just accept it as a gift”.</p>
<p><em>This is an edited extract from <a href="https://www.bloomsbury.com/us/digital-souls-9781350139145/">Digital Souls: A Philosophy of Online Death</a>, by Patrick Stokes (Bloomsbury).</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/154646/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Patrick Stokes does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Every day, the internet fills up with more and more dead people while our ability to reanimate them grows. The dead are more robust and more vulnerable — and we’re not ready for any of this.Patrick Stokes, Associate Professor of Philosophy, Deakin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1532932021-01-15T01:24:37Z2021-01-15T01:24:37ZToo much information: the COVID work revolution has increased digital overload<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/378955/original/file-20210114-14-u3bkdv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=393%2C15%2C9652%2C5659&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Are too many online meetings and notifications getting you down? </p>
<p>Online communication tools – from email to virtual chat and video-conferencing – have transformed the way we work. In many respects they’ve made life easier. Without them we could not have made the shift to remote working during the COVID pandemic. </p>
<p>But are we now overly connected?</p>
<p>I and my colleagues have interviewed 120 experts from around the world to get a handle on the effects of 2020’s working-from-home revolution. </p>
<p>What they told us suggests the desire to compensate for the lack of physical interaction is compounding digital overload – the phenomenon that technology researchers Larry Rosen and Alexandra Samuel described in the <a href="https://hbr.org/2015/06/conquering-digital-distraction">Harvard Business Review</a> way back in 2015 as perhaps “the defining problem of today’s workplace”. </p>
<p>As Rosen, a pioneer in the “psychology of technology”, explains in <a href="https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/distracted-mind">The Distracted Mind: Ancient Brains in a High-Tech World</a>, his 2016 book co-written with neuroscientist <a href="https://neuroscape.ucsf.edu/profile/adam-gazzaley/">Adam Gazzaley</a>, our brains have not evolved for media multitasking.</p>
<blockquote>
<blockquote>
<p>So many technological innovations have enhanced our lives in countless ways, but they also threaten to overwhelm our brain’s goal-directed functioning with interference. This interference has a detrimental impact on our cognition and behaviours in daily activities. It impacts every level of our thinking, from our perceptions, decision making, communication, emotional regulation, and our memories.</p>
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<p>This interference is increasing as we embrace ever more tools that facilitate virtual communication and collaboration, always “on” and in touch through a barrage of messages and notifications. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Woman video conferencing." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/378952/original/file-20210114-17-1bx4eot.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/378952/original/file-20210114-17-1bx4eot.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/378952/original/file-20210114-17-1bx4eot.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/378952/original/file-20210114-17-1bx4eot.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/378952/original/file-20210114-17-1bx4eot.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/378952/original/file-20210114-17-1bx4eot.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/378952/original/file-20210114-17-1bx4eot.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The desire to compensate for the lack of physical interaction is compounding digital overload.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Girts Ragelis/Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/vital-signs-shorter-meetings-but-longer-days-how-covid-19-has-changed-the-way-we-work-143894">Vital Signs: Shorter meetings but longer days – how COVID-19 has changed the way we work</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Using nine tools a day</h2>
<p>Our research is part of a global project on the <a href="https://www.vision-project.org/">future of work and education</a> involving 14 university, corporate and non-profit partner organisations. </p>
<p>We interviewed managers in the private sector (from start-ups to corporations), the public sector and academia. We talked to each for an a hour about how their work environments had been affected by the pandemic, and how they imagine the future.</p>
<p>Almost all agreed digital overload had increased due to too many digital tools, too much information and too many hours spent in online conferencing.</p>
<p>On average, they reported using nine collaboration and communication tools every day. If that seems excessive, count how many you use. More than likely you have software for writing, email, instant message, calendars, file sharing, conferencing, work organisation and password management. That’s nine just there.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/with-management-resistance-overcome-working-from-home-may-be-here-to-stay-144850">With management resistance overcome, working from home may be here to stay</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>More online fatigue</h2>
<p>Our respondents also reported increased fatigue from being online all the time, and from being expected to send and respond to messages. As one of interviewee put it, the old problem of lack of information has been overtaken by how to keep up with all the information we are expected to take in and provide. </p>
<p>Online meetings were cited as particularly exhausting. This concurs with research showing the demands of constantly observing ourselves as performers leads to “<a href="https://theconversation.com/5-reasons-why-zoom-meetings-are-so-exhausting-137404">Zoom fatigue</a>”.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/hide-self-one-tip-on-video-conferencing-good-enough-for-matthew-mcconaughey-136609">Hide self: one tip on video conferencing good enough for Matthew McConaughey</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>3 tips to manage digital overload</h2>
<p>You may not have much influence over the number of tools you use. But you can control how you use them. The key is to reduce “goal interference” – anything that interrupts or distracts you from the task in front of you. </p>
<p>Here are three simple principles to manage the load.</p>
<p><strong>1. Switch between tasks less often</strong></p>
<p>Research shows the idea of multitasking is a myth. Maybe we can cope with two things at time, such listening to music while working. But for any task requiring focus we have to make a cognitive switch. Studies show the more we switch, <a href="https://www.pnas.org/content/106/37/15583">the worse we get</a> at focusing on what’s relevant to the task before us. Make fewer switches to maximise your ability to filter out interference from thoughts about other tasks.</p>
<p><strong>2. Schedule set times for regular tasks</strong></p>
<p><a href="https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Checking-email-less-frequently-reduces-stress-Kushlev-Dunn/cbf357a42ebe471a6287b2bf84e2833f3be21696?p2df">Behavioural experiments</a> show those who check emails just a few times a day report lower stress than those who constantly check throughout the day. Make the effort to do related tasks in set times blocks (say 30 minutes). Give yourself the opportunity to really concentrate. Switch off unnecessary notifications and other distractions. </p>
<p><strong>3. Limit unnecessary communication</strong></p>
<p>Sharing information is important – knowledge is power, after all. But too much information becomes just another distraction. As another adage goes, data isn’t information, information isn’t knowledge, knowledge isn’t understanding, and understanding isn’t wisdom. Information in the digital age is a bit like food. Tens of thousands of years of scarcity has conditioned us to crave it. But abundance means we have to consciously check ourselves from consuming too much.</p>
<h2>Changing work culture</h2>
<p>These three tips are far from a complete solution, of course. As our interviewees underlined, addressing the problem of digital overload at work requires radical reflection on the temptations of technology – including thinking yet more technology will solve the problem. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/50-years-of-bold-predictions-about-remote-work-it-isnt-all-about-technology-135034">50 years of bold predictions about remote work: it isn't all about technology</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>There have been many lessons to learn from 2020. </p>
<p>From our unplanned leap into a work future long predicted would come from digital technology, we have the opportunity to understand the pain points. We’ve had a technological revolution in workplace communication and collaboration. Now must come a cultural revolution.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/153293/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>RMIT University is an associate partner of the Erasmus+ Knowledge Alliance project Vision (Project Number: 612537-EPP-1-2019-1-SI-EPPKA2-KA).</span></em></p>Interference with our brain’s goal-directed functioning is increasing with ever more tools for virtual communication and collaboration.Olga Kokshagina, Researcher - Innovation & Entrepreneurship, RMIT UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1487202020-12-27T20:41:40Z2020-12-27T20:41:40ZHere’s why you’re checking work emails on holidays (and how to stop)<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/373506/original/file-20201208-19-1abl6yt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=1%2C5%2C997%2C660&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/man-using-tablet-computer-while-relaxing-270714437">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Finally, the holidays are here — the break you’ve been waiting for. You want to leave work behind, kick back and enjoy time with family and friends. </p>
<p>But you’re still checking work emails and taking work calls. Even if you are at a remote location that screams holiday, you’re still thinking about work, or even doing work, although you promised yourself this time would be different.</p>
<p>If this sounds familiar, you’re not the only one <a href="https://securitybrief.com.au/story/aussie-workers-struggling-to-switch-off-while-on-holiday">struggling to switch off</a> on holidays. </p>
<p>One reason is you, like many others, might derive a strong sense of self from your work.</p>
<h2>Work helps shape your identity</h2>
<p>Humans crave answers to the question “who am I?”. One place we find these answers is in the activities we do — including our work. Whether we work by choice, necessity, or a bit of both, many of us find work inevitably becomes a source of our identity. </p>
<p>We develop <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4419-7988-9_29">professional identities</a> (“I’m a lawyer”), <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/258189?origin=crossref&seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents">organisational identities</a> (“I’m a Google employee”), or as we discovered in our research, <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0018726719851835">performance-based identities</a> (“I’m a top performer”). </p>
<p>Such identification can be beneficial. It has been linked with <a href="https://iaap-journals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/1464-0597.00020">increased motivation and work performance</a>, and even <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/toc/10990992/47/7">better health</a>. But it can also prevent us from switching off.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-our-obsession-with-performance-is-changing-our-sense-of-self-120212">How our obsession with performance is changing our sense of self</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Your work identity can make it harder to switch off</h2>
<p>We all know people who are mentally “on holidays” even before the holidays have started. But for others, switching off from work is not so easy. Why?</p>
<p>One factor is our identity mix. We all have multiple identities, but the range and relative importance of our identities <a href="https://journals.aom.org/doi/10.5465/19416520.2014.912379">vary</a> from person to person.</p>
<p>If work-related identities occupy a central place in how we see ourselves, they’re likely to shape our thinking and behaviour beyond work hours — including during holidays. In other words, we stay mentally connected to work not because the boss or the job necessarily requires it, but because it’s hard to imagine other ways of “being ourselves”.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1093283823951855616"}"></div></p>
<p>Equally important to why some of us struggle to switch off on holidays are <a href="https://doi.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0022-3514.89.5.657">environmental cues</a>. That relaxing chair by the pool or the company of family tell us we’re off work. But email alerts or phone calls, or even the simple sight of our laptop, can activate work identities and associated mindsets and behaviours. No wonder our plans for switching off are doomed.</p>
<h2>Yes, but what can I do about it?</h2>
<p>It’s worth considering all that obvious advice you’ve heard on the benefits of <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/click-here-happiness/201801/5-ways-do-digital-detox">digital detox</a>. </p>
<p>This is even more important in the new normal of working from home in 2020 and beyond. For many of us, the office and home are now one and the same, meaning we have to work even harder to protect non-work time from work-related incursions.</p>
<p>From an identity perspective, though, there’s a lot more we can do.</p>
