tag:theconversation.com,2011:/au/topics/endurance-sports-19264/articles
Endurance sports – The Conversation
2024-02-21T13:19:09Z
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/216125
2024-02-21T13:19:09Z
2024-02-21T13:19:09Z
Your heart changes in size and shape with exercise – this can lead to heart problems for some athletes and gym rats
<p>Exercise has long been recognized by clinicians, scientists and public health officials as an <a href="https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/heart/physical-activity/benefits">important way to maintain health</a> throughout a person’s lifespan. It improves overall fitness, helps build strong muscles and bones, reduces the risk of chronic disease, improves mood and slows physical decline. </p>
<p>Exercise can also significantly reduce the risk of developing conditions that negatively affect heart heath, such as high blood pressure, high cholesterol and obesity. But large amounts of exercise throughout life may also harm the heart, leading to the development of a condition called <a href="https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/cardiovascular-disorders/sports-and-the-heart/athlete%E2%80%99s-heart">athletic heart</a>.</p>
<p>As the <a href="https://medschool.cuanschutz.edu/cardiology/clinical-programs/multidisciplinary-programs/sports-cardiology">sports cardiology director</a> at the University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, I’m often asked how much and what kind of exercise is necessary to get the benefits of exercise. Many people also wonder about the risks of exercise, and what happens if you exercise too much. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.heart.org/en/healthy-living/fitness/fitness-basics/aha-recs-for-physical-activity-in-adults">American Heart Association generally recommends</a> 150 minutes of moderate-intensity exercise, such as brisk walking, or 75 minutes of vigorous-intensity exercise, such as running, each week. It also recommends muscle strengthening exercises at least twice per week.</p>
<p>When people exceed these guidelines, the heart may remodel itself in response – that is, it begins to change its size and shape. As a result, heart function may also change. These changes in heart structure and function among people who engage in high levels of exercise are referred to as the athletic heart, or athlete’s heart. Athletic heart doesn’t necessarily cause problems, but in some people it can increase the risk of certain heart issues.</p>
<h2>What is athletic heart?</h2>
<p>To understand how exercise affects the heart, it’s important to consider what kind of exercise you’re participating in. </p>
<p>Exercise is generally divided into <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2015.09.033">two broad categories</a>: dynamic and static. </p>
<p>Dynamic exercises, like running, cross-country skiing and soccer, require the heart to pump an increased amount of blood, compared to the amount delivered to the body at rest, in order to sustain the activity. For example, when running, the amount of blood the heart pumps to the body may increase by threefold to fivefold compared to at rest.</p>
<p>Static exercises, like weightlifting, gymnastics or rock climbing, require the body to use skeletal muscle in order to push or pull heavy amounts of weight. While the heart does pump more blood to skeletal muscles that are working during these activities, these kinds of exercises depend on a muscle’s ability to move the weight. For example, in order to do curls with dumbbells, the biceps must be strong enough to lift the desired weight. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576223/original/file-20240216-28-rwjbi1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Close-up of lower half of the back of a person cycling, one hand outstretched towards the vegetation on the side of the road" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576223/original/file-20240216-28-rwjbi1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576223/original/file-20240216-28-rwjbi1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576223/original/file-20240216-28-rwjbi1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576223/original/file-20240216-28-rwjbi1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576223/original/file-20240216-28-rwjbi1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576223/original/file-20240216-28-rwjbi1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576223/original/file-20240216-28-rwjbi1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Cycling involves both dynamic and static exercise.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/man-in-black-shorts-riding-bicycle-on-road-during-daytime-vRuoDd-Qnq8">Judit Murcia/Unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
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<p>Some exercises, like rowing or cycling, are both highly dynamic and highly static because they require the heart to pump large amounts of blood while simultaneously requiring a large amount of muscle strength to sustain effort.</p>
<p>It is important to distinguish between dynamic and static exercise because the heart adapts differently according to the type of exercise you engage in over time. Dynamic exercise increases the volume of blood pumping through the heart and can cause the heart to become enlarged, or dilated, over time. Static exercise increases the amount of pressure on the heart and can also cause it to become enlarged over time but with thickened walls.</p>
<h2>Who develops athletic heart?</h2>
<p>Exercise that exceeds guidelines, such as exercising more than an hour most days of the week, may lead to development of athletic heart. Athletic heart commonly occurs <a href="https://doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.101.3.336">among endurance athletes</a>, who regularly compete in activities like marathons or other long-duration events. Many exercise several hours per day and more than 12 to 15 hours per week.</p>
<p>Among runners, for example, the heart remodels itself in response to having to pump a high volume of blood. As a result, the chambers of the heart enlarge to hold and pump more blood. Among weightlifters, the heart remodels itself by thickening in response to the increase in pressure applied on the heart.</p>
<p>Exercise is good for the body, and athletic heart results from a lifelong commitment to an activity that promotes good health. But there may be some issues that arise from an athletic heart.</p>
<p>First, athletes with markedly enlarged hearts may be at risk of developing <a href="https://www.acc.org/Latest-in-Cardiology/Articles/2019/08/16/08/20/Atrial-Fibrillation-in-Competitive-Athletes">atrial fibrillation</a>, which is abnormal heart rhythms that typically occur among older adults or people with high blood pressure or heart failure. Abnormal heart rhythms are worrisome because they may lead to a stroke. </p>
<p>There are many potential reasons atrial fibrillation occurs in athletes. A dilated atrium – the top chamber in the heart – may become inflamed and develop scar tissue, increasing the risk of atrial fibrillation. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.0000031733.51374.C1">Stress and environmental factors</a> may also work together to increase the risk of arrhythmia.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576219/original/file-20240216-28-p2nrzu.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Clip of an ultrasound reading of an enlarged heart beating" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576219/original/file-20240216-28-p2nrzu.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576219/original/file-20240216-28-p2nrzu.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=537&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576219/original/file-20240216-28-p2nrzu.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=537&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576219/original/file-20240216-28-p2nrzu.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=537&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576219/original/file-20240216-28-p2nrzu.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=675&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576219/original/file-20240216-28-p2nrzu.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=675&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576219/original/file-20240216-28-p2nrzu.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=675&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This is an echocardiogram of a 30-year-old athlete with an enlarged heart.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:4_chamber_(1).gif">Runandbike/Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
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<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.117.027834">Coronary artery calcification, or CAC</a>, is another concern among elite athletes. Coronary artery calcification, which commonly occurs in older adults or those with risk factors for coronary artery disease, increases the risk of having a heart attack or stroke. In recent years, doctors have been using imaging tests to monitor calcium buildup in the arteries of their patients to try to determine their risk of heart attack or stroke over time.</p>
<p>It is not entirely clear why elite athletes develop coronary artery calcification. Fortunately, it does not appear that athletes have an increased risk of heart attack, even among those with very high levels of CAC. For example, a large study of almost 22,000 participants found that even athletes who engaged in high amounts of exercise and had elevated levels of CAC <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jamacardio.2018.4628">did not have an increased risk</a> of death from cardiovascular disease over a decade of follow-up.</p>
<p>Some athletes are appropriately concerned about having calcium buildup in their heart arteries and may wonder whether or not they should be taking medications like aspirin or statins. But risks <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mayocpiqo.2019.03.007">vary from person to person</a>, so anyone concerned about CAC should talk to their doctor</p>
<h2>Putting exercise in its place</h2>
<p>Though elite athletes may have an increased risk of developing athletic heart, exercise undoubtedly remains one of, if not the best, methods to maintain a healthy lifestyle.</p>
<p>For example, if someone does not exercise routinely, their heart <a href="https://doi.org/10.1161/circulationaha.105.541078">will become stiff</a> and not pump blood as well as it once did. Routine exercise – especially dynamic exercise like running – maintains a compliant heart and prevents stiffening. A compliant heart will expand a lot more as it fills with blood and, in turn, pump out more blood with each heartbeat. A stiff heart has difficulty filling up with blood and has difficulty pumping blood through the body.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576226/original/file-20240216-24-i1u421.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two people running on a road lined with trees -- the younger person is trailing behind the older person who has leaped into the air with arms raised" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576226/original/file-20240216-24-i1u421.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576226/original/file-20240216-24-i1u421.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576226/original/file-20240216-24-i1u421.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576226/original/file-20240216-24-i1u421.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576226/original/file-20240216-24-i1u421.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=553&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576226/original/file-20240216-24-i1u421.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=553&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576226/original/file-20240216-24-i1u421.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=553&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Regular exercise can help keep your heart young.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/the-old-and-young-sportsmen-running-on-the-road-royalty-free-image/1086683052">Viacheslav Peretiatko/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span>
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<p>Generally, routine exercise throughout adulthood encourages the heart to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2014.03.062">remain strong and flexible</a> even in old age. Even if someone were only to begin regularly exercising in their 40s to 50s, it is possible to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1161/circulationaha.117.030617">reverse some of the effects</a> of sedentary aging.</p>
<p>For example, a 2018 study of 53 sedentary people mostly in their early 50s found that those who participated in a two-year exercise training program using a combination of running, cycling and elliptical exercise had hearts that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1161/circulationaha.117.030617">became more compliant</a> compared to the hearts of those who did not exercise.</p>
<p>It is never too late to start exercising. Routinely following exercise guidelines can help promote physical and mental health and help your heart stay young throughout your life.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/216125/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>William Cornwell does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
People who regularly engage in significant amounts of exercise, as endurance athletes do, may develop enlarged hearts. While athletic heart is adapted for performance, it can be cause for concern.
William Cornwell, Associate Professor of Cardiology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/200730
2023-04-13T02:02:30Z
2023-04-13T02:02:30Z
Running gels and protein powders can be convenient boosts for athletes – but be sure to read the label
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517602/original/file-20230327-19-mu4wn5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=7%2C0%2C2488%2C1661&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Personal bests, competition wins, new challenges – athletes, and particularly endurance athletes, tend to want to push themselves hard to perform. So it makes sense that there is a big interest in sports supplements, like running gels and protein powders. </p>
<p>We all need <a href="https://www.mdanderson.org/publications/focused-on-health/what-are-macronutrients-.h15-1593780.html">macronutrients</a>: carbohydrates, proteins and fats that give us energy and build structures like muscles and other cells in our bodies. </p>
<p>When we are very physically active, like long-distance runners, cyclists or triathletes, our need for both energy and building blocks for muscles and other cells <a href="https://journals.lww.com/acsm-csmr/fulltext/2018/06000/energy_availability,_macronutrient_intake,_and.10.aspx">increases</a> because of the extra work our bodies are doing. </p>
<p>So supplements – such as sports gels or protein powders – that contain these macronutrients might make sense. But can they do anything that food can’t? </p>
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<h2>What is in sports gels?</h2>
<p>Sports gels (also known as energy gels) are essentially <a href="https://journals.humankinetics.com/abstract/journals/ijsnem/25/5/article-p504.xml">carbohydrate supplements</a>. They contain simple sugars like maltodextrin, fructose, and glucose. These sugars don’t need much digestion to be absorbed and <a href="https://academic.oup.com/ajcn/article-abstract/62/1/203S/4651710">used as energy</a>. Sugars are the easiest form of energy for our bodies to use. </p>
<p>During long periods of exercise our stored <a href="https://journals.physiology.org/doi/abs/10.1152/jappl.1999.87.3.947">sources of energy get depleted</a>. Our blood sugar drops and we use the glycogen stored in our muscles. So during long bouts of exercise, athletes like long-distance cyclists and runners as well as players in extended length “stop and start” type sports, such as soccer <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26115589/">need to replace these stores</a>. </p>
<p>The research into the benefit of carbohydrate supplementation during exercise isn’t new. It dates back as far back as the <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/article-abstract/240244">1924 Boston Marathon</a>. </p>
<p>The gel forms are a <a href="https://journals.humankinetics.com/view/journals/ijsnem/18/2/article-p179.xml">bit more modern</a>, taking off in the 1980s and 1990s. For some people and sports, they have replaced the sweet drinks used previously. Gels have the advantage of being a more concentrated form than a drink, which means <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35360695">less to carry</a> and less to ingest for the same carbohydrate kick. </p>
<h2>What about protein powders?</h2>
<p>Protein powders are exactly what the name suggests. They are typically <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3905294/">casein or whey</a> (proteins found in milk) but can come in plant-based forms too. </p>
<p>Protein won’t give you the quick energy boost that sugars do, even though protein and carbohydrates have the <a href="https://nutritionaustralia.org/fact-sheets/balancing-energy-in-and-energy-out/#:%7E:text=The%20amount%20of%20energy%20delivered,Fat%20%E2%80%93%2037.7kJ%20per%20gram">same energy value</a> (meaning gram for gram they have the same amount of calories). </p>
<p>This is because proteins are more <a href="https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/extra-protein-is-a-decent-dietary-choice-but-dont-overdo-it-201305016145#:%7E:text=%E2%80%9CProtein%20takes%20more%20energy%20for,help%20some%20people%20lose%20weight.">complicated</a> for the body to break down and use. But protein is not just important for energy. It provides important building blocks for most of our body’s structures, including our muscles. This is why protein powders are popular with weight lifters and other power-based athletes. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517603/original/file-20230327-24-cx5a6z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="selection of fruits, chocolate powder and milky drink on benchtop" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517603/original/file-20230327-24-cx5a6z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517603/original/file-20230327-24-cx5a6z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517603/original/file-20230327-24-cx5a6z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517603/original/file-20230327-24-cx5a6z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517603/original/file-20230327-24-cx5a6z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517603/original/file-20230327-24-cx5a6z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517603/original/file-20230327-24-cx5a6z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Weightlifters are often keen to supplement their protein intake to build muscle.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/healthy-fresh-smoothie-drink-green-apple-734467744">Shutterstock</a></span>
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<h2>But can food do the same thing?</h2>
<p>Plenty of foods are rich in carbohydrates and proteins. Honey, dried fruits, bananas and even those half-time orange wedges are all potential carbohydrate sources for athletes. </p>
<p>Consuming carbohydrates in these forms has been shown to have the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35231883/">same benefits</a> as gels during exercise. </p>
<p>For protein, milk, eggs and meats are all great sources. </p>
<p>Food sources also have the added benefit of being complex, which means they have other good things in them in addition to the macros, including vitamins and minerals, and bioactive compounds which promote good health. </p>
<p>Foods that are whole (unprocessed) or minimally processed are the most cost-effective means to obtain a mix of nutrients needed for rest and recovery after exercise, as well as during. They might taste a bit better too. </p>
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Read more:
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<h2>Why supplement then?</h2>
<p>But, the supplements do have some benefits. They are highly concentrated, meaning you can get a lot in quickly, with less to carry and less chance of feeling overly full. </p>
<p>So they are but are generally considered by athletes as <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35360695">more convenient</a> and are also linked to less <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35231883">gut discomfort</a> (like cramps and diarrhoea). </p>
<p>The processed and packaged nature also means you know exactly what and how much you are getting, which might be important for some athletes to keep track of. </p>
<h2>Any downsides of macro supplements?</h2>
<p>Macro supplements can be expensive, and they can use a lot of packaging. The <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25997181/">huge variety</a> of products on the market also means products could contain lots of other ingredients (for better and for worse). Some sports gels contain stimulants like caffeine or preservatives like salts. Some protein powders contain added sugar. </p>
<p>And like all supplements, they are not without their risks. </p>
<p>Highly concentrated sports gels can cause <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25997181/">stomach upsets</a> and excessive protein supplementation can damage other organs, such as the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1524267/">kidneys</a>. </p>
<p>Macro supplements can also make <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24500112/">dehydration</a> worse because the body will need to shift water to deal with these concentrated products. </p>
<p>Blocks and <a href="https://shop.clifbar.com/collections/bloks-energy-chews">chews and bars</a> can be even more concentrated, but have a more complex composition. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517604/original/file-20230327-20-1hfnt5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Runners kit including clothes, shoes, energy gels and competitor bib on grass" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517604/original/file-20230327-20-1hfnt5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517604/original/file-20230327-20-1hfnt5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517604/original/file-20230327-20-1hfnt5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517604/original/file-20230327-20-1hfnt5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517604/original/file-20230327-20-1hfnt5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517604/original/file-20230327-20-1hfnt5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517604/original/file-20230327-20-1hfnt5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Read the ingredients list carefully before adding gels to your kit.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/running-shoes-marathon-race-bib-number-432469564">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/nope-coffee-wont-give-you-extra-energy-itll-just-borrow-a-bit-that-youll-pay-for-later-197897">Nope, coffee won't give you extra energy. It'll just borrow a bit that you'll pay for later</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>The science is also a bit sexist</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14967866">vast majority of studies</a> on sports gels have used males, and the same benefits may not be seen in females. This is due to sex differences between males and females in how readily carbohydrates are used as energy, with females oxidising more fat and less carbohydrate, compared to males, during endurance exercise. </p>
<p>Ultimately, whether or not supplements or foods are the right choice for you during sports and exercise is going to come down to your preferences, budget, needs and the length and intensity of your exercise or sport. </p>
<p>For casual, short or low intensity sporting pursuits, supplements might be overkill, but for activities of high intensity or long duration, they can have benefits.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/200730/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Emma Beckett has received funding for research or consulting from Mars Foods, Nutrition Research Australia, NHMRC, ARC, AMP Foundation, Kellogg, and the University of Newcastle. She also works for Nutrition Research Australia. She is a member of committees/working groups related to nutrition or the Australian Academy of Science, the National Health and Medical Research Council and the Nutrition Society of Australia.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Patrice Jones has received funding for research or consulting from the Victorian Government, Nutrition Research Australia, Victoria University, the Australian Academy of Science, NIH Fund, and the University of Newcastle. She is a member of committees related to nutrition/physiology: Nutrition Society of Australia, Australian Physiological Society. She is affiliated with the Institute for Health and Sport, Victoria University and Nutrition Research Australia.
</span></em></p>
Sports gels and protein powders can meet the increased nutritional needs of endurance athletes in a convenient form. But they do pack downsides too.