<p>First, we can scan the environment and remove any cues that might activate our work identity (beyond switching off email alerts). This might be something as simple as hiding your laptop in a drawer.</p>
<p>At the same time, introduce cues to activate other identities. For instance, if you’re a tennis player or an aspiring artist, keep your gear visible so your brain is primed to focus on those aspects of your self. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/373518/original/file-20201208-13-1pz688m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Tennis bag, racket, ball and shoes lying around at home" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/373518/original/file-20201208-13-1pz688m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/373518/original/file-20201208-13-1pz688m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373518/original/file-20201208-13-1pz688m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373518/original/file-20201208-13-1pz688m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373518/original/file-20201208-13-1pz688m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373518/original/file-20201208-13-1pz688m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373518/original/file-20201208-13-1pz688m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Keep your tennis gear visible so your brain is primed to focus on your identity as a tennis player.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/sport-fitness-healthy-lifestyle-objects-concept-344017223">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Second, research suggests we can engage in “<a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/job.2318">identity work</a>” and “<a href="https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/09534811011017180/full/html">identity play</a>”. That’s deliberately managing and revising our identities, and even experimenting with potential new ones. Imagining and trying new and more complex versions of ourselves takes time, but it can be an effective antidote to an overpowering work identity. </p>
<p>But simply trying to not think about work over the holidays is likely to do more harm than good. Much research shows trying to suppress certain thoughts <a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.psych.51.1.59?utm_source=thearchive.me&casa_token=7EMuUEUjcZIAAAAA:oonIM3-aA-zdrfjL7Le0VHaC9_Mnn08E-zBWich68hLk4LcP6eEdfea8iTegKa63K-x4Wee8smOJmgE">tends to have the opposite effect</a>, making us not only have the thought more, but also feeling worse afterwards. </p>
<p>A better approach may be to <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/nz/blog/two-takes-depression/201102/introduction-acceptance-and-commitment-therapy">accept the thought</a> for what it is (a simple mental event), and naturally let your mind move to the next carriage in your train of thought.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/were-all-going-on-a-summer-holiday-well-some-of-us-34075">We’re all going on a summer holiday – well, some of us ...</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>In the long term, it’s worth reflecting on whether you might be <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02678373.2012.712291">over-identifying</a> with work. </p>
<p>One way to test this is by assessing how you feel about doing the unthinkable of completely unplugging for a while. Does that make you anxious? </p>
<p>What about the idea of retirement — that final “holiday” we’ve worked towards our entire life? This too <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2013-13403-009">can be challenging for identity reasons</a>: giving up work can feel like giving up a part of ourselves. We can prevent that, and ensure we enjoy retirement and all other holidays, by considering what else we could use as equally valid sources of identity.</p>
<p>Ultimately, the aim is to see ourselves as the complex creatures we indeed are, defined by more than just our work, so we can make the most of our precious time away from it.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Disclaimer: We wrote part of this article on holidays. Academics <a href="https://www.insidehighered.com/advice/2017/01/30/academics-can-and-should-stop-equating-their-identity-work-essay">are perhaps the best (or worst?) example</a> of over-identifying with work. Time for us to really practise what we preach.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/148720/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Our work is often so closely tied to our sense of who we are, many of us struggle to switch off on holidays. But it’s never too late to hide the laptop.Dan Caprar, Associate Professor, University of SydneyBen Walker, Lecturer (Management), Te Herenga Waka — Victoria University of WellingtonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1438942020-08-06T20:01:13Z2020-08-06T20:01:13ZVital Signs: Shorter meetings but longer days – how COVID-19 has changed the way we work<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/351490/original/file-20200806-18-1yqawz1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C87%2C5300%2C3445&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>One of the many things COVID-19 has had a dramatic impact on is the way many of us work.</p>
<p>Those fortunate enough to be able to work from home have been able to adapt to this new reality – and it certainly has been “new”.</p>
<p>Perhaps the biggest question for both employers and employees is whether working from home has led to a decrease in productivity.</p>
<p>The fact major companies such as <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/21/technology/facebook-remote-work-coronavirus.html">Facebook</a> and <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/jackkelly/2020/05/13/twitter-ceo-jack-dorsey-tells-employees-they-can-work-from-home-forever-before-you-celebrate-theres-a-catch/#765a70652e91">Twitter</a> have said they will allow many employees to work from home permanently suggests work in some sectors can be done more efficiently outside a formal workplace.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/working-from-home-twitter-reveals-why-were-embracing-it-136760">Working from home: Twitter reveals why we’re embracing it</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>At a minimum, time saved from commuting and greater flexibility to multitask other elements of one’s life are positives from working from home. Lack of social interaction and the inevitable distractions in most home environments are negatives.</p>
<p>The degree and extent of increased productivity from working at home remains to be seen. It will depend on the way in which working in a team has evolved in a remote environment using online tools like Slack and Zoom.</p>
<p>The big question is how the nature of collaboration has changed under COVID.</p>
<h2>Studying 3 million people</h2>
<p>Thanks to <a href="https://www.nber.org/papers/w27612">a fascinating analysis</a> by researchers from the Harvard Business School and New York University, we are beginning to get the first systematic evidence on how the nature of work has changed for those working from home during COVID-19.</p>
<p>The authors gathered aggregated meeting and email meta-data for 3,143,270 people working for 21,478 companies in 16 cities in Europe, the United States and Israel where government-mandated lockdowns were imposed in March. </p>
<p>As the authors put it:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>These lockdowns established a clear break point after which we could infer that people were working from home. The earliest lockdown in our data occurred on March 8, 2020, in Milan, Italy, and the latest lockdown occurred on March 25, 2020, in Washington, DC.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>To explore changes in worker behaviour, their analysis compares meeting and email data during the lockdown periods (typically a month long) with data for the eight weeks prior and the eight weeks after lockdowns ended. </p>
<p>The data they used came from “an information technology services provider that licenses digital communications solutions to organisations around the world”. </p>
<p>This meta-data indicates the actual behaviour of employees in real organisations. So it’s more robust than, say, a survey asking people what they did. Survey respondents might not remember accurately, or might not tell the truth, and those that respond may not be a representative sample.</p>
<p>In short, the meta-data enables the authors to draw detailed and interesting conclusions that survey data would allow.</p>
<p>It’s the detail of a paper like this that is, in a sense, the whole point. But the bottom line is this. Lockdowns have reduced the amount of time most workers spend in meetings, but increased their working hours.</p>
<h2>Time in meetings</h2>
<p>Their results show the number of meetings attended by workers increased, on average, by 12.9% during lockdown – with the average number of attendees per meeting increasing by 13.5%. </p>
<hr>
<p><strong>Impact of COVID-19 lockdowns on meetings</strong></p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/351458/original/file-20200806-22-173asvd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Impact of COVID-19 lockdowns on meetings." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/351458/original/file-20200806-22-173asvd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/351458/original/file-20200806-22-173asvd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351458/original/file-20200806-22-173asvd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351458/original/file-20200806-22-173asvd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351458/original/file-20200806-22-173asvd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351458/original/file-20200806-22-173asvd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351458/original/file-20200806-22-173asvd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nber.org/papers/w27612">NBER Working Paper No. 27612, July 2020</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>But the average length of meetings fell by 20.1%, with the net effect being that people spent 11.5% less time in meetings.</p>
<p>In European cities such as Brussels, Oslo and Zurich, meeting length declined sharply and continued to fall in the month after the beginning of the lockdown. In the US cities of Chicago, New York and Washington DC, length of meetings declined less.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/teleworkability-in-australia-41-of-full-time-and-35-of-part-time-jobs-can-be-done-from-home-140723">Teleworkability in Australia: 41% of full-time and 35% of part-time jobs can be done from home</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Email and working hours</h2>
<p>There was, also, a significant and seemingly durable increase in working hours, based on the number of hours between the first and last email sent or meeting attended by an individual in a day. </p>
<p>On average, the length of the average workday increased by 48.5 minutes.</p>
<hr>
<p><strong>Impact of COVID-19 lockdowns on email</strong></p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/351460/original/file-20200806-14-1x9tdkp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Impact of COVID-19 lockdowns on email." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/351460/original/file-20200806-14-1x9tdkp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/351460/original/file-20200806-14-1x9tdkp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=453&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351460/original/file-20200806-14-1x9tdkp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=453&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351460/original/file-20200806-14-1x9tdkp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=453&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351460/original/file-20200806-14-1x9tdkp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=570&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351460/original/file-20200806-14-1x9tdkp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=570&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351460/original/file-20200806-14-1x9tdkp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=570&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nber.org/papers/w27612">NBER Working Paper No. 27612, July 2020</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>Longer workdays were common across the 16 cities during lockdowns. When restrictions were lifted, average hours returned closer to pre-lockdown levels in all but three cities – San Jose, Rome and New York City.</p>
<h2>The evolving nature of work</h2>
<p>It is perhaps too early to draw strong conclusions about these changing patterns of communication. But there are some intriguing possibilities. </p>
<p>Larger meetings may be needed to get “everyone on the same page” and create what economists call “common knowledge”. This may be both easier to do in phone or video conferences, and also more important in the absence of face-to-face communication.</p>
<p>Consistent with this, electronic communications extending beyond normal work hours seems like an inevitable consequence, albeit a negative one for work-life balance, particularly for people with caring responsibilities.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/forget-work-life-balance-its-all-about-integration-in-the-age-of-covid-19-137386">Forget work-life balance – it's all about integration in the age of COVID-19</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The nature of work was evolving before COVID-19, and it will continue to do so as many parts of the world continue with various forms of physical distancing.</p>