Emma Beckett, Senior Lecturer (Food Science and Human Nutrition), School of Environmental and Life Sciences, University of Newcastle
Patrice Jones, Post doctoral research fellow, Institute for Health & Sport, Victoria University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/182823
2022-05-24T13:52:25Z
2022-05-24T13:52:25Z
Here’s why you might feel sick after a workout – and what you can do to prevent it
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465052/original/file-20220524-14-fl482a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=51%2C0%2C5740%2C3823&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Feeling sick after a workout is usually no cause for alarm.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/male-asian-athlete-having-abdominal-pain-2039907389">voronaman/ Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Many of us exercise to feel better. While some of us get “runners’ highs” after a workout, unfortunately some of us leave the gym feeling nauseous. Though this is usually only temporary, it can still be uncomfortable. Fortunately there are a few good explanations for why this may be happening – so if this happens to you there’s probably no reason to be alarmed.</p>
<p>When we exercise, there’s an increase in blood flow to the working muscles, brain, lungs and heart. This increase in blood flow is driven by the sympathetic part of the autonomic nervous system (which helps regulates all of our involuntary body responses, such as heart rate, blood pressure and digestion). It does this by <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fphys.2012.00284/full">widening the arteries</a> so they can carry more blood to these tissues. </p>
<p>But the sympathetic nervous system, which normally drives our “<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4495877/">fight or flight</a>” mechanism, simultaneously <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1432887/">narrows the blood vessels</a> going into our gastrointestinal system (such as our stomach) during a strenuous workout by up to 80%. It does this because there’s a limited quantity of blood in the body, and the increased oxygen demand by some tissues can only be met by altering the amount of blood going to other tissues. This means that blood supply may be reduced in areas that don’t currently need as much oxygen at that time. This can be the case whether or not you’ve recently eaten.</p>
<p>But let’s say you’ve recently eaten a meal before heading to the gym or going for a run. When we eat, the food <a href="https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/digestive-diseases/digestive-system-how-it-works#:%7E:text=into%20your%20esophagus.-,Stomach.,chyme%2C%20into%20your%20small%20intestine.">stretches our stomach</a>, resulting in the release of acid and enzymes needed to digest the food. The stomach muscles also <a href="https://journals.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/advan.00025.2003">become more active</a> during digestion, causing greater demand for oxygen and blood flow to the stomach and other gastrointestinal tissues. A different part of the autonomic nervous system causes blood flow to increase to the gastrointestinal structures when they <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538516">need to be active</a>.</p>
<p>The significant conflict in the body from different tissues all demanding oxygen may be one reason why nausea happens during or after a workout. The body has to adapt the blood flow to the tissues as demand changes. So, when we work out, blood needs to go to the muscles, heart, lungs and brain, meaning blood flow is reduced in less active tissues, such as the gastrointestinal tract – even if it’s currently digesting our dinner. When blood flow is reduced in this area, it triggers our intestinal nerves, which subsequently causes <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8198651/">feelings of nausea</a>.</p>
<p>On top of this, the stomach and other abdominal organs can also be compressed during exercise, which may further contribute to feelings of nausea. This is particularly an issue in <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6945051/">squatting</a>, as the heart rate and oxygen demand in tissues increases, so the body draws larger volumes of air into the lungs. This then causes the diaphragm (under your ribs) to push down harder on the abdominal organs. Other muscles – such as those in the abdominal wall – also help, further squeezing the abdominal organs with every breath. This can result in <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/apt.14157">significant nausea and even vomiting</a> – even on an empty stomach. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A group of marathon runners racing outdoors. A man and a woman are at the front of the group." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465054/original/file-20220524-22-reicdp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465054/original/file-20220524-22-reicdp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465054/original/file-20220524-22-reicdp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465054/original/file-20220524-22-reicdp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465054/original/file-20220524-22-reicdp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465054/original/file-20220524-22-reicdp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465054/original/file-20220524-22-reicdp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Endurance sports may actually be bad for the stomach.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/bamberg-germany-may-03-2015-weltkulturerbelauf-276219920">Andreas Zerndl/ Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Some evidence even suggests that exercise, particularly long distance running and other endurance events, can damage the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1589703/">stomach lining</a> – likely due to the <a href="https://gut.bmj.com/content/48/3/435">decrease</a> in blood flow and oxygen available to the organ. This would also cause nausea. In extreme circumstances this can result in <a href="https://journals.lww.com/co-clinicalnutrition/Abstract/2009/09000/The_impact_of_physical_exercise_on_the.13.aspx">bleeding</a> of the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8338081/">stomach lining</a>, particularly in endurance and long distance athletes. </p>
<h2>When to eat</h2>
<p>If you exercise immediately or up to an hour after eating, you’re more likely to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S019566630090391X">experience nausea</a> – regardless of exercise level or workout intensity. It takes <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17074022/">approximately two hours</a> for solid food to be <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537005/">broken down by the stomach</a> and enter the small intestines, so if you experience nausea after workouts, it might be best to wait at least two hours after a meal. </p>
<p>What you eat before a workout may also determine whether you experience nausea. High fibre, fatty, and even high protein foods are all linked to <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-014-0153-2">greater likelihood</a> of nausea after a workout. Supplemental protein, <a href="https://academic.oup.com/ajcn/article/102/6/1574/4555193">particularly whey or shakes</a>, are also digested more slowly. This is likely to contribute to nausea during a workout as the stomach tries to digest it.</p>
<p>Certain fats, particularly <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4424767/">saturated</a>, may induce nausea differently – with animal models showing they <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27873093/">irritate</a> and <a href="https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/01.ATV.21.6.991">damage</a> the lining of the gastrointestinal tract, which activates nerves in the lining of the stomach that link to the vomiting centre (located in the medulla oblongata) in the brain.</p>
<p>Consuming sports drinks or other <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28646834/">high-carbohydrate drinks</a> (such as juices, energy drinks and sodas), are also <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-014-0153-2">linked to nausea</a> during and <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0897190002239633">after a workout</a>. This may be because these drinks <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0897190002239633">are digested very slowly</a> and stay in the stomach longer than other drinks might.</p>
<p>If you’re someone who often experiences nausea after a workout, there are a couple of things you can do. First, change or reduce your usual workout, and build up intensity slowly. This is because the longer the workout, the more blood is consistently drawn away from the stomach. Make sure you drink enough water before and after a workout, as both too little and too much can cause nausea for different reasons. </p>
<p>In terms of eating, avoid it two hours before, and choose the right food – such as <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5794245/">high quality carbohydrates</a> (such as bananas or sweet potatoes) and protein, as well as unsaturated fats (such as nuts). These will not only fuel the body, but they won’t be as difficult to digest as other foods if you plan to work out.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/182823/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Adam Taylor is affiliated with the Anatomical Society. </span></em></p>
Try to avoid eating an hour or two before a workout.
Adam Taylor, Professor and Director of the Clinical Anatomy Learning Centre, Lancaster University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/163340
2021-06-25T14:09:44Z
2021-06-25T14:09:44Z
Heart block: cause of condition which affects endurance athletes identified in study using racehorses
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/408392/original/file-20210625-14120-1r9q74e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=60%2C0%2C6720%2C4466&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Most young athletes with heart block typically don't experience any symptoms.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/young-fitness-woman-trail-runner-running-1658608081">lzf/ Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Endurance athletes (such as triathletes, footballers, or marathon runners) can be some of the healthiest people in society. Yet paradoxically, some can also be prone to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4711509/">developing a range</a> of <a href="https://bjsm.bmj.com/content/46/Suppl_1/i44">heart rhythm disturbances</a> (known as arrhythmias) as a result of exercise.</p>
<p>There are many different types of arrhythmias, but heart block (also known as AV block), is one of the most common arrhythmias endurance athletes develop. While the condition is <a href="https://journals.lww.com/cardiologyinreview/fulltext/2001/01000/cardiac_arrhythmias_in_the_athlete.6.aspx">well documented in athletes</a> – and the potential dangers of it are understood – little is actually known about the triggers of heart block and how it can be prevented. </p>
<p>But our <a href="https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.119.316386">recent study</a> has been able to pinpoint the cause of heart block – and has shown that it can even be prevented.</p>
<p>Heart block happens when the AV node – a part of the heart responsible for sending electrical signals which help the heart pump – becomes impaired. When these heart rate signals are blocked, it can result in the heart beating more slowly or skipping beats. Athletes aren’t the only people affected, and other factors – such as ischemic heart disease, genetic heart disorders, and certain drugs – may increase a person’s risk of <a href="https://www.msdmanuals.com/en-gb/professional/cardiovascular-disorders/arrhythmias-and-conduction-disorders/atrioventricular-block">developing heart block</a>.</p>
<p>Normally, this doesn’t cause any problems for young athletes, and many do not experience any symptoms. But heart block in later life can progress to a more serious form, called second-degree heart block, which can cause dizziness, fainting, and increase likelihood of needing an electronic pacemaker later on.</p>
<p>Heart block has also been associated with the development of atrial fibrillation, a more serious arrhythmia that can cause an irregular or abnormally fast heart rate, and has been linked to an <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19549974/">increased risk</a> of heart failure and stroke. </p>
<h2>Investigating heart block</h2>
<p>Because of the potential dangers that can arise from heart block, our team wanted to uncover its causes and see if it can be prevented. We found that long-term exercise (equivalent to ten years of regular high-intensity exercise in humans) triggers a <a href="https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.119.316386">reduction in key proteins</a> – called ion channels – which control AV node function. This reduction in ion channels leads to heart block. </p>
<p>The AV node is made up of specialised heart cells which contain a set of unique ion channels that allow it to spontaneously generate and send electrical signals from the top of the heart to the bottom of the heart. Normally, the AV node receives input from the automatic nervous system, which regulates involuntary functions – such as digestion, blood flow and breathing.</p>
<p>It used to be thought that changes to the nerves that slow down AV node function led to heart block. But a <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11897447/">previous study</a> in human athletes showed that blocking nerve input had no effect on impaired AV node function. This suggested something was happening to AV node cells instead.</p>
<p>To explore whether something was happening to the AV node cells themselves, we used the best available model of an athlete’s heart: the racehorse. Racehorses easily adjust to training routines and they also develop exercise-induced changes in their heart similar to those seen in endurance athletes. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Two race horses galloping down a grassy track." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/408393/original/file-20210625-20-1oqcdmm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/408393/original/file-20210625-20-1oqcdmm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=422&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408393/original/file-20210625-20-1oqcdmm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=422&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408393/original/file-20210625-20-1oqcdmm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=422&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408393/original/file-20210625-20-1oqcdmm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=531&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408393/original/file-20210625-20-1oqcdmm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=531&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408393/original/file-20210625-20-1oqcdmm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=531&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Racehorses experience similar heart changes as endurance athletes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/competing-race-horses-jockeys-galloping-towards-1728555631">gabriel12/ Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>By taking electrocardiograms or ECGs (a simple test that checks the heart’s rhythm and electrical activity) of the racehorses, we were able to find that the incidence of heart block was greater in racehorses that were exercising regularly. We also found that heart block was associated with lower levels of two key ion channels responsible for sending electrical signals in the AV node. </p>
<h2>Mouse athletes</h2>
<p>To study these ion channel changes in greater detail, we then used mice in an experiment designed to replicate the effect of long-term endurance exercise in humans. We found that the reduction of ion channels in the AV node as a result of exercise could be traced to an increase in small molecules known as microRNAs. These molecules directly bind to genes and inhibit their activity – so in this case, they prevented the ion channels from being able to work properly.</p>
<p>But when we gave the mice a drug that suppresses certain microRNAs, the reduction in ion channels was prevented – essentially preventing heart block from happening. These findings may hold promise in developing new therapies for AV block. </p>
<p>But there’s still much we don’t know – including how much impact microRNAs really have, and whether targeting them is a long-lasting solution. It’s also still unknown what aspects of endurance exercise cause the increase in microRNAs. </p>
<p>Currently, we’re looking into these questions, and are also developing methods to deliver microRNAs only to AV node cells. This would be the first step in developing new ways of treating heart rhythm disturbances in both endurance athletes and others.</p>
<p>At a time when <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30601393/">more people</a> are participating in endurance and ultra-endurance events, our findings highlight the ways in which our heart can adapt as a result. Of course, our work doesn’t imply exercise is bad for heart health – rather, our research helps improve our understanding of this condition and its causes, and why some athletes may need an electronic pacemaker later in life. Exercise remains a great way to improve heart health, and can lower risk of artery disease and heart attack.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/163340/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alicia D'Souza receives funding from The British Heart Foundation. </span></em></p>
Heart block typically isn’t serious, but can cause the heart to beat more slowly or skip beats.
Alicia D'Souza, British Heart Foundation Intermediate Fellow, University of Manchester
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/156260
2021-03-18T17:50:40Z
2021-03-18T17:50:40Z
The trail-running community faces its biggest challenges yet
<p>With an estimated 20 million participants since 2010, trail running has been one of the world’s fastest growing sports, according to the <a href="https://www.worldathletics.org/disciplines/trail-running/trail-running">International Track and Field Federation</a>. However, the combination of the Covid-19 pandemic and the ongoing climate crisis have put the development of this discipline in jeopardy. Despite the challenges, runners and stakeholders are working hard to ensure that runners are able to hit the trails.</p>
<h2>An immersive experience in nature</h2>
<p>Trail running is an outdoor sport that provides an immersive experience deep in the heart of natural landscapes – in the mountains, near the ocean coasts, in the wilds of the desert, or in the depths of the forests.</p>
<p>Officially, trail running is <a href="https://itra.run/content/definition-trail">defined</a> as a pedestrian competition open to everyone, taking place in a natural environment, and whose total distance cannot be on more than 20% on cement or asphalt roads. This definition was created in <a href="https://itra.run/content/presentation-itra">2013</a> by the International Trail-Running Association (ITRA), an organization set up by the main players to organize the discipline and promote its development worldwide.</p>
<p>Trail running existed well before the creation of ITRA, of course. Its roots stretch back to the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19915499/">1970s in the American West</a> and in the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07053436.2019.1583425">‘80s and '90s in Europe</a>.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/x1OG0xi6AMY?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Ultra-Trail du Mont-Blanc.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The sport took off at the beginning of the new millennium, experiencing significant growth in the number of events and participants. From 2013 to 2019, ITRA recorded more than <a href="https://itra.run/documents/Infographics/EN-ITRA-Trail-Running-Infographics-2020.pdf">25,700 races</a> in 195 countries with nearly 2 million competitors, a testament to its enormous success.</p>
<h2>Sudden health crisis</h2>
<p>When the Covid-19 global pandemic broke out in early 2020, the entire sports sector has faced an unprecedented crisis. The measures imposed to contain the spread of infections affected nearly <a href="https://www.euronews.com/2020/04/02/coronavirus-in-europe-spain-s-death-toll-hits-10-000-after-record-950-new-deaths-in-24-hou">half of the world’s population</a> at the end of March 2020.</p>
<p>These measures resulted in <a href="https://www.runnersworld.com/news/a31353444/coronavirus-marathons-running-events-postponed-canceled/">numerous cancellations</a> of outdoor running events and series around the world. In 2020, the <a href="https://www.ultratrail-worldtour.com/races/">Ultra-trail World Tour</a> did not award a title and both the <a href="https://www.goldentrailseries.com/">Golden Trail World Series</a> and <a href="https://www.skyrunnerworldseries.com/">Skyrunning World Series</a> were cancelled.</p>
<p>Though all the repercussions of this crisis are not yet known, the impacts will certainly be considerable – they could even cause the <a href="https://distances.plus/international/ultra-trails-andorre-disparition-discorde-ronda-euforia/">permanent closure of some events</a>. More broadly, those who work in the regions where the events take place suffer from these cancellations. Outdoor sports events are crucial for the <a href="https://www.banquedesterritoires.fr/le-trail-nouvel-outil-dattractivite-territoriale">local economy</a> by generating <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14775085.2018.1432410">tourist dollars and interest</a>. The economic spin-offs generated by some of these events can be quantified in millions of dollars – for example, nearly <a href="https://www.lyoncapitale.fr/actualite/coronavirus-et-trail-quel-impact-sur-l-utmb/">$8.5 million for the 2017 UTMB</a>.</p>
<p>For elite and amateur athletes alike, keeping moving is a way to cope with this period of uncertainty where travel has been severely restricted. Restricted to their homes, creative athletes <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/mar/21/man-runs-marathon-on-7-metre-balcony-during-french-lockdown">ran a marathon on a balcony</a>, climbed the equivalent of the Ultra-Trail du Mont-Blanc, and ran the distance of a 160km ultra-trail <a href="https://actu.fr/ile-de-france/colombes_92025/colombes-163km-55-000-marches-realise-ultra-trail-chez-lui-plein-confinement_32687784.htm">at home</a> or <a href="https://www.widermag.com/news-un-japonais-court-ultra-trail-160-km-autour-un-arbre">around a tree</a>.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/rqb46NzBIts?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">A marathon on a balcony? It can be done!</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Companies such as Asics and Strava as well as event organizers have created digital solutions that offer <a href="https://www.skyrunnerworldseries.com/virtual-races-2020/">virtual challenges</a> or races. These “phygital” events allow runners to participate from home or close to home (GPS tracking devices proved that the challenge was completed). This new type of sporting event increased in popularity during the Covid-19 crisis and has successfully spread around the world. This has allowed the primary stakeholders of the trail-running industry to <a href="https://veilletourisme.ca/2020/09/08/adaptation-en-temps-de-pandemie-le-cas-ultra-trail-harricana/">provide support</a> to their community of runners and compensate for the current impossibility of in-person races.</p>
<p>Another striking phenomenon for trail running is the renewed interest in the practice of so-called <a href="https://www.20minutes.fr/sport/2817879-20200709-ultra-trail-omnipresents-apres-crise-coronavirus-defis-off-graal-discipline">“Off”</a> or <a href="https://fastestknowntime.com/">“FKT”</a> (fastest-known time) challenges <a href="https://distances.plus/communaute/fastest-known-time-fkt-2020/">originating from lockdown</a>. </p>
<p>Such challenges outside of traditional competitions aren’t new; they represent record-setting attempts on long-distance hiking (LDH) trails or the creation of new running routes in the great outdoors. Many records were set during the <a href="https://www.lequipe.fr/Adrenaline/Ultra-trail/Actualites/Trail-running-les-nombreux-defis-et-records-en-fkt-fastest-known-time-le-recap-de-l-ete/1167982">summer of 2020</a>, such as Xavier Thévenard success on the <a href="https://www.francebleu.fr/sports/tous-les-sports/pas-de-record-pour-xavier-thevenard-sur-le-gr-20-en-corse-1594132979">GR 20 in Corsica’s</a> (180km), and Mathieu Blanchard’s crossing of the <a href="https://www.outside.fr/trail-650-km-ultra-sauvages-au-quebec-ou-le-defi-du-gr-a1/">International Appalachian Trail in Quebec</a> (650km). With international travel out of the question, alternative ultra-local projects are an opportunity to (re)discover and explore areas close to one’s own region or country of residence.</p>
<h2>Ecological crisis obligations</h2>
<p>The second crisis facing the trail-running industry is climate change. Races frequently take place in remote and protected natural areas, and when hundreds, even thousands of runners pass through, it has an impact on vegetation, wildlife and soil. The <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/ldr.2863">environmental footprint</a> of a trail-running event should not be underestimated – transportation, <a href="https://publicaciones.unirioja.es/ojs/index.php/cig/article/view/3826">soil and plant damage</a>, waste management, and more.</p>
<p>Whether large or small, such events force organizers to examine the necessary changes imposed by the ecological crisis and the evolution of trail-running practices. Organizers must be attentive to the environmental issues and share the values promoted by the sport and ITRA of <a href="https://itra.run/content/charte_ethique">respect for the environment and sustainable development</a>. Ethics and eco-responsibility are thus at the heart of many events. </p>
<p>Organizers are seeking to limit the impact of their events on the environment – restricting the number of participants, raising awareness and eco-responsible actions, reducing waste and taking action to protect the environment. Athletes are also examining their own carbon footprint and <a href="https://www.outside.fr/xavier-thevenard-sassocie-a-la-fondation-kilian-jornet-pour-lenvironnement/">working to reduce it</a>: raising awareness, creating foundations, working with equipment manufacturers and more.</p>
<h2>Post-Covid-19 challenges</h2>
<p>The intersection of the ecological and health crises is a moment of truth for the trail-running community. Athletes and other stakeholders have shown creativity and are adjusting to meet these unprecedented challenges. At the heart of the trail-running experience, two elements remain fundamental: a <a href="https://33274736-4a46-420c-bf43-1921f35e27ca.filesusr.com/ugd/edad85_df927c32e90c4a77b999b803db5aa75b.pdf">deep immersion in nature</a>, and <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265122725_It%27s_Not_About_Taking_the_Easy_Road_The_Experiences_of_Ultramarathon_Runners">building social relationships</a>. These sporting events are necessarily spaces for multifaceted interactions with the environment and other participants.</p>
<p>As appealing they may be, it’s unlikely that virtual races and other “off” challenges will become more popular than genuine trail running itself. Still, time will tell whether these alternatives will remain temporary or will become more firmly rooted in the discipline’s practices.</p>
<p>While the Covid-19 pandemic may one day ebb, the climate crisis is with us to stay. The trail-running stakeholders’ environmentally responsible policies show a clear awareness of current issues. The goal must be to guarantee the benefits of trail running for runners and visitors alike, without overlooking or excusing the environmental impact of the practice. The biggest challenge for the trail-running community is thus to ensure the long-lasting and sustainable development of this popular outdoor sport.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/156260/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mathilde Plard has received funding from the Pays de la Loire Region (RFI AngersTourismLab) and the Université du Québec à Montréal - Transat Tourism Chair.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Aurélien Martineau has received funding from RFI Tourisme and UQAM, Université du Québec à Montréal - Transat Tourism Chair.</span></em></p>
The sport of trail running is one of the fastest growing in the world, but now is facing two major challenges at the same time, the Covid-19 pandemic and ecological crisis.