<p>Documenting the nature of that evolution, as well as the implications for productivity, workplace culture, and time outside of work will continue to be informed by remarkable data of the kind the authors analysed.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/143894/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Richard Holden does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Employers have long feared that working from home makes employees less productive. An analysis of 3 million workers in 16 cities during lockdowns suggests the opposite.Richard Holden, Professor of Economics, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1299602020-01-15T18:53:39Z2020-01-15T18:53:39ZScreen time: Conclusions about the effects of digital media are often incomplete, irrelevant or wrong<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/310038/original/file-20200114-151887-1x674am.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C571%2C3489%2C2541&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Humans are barraged by digital media 24/7. Is it a problem?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/video-screens-abstract-created-entirely-my-113467843">Bruce Rolff/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>There’s a lot of talk about digital media. <a href="https://theconversation.com/dont-worry-about-screen-time-focus-on-how-you-use-technology-107428">Increasing screen time</a> has created worries about media’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-artificial-intelligence-systems-could-threaten-democracy-109698">impacts on democracy</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/debunking-the-6-biggest-myths-about-technology-addiction-95850">addiction</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/with-teen-mental-health-deteriorating-over-five-years-theres-a-likely-culprit-86996">depression</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-tell-if-your-digital-addiction-is-ruining-your-life-127310">relationships</a>, learning, <a href="https://theconversation.com/6-ways-to-protect-your-mental-health-from-social-medias-dangers-117651">health</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/most-americans-dont-realize-what-companies-can-predict-from-their-data-110760">privacy</a> and much more. The effects are frequently assumed to be huge, even apocalyptic. </p>
<p>Scientific data, however, often fail to confirm what seems true based on everyday experiences. In <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444815616221">study</a> after <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2015.1008542">study</a>, screen time is often not correlated with important effects at a magnitude that matches the concerns and expectations of media consumers, critics, teachers, parents, pediatricians and even the researchers themselves. For example, a recent review of over 200 studies about social media concluded there was <a href="https://sml.stanford.edu/pubs/2019/social-media-use-and-psychological-well-being-a-meta-analysis/">almost no effect of greater screen time</a> on psychological well-being. A comprehensive study of adolescents reported <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2018.10.040">small effects of screen time</a> on brain development, and no relationship between media use and cognitive performance. A review of 20 studies about the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1611612115">effects of multitasking with media</a> – that is, using two or more screens at the same time – showed small declines in cognitive performance because of multitasking but also pointed out new studies that showed the opposite. </p>
<p>As <a href="https://comm.stanford.edu/faculty-reeves/">communication</a>, <a href="https://hhd.psu.edu/contact/nilam-ram">psychological</a> and <a href="https://profiles.stanford.edu/thomas-robinson?tab=bio">medical</a> researchers interested in media effects, we are interested in how individuals’ engagement with digital technology influences peoples’ thoughts, emotions, behaviors, health and well-being. </p>
<h2>Moving beyond ‘screen time’</h2>
<p>Has the power of media over modern life been overstated? Probably not, but no one knows, because there is a severe lack of knowledge about what people are actually seeing and doing on their screens. </p>
<p>Individuals all around the world are now all looking at pretty much the same screens and spending a lot of time with them. However, the similarities between us end there. Many different kinds of applications, games and messages flow across people’s screens. And, because it is so easy to create customized personal threads of experiences, each person ends up viewing very different material at different times. No two people share the same media experiences.</p>
<p>To determine the effects of media on people’s lives, whether beneficial or harmful, requires knowledge of what people are actually seeing and doing on those screens. But researchers often mistakenly depend on a rather blunt metric – screen time. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/310255/original/file-20200115-134842-ugyl4n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/310255/original/file-20200115-134842-ugyl4n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/310255/original/file-20200115-134842-ugyl4n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/310255/original/file-20200115-134842-ugyl4n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/310255/original/file-20200115-134842-ugyl4n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/310255/original/file-20200115-134842-ugyl4n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/310255/original/file-20200115-134842-ugyl4n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/310255/original/file-20200115-134842-ugyl4n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">So many social media apps, so little time.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/hilversum-netherlands-februari-06-2017-social-573033001">Twin Design/Shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Reports of screen time, the most common way to assess media use, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/19312458.2016.1150970">are known to be terribly inaccurate</a> and describe only total viewing time. Today, on a single screen, you can switch instantly between messaging a neighbor, watching the news, parenting a child, arranging for dinner delivery, planning a weekend trip, talking on an office video conference and even monitoring your car, home irrigation and lighting. Add to that more troublesome uses – bullying a classmate, hate speech or reading fabricated news. Knowing someone’s screen time – their total dose of media – will not diagnose problems with any of that content.</p>
<p>A media solution based only on screen time is like medical advice to someone taking multiple prescription medications to reduce their total number of pills by half. Which medications and when? </p>
<h2>Complex and unique nature of media use</h2>
<p>What would be a better gauge of media consumption than screen time? Something that better captures the complexities of how individuals engage with media. Perhaps the details about specific categories of content – the names of the programs, software and websites - would be more informative. Sometimes that may be enough to highlight problems – playing a popular game more than intended, frequent visits to a suspicious political website or too much social time on Facebook. </p>
<p>Tracking big categories of content, however, is still not that helpful. My one hour of Facebook, for example, could be spent on self-expression and social comparison; yours could be filled with news, shopping, classes, games and videos. Further, our research finds that people now <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12070">switch between content</a> on their smartphones and laptops every 10 to 20 seconds on average. Many people average several hundred different smartphone sessions per day. The fast cadence certainly influences how people converse with each other and how engaged we are with information. And each bit of content is surrounded by other kinds of material. News read on Facebook sandwiches political content between social relationships, each one changing the interpretation of the other. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/310258/original/file-20200115-134814-bpebwy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/310258/original/file-20200115-134814-bpebwy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/310258/original/file-20200115-134814-bpebwy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/310258/original/file-20200115-134814-bpebwy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/310258/original/file-20200115-134814-bpebwy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/310258/original/file-20200115-134814-bpebwy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/310258/original/file-20200115-134814-bpebwy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/310258/original/file-20200115-134814-bpebwy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Screen time: work and play.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/back-shot-gamer-playing-firstperson-shooter-1430140037">Gorodenkoff/Shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A call for a Human Screenome Project</h2>
<p>In this era of technology and big data, we need a DVR for digital life that records the entirety of individuals’ screen media experiences - <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/07370024.2019.1578652">what we call the screenome</a>, analogous to the <a href="https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/primer/hgp/genome">genome</a>, <a href="https://www.nih.gov/news-events/nih-research-matters/healthy-human-microbiome">microbiome</a> and other “omes” that define an individual’s unique characteristics and exposures. </p>
<p>An individual’s <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-00032-5">screenome includes</a> apps and websites, the specific content observed and created, all of the words, images and sounds on the screens, and their time of day, duration and sequencing. It includes whether the content is produced by the user or sent from others. And it includes characteristics of use, such as variations in how much one interacts with a screen, how quickly one switches between content, scrolls through screens, and turns the screen on and off. </p>
<p>Without knowledge of the whole screenome, no one – including researchers, critics, educators, journalists or policymakers – can accurately describe the new media chaos. People need much better data – for science, policy, parenting and more. And it needs to be collected and supported by individuals and organizations who are motivated to share the information for all to analyze and apply. </p>
<p>The benefits from studying the human genome required developing the field of genomics. The same will be true for <a href="http://screenomics.stanford.edu">the human screenome</a>, the unique individual record of experiences that constitute psychological and social life on digital devices. Researchers now have the technologies to begin a serious study of screenomics, which we describe in the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-00032-5">journal Nature</a>. Now we need the data – a collective effort to produce, map and analyze a large and informative set of screenomes. A Human Screenome Project could inform academics, health professionals, educators, parents, advocacy groups, tech companies and policymakers about how to maximize the potential of media and remedy its most pernicious effects.</p>
<p>[ <em>Like what you’ve read? Want more?</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters?utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=likethis">Sign up for The Conversation’s daily newsletter</a>. ]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/129960/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nilam Ram receives funding from National Institutes on Health. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Thomas Robinson receives funding from the U.S. National Institutes of Health, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and the Stanford Maternal & Child Health Research Institute and Department of Pediatrics at Stanford University.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Byron Reeves does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Most of us spend hours each day glued to some type of screen for work or play. But is that a bad thing? Has anyone got the data to figure it out? Now is the time for ‘The Human Screenome Project.’Byron Reeves, Professor of Communication, Stanford UniversityNilam Ram, Professor of Human Development and Family Studies, and Psychology, Penn StateThomas N. Robinson, Professor of Pediatrics and of Medicine, Stanford UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1250572019-10-30T22:38:25Z2019-10-30T22:38:25ZMaking email more efficient means answering more emails even faster<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/299320/original/file-20191029-183132-1xsco0j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C6016%2C4016&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Responding to the ever-growing amount of email can be a stress-inducing job task. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>If you’re a Gmail user, you might have recently noticed a ghost-like presence in your email account. It’s light grey, and it comes and goes, sometimes when you’re not expecting it. And, like most ghost sightings, glimpses of it have been reported to be a little creepy.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1045302622553436161"}"></div></p>
<p>This is <a href="https://www.blog.google/products/gmail/subject-write-emails-faster-smart-compose-gmail/">Smart Compose</a>, the word-prediction feature leveraging artificial intelligence (AI) that Gmail launched in 2018. Trained on <a href="https://ai.googleblog.com/2018/05/smart-compose-using-neural-networks-to.html">billions of data points</a> (<a href="http://doi.org/10.32855/fcapital.201101.006">including yours, probably</a>), Smart Compose’s purpose is to predict words as you type, to “<a href="https://www.blog.google/products/gmail/smart-compose-comes-pixel-3-and-four-new-languages/">help you write emails even faster while you’re on the go</a>.” </p>