Mathilde Plard, Chercheuse CNRS - UMR ESO, Université d'Angers
Aurélien Martineau, Chercheur Postdoctorant en Géographie sociale, Université d'Angers
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/146639
2020-09-30T12:31:46Z
2020-09-30T12:31:46Z
Science of champion runners: inside the body of elite endurance athletes
<p>The 40th anniversary of the London Marathon takes place on Sunday, October 4 2020. Athletes will run on a closed-loop circuit around St James’s Park before finishing on The Mall. This year’s lineup includes current champions Eliud Kipchoge and Brigid Kosgei. These athletes can run for more than two hours at speeds an average person could maintain for only a matter of seconds. So what makes them so fast?</p>
<p>Years of training have brought about bodily adaptations that enable elite endurance athletes to perform at the top of their game. Let’s first look at the all-important cardiovascular system, which is adapted to enable a regular supply of oxygenated blood to the working muscles. </p>
<h2>Strong heart</h2>
<p>Regular training results in an increase in the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10645932/">thickness</a> of the muscle forming the heart wall, in particular, the left side of the heart. This is the side of the heart responsible for circulating oxygenated blood around the body and to the muscles during exercise. </p>
<p>Increased thickness of the left ventricle wall (the lower chamber of the heart), enables endurance athletes to pump more blood out of their heart each time it beats. We call this the “stroke volume”. </p>
<p>A regular adult, exercising at their maximum level, can have a stroke volume of <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Gilbert_Fellingham/publication/11663145_Stroke_volume_does_not_plateau_during_graded_exercise_in_elite_male_distance_runners/links/5a8f02da45851535bcd3772e/Stroke-volume-does-not-plateau-during-graded-exercise-in-elite-male-distance-runners.pdf">120ml</a>. However, because of the increased thickness of the heart wall, endurance athletes have a stroke volume during maximal exercise of around <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Gilbert_Fellingham/publication/11663145_Stroke_volume_does_not_plateau_during_graded_exercise_in_elite_male_distance_runners/links/5a8f02da45851535bcd3772e/Stroke-volume-does-not-plateau-during-graded-exercise-in-elite-male-distance-runners.pdf">200ml</a>.</p>
<p>An endurance athlete’s heart can beat 200 times every minute during maximal exercise, resulting in these athletes being able to circulate close to <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Gilbert_Fellingham/publication/11663145_Stroke_volume_does_not_plateau_during_graded_exercise_in_elite_male_distance_runners/links/5a8f02da45851535bcd3772e/Stroke-volume-does-not-plateau-during-graded-exercise-in-elite-male-distance-runners.pdf">40 litres</a> of blood around the body every minute. The amount of blood the heart pumps in one minute is called cardiac output. In elite endurance runners, it can be nearly twice that of an average adult during maximal exercise. </p>
<h2>VO2 max</h2>
<p>It is not just a strong heart that is key to these athletes’ success. Getting enough oxygen to the working muscles is also vital. </p>
<p>Activities lasting longer than a couple of minutes mainly rely on <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/026404199365786?casa_token=Ht4smrcH-_kAAAAA:pRtPCx1vYPtlVQnCuiJCXEuHq1IeF77XwO9oA8uZq78cNYpbaMzgLhw0gnGxzqxCZZD9Y20srioF">aerobic metabolism</a> (the process by which we use oxygen to turn fuel, such as fats and sugars, into energy), making a constant supply of oxygen crucial to success. Elite marathon runners can breathe around <a href="https://journals.physiology.org/doi/abs/10.1152/jappl.1989.67.5.1759">200 litres</a> of air per minute during maximal exercise. This combined ability of the lungs and heart to take in and transport oxygen means that elite athletes have a very high VO2 max – the maximum amount of oxygen the body can use in a minute. VO2 max is regarded as one of the key determinants of <a href="https://physoc.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1113/jphysiol.2007.143834">endurance performance success</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Male athlete having VO2 max test on treadmill." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/360343/original/file-20200928-16-1gs4uy0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/360343/original/file-20200928-16-1gs4uy0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/360343/original/file-20200928-16-1gs4uy0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/360343/original/file-20200928-16-1gs4uy0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/360343/original/file-20200928-16-1gs4uy0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/360343/original/file-20200928-16-1gs4uy0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/360343/original/file-20200928-16-1gs4uy0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">VO2 max measures the volume of oxygen you can consume while exercising at your maximum capacity.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/male-runner-mask-running-on-treadmill-1028607646">Jacob Lund/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>VO2 max values in an average adult are around <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Todd_Astorino/publication/23986707_Supramaximal_Testing_to_Confirm_Attainment_of_VO2max_in_Sedentary_Men_and_Women/links/548a4a050cf214269f1ac429.pdf">30-45</a> millilitres of oxygen per kilogram of body weight per minute. But in elite endurance athletes, VO2 max increases to <a href="https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/45504933/High_Level_Runners_Are_Able_to_Maintain_20160510-6048-s116zr.pdf?1462875087=&response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DHigh_Level_Runners_Are_Able_to_Maintain.pdf&Expires=1601036202&Signature=J8kYj3EmNyBuHPyj3RWltl1uHjwoD8x2SzEl2OXzHd%7EZdDQ%7EagsP59SKP3s7X6l9OaQQ6iJhS8mpj3Bsbrb4UzWsRs91lFPQ8RxMWq3VGF8dOepV0loTsOO3Yi2Hy0E2mgXSmQsEOxJeFHc5thslyMoFSApMs-M39rjW5z2PfspzHVsXjOZ9Pn601yDWIKySAMNGdYvzNqbi4Iankz7kRXEjg5y9Mi51OOaF42vskLKBGU-fDV0GQZ-f2ZZ07yWNFkp7DT8q7vzV6sjlJbkCQUsOj24b-GuXvzUyIQ1Ga0hRj-Oz%7ET1cWM%7Emon-Lhb5xxEArU3htwtHBTtaocEpYog__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA">65-80 ml/kg/min</a>.</p>
<h2>Running economy</h2>
<p>It’s not only the size of an athlete’s engine (VO2 max) that’s important for success, just like a car, the economy of the engine also plays an important role. Most marathons are run at around <a href="https://physoc.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1113/jphysiol.2007.143834">75-85% of VO2 max</a>, meaning the ability to work efficiently at lower exercise intensities is also key to success. In running, this is measured by “running economy”. </p>
<p>Athletes with good running economy need less oxygen to run at a given speed than their competitors, preserving vital energy for later in the race. Elite endurance runners display incredibly low running economy values, showing their ability to move at fast speeds while using a much lower amount of oxygen than the average person. </p>
<p>At a given speed, an average person may typically need 220ml of oxygen per kilogram of body weight to run one kilometre. Elite marathon runners are more economical, perhaps requiring as little as <a href="http://www.exeter.ac.uk/media/universityofexeter/internationalexeter/documents/iss/paula_ijssc_paper.pdf">180ml</a> of oxygen per kilogram of body weight to cover the same distance. </p>
<h2>Lactate threshold</h2>
<p>An important factor in running a fast marathon race is the ability to run at the fastest possible speed without becoming tired. This optimal speed or “threshold” is related to several changes that happen in our body as we exercise, including the build-up of chemicals in the blood. Blood lactate is one such substance that accumulates in the blood during exercise. </p>
<p><a href="https://idp.springer.com/authorize/casa?redirect_uri=https://link.springer.com/article/10.2165/00007256-200029060-00001&casa_token=eDoutrfY3f0AAAAA:IUAqfIlJK0XwOs-PVLp4NNEqYBaFzKm1j_iW_f5Px1gm4ZWxiy-eNHd805nD-1E_j6Omy3sFFPJWa2tO">Lactate threshold</a> is a term used in exercise physiology to describe specific changes (or breakpoints) to this substance during exercise. </p>
<p>Blood lactate is often incorrectly thought of as a waste product and mistakenly thought to be responsible for muscle fatigue, but it is now recognised as an <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1016/j.pmrj.2015.10.018?casa_token=C_I0kq8B5NkAAAAA:ATz8d_grnKzHFpEL3xw3SYoUxYQboB7hb4uME-H-jhhZZXF9sARUmW50KKGFvrz-T9JI6Kbfw0MnHml8">important energy source</a>. Still, exercise above the lactate threshold is associated with more rapid fatigue and, as such, the speed at lactate threshold is a <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.2165/00007256-200029060-00001">powerful predictor</a> of endurance performance. </p>
<p>A higher lactate threshold will enable a higher running speed to be sustained without blood lactate accumulating, enabling the running speed to be maintained for an extended period. Elite male and female marathon runners have reported lactate threshold speeds of <a href="http://www.exeter.ac.uk/media/universityofexeter/internationalexeter/documents/iss/paula_ijssc_paper.pdf">18-21km/h</a></p>
<p>As the runners lap St James’s Park on Sunday, all the above factors will contribute to their success – they will be the <a href="https://physoc.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1113/jphysiol.2007.143834">key determinants</a> of the runners’ performance.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/146639/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andy Galbraith does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Here’s how elite endurance athletes differ from the rest of us.
Andy Galbraith, Senior Lecturer in Exercise Physiology, University of East London
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/145508
2020-09-09T15:15:04Z
2020-09-09T15:15:04Z
Overtraining syndrome: what it is and how to avoid it
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/357163/original/file-20200909-20-1gcoch5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=29%2C0%2C3964%2C2664&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Endurance athletes are most at risk.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/tired-urban-jogger-making-pause-after-300224132">AstroStar/ Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>There’s a thin line between working hard enough and working too hard. Pushing your body to reach new levels of fitness requires commitment, effort and a willingness to put yourself through intense, challenging workouts on a regular basis. </p>
<p>But more isn’t always better. Without the right balance of rest and recovery you could end up spiralling into a long-term fatigue condition called <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23247672/">overtraining syndrome</a>. The condition results in long-term reduced physical performance, and may be accompanied by other physiological and psychological symptoms (such as low mood or poor sleep) – though this isn’t always the case. It can take weeks, months and even years to recover from this condition.</p>
<p>Though mainly caused by <a href="https://bmcsportsscimedrehabil.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13102-019-0132-x">excessive amounts of exercise</a>, it can be accelerated by other life stress, such as working long hours, difficult social relationships, dieting and not getting enough sleep. Recent research has shown that up to 93% of athletes suffering from unexplained performance decline also report the presence of <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32679567/">non-training stressors</a>, so managing those stressors is important.</p>
<p>The frustrating thing about overtraining syndrome is that there’s no single measure or test that you can use to identify it. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3435910/#:%7E:text=An%20imbalance%20in%20the%20autonomic,fatigue%2C%20depression%2C%20and%20bradycardia.">Research</a> tells us that symptoms can vary wildly from one person to the next, meaning it can be a condition that’s hard to pinpoint. In fact, the only current, reliable method to assess if you have overtraining syndrome is to track how long it takes you to recover.</p>
<p>However, common symptoms include:</p>
<ul>
<li>Long-term decrease in sports performance,</li>
<li>Less motivation to exercise,</li>
<li>Low mood,</li>
<li>Muscle soreness, aches and pain,</li>
<li>Loss of good quality sleep,</li>
<li>General tiredness or fatigue.</li>
</ul>
<p>In reality, it’s very difficult to work hard enough to spiral into overtraining syndrome if you aren’t hitting the gym for hours each day. If you’ve ever felt tired or burned out but bounced back after a week or two, you probably weren’t overtraining, you probably just went a little too hard for a spell. </p>
<h2>Overreaching</h2>
<p>A similar condition <a href="https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/PSYCHO-PHYSIOLOGICAL-MARKERS-OF-OVERREACHING-AND-IN-Bell-Ingle/59148644ede5d1878b36db2f05508609b8110e7e">known as overreaching</a> is also characterised by performance decline, but recovery takes several days to weeks to recover from. And feeling drained for a day or two after a tough workout is just a sign of fatigue and nothing to worry about. </p>
<p>Overreaching is often seen as a less severe form of overtraining syndrome, but because the symptoms are often the exact, the two are often confused. In fact, when under-performing, most average gym goers suffer from <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32679567">fatigue</a> for days to weeks rather than months, suggesting acute fatigue or overreaching is much more of a realistic risk to the general population.</p>
<p>Endurance athletes appear to be most at risk of developing overtraining syndrome, with previous research showing as many as <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.2165/00007256-200434140-00003">60% of high-level runners</a> could experience overtraining syndrome in their career. Swimming and cycling have reported similar figures, but those that participate in strength-based sports, such as weightlifting, appear to be at <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02640414.2020.1763077">lower risk</a> of overtraining syndrome, with only one or two cases observed in the published literature. It’s not entirely certain why, but it may be because endurance sports are easier to participate in while fatigued. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Four long-distance runners running." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/357169/original/file-20200909-18-1td8sgp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/357169/original/file-20200909-18-1td8sgp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=363&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/357169/original/file-20200909-18-1td8sgp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=363&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/357169/original/file-20200909-18-1td8sgp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=363&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/357169/original/file-20200909-18-1td8sgp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/357169/original/file-20200909-18-1td8sgp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/357169/original/file-20200909-18-1td8sgp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">It’s less likely to affect the average exerciser.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/marathon-runners-running-on-city-road-544106977">lzf/ Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But even in high-level athletes who train for hours daily, only some of those will ever suffer from symptoms of overtraining syndrome. Hard and frequent training on a regular basis, coupled with poor sleep, high levels of stress and a low calorie, low-carb diet may all make someone more likely to develop overtraining syndrome.</p>
<p>If you think you might be suffering from the overtraining syndrome, the best and most important recovery tool is to manage your training. Take a break from challenging exercise and let your body heal and repair itself. Light activities, such as walking or stretching are fine, but anything that overloads your body should be stopped immediately, or else you may only prolong the time it takes to recover. Make sure you’re eating healthily (especially getting enough carbohydrates), and aim for plenty of undisturbed sleep each night. Though this is easier said than done, <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17461390801954794">prioritising sleep and food</a> will help you bounce back. </p>
<p>But for the average person who may find they’re experiencing a bit of extra fatigue from over-exercising, taking a couple of weeks to recover before getting back into your regular routine may be needed. Either way, it’s important to manage symptoms, whether you’ve suffered from overtraining syndrome or not.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/145508/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lee Bell does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Those with the condition could take several weeks, months, or even years to properly recover.
Lee Bell, Lecturer in Sport and Exercise Science, Sheffield Hallam University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/141014
2020-06-23T13:54:25Z
2020-06-23T13:54:25Z
Fitness tracker data could predict your marathon performance – new research
<p>Eliud Kipchoge last year became the first athlete to run a marathon in <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/athletics/50025543#:%7E:text=Eliud%20Kipchoge%20has%20become%20the,in%20Vienna%2C%20Austria%20on%20Saturday.">under two hours</a> after much training and careful preparation. Regardless of whether you’re aiming for a new world record or you just want to achieve a respectable time for your age, if you’re training for a marathon you might well want to know what you’re on course to accomplish.</p>
<p>There are so <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31575820/">many different equations</a> claiming to predict marathon performance. But these are not always very accurate because predicting marathon performance is difficult. However, in our <a href="https://journals.lww.com/acsm-msse/Abstract/9000/Calculation_of_Critical_Speed_from_Raw_Training.96275.aspx">new study</a>, we showed that analysing the abundance of data produced during training and racing by wearable fitness trackers may be helpful. We found it’s possible to calculate a critical speed value that we can use to predict a runner’s marathon time with a good degree of accuracy.</p>
<p>Many things determine how fast you can run a marathon. First, your physiology plays a huge role <a href="https://journals.physiology.org/doi/abs/10.1152/japplphysiol.00793.2019">in your performance</a>. For example, elite marathon runners tend to be slim with long limbs, which offers them <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2375555/">greater running economy</a> and means they will use less energy to move at a given speed. Fast marathon runners also tend to have a higher maximum rate of oxygen use <a href="https://theconversation.com/vo-max-the-gold-standard-for-measuring-fitness-explained-109486">(VO2max)</a> and can operate at a high percentage of this maximum for a long time without developing fatigue.</p>
<p>But there are <a href="https://journals.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/japplphysiol.00167.2020">many</a> <a href="https://journals.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/japplphysiol.01259.2010">other</a> factors involved. The right shoes can make running more economical in terms of how much energy you use. Running with pacers can help runners manage their timing and can reduce air resistance. And of course, choosing a flat course with optimal weather conditions can help too.</p>
<h2>Critical speed</h2>
<p>Endurance running is essentially determined by the fastest speed you can sustain for a given distance, or how long you can run at a given speed. It’s clear that if you go very fast, then you can only sustain that speed for a short time. And if you want to run for longer times, you need to slow down.</p>
<p>However, small changes can have a large impact on how long we can maintain our speed. This suggests there is a critical speed at which, in theory, we can sustain for quite a long time.</p>
<p>It is quite possible that critical speed is useful for predicting endurance performance. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28332113/">For example</a>, elite athletes appear to run their best marathons at around 96% of their critical speed.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/343494/original/file-20200623-188916-102bmpj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/343494/original/file-20200623-188916-102bmpj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/343494/original/file-20200623-188916-102bmpj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/343494/original/file-20200623-188916-102bmpj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/343494/original/file-20200623-188916-102bmpj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/343494/original/file-20200623-188916-102bmpj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/343494/original/file-20200623-188916-102bmpj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Fitness tracker data enabled highly accurate predictions.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/runner-wearing-smartwatch-on-wrist-closeup-465520748">Maridav/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This is where activity data collected from fitness trackers (distance, speed, time, heartrate and cadence) can come in. We wanted to know whether all of the data recorded by tracking devices can be used to support runners preparing for a marathon. </p>
<p>By analysing training data from 25,000 athletes, we found we could estimate their critical speed and predict their marathon performance with 92% accuracy. Considering how many things can impact marathon performance (during training and on race-day) and the different levels of fitness across recreational athletes, this is a high degree of accuracy.</p>
<p>We also found that, on average, runners ran the marathon at speeds around 85% of their critical speed. Faster athletes ran their marathons closer to 93% of their critical speed, but slower runners did so at 79% of their critical speed.</p>
<p>This means that using raw training data to estimate your critical speed, your smart watch or favourite fitness app may soon be able to predict your finish time to an even higher degree of accuracy, as well as providing real-time feedback and advice about how best to pace your race.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/141014/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Training data collected by fitness trackers may be useful to predict marathon performance
Daniel Muniz, Senior Lecturer, Exercise Physiology, University of Hertfordshire
Barry Smyth, Professor of Computer Science, University College Dublin
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/118025
2019-06-06T09:32:10Z
2019-06-06T09:32:10Z
What rowing across the Atlantic can teach you about navigating the working world
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/277596/original/file-20190603-69059-1bwmqf6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">© Talisker Whisky Atlantic Challenge</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Toby Gould was both excited and petrified on the morning of December 12, 2018. He and the three other non-professional rowers in his team were due to set off from La Gomera in the Canary Islands in a rowing boat equipped with only as much kit and freeze-dried food as a 29 x 6 foot boat can carry. Ahead of them lay 3,000 miles of ocean before they would reach their finishing point across the Atlantic. </p>