<p>But if there’s something truly unnerving about the spectral Smart Compose, it’s not its eerily good predictive accuracy. Its uncanniness stems from what the AI suggests we, as email users and writers, might be willing to ghost. </p>
<h2>Email efficiency</h2>
<p>According to Google, Smart Compose is intended to save time. The 2018 blog post that introduced the feature emphasized how time-consuming it can be to write email and, therefore, how welcome a tool to speed up the task. In October 2018, Gmail proudly announced that Smart Compose “<a href="https://twitter.com/gmail/status/1052588273716142081">saves people from typing over 1 [billion] characters each week</a>.” In June 2019, this number doubled, and the “savings” were publicized on Twitter and in Sundar Pichai’s — Google’s Chief Executive Officer’s — <a href="https://abc.xyz/investor/founders-letters/2018/">letter to shareholders</a>. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1141755368680411136"}"></div></p>
<p>But while Smart Compose <a href="https://www.elitedaily.com/p/this-new-gmail-smart-compose-feature-is-so-accurate-that-people-are-freaked-out-12139827">users rave about its accuracy</a> and Gmail promotes its time-saving superpowers, there’s a paradox to consider. Smart Compose promises to free us from the drudgery of email, but it’s actually ensuring that email never goes away.</p>
<p>By speedily providing predictions and eliminating keystrokes, Smart Compose claims to save users’ time. And it just might, so long as we’re talking about the speed with which we can write a single message. However, the fundamental nature of automation is this: <a href="https://www.nber.org/chapters/c14027">as speed increases, so does workload</a>. Smart Compose might succeed in paring down the time required to write a single email, but it also succeeds in increasing a user’s overall capacity.</p>
<p>If there’s one thing Smart Compose accurately predicts, it’s not words. It’s behaviour — not only a continued reliance on email but also (as if this were possible) even higher social expectations for swift sends and replies.</p>
<h2>Ghost compositions</h2>
<p>Ruminating on email’s role in everyday life may be less exciting than some of the <a href="https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/pavdwm/google-smart-compose-time-saving">other debates surrounding Smart Compose</a>, but it’s no less important. Given the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.02.006">mental-health risks that researchers have documented around the perceived need to be constantly connected</a>, the first question we have to ask when it comes to AI and automation is: What behaviors and outcomes do they invite?</p>
<p>For example, <a href="https://newsroom.carleton.ca/archives/2017/04/20/carleton-study-finds-people-spending-third-job-time-email/">researchers at Carleton University</a> reported that Canadians in the workplace spend nearly one-third of their work week writing or replying to email. This activity leads to high levels of absenteeism, stress and turnover. </p>
<p>So, what might word-prediction AI encourage by increasing email volume? </p>
<p>If word-prediction AI stands to keep email locked in place, it also stands to keep our eyes locked on the wrong target. Smart Compose is a case in point. Instead of addressing the high-pressure social conventions that have emerged around email, Smart Compose targets writing instead. The AI suggests that the less one writes the better. </p>
<p>We need to think critically through the adoption of arguably irrelevant solutions to technology problems. Not least of all, we need to think through the implications of defining writing and correspondence as activities that need to be “saved” or precluded.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1052588273716142081"}"></div></p>
<h2>Freeing time or making work?</h2>
<p>Marketing campaigns like Gmail’s make it easy to overlook the bigger picture. Reminding us of the brain power that goes into composition, the emoji whose head explodes with alpha-numeric characters convincingly suggests that we might be better off with word-prediction AI than we are without it. Opting for Smart Compose, according to this campaign, is simply a smarter bet. And a happier one. </p>
<p>But what is the broader wager?</p>
<p>Seen through a critical lens, Smart Compose seems to double-down on something that digital media scholar Beth Coleman has said: “<a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/e/9781315730479/chapters/10.4324/9781315730479-22">‘Smart’ is shorthand for outsourcing information and responsibility … we have an opportunity at this turning point to discern between convenience (what looks like more free services) and engagement (what looks like more hard work)</a>.”</p>
<p>That’s something that I, for one, don’t want to see vanish into thin air. </p>
<p>[ <em><a href="https://theconversation.com/ca/newsletters?utm_source=TCCA&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=thanksforreading">Thanks for reading! We can send you The Conversation’s stories every day in an informative email. Sign up today.</a></em> ]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/125057/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Crystal Chokshi does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Google’s Smart Compose feature is meant to help deal with the deluge of email, but does it increase the pressure to respond quicker?Crystal Chokshi, PhD Candidate, Department of Communication, Media and Film, University of CalgaryLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1240582019-10-03T11:42:44Z2019-10-03T11:42:44ZPeople are increasingly interrupted at work, but it’s not all bad<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/294440/original/file-20190926-51434-1m57ebl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Between email, Slack and social media, you may need three devices to handle all the interruptions.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/download/success?u=http%3A%2F%2Fdownload.shutterstock.com%2Fgatekeeper%2FW3siZSI6MTU2OTU0OTMxMSwiYyI6Il9waG90b19zZXNzaW9uX2lkIiwiZGMiOiJpZGxfMTE4OTAyMTU5MSIsImsiOiJwaG90by8xMTg5MDIxNTkxL2h1Z2UuanBnIiwibSI6MSwiZCI6InNodXR0ZXJzdG9jay1tZWRpYSJ9LCJpQlo1dElsY29ENlprK1d5QjhxOVE3MFRYVEkiXQ%2Fshutterstock_1189021591.jpg&pi=33421636&m=1189021591&src=Scs1mvxlHRAueiRJ_uuZ1A-1-22">Artie Medvedev/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>An email pops up on your screen. It’s a client sharing a project update. A Slack message appears. It’s your boss asking a question. A text alert beeps. A colleague wants to know if you will be attending a meeting.</p>
<p>Sound familiar? People are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0170840611410829">increasingly besieged at work by interruptions</a> through email, messaging apps, social media and in-person encounters.</p>
<p>Interruptions can impair performance in a number of ways, causing <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2005.12.009">lower productivity</a>, more <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0003-6870(00)00019-3">errors</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dss.2012.12.035">poorer work quality</a>.</p>
<p>Interruptions also often spark negative emotions like <a href="http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.4.5734">annoyance</a> and <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0031637">anxiety</a>. Frequent interruptions may, over time, lead to <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.73.4.621">stressful feelings of overload</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/02678373.2013.761783">irritation</a> and a sense of “<a href="https://doi.org/10.2307/2667031">time famine</a>” – having too much to do and not enough time.</p>
<p>Yet interruptions are a necessary part of work life, since communication needs are <a href="https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2012.0552">often unpredictable and time-sensitive</a>. And responding to interruptions, whatever channel they come through, has become a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2239">core responsibility for most jobs</a>.</p>
<p>As an expert on <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=eATrrSIAAAAJ">interpersonal interactions and time use in organizations</a>, I wanted to understand why interruptions are often so stressful. Working with one of my doctoral students, I designed a study that focused on people’s experiences of being interrupted. </p>
<p>Our study, which is currently under review, found that interruptions can actually spark positive rather than negative emotions – given the right circumstances.</p>
<h2>Surprisingly positive interruptions</h2>
<p>In our study, we asked 35 participants to keep track of their interruptions over the course of an entire workday.</p>
<p>The participants spanned multiple industries and held varied titles. They all worked full-time and used electronic devices regularly as part of their jobs.</p>
<p>Participants recorded details such as what happened during each interruption, who interrupted them and how long each interruption lasted. They also noted the emotions they experienced and jotted down an explanation for those feelings.</p>
<p>As we expected, most participants were interrupted frequently during the day. Collectively, they reported a total of 256 interruptions.</p>
<p>The day after they logged their interruptions, we interviewed the participants. We asked for more information about each interruption to clarify and enrich our understanding of why it had sparked the emotions the participant had recorded. For instance, we probed further about the task the participant was interrupted to do and what else was going on at the time of the interruption.</p>
<p>Given that prior research has overwhelmingly emphasized the negative aspects of interruptions, we were surprised when our study revealed that many interruptions were experienced positively.</p>
<p>Approximately 30% of the interruptions we analyzed were associated with feelings such as excitement and happiness. More than 75% of our participants logged at least one positive interruption.</p>
<p>Intrigued by these unexpected findings, we used our data to figure out what makes an interruption experience good instead of bad.</p>
<h2>Time and timing</h2>
<p>It turns out that differences in interruption experiences can be explained in large part by people’s beliefs about time.</p>
<p>Just as many of us in Western cultures <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307/3560239">think of time as a limited, valuable commodity</a>, people who are interrupted at work consider – often unconsciously – the ways in which an interruption forces them to alter how they use their time. </p>
<p>For instance, the participants in our study judged interruptions in terms of their “time worthiness.” Interruptions seen as “time worthy” are more likely to spark positive emotions.</p>
<p>Interruptions are “time worthy” if they involve tasks that are deemed high-priority, relevant to other ongoing projects and clearly within the scope of employees’ jobs. That our participants considered whether an interruption is worth their time makes sense given that <a href="http://progressprinciple.com/books/single/the_progress_principle">people care most about making progress on work that is meaningful</a>. </p>
<p>We also learned that interruption timing plays a big role in people’s emotional responses. Interruptions are generally associated with positive feelings if they are assessed as well-timed.</p>
<p>Well-timed interruptions are those that arise when employees are not deeply absorbed in another task or need a break from their current task. Our findings echo previous studies, which have found that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1145/1056808.1056948">ill-timed disruptions are more likely to hinder work performance</a>.</p>
<p>Finally, shorter interruptions generally spark positive rather than negative emotions. Longer interruptions take up more of the time that people had mentally allocated to planned tasks.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/294409/original/file-20190926-51452-rtceng.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/294409/original/file-20190926-51452-rtceng.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/294409/original/file-20190926-51452-rtceng.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/294409/original/file-20190926-51452-rtceng.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/294409/original/file-20190926-51452-rtceng.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/294409/original/file-20190926-51452-rtceng.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/294409/original/file-20190926-51452-rtceng.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Interruptions may be welcomed if they come from liked or respected coworkers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/cooperated-skilled-marketing-experts-analyze-information-762793525?src=W4jJC8Mu-RRVfxndWmS6JQ-1-84">WAYHOME studio/Shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Relationships and workload matter too</h2>
<p>Another finding that emerged from our study was the importance of people’s relationships. Although this may not seem all that surprising, researchers have not yet explored the interpersonal aspects of interruptions.</p>
<p>Individuals feel positive emotions if they like or respect the person who interrupted them. In some cases, personal liking can spark a good experience even if an interruption is seen as “time wasting,” poorly timed or overly long.</p>
<p>Conversely, if individuals dislike or lack respect for the person interrupting them, interruptions are more likely to generate negative feelings. This is particularly true if the interrupter has a history of intruding frequently about unimportant questions or tasks. </p>
<p>We also found that employees’ overall workloads influence interruption experiences. If interruptions occur when they do not have a lot to do, they find it less stressful to work on something unexpected. They can return to planned tasks in the future without fear of missing a deadline or working additional hours.</p>
<p>However, when employees have heavier workloads, they feel strong feelings of time pressure, which means that any interruption will be more likely to cause negative emotions.</p>
<h2>What organizations and employees can do</h2>
<p>My research on interruptions has made me much more optimistic about the plight of those who face frequent work interruptions.</p>
<p>I believe there are ways to make interruptions better for those on the receiving end. Other management researchers have suggested <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307/2667031">creating periods of interruption-free time</a> or <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2008.00434.x">offering employees a “quota” of uninterrupted time</a> that they can use flexibly. </p>
<p>Our research suggests some additional potentially useful approaches. For instance, organizational training programs could teach employees to be more mindful about how, when and why they interrupt others.</p>
<p>Managers can also model “healthy” interruption behavior. If they reserve interruptions for worthy tasks and provide positive feedback to subordinates who do the same, they can slowly shift the culture of their work groups.</p>
<p>Employees themselves can turn off communication alerts, put on headphones and silence their phones when they are focused on a thought-intensive task or facing a tight deadline.</p>
<p>However, unless leaders and managers openly support this behavior, it will be difficult for individual employees to do so.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/124058/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Elana Feldman does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Interruptions are inevitable – but how they happen matters.Elana Feldman, Assistant Professor of Business, UMass LowellLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1226012019-09-06T11:14:12Z2019-09-06T11:14:12ZI wrote a book about email – and found myself pining for the days of letter-writing<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/291168/original/file-20190905-175710-vk53b4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C44%2C1022%2C784&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">On paper, lives were lived, trysts arranged, manifestos mailed and wars waged.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/69184488@N06/8091026501">MCAD Library/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Email has become so prevalent in our lives that I felt compelled <a href="https://www.bloomsbury.com/us/email-9781501341908/">to write about it</a> for a Bloomsbury series called “Object Lessons” that examines “the hidden lives of ordinary things.”</p>
<p>Perhaps I chose this topic because I wanted to be surprised by what I would learn. Email had always evoked the image of my energy, attention and intelligence being sucked away, byte by byte, in a deadening tsunami of ill-composed blather, bland formalities and corporate groupthink. But I hoped <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=be7hyTwAAAAJ&hl=en">my literary training</a> could help me unearth some diamonds in the rough, some redeeming rhetorical force.</p>
<p>It turns out my chief discovery was how much richer old-fashioned letters are. An email is like a letter shorn of almost everything people liked about letters: the feel and smell of stationery, the confident authority of letterhead, the art of penmanship, the closing signature in the writer’s hand. </p>
<p>On paper, lives were lived, trysts arranged, manifestos mailed and wars waged; the shift from “communication” to “.com” has stripped away all of this historical and social value.</p>
<h2>The satisfaction of a letter ‘done and signed’</h2>
<p>Literacy rates <a href="https://muse.jhu.edu/book/17516">jumped globally</a> in tandem with the invention and expansion of mail service. People composed their letters with effort and pride, perhaps understanding that well-written correspondence wouldn’t be thrown in the trash.</p>
<p>The song “<a href="https://genius.com/Dave-malloy-letters-lyrics">Letters</a>,” from Dave Malloy’s 2012 musical “Natasha, Pierre & The Great Comet of 1812,” extols the joy and satisfaction of letter-writing: “We put down in writing what is happening in our minds.” Once it’s on the paper “we feel better – it’s like some kind of clarity when the letter’s done and signed.”</p>
<p>Email is certainly convenient. But will there ever be an electronic equivalent of Martin Luther King Jr.’s “<a href="https://web.cn.edu/kwheeler/documents/Letter_Birmingham_Jail.pdf">Letter from Birmingham Jail</a>,” the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/books/2008/dec/13/bishop-lowell-poetry-review">literary correspondence</a> of Elizabeth Bishop and Robert Lowell or the <a href="https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/313124/eleanor-and-hick-by-susan-quinn/9780143110712/">epistolary passion</a> between Eleanor Roosevelt and Lorena Hickok?</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/291151/original/file-20190905-175700-enptj2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/291151/original/file-20190905-175700-enptj2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/291151/original/file-20190905-175700-enptj2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/291151/original/file-20190905-175700-enptj2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/291151/original/file-20190905-175700-enptj2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/291151/original/file-20190905-175700-enptj2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/291151/original/file-20190905-175700-enptj2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/291151/original/file-20190905-175700-enptj2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">‘J’Accuse!’ was a siren that reverberated around the world.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%22J%27accuse...!%22,_page_de_couverture_du_journal_l%E2%80%99Aurore,_publiant_la_lettre_d%E2%80%99Emile_Zola_au_Pr%C3%A9sident_de_la_R%C3%A9publique,_M._F%C3%A9lix_Faure_%C3%A0_propos_de_l%E2%80%99Affaire_Dreyfus.jpg">Musée d'Art et d'Histoire du Judaïsme</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Émile Zola’s “J’Accuse!” was a letter – an open letter – to the French president, castigating the army for unlawfully jailing a Jewish officer. The letter traveled the world, inspiring others who sought to challenge those in power. </p>
<p>Is there such a genre as an “open email”? The only thing that comes to mind is accidentally hitting reply-all. </p>
<p>Letters changed storytelling: In Samuel Richardson’s 1740 epistolary adventure, “<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/6124/6124-h/6124-h.htm">Pamela; or, Virture Rewarded</a>,” a 16-year-old servant named Pamela Andrews details her boss’s sexual harassment in letters to her parents. Today it’s considered <a href="https://daily.jstor.org/why-the-first-novel-created-such-a-stir/">the first novel</a>. </p>
<p>Letters spread the Gospel, with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pauline_epistles">St. Paul’s Epistles</a> disseminating early Christian teachings to the Corinthians, Romans and Thessalonians; in <a href="http://openbook.hbgusa.com/openbook/9780759528208">letters to Penthouse</a>, they channeled erotic desire.</p>
<p>The value letters possess is perhaps reflected in their price. </p>
<p>“This boat is giant in size and fitted up like a palatial hotel,” a man named Alexander Holverson wrote from the Titanic the day before it sank. “If all goes well we will arrive in New York Wednesday AM.” His letter sold for <a href="https://www.townandcountrymag.com/style/collectibles/a13084782/titanic-letter-sold-auction/">six figures</a> in 2017. </p>
<p>And after President Abraham Lincoln received a petition from children asking him to free the slaves, he responded with a letter: “Please tell these little people I am very glad their young hearts are so full of just and generous sympathy.” It brought in <a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/7329815.stm">US$3.4 million</a> at a 2008 auction.</p>
<h2>Empty, ephemeral email</h2>
<p>“There is no standard nowadays of elegant letter writing, as there used to be in our time,” <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kl8QojiKhu4C&pg=PA15&lpg=PA15&dq=%22Light+is+shot+directly+into+our+eyes%22+Freeman&source=bl&ots=eyEseZ8Prk&sig=ACfU3U2zvm6cQU7NIHk6W3-cNupkmru4sA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiwp6zFwJnkAhVCheAKHXtTCg4Q6AEwBnoECAUQAQ#v=snippet&q=there%20is%20no%20standard&f=false">grumbled a woman</a> at the turn of the 20th century. “It is a sort of go-as-you-please development, and the result is atrocious.” </p>
<p><a href="https://www.simonandschuster.com/books/The-Tyranny-of-E-mail/John-Freeman/9781416576747">This complaint</a> was prompted not by email but by the growing fad of sending postcards, <a href="https://www.lib.umd.edu/postcards/worlds-fairs">which were popularized at Chicago’s 1893 Columbian Exposition</a>.</p>
<p>Short, informal and comprised of dubiously grammatical prose, postcards, some feared, imperiled epistolary eloquence. </p>
<p>Sound familiar? </p>
<p>Still, email seems particularly reductive. Nearly 300 billion <a href="https://www.campaignmonitor.com/blog/email-marketing/2019/05/shocking-truth-about-how-many-emails-sent/">are sent each day</a>, but I wonder if there will ever be a truly valuable email, a famous email or a celebrated email.</p>
<p>Even when a presidential election turned on a collection of home-brew email – tens of thousands from Hillary Clinton’s ignominious private server and another leaked batch from her campaign chair John Podesta – what information did they contain?</p>
<p>In one, senior Clinton Foundation official Peter Huffman <a href="https://qz.com/807952/wikileaks-emails-reveal-clinton-campaign-chief-john-podesta-is-wrong-about-risotto/">writes</a>: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“Question: why do I use a ¼ or ½ cup of stock at a time? Why can’t you just add 1 or 2 cups of stock at a time b/c the arborio rice will eventually absorb it anyway, right?” </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Podesta responds (with no time to edit, possibly because he is so busy losing an election): </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“Yes it with absorb the liquid, but no that’s not what you want to do. The slower add process and stirring causes the rice to give up it’s starch which gives the risotto it’s creamy consistency.” </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Email is ultimately a paltry and often disappointing piece of text – grammatically challenged, disheveled and ephemeral. Often ignored or deleted, it ricochets through cyberspace in search of validation. Dealing with a cluttered inbox is a chore; emails that require a response loom. </p>
<p>It’s surprising how banal email is, given how intricately interwoven it is with our existence. Or maybe it’s not surprising at all. Maybe it’s just the mirror held up to life, and we are precisely as trite as our email suggests.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/122601/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Randy Malamud does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Will there ever be an electronic equivalent of Martin Luther King Jr.’s ‘Letter from Birmingham Jail’ or Émile Zola’s ‘J’Accuse!’?Randy Malamud, Regents' Professor of English, Georgia State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1136702019-03-28T09:51:07Z2019-03-28T09:51:07ZTen rules of email that will reduce your stress levels<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/266089/original/file-20190327-139361-1azr1o8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/tired-businessman-sleeping-after-hard-working-524947354">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Email and smart phones can be stressful. Academics are calling this constant work connection <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/isj.12169">“technostress”</a>. Consequently, many European countries are now offering employees the <a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3116158">“right to disconnect”</a>.</p>
<p>The way email is used is complex, it cannot simply be labelled as “good” or “bad” and research shows that <a href="http://www.richardbenjamintrust.co.uk/uploads/images/Making%20a%20difference%20with%20psychology%20PDF.pdf">personality</a>, the type of work people do and their goals can influence the way they react to email.</p>
<p>Good practice with email use is not just about limiting the amount of emails sent, but improving the quality of communication.</p>
<p>Here are ten tips to reduce the stress of email at work:</p>
<h2>1. Get the subject line right</h2>
<p>Use clear and actionable subject lines.</p>
<p>The subject line should communicate exactly what the email is about in six to ten words, to allow the recipient to prioritise the email without even opening it. On mobile devices, many people only see the first 30 characters of a subject line. So keep it short. But make it descriptive enough to give an idea of what the email is about from just the subject line.</p>
<h2>2. Ask yourself: is email the right medium?</h2>
<p>Are you in the same office? Could you go and speak to the person? Could you call? Often these other forms of communication can avoid the inefficient back and forth of emailing.</p>
<p>Instant messaging and video calling platforms like <a href="https://slack.com/">Slack</a> and <a href="https://www.skype.com/en/business/">Skype</a> could be more appropriate for quick internal back and forth messaging. Also, remember that most of the advice below applies to all types of electronic communication.</p>
<h2>3. Don’t email out of office hours</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1359432X.2012.711013">Research shows</a> that out-of-hours emails make it harder for people to recover from work stress. </p>