<p>The 39-year-old – who normally works as deputy head of resilience at London Fire Brigade – said: “We are buzzing, we are ready to go; we are not thinking about anything else.” The Talisker Whisky Atlantic Challenge is seen as the world’s toughest row.</p>
<p>The rest of the team consisted of Jeremy Reynolds, 41, a former British Army soldier who now works as London resilience manager at London Fire Brigade; Alison Wannell, 40, the only female crew member and a qualified lawyer; and Justin Coleman, 53, a stand-up comedian. An hour before the race started, Gould posted a video saying: “We had a look at the forecasts. We are looking at three-metre waves from the off this afternoon. That’s scary!”</p>
<p>Fifty days, 22 hours and 38 minutes later, they arrived in English Harbour in Antigua. The race had tested them to their limits. The team of four had spent Christmas and New Year at sea, battling severe seasickness, equipment failure and sleep deprivation to the extent one was convinced he’d seen a spaceship. But as well as the lows, there were highs: the sunrises and sunsets, wildlife encounters, and the shared camaraderie an extreme sporting challenge can bring.</p>
<p>Over the 50 days, I followed the team closely, analysing their triumphs and their difficulties through video diaries. I also carried out interviews after the race. This project was a bit out of the ordinary for me (I research business leadership) but I wanted to see whether this extreme example of a team effort could tell us anything about the workplace.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/277604/original/file-20190603-69079-enc1gq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/277604/original/file-20190603-69079-enc1gq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/277604/original/file-20190603-69079-enc1gq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/277604/original/file-20190603-69079-enc1gq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/277604/original/file-20190603-69079-enc1gq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/277604/original/file-20190603-69079-enc1gq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/277604/original/file-20190603-69079-enc1gq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Christmas day at sea.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">© Heads Together and Row</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Rowing business</h2>
<p>In today’s turbulent business world, teams frequently face uncertainty and challenges and consequently are prone to impaired performance. Whether in life, business or a fierce mid-Atlantic storm, resilience enables us to deal with stress and overcome adversity.</p>
<p>Personal resilience is the ability to cope with adversity: are you able to <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0170840618782294">bounce back</a> to high performance levels after a struggle? We know that teams performing in extreme environments do not perform in the same way as in “normal” settings due to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1053482217300025">heightened stress</a>. Stress makes solving complex tasks difficult, leads to negative emotions, such as fear, which leads to impairment of personal performance and strains the relationships in the team. But resilient teams <a href="https://hbr.org/2002/05/how-resilience-works">struggle well together</a>. When facing adversity, they work through rather than avoid difficulties. </p>
<p>I found – luckily – that the rowing team did indeed work well together. They solved tricky issues like a steering autohelm that started continuously breaking and supported each other emotionally through long dark nights and torrential rain. At one point, one team member reported:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>We had a cargo ship coming over the hill and we had to react to that, getting on the radio and making sure they weren’t going to run us over. Then we had a water leak alarm going off. There wasn’t a water leak, but the alarm was going off, and I had to dig that out, and that sort of thing. Then we were having problems for the third time with the autohelm, and the guys out on the oars kept getting spun around by the wind.</p>
</blockquote>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/277870/original/file-20190604-69067-1a5t9ad.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/277870/original/file-20190604-69067-1a5t9ad.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/277870/original/file-20190604-69067-1a5t9ad.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/277870/original/file-20190604-69067-1a5t9ad.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/277870/original/file-20190604-69067-1a5t9ad.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=568&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/277870/original/file-20190604-69067-1a5t9ad.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=568&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/277870/original/file-20190604-69067-1a5t9ad.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=568&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Ali and Justin on day 26.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">© Heads Together and Row</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Although a 3,000-mile race across the Atlantic featuring threatening cargo ships and torrential rain may seem a world away from your workplace stresses, there are lessons to be learned from this extreme example. So for anyone navigating the challenges of the working world, here is some advice:</p>
<h2>Five lessons</h2>
<ol>
<li><p><strong>Get into a routine.</strong> Settling into a familiar pattern of working was one particular coping mechanism used by the team, to great success. One rower noted that: “Resilience is gradually getting higher as I get into a routine on the boat, and I can see us making progress.”</p></li>
<li><p><strong>Focus on the goal</strong>. Concentrating on the task at hand – either in the positive sense (that completing the race would be an achievement), or the more negative sense (that there is no other way to reach the goal) – helped all of the rowers. “The only way of getting through this is getting the rowing done. So I could lie in bed, but I certainly wouldn’t get home faster; I’d get home a lot slower, which is how I’ve had to cope with it,” one rower observed.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>Take time out.</strong> Removing yourself from the situation for a time can help you to recharge and cope with stress. Although confined within a small space on the boat, one rower would imagine themselves in their “happy place” to recharge their batteries and “return” to the race with perspective.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>Create a sense of control.</strong> Creating guiding and protective structures can help, so that you don’t feel overwhelmed. One rower described that finding out just exactly where they were geographically, in the middle of an ocean, was a terrifying thought as what was going around them was so unpredictable. So building up secure processes and structures of working as a team and focusing on managing challenges on the boat was a good mechanism for creating a sense of control.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>Seek support from others.</strong> Being able to lean on each other and offer support when times are tough is a key skill in any venture. The team support network helped the rowers work through the challenges they faced. In one diary recording, a rower observed: “Everyone is doing great things, helping and being supportive of each other.”</p></li>
</ol>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/277871/original/file-20190604-69095-w50jem.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/277871/original/file-20190604-69095-w50jem.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=568&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/277871/original/file-20190604-69095-w50jem.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=568&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/277871/original/file-20190604-69095-w50jem.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=568&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/277871/original/file-20190604-69095-w50jem.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=714&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/277871/original/file-20190604-69095-w50jem.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=714&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/277871/original/file-20190604-69095-w50jem.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=714&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Jeremy and Toby eating breakfast.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">© Heads Together and Row</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Despite the coping mechanisms that the four rowers developed, their resilience levels varied drastically throughout the race. Close to the finish line, they had the most challenging part ahead of them. Their mental and physical resources had been tested for weeks and they were both physically and mentally exhausted. Nevertheless, they had to find the motivation to give everything they had left to finally reach the finish line. </p>
<p>Resilience is similarly key in today’s dynamic and challenging world of work, which continuously throws new challenges at us. Working on ways to improve resilience is therefore very important for success – whether your own, or that of your company.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/118025/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Caroline Rook does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
I wanted to see whether this extreme example of a team effort could tell us anything about the workplace.
Caroline Rook, Lecturer in Leadership, Henley Business School, University of Reading
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/110761
2019-01-30T14:50:26Z
2019-01-30T14:50:26Z
Neanderthals were sprinters rather than distance runners, our study surprisingly suggests
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/256379/original/file-20190130-108355-1m0tgg3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Neanderthals may not have been hunting in the tundra after all.</span> </figcaption></figure><p>The image of Neanderthals as brutish and culturally unsophisticated has <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-we-discovered-that-neanderthals-could-make-art-92127">changed in recent years</a> – they could make cave art, jewellery, complex stone tools and may have had language and cooked foods. Yes, they were extremely physically strong – certainly stronger than the vast majority of humans living today. And yes, they went extinct just after our own species entered their territories (albeit with a small amount of interbreeding). But neither fact means they were sluggish or cognitively inferior to us humans. </p>
<p>In our new study, <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329811193_Palaeoecological_and_genetic_evidence_for_Neanderthal_power_locomotion_as_an_adaptation_to_a_woodland_environment">published in Quaternary Science Reviews</a>, we now challenge another long-held view about our distant cousins: that they were pursuit hunters adapted to living in the cold tundra environments.</p>
<p>One reason why researchers think Neanderthals used to live in a cold climate is that their remains have been found next to <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232711218_Neanderthal_-_Modern_Human_Competition_A_Comparison_between_the_Mammals_Associated_with_Middle_and_Upper_Palaeolithic_Industries_in_Europe_during_OIS_3">those of ice age mammals</a> like mammoths, woolly rhinos, horses and reindeer. Some have also argued that their physical characteristics – particularly short limbs, large nasal cavity and a large torso – were evolutionary adaptations to living in the cold.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/256389/original/file-20190130-108351-1btg7w0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/256389/original/file-20190130-108351-1btg7w0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/256389/original/file-20190130-108351-1btg7w0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/256389/original/file-20190130-108351-1btg7w0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/256389/original/file-20190130-108351-1btg7w0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/256389/original/file-20190130-108351-1btg7w0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/256389/original/file-20190130-108351-1btg7w0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Neanderthal versus human.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Nicolas Prim/Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We wanted to see if this idea really held up – looking at both fossil and genetic evidence. We started by investigating when and where Neanderthals preferentially lived. We know this was in Europe and parts of Asia from around 300,000 years ago until around 40,000 years ago, when they started to go extinct. Sadly there are very few old Neanderthal fossils, so we know very little about their lives until about 130,000 years ago, just before the last ice age started. We therefore focused on their last occupation of north-west Europe, which was broadly a period during the Ice Age (60,000-20,000 years ago) when the climate <a href="https://www.clim-past.net/4/47/2008/cp-4-47-2008.pdf">fluctuated greatly</a>. </p>