<p>Try and influence your company culture by avoiding sending or replying to emails outside your normal working hours.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/265911/original/file-20190326-36283-j1zr24.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/265911/original/file-20190326-36283-j1zr24.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/265911/original/file-20190326-36283-j1zr24.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/265911/original/file-20190326-36283-j1zr24.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/265911/original/file-20190326-36283-j1zr24.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/265911/original/file-20190326-36283-j1zr24.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/265911/original/file-20190326-36283-j1zr24.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Stop doing this.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/woman-rubbing-her-eyes-feel-painful-544852936">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Management should lead by example and avoid contacting their staff outside of their normal working hours. <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/197cd828-e4c8-11e7-97e2-916d4fbac0da">Some workplaces</a> even switch off email access to employees out of hours. Consider implementing this while keeping a backup phone system for emergency contact only.</p>
<p><a href="https://journals.aom.org/doi/10.5465/AMBPP.2018.121">New research</a> has also shown that just the expectation of 24-hour contact can negatively affect employee health. </p>
<h2>4. Use the delay delivery option</h2>
<p>Some <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0018726715601890">people</a> like integrating their work and family lives and often continue working from home during their off-job time. If you are one of these people, or if you work across time zones, consider using the delay delivery option so your emails do not send until the next working day and do not interfere with other people’s off-job time.</p>
<h2>5. Keep it positive</h2>
<p>Think about the quality of email communication. Not just the quantity. Changes to email use should also focus on the quality of what is being sent and take into consideration the emotional reaction of the recipient. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20159399?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents">Research suggests</a> that conflicts are far easier to escalate and messages to be misinterpreted when communicated via email. Therefore, if it is bad news, think back to rule #2: is email the right medium?</p>
<h2>6. Try ‘no email Friday’</h2>
<p>In order to shift company culture and get people thinking about other methods of communication than email, try a <a href="https://www.mbs.ac.uk/media/ambs/content-assets/documents/health-and-wellbeing-forum/happier-connected-working.pdf">“no email Friday”</a> on the first Friday of every month, or maybe even every week. This is an initiative suggested by experts from the <a href="https://www.mbs.ac.uk/health-wellbeing-forum/">National Forum for Health and Wellbeing at Work</a>, and is being used by businesses <a href="https://abcnews.go.com/WNT/story?id=2939232&page=1">around the globe</a>. Employees are encouraged to arrange face-to-face meetings or pick up the phone – or just get on top of the many emails they already have in their inbox on that day.</p>
<h2>7. Make your preferences known</h2>
<p><a href="https://aisel.aisnet.org/jais/vol20/iss2/2/">Research has shown</a> that not only too much but also too little email can cause stress due to a mismatch between the communication preferences of different people. Some people may like being emailed and cope much better with high email traffic than other means of communication. For these people, reducing the amount of emails they receive may cause more stress than it alleviates. </p>
<p>So consider people’s individual differences and make yours known. Add your preferred contact preferences to your email signature whether it is email, text or instant messages or a phone call.</p>
<h2>8. Consider a holiday ‘bounce back’</h2>
<p>Having a backlog of emails that builds up over the week appears to be one of the <a href="http://people.bu.edu/grodal/Email.pdf">most commonly mentioned sources of technostress</a> for workers. Think about setting up a system where emails are bounced back to the sender when someone is on holiday, with an alternative contact email for urgent requests. This would let you come back to a manageable inbox. </p>
<h2>9. Have a separate work phone</h2>
<p>Make this the only mobile device you can access work emails on, which gives you the freedom to switch it off after work hours. Also consider turning off email <a href="https://support.apple.com/en-gb/HT201419">“push”</a> (this is where your email server sends each new email to your phone when it arrives at the server) and instead choose a regular schedule (such as once per hour) for emails to be delivered to your phone (this also increases battery life). </p>
<h2>10. Avoid late night screen time</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0749597814000089">Research suggests</a> that late night smart phone use reduces our ability to get to sleep and also leads to constant thoughts and stress about work. This in turn reduces your sleep quality. Make the bed a phone-free zone to improve your <a href="https://www.pharmaceutical-journal.com/news-and-analysis/features/putting-insomnia-to-bed/20205129.article">sleep hygiene</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/113670/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lina Siegl receives funding from The University of Manchester for her PhD Research.
Lina Siegl works as the project coordinator for the national Forum for Health and Wellbeing at Work which is a not-for-profit group.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Cary Cooper and Ricardo Twumasi do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Top tips to improve your email use based on academic research into email best practice, productivity and stress.Ricardo Twumasi, Lecturer in Organisational Psychology, University of ManchesterCary Cooper, 50th Anniversary Professor of Organisational Psychology and Health, University of ManchesterLina Siegl, PhD Researcher, University of ManchesterLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1090642019-02-06T11:41:42Z2019-02-06T11:41:42ZWhy do people still use fax machines?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/256712/original/file-20190131-124043-im20oe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=8%2C8%2C5695%2C3797&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Old technology, but not obsolete.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/hand-pushing-start-button-old-fax-382086295">suksawad/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The fax machine is a symbol of <a href="https://www.computerworld.com/article/2522296/mobile-wireless/mike-elgan--10-obsolete-technologies-to-kill-in-2010.html">obsolete technology</a> long superseded by computer networks – but faxing is actually growing in popularity.</p>
<p>Four years ago, I wrote a <a href="https://jhupbooks.press.jhu.edu/title/faxed">history of 160 years of faxing</a>, saying my book covered “the rise and fall of the fax machine.” The end I predicted has not yet come: Millions of people, businesses and community groups send millions of faxed pages every day, from standalone fax machines, multifunction printers and computer-based fax services. It turns out that in many cases, faxing is more secure, easier to use and better suited to existing work habits than computer-based messaging.</p>
<p><iframe id="gZvtN" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/gZvtN/1/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<h2>Businesses often use faxes</h2>
<p>Faxing remains alive and well, especially in <a href="https://kotaku.com/its-2016-and-im-buying-a-new-japanese-fax-machine-1785288793">Japan</a> and <a href="https://www.thelocal.de/20170324/stuck-in-the-80s-70-percent-of-german-firms-still-use-fax-machines">Germany</a> – and in major sectors of the U.S. economy, such as health care and financial services. Countless emails flash back and forth, but millions of faxes travel the world daily too.</p>
<p>A worldwide survey in 2017 found that of 200 large firms, defined as companies with more than 500 employees, <a href="https://www.opentext.com/file_source/OpenText/en_US/PDF/opentext-idc-survey-fax-market-pulse%20-en.pdf">82 percent</a> had seen workers send the same number of, or even more, faxes that year than in 2016. A March 2017 unscientific survey of 1,513 members of an online forum for information technology professionals found that <a href="https://community.spiceworks.com/topic/1976556-poll-who-still-uses-fax-why-or-why-not">89 percent of them still sent faxes</a>.</p>
<p>The persistence of faxing – and the people who send faxes – is in part because the fax industry has adapted to accommodate new technologies. Fax machines still dominate, but both surveys suggested users were shifting to computer-based services, such as fax servers that let users send and receive faxes as electronic documents. Cloud-based fax services, which treat faxes as images or PDF files attached to emails, are also becoming more popular. These new systems can transmit faxes over telephone lines or the internet, depending on the recipient, handling paper and electronic documents equally easily.</p>
<h2>Legal acceptance</h2>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/256722/original/file-20190131-112389-1r118kd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/256722/original/file-20190131-112389-1r118kd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/256722/original/file-20190131-112389-1r118kd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/256722/original/file-20190131-112389-1r118kd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/256722/original/file-20190131-112389-1r118kd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/256722/original/file-20190131-112389-1r118kd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=531&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/256722/original/file-20190131-112389-1r118kd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=531&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/256722/original/file-20190131-112389-1r118kd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=531&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This is legal, but most people aren’t used to that idea yet.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/woman-appending-signature-after-receiving-parcel-1020230140">Africa Studio/Shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Fax’s longevity also benefits greatly from reluctance – both legal and social – to accept email as secure and an emailed electronic signature as valid. Faxed signatures became legally accepted in the late 1980s and early 1990s in a series of legal and administrative decisions by state and federal agencies. The <a href="https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PLAW-106publ229/html/PLAW-106publ229.htm">Electronic Signatures Act</a> in 2000 also gave digital signatures legal power but institutional and individual acceptance followed only slowly – if at all. </p>
<p>Even parts of the federal government preferred faxes over email for many years thereafter. Not until 2010 did the Drug Enforcement Agency allow <a href="https://jhupbooks.press.jhu.edu/title/faxed">electronic signatures for Schedule II drugs</a> like Ritalin and opiates, which comprised about 10 percent of all prescriptions. That meant a pharmacist could accept a faxed prescription but not one scanned and sent by email.</p>
<p>The most recent <a href="https://www.fbi.gov/file-repository/cjis-security-policy_v5-7_20180816.pdf/view">FBI Criminal Justice Information Services policy</a> allows faxing from physical fax machines without encrypting the message, but demands encryption for all email and internet communications, including cloud-based faxing. It’s much <a href="https://www.lawtechnologytoday.org/2017/12/fax-machine-v-efax/">harder to intercept faxes than unencrypted email messages</a>.</p>
<h2>Faxing and medicine</h2>
<p>Another reason faxing hangs on is because competing technologies are weak. The health care industry generates huge amounts of data for each patient. That should make it fertile ground for a fully digital record-keeping system, “<a href="https://www.cms.gov/newsroom/press-releases/speech-remarks-administrator-seema-verma-onc-interoperability-forum-washington-dc">where data can flow easily</a> between patient, provider, caregivers, researchers, innovators and payers,” as Seema Verma, the head of the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services, put it in a speech earlier this year.</p>
<p>Federal privacy laws and deliberately incompatible standards, however, stand in the way. Immediately after the passage of the 1996 <a href="https://www.hhs.gov/hipaa/index.html">Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act</a>, fax vendors retooled their transmission, reception and storage systems and procedures to protect patients’ personal records. Specifically, HIPAA-compliant fax systems ensure the correct number is dialed and limit who can see received faxes. Digital patient-information systems have struggled to meet the same <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10916-017-0778-4">standards of administrative, technical and physical security</a>. </p>
<p>The Obama administration spent more than US$25 billion <a href="https://www.vox.com/2017/1/9/14211778/obama-electronic-medical-records">encouraging doctors and hospitals to adopt electronic medical records systems</a>. Crucially, rather than forcing competing systems to be compatible in order to receive federal support, the administration believed the market would decide on a standard to communicate. </p>
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<p>What actually happened was that competing companies <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2F1468-0009.12247">deliberately created incompatible systems</a>. Doctors’ offices and hospitals that use different records databases <a href="https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2018/11/12/why-doctors-hate-their-computers">can’t communicate with each other</a> digitally – but they can via fax. For many medical professionals, <a href="https://www.pamedsoc.org/detail/article/health-care-fax-free">particularly independent physicians</a>, faxing is far easier than dealing with expensive, hard-to-use software that doesn’t actually do what it was supposed to: securely share patient information.</p>
<h2>Comfortable inertia</h2>
<p>One more personal factor preserving faxing is users’ <a href="https://global.handelsblatt.com/companies/german-fax-culture-957266">reluctance to change</a>. Small businesses who find that faxing meets all their needs have little reason to spend the money and effort to try a new technology for document exchange. Every company that prefers faxes inherently encourages all its customers and suppliers to keep faxing too, to avoid messing up existing ordering processes. </p>
<p>It’s important to remember, too, that fax machines and multifunctional printers with a fax capability provide an inexpensive backup capability in case of technical problems with an internet connection, or even a cyberattack, like the Russian attack on <a href="https://www.economist.com/europe/2007/05/10/a-cyber-riot">Estonia in 2007</a>. </p>
<p>Absent a compelling reason or some management or government mandate, <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2018/11/why-people-still-use-fax-machines/576070/">people often don’t change technologies</a>. This is true beyond faxing: I drive a 2005 Camry. There are plenty of cars that are better in some way – safer, more fuel-efficient, more comfortable – but so long as the Camry passes state inspections and performs adequately, I can avoid the challenges and costs of buying a new car and learning how to use its new features.</p>
<h2>International popularity</h2>
<p>Faxing is still popular overseas, too. In Britain, the <a href="https://www.scl.org/news/10279-law-commission-and-electronic-signatures">2000 Electronic Communications Act</a> encouraged but did not explicitly authorize electronic signatures. In 2018, urged partly by the <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/inea/en/news-events/newsroom/eidas-regulation-eidentification-entries-force">European Union’s promotion of electronic identification</a>, the <a href="https://www.lawcom.gov.uk/project/electronic-execution-of-documents/">British Law Commission</a> concluded that electronic signatures were indeed legal but needed significant promotion to increase their acceptance and use. </p>
<p>Not surprisingly, a recent survey found that Britain’s National Health Service operated <a href="https://www.rcseng.ac.uk/news-and-events/media-centre/press-releases/nhs-fax-machines/">more than 8,000 fax machines</a>. In response, the U.K.’s Secretary of State for Health and Social Care Matt Hancock labeled faxing <a href="http://press.conservatives.com/post/178668001070/matt-hancock-speech-to-conservative-party">a symbol of National Health Service technological backwardness</a> and pledged to introduce new technologies more quickly. In December, the <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-46497526">National Health Service decided</a> to stop buying fax machines in 2019 and end their use by the end of 2020. That’s the same goal the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services’ Verma has for <a href="https://www.aoa.org/news/practice-management/cms-onc-send-message-on-faxs-demise-doctors-put-them-on-hold">American doctors</a> to stop faxing. </p>
<p>Nevertheless, faxing continues because it remains better – cheaper, more convenient, more secure, more comfortable – than the alternatives for many people, businesses and organizations. Faxing will remain important until transmitting digital data becomes easier and more accepted. That could be a long way off, though. <a href="https://www.modernhealthcare.com/article/20180929/NEWS/180929917">U.S. federal initiatives</a> are trying to make <a href="https://www.hl7.org/fhir/summary.html">medical records systems more compatible</a>, but no one has yet been hired to take a <a href="https://www.cms.gov/blog/cms-doubling-down-health-it-patients">key leadership position at CMS</a>.</p>
<p>Eventually the older generation of people more comfortable with faxing than emailing will fade away. Until then, however, fax machines will whirl away. </p>
<p>
<section class="inline-content">
<img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/248894/original/file-20181204-133095-1p2xxs2.png?w=128&h=128">
<div>
<header>Jonathan Coopersmith is the author of:</header>
<p><a href="https://jhupbooks.press.jhu.edu/title/faxed">Faxed: The Rise and Fall of the Fax Machine</a></p>
<footer>Johns Hopkins University Press provides funding as a member of The Conversation US.</footer>
</div>
</section>
</p>
<p><em>Editor’s note: This article was updated Feb. 14, 2019, to correct the spelling of the last name of the CMS administrator.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/109064/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jonathan Coopersmith received funding from the National Science Foundation to research the fax machine and to organize the conference, "To Boldly Preserve: Archiving the Next Half-Century of Spaceflight." Johns Hopkins University Press provides funding as a member of The Conversation US.</span></em></p>It’s 2019. And yet faxing is still often more secure, easier to use and better suited to existing work habits than computer-based messaging.Jonathan Coopersmith, Professor of History, Texas A&M UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1097282019-01-16T19:19:09Z2019-01-16T19:19:09ZAustralians lost more than $10 million to scammers last year. Follow these easy tips to avoid being conned<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/253997/original/file-20190115-152989-6tmpd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Scammers impersonating the Australian Taxation Office have fleeced Australians of more than $830,000.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/amsterdam-netherlands-july-9-2018-website-1130222741?src=M1kXzB5VZwe_Ud4fCTrXuA-1-8">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Many of us start a typical day by checking our phones to read emails, social media posts and the weather. Our phones are trusted devices we use constantly throughout the day to communicate. But the trust we place in our phones, and the way we interact with the world, also makes it easy for scammers to target us. </p>
<p>Our evolutionary past also makes us susceptible to scams. Humans are curious social animals, which means we are more trusting than we should be. That’s especially the case when we’re dealing with people over the phone, email or via SMS, where we don’t have the normal body language cues we would subconsciously process when making decisions. </p>
<p>We are also susceptible to fear and other psychological tools scammers use to create a sense of urgency that tricks us into making irrational decisions and taking action. Simply being aware that scams are out there is not enough to protect us from them. We also need to <a href="https://cyberconference.com.au/pdf/SecurityLikeSoap.pdf">change our behaviour</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/253473/original/file-20190112-43507-y8cno2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/253473/original/file-20190112-43507-y8cno2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=308&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/253473/original/file-20190112-43507-y8cno2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=308&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/253473/original/file-20190112-43507-y8cno2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=308&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/253473/original/file-20190112-43507-y8cno2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=387&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/253473/original/file-20190112-43507-y8cno2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=387&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/253473/original/file-20190112-43507-y8cno2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=387&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Scam using branding and authority to make you click to see the confidential information.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Damien Manuel</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-nigerian-prince-scams-continue-to-dupe-us-98232">Why 'Nigerian Prince' scams continue to dupe us</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Who are these scammers and what do they want?</h2>
<p>Scammers come in all shapes and sizes. Some are individuals, others are gangs. The more sophisticated scammers are criminal syndicates and foreign governments looking for a way to subvert international sanctions and obtain money through cyber crime. </p>
<p>The motivations of scammers ranges greatly, but can include:</p>
<ul>
<li>stealing intellectual property</li>
<li>tricking you to install malicious software (to steal your data or hold you to ransom)</li>
<li>stealing your identity so they can pretend to be you and conduct fraud </li>
<li>tricking you to part with your hard earned cash</li>
<li>gaining control of your device to steal information at a later date or using your device to attack other people you know.</li>
</ul>
<h2>What techniques are they using?</h2>
<p>Scammers are experts at social engineering and use a number of tricks to build rapport, credibility and trust with their targets.</p>
<p>Modifying the caller ID is a simple way to build credibility by making a call or SMS appear to come from an authority like the Australian Tax Office. The rise of cheap <a href="https://voip.ms/">Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) providers</a> and other online tools has made it even easier for anyone to exploit the phone systems and “spoof” other numbers. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/253555/original/file-20190113-43510-ep3qby.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/253555/original/file-20190113-43510-ep3qby.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/253555/original/file-20190113-43510-ep3qby.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/253555/original/file-20190113-43510-ep3qby.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/253555/original/file-20190113-43510-ep3qby.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=492&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/253555/original/file-20190113-43510-ep3qby.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=492&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/253555/original/file-20190113-43510-ep3qby.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=492&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An SMS scam that uses urgency and fear of fines to get people to click a link.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Damien Manuel</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In the VoIP phone system, the person initiating the call defines the caller ID seen by the receiver. This is the same for traditional phone systems, however the lower price of VoIP and ease at which the caller ID can be modified without any technical knowledge (via a simple web page) makes it faster and cheaper for scammers to cycle through a number of fake caller IDs in a single day. It also allows them to move to a new source number or VoIP provider very quickly, making it harder for telcos in Australia to block. </p>
<p>There are legitimate business reasons for allowing the caller ID to be modified, such as when companies operating call centres want all outbound phone calls from their staff to appear to originate from a single “help desk” phone number.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/new-virtual-kidnapping-scam-targeting-chinese-students-makes-use-of-data-shared-online-96910">New 'virtual kidnapping' scam targeting Chinese students makes use of data shared online</a>
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<hr>
<p>Email spoofing is also common and easy to do. This is where an attacker forges the email header, making the email look like it originated from a friend, authority or service provider, such as a bank. A key way to identify a spoofed email is to check the email address itself (the reply field) rather than just relying on the display name in the “from” field.</p>
<p>Most email clients (such as Gmail or Outlook) on desktops or laptops are capable of displaying email headers. Unfortunately email clients on most smartphones and tablets make it difficult to see the real source and often only show the forged “display name” information. </p>
<p>Phone and email are the two main scam delivery methods. Losses from attempts to gain your personal information rose by more than 61% between 2017 and 2018. This trend shows no sign of slowing down. Last year, Australians <a href="https://www.scamwatch.gov.au/about-scamwatch/scam-statistics?scamid=29&date=2018">lost more than $10 million</a> to scammers.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/253472/original/file-20190112-43525-17kuzvj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/253472/original/file-20190112-43525-17kuzvj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/253472/original/file-20190112-43525-17kuzvj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/253472/original/file-20190112-43525-17kuzvj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/253472/original/file-20190112-43525-17kuzvj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=460&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/253472/original/file-20190112-43525-17kuzvj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=460&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/253472/original/file-20190112-43525-17kuzvj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=460&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An example of a scam email.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Damien Manuel</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Signs of a scam</h2>
<p>Ten common warning signs you are dealing with a scammer include the following:</p>
<ul>
<li>being asked for password, PINs or other sensitive information</li>
<li>being told you are owed a refund</li>
<li>being told you have unpaid bills, unpaid fines from the police or a government department</li>
<li>being notified there is a problem with your email or bank account </li>
<li>being asked for urgent help</li>
<li>being congratulated on winning a competition (you didn’t enter)</li>
<li>being asked to click on a link or open a document</li>
<li>being sent an unexpected invoice to open</li>
<li>receiving a critical alert message with a link to click</li>
<li>receiving a tracking number and link for a delivery (you didn’t order).</li>
</ul>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/253557/original/file-20190113-43544-ahcext.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/253557/original/file-20190113-43544-ahcext.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/253557/original/file-20190113-43544-ahcext.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/253557/original/file-20190113-43544-ahcext.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/253557/original/file-20190113-43544-ahcext.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=369&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/253557/original/file-20190113-43544-ahcext.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=369&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/253557/original/file-20190113-43544-ahcext.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=369&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A scam telling you your mail box full is designed to make you click on a link.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Damien Manuel</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/more-than-just-money-getting-caught-in-a-romance-scam-could-cost-you-your-life-97258">More than just money: getting caught in a romance scam could cost you your life</a>
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<h2>Simple tips to avoid being conned</h2>
<p>Firstly, don’t click on any links, don’t respond to offers to opt-out or unsubscribe, don’t call return calls from numbers you don’t recognise and, most importantly, don’t give out personal information – even if you think it isn’t important.</p>
<p>Remember, some scams are multi-step scams. The best thing you can do is to report the scam and tell your friends and family to be aware of the scam so they can modify their behaviours.</p>
<p>Scams can be reported to various government agencies, such as <a href="https://www.scamwatch.gov.au/report-a-scam">Scam Watch</a>, the Australian Cybercrime Online Reporting Network (<a href="https://report.acorn.gov.au">ACORN</a>) and, in some cases, the service provider – for example, the ATO, Telstra, AusPost and the banks.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/253569/original/file-20190114-43517-10d6ymg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/253569/original/file-20190114-43517-10d6ymg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=1565&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/253569/original/file-20190114-43517-10d6ymg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=1565&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/253569/original/file-20190114-43517-10d6ymg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=1565&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/253569/original/file-20190114-43517-10d6ymg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1967&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/253569/original/file-20190114-43517-10d6ymg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1967&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/253569/original/file-20190114-43517-10d6ymg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1967&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An example of a multi-step scam that validates your email is real and then harvests the credentials you enter.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Damien Manuel</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/109728/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Damien Manuel is affiliated with AISA (Australian Information Security Association) as the chair, Oceania Cyber Security Centre (OCSC) as a director (representing Deakin University), mentor for CyRise founders (representing Deakin University), CompTIA as an exam writer and on the CompTIA Executive Advisory Committee in the USA and as an expert on the Standards Australia Committee for Information Security (IT-012). </span></em></p>As curious social animals, humans are more trusting of people than we should be – especially when we’re dealing with people over the phone, email or via SMS, in the absence of body language.Damien Manuel, Director, Centre for Cyber Security Research & Innovation (CSRI), Deakin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/982322018-08-03T10:37:46Z2018-08-03T10:37:46ZWhy ‘Nigerian Prince’ scams continue to dupe us<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/230481/original/file-20180802-136670-xahbee.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">These scammers don't exploit technological vulnerabilities – they exploit human ones.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/credit-card-on-fishing-hook-over-1096036970?src=Q5T0D5gg_YGVWEqEKynOIw-1-79">Alexandr III</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>With <a href="https://www.bostonglobe.com/business/2018/07/31/boston-school-valedictorian-arrested-cryptocurrency-theft/7p5MnBQKPlpz3V96IwGb5K/story.html">cryptocurrency fraud</a> and <a href="https://www.king5.com/article/news/nation-world/irs-scam-callers-are-going-to-jail-for-up-to-20-years/507-578415642">IRS scams</a> making headlines, I had thought Nigerian email schemes were a thing of the past, akin to the bygone days <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2005/11/27/nyregion/thecity/for-you-half-price.html">when a scammer might offer to sell you the Brooklyn Bridge</a>.</p>
<p>So I was surprised to recently come across <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-37632259">an article</a> about a 62-year-old Swedish divorcee named Maria Grette. She had set up a dating profile and soon received a message from a 58-year-old Danish man named Johnny who was working as an engineer in the United States.</p>
<p>They wrote back and forth, starting chatting on the phone, and a relationship blossomed. Her new love interest had a son who was studying at a university in England, and the man said that he was looking to retire to Sweden. They made arrangements for a trip to meet in person there. However, before heading to Europe, Johnny needed to take a side trip to Nigeria for a job interview. </p>
<p>That’s when things took a turn. </p>
<p>Maria received a desperate call from Johnny. He and his son had been mugged, the son had been shot in the head, and they were in a Lagos hospital without any money or identification. </p>
<p>They desperately needed funds transferred into his British bank account to pay for medical expenses and a lawyer, and Maria eagerly obliged.</p>
<p>Several thousand euros later, she realized that she had been had.</p>
<p><a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=MxorsyYAAAAJ&hl=en">As a psychologist</a>, I was struck by the tenacity of this scam and others like it. I wanted to know how they operate – and what psychological tendencies the Nigerian scammers exploit to continue duping people to this day. </p>
<h2>The many flavors of ‘419 scams’</h2>
<p>“Nigerian Prince” scams are also known as “<a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/1687-417X-2014-4">419 scams</a>,” a reference to the Nigerian penal code designed to deal with them. They are notoriously difficult to prosecute for both Nigerian and foreign authorities. Victims are often too ashamed to pursue the case, and even when they do, the trail quickly goes cold.</p>
<p>In its earliest incarnations, the scam involved someone claiming to be a Nigerian prince sending a target an email saying he desperately needed help smuggling wealth out of his country. All the target needed to do was provide a bank account number or send a foreign processing fee to help the prince out of a jam, and then he would show his gratitude with a generous kickback.</p>
<p>These scams really do appear to have begun in Nigeria, but they can now come from almost anywhere – people posing as <a href="https://foreignpolicy.com/2014/03/13/in-online-scams-new-nigerian-prince-is-a-syrian-government-official/">Syrian government officials</a> is one the current favorites. Nevertheless, the “Nigerian Prince” moniker persists. </p>
<p>But today’s 419 scams can involve dating websites, like the one that ensnared Maria Grette. Wealthy orphans claiming to need an adult sponsor, lottery winners saying they’re required to share their winnings with others, and inheritances trapped in banks due to civil war <a href="https://www.scamwatch.gov.au/types-of-scams/unexpected-money/nigerian-scams">are also common ploys</a>. </p>
<p>Reporter Erika Eichelberger <a href="https://www.motherjones.com/politics/2014/03/what-i-learned-from-nigerian-scammers/">spent time with Nigerian scam artists in 2014</a>. She found them to be surprisingly forthcoming. </p>
<p>She reported that most scammers tended to be ordinary people, such as university students or people working low-paying jobs, who discovered that they could make fabulously more money – as much as $60,000 per year – scamming.</p>
<p>In most cases, after establishing a connection and cultivating a relationship, the scammers eventually get around to persuading their targets to provide their bank account or credit card information. <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2017/10/18/nigerian-con-artists-have-new-ways-theyre-using-to-steal-your-cash.html">They prefer to pursue</a> 45-to-75-year-old widowed men and women. The thinking goes that this demographic is most likely to have money and be lonely – in other words, easy marks. </p>
<h2>Exploiting human vulnerabilities</h2>
<p>With all of the recent advances in computer security and anti-virus software, we might think we’re immune. But 419 scams <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1361372317300088?via%3Dihub">don’t exploit technological vulnerabilities</a>. </p>
<p>Instead, they exploit human ones. </p>
<p>We did not evolve to live in a world of strangers. <a href="http://docs.wixstatic.com/ugd/a6ef2a_82a943eeb765498ebf5e67c874a0cc06.pdf">Our brains are wired</a> to live in relatively small tribes in which everyone’s character and past behavior is well-known. </p>
<p>For this reason, we overconfidently ascribe qualities to someone we’ve never met in person but have corresponded with. Relationships – and trust – can form quickly over email and social media. </p>
<p>This inherent naivete makes us easy prey.</p>
<p>In addition, most of us <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5380125/">profess unrealistic optimism about our own futures</a> – our grades will be better next semester, a new job will be much better than an old one, and our next relationship will be the one that lasts forever. </p>
<p>Furthermore, <a href="http://psychology.iresearchnet.com/social-psychology/decision-making/overconfidence/">research shows</a> that <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-art-thinking-clearly/201306/the-overconfidence-effect">we consistently overestimate</a> our knowledge, our skills, our intelligence and our moral fiber. In other words, we truly believe that we are savvy and that nice things are likely to happen to us. </p>
<p>The good fortune coming our way courtesy of Nigeria may not seem so far-fetched after all.</p>
<p>Then there are the scammers’ methods. They utilize the <a href="https://www.psychologistworld.com/behavior/compliance/strategies/foot-in-door-technique">foot-in-the-door technique</a> – a small, innocuous request – to draw their targets in, perhaps something as simple as asking for advice about what to see on vacation in the mark’s home country. When victims acquiesce, they begin to perceive themselves as someone who provides help. Through a series of baby steps, they move from doing small favors that cost little to giving away the store.</p>
<p>Studies have shown that once people publicly commit themselves to a course of action, <a href="https://www.psychologistworld.com/behavior/compliance/strategies/low-ball-technique">they’re unlikely to reverse course even when the circumstances change</a>. Other studies have shown that people seem to have an <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/258647?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents">irresistible urge to escalate commitments to bad decisions</a>.</p>
<p>Changing course is cognitively difficult because not only is it an admission of a bad decision, it also means giving up any hope of recouping our losses. So once someone invests money into something risky – whether it’s a pyramid scheme or a day at the casino – they may keep throwing good money after bad because it seems like the only way to get anything back.</p>
<p>Is this what happened to Maria Grette? </p>
<p>In a remarkable turn of events, she eventually tracked down the 24-year old man who had claimed to be “Johnny” and went to Nigeria to meet him. Incredibly, they formed a genuine friendship, and Grette ended up giving “Johnny” financial assistance so he could finish a degree at an American university.</p>
<p>And no, “Johnny” never did return the money – his scam turned out better than even he could have ever imagined.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/98232/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Frank T. McAndrew does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A number of factors – from our eagerness to place trust in people to our overconfidence in our own intelligence – make us easy prey.Frank T. McAndrew, Cornelia H. Dudley Professor of Psychology, Knox CollegeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.