<p>By investigating the sedimentary layers in which their fossils were found, we discovered animal remains such as rodents and certain other small mammals. Notably, these animals actually lived in the warmer episodes of the last ice age, when the environment was generally more wooded and less hospitable to mammoths.</p>
<p>So how come mammoths have previously been found at Neanderthal sites? We are still working out the details on this but it is possible that the ecology was such that mammoths may still have been able to live in this warmer climate. It is also possible that mammoths and Neanderthals were not in fact contemporary but their bones have subsequently been mixed together.</p>
<h2>Power versus endurance</h2>
<p>Hunting in woodland generally involves a need for speed and acceleration: in short, sprinting. This is because when you encounter prey, say behind trees, it can be very sudden and you need to respond rapidly. By contrast, the endurance running that characterises modern humans is more useful for pursuit hunting in open grassland environments or tundra. Our woodland theory led us to suggest that Neanderthals may have been adapted for sprinting rather than distance running.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/256184/original/file-20190129-108370-ijrwox.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/256184/original/file-20190129-108370-ijrwox.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/256184/original/file-20190129-108370-ijrwox.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/256184/original/file-20190129-108370-ijrwox.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/256184/original/file-20190129-108370-ijrwox.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/256184/original/file-20190129-108370-ijrwox.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/256184/original/file-20190129-108370-ijrwox.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Skeleton and restoration model of Neanderthal.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">wikipedia</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The idea that Neanderthals may have been built for speed gave us a new way of interpreting their body form. Among modern elite athletes, long distance runners tend to be lean and have long limbs, whereas short distance runners tend to be much more muscular and may have shorter limbs in proportion to their overall body size. It’s easy to see that the Neanderthal build is more like the sprinters than long distance runners.</p>
<h2>Genetic match</h2>
<p>To explore this idea further we looked at genetic variants <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27287076">previous studies had shown</a> to be associated with elite power or sprint athletes. We found that the majority of these power-associated genetic variants were in fact much more common in Neanderthals than in humans today. So it does seem that our theory derived from the study of Neanderthal ecology stands up to provisional genetic scrutiny.</p>
<p>It is important to note that these results are based on a relatively small number of Neanderthals whose DNA has been read. They are also based on the assumption that the genetic variants associated with power and speed in humans today act in the same or a similar way in Neanderthals. It is also possible that Neanderthals carried other genetic variants associated with locomotion – ones that are not present or have not been studied in living humans. As with all studies of the past, there are alternative explanations for the patterns we see, but the approach we have taken signposts a potentially valuable path for studying the evolution of the wider human family.</p>
<p>The emerging picture of how we differ from Neanderthals is no longer one of the smart versus the stupid, the sophisticated versus the unsophisticated, the brutish versus the refined, but instead one of jog versus sprint, of endurance versus speed. All species are uniquely adapted to the ecology they live in. It turns out that the differences once used to classify Neanderthals as more primitive than modern humans – such as their build – may instead simply reflect adaptations to different hunting requirements. Unfortunately for our Neanderthal cousins, and not for the last time, the tortoise beat the hare.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/110761/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mark Thomas receives funding from Wellcome, Leverhulme, and various research councils. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>John Stewart does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
A new study suggests Neanderthals may have lived in woodlands rather than tundras, meaning they were most likely sprinters.
John Stewart, Associate Professor of Evolutionary Palaeoecology, Bournemouth University
Mark Thomas, Professor of Evolutionary Genetics, UCL
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/101640
2018-09-24T12:13:13Z
2018-09-24T12:13:13Z
I ran 100 miles in a day – this is what happened to my body
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/237172/original/file-20180919-146148-w65d8t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption"></span> <span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The marathon race has long been considered the ultimate test of human endurance. But the last few decades have seen growing numbers of runners regularly tackling distances exceeding the traditional marathon. So-called “ultra-marathon runners” contest races from 35 miles (56km) to 100 miles (160km) – and occasionally further – in a single stage. </p>
<p>I began my ultra-marathon journey about ten years ago, but only recently made a second attempt at the elusive 100 miles, after the first was scuppered by my running buddy who, at 83 miles, exclaimed he could no longer see.</p>
<p>This time I chose to venture 100 miles along the North Downs Way. This is a public trail stretching from Farnham in the Surrey hills to Ashford in Kent, with a moderate cumulative climb of 10,000 feet. Traversing the course in its entirety would eventually take me 26 hours and around 215,000 steps.</p>
<p>Before I could attempt the challenge, there was the small task of preparing – physically and mentally – for its diverse and numerous demands. From a marathon running base, I prepared for about six months – training eight times a week. This comprised five to six runs of varying distance on varying terrain, accumulating upwards of 50-60 miles per week. I also incorporated strength sessions to develop my general robustness, and to prepare for the undulating trail.</p>
<p>High mileage training can drain the body of vital nutrients, and so my nutrition had to be comprehensive and targeted. I prioritised my daily protein requirements (140g per day), and ate a lot of fruit and vegetables. Carbohydrates in the diet can be manipulated to promote <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4008803/">endurance adaptation</a> - like my ability to burn fat as an energy source - so I moderated my intake and aligned it to my daily needs. As the weeks and months passed, my physiology changed, and I became stronger, fitter, and leaner. </p>
<h2>Gut instinct</h2>
<p>According to my heart rate monitor, reaching the finish line cost me 11,000 calories. From the very beginning of the race, my muscles exhibited an unrelenting hunger for energy, and satisfying the demand meant eating 200-400 calories per hour – which became increasingly difficult as the race progressed. </p>
<p>With my body’s blood supply channelled to the exercising muscles – and away from the gut – my digestive system began to shutdown at around the 60 mile mark. When this happens, the food you eat empties more slowly from the stomach. It sits and stews in the gut causing symptoms of gastrointestinal (GI) distress – including stomach cramps, nausea, and sickness. These symptoms <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12480801">increase with race distance</a>, and are an often cited reason for non-completion of a race. </p>
<p>My symptoms were intensified by plummeting blood sugar levels, caused by an inability to eat or drink – a vicious circle. I arrived at the 60 mile feed station and vehemently force fed myself before moving on. But in 30ºC heat, around 35% of the competitors would eventually succumb to GI distress or dehydration. Will can only take you so far. </p>
<h2>Permanent damage?</h2>
<p>I was also at risk of significantly damaging my muscles and joints. When running an undulating trail, it’s actually the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1332286/">downhill sections</a> that cause the most damage, because the muscles are lengthening under load. As you fight to slow your descent against the force of gravity, your muscle fibres literally tear at the microscopic level, causing markers of cellular damage to accumulate in the blood. This peripheral fatigue causes a paradox – you begin looking forward to the uphill sections.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/237063/original/file-20180919-158237-425nq0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/237063/original/file-20180919-158237-425nq0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=276&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/237063/original/file-20180919-158237-425nq0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=276&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/237063/original/file-20180919-158237-425nq0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=276&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/237063/original/file-20180919-158237-425nq0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=346&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/237063/original/file-20180919-158237-425nq0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=346&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/237063/original/file-20180919-158237-425nq0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=346&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">What does running 100 miles look like?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But there’s more to muscle damage than superficial discomfort. It also causes a generalised inflammatory response in the body, triggering a transient suppression of the body’s immune system. This, in turn, is thought to increase the incidence of <a href="https://www.ajol.info/index.php/sasma/article/view/31850">upper respiratory tract infection</a>. It’s not uncommon to develop a runny nose, cough, and sore throat in the days or weeks following a race, as did I within one week of the hundred.</p>
<p>There’s also the risk of trips and falls, magnified by growing fatigue and sleep deprivation. My friend Caroline ran with me for 75 miles, endured the worst of the physiological strain, only to take a tumble in the dark and crack her leg on a rock jutting from the ground, forcing her to retire.</p>
<h2>Heart problems</h2>
<p>There’s <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3538475/">emerging research</a> to suggest that long-term participation in ultra-marathons can increase the risk of cardiovascular complications. My research colleague Scott Chiesa, of the UCL Institute of Cardiovascular Science, explains:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>The severity of ultra-endurance exercise might result in long-term adaptations that are more commonly linked to disease. These include structural and functional changes in the heart and blood vessels, electrical changes in the cardiac nerves, and possible damage to the heart tissue.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>I finished the race with a “sprint” along the final 100 metres. Within 30 minutes my legs had completely seized, and I was quickly reduced to the painful protracted shuffle that would be my norm for the next three to four days. It took close to a month before I felt “normal” again. </p>
<p>Research has shown that most participants approach ultra-marathons as a means of <a href="https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jshhe1931/72/1/72_1_15/_article">personal accomplishment</a> – despite its popularity as a competitive sport. For me, the physical and mental hardship were worth the trouble, and I feel proud and content with what I achieved. Of course, participation is not without its risks – but the greater the adversity the greater the reward.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/101640/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nicholas B. Tiller does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
An ultra-marathon runner and exercise physiologist describes what it’s like to take part in an ultra-endurance event, and the consequences it had on his body.
Nicholas B. Tiller, Associate Professor in Applied Physiology, Sheffield Hallam University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/98524
2018-07-11T00:04:23Z
2018-07-11T00:04:23Z
Will a nutritional supplement help you run better?
<p>Whether you jog to keep fit or compete in marathons, the physically demanding sport of running can deplete the body of essential nutrients. </p>
<p>During a race like a half-marathon, a runner’s metabolism — or ability to convert food and internal resources into energy — must work much harder to keep up with increased demand.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/metabolite">Metabolites are essential molecules that flow through the blood</a> to keep the body functioning. Some of these hard-working metabolites are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpendo.1998.275.1.E73">amino acids that are absorbed and converted into protein needed for muscle strength and endurance</a>.</p>
<p>During times of high demand, if nutrient intake is incomplete, <a href="https://www.nature.com/subjects/nutritional-supplements">nutritional supplements</a> can help fill the gaps. </p>
<p>But how do you know if you need a nutritional supplement? It could all depend on your metabolism. And our team of scientists from the Carleton Mass Spectrometry Centre at Carleton University and Ottawa-based Staterra Inc. <a href="http://oce-ontario.org/projects%20and%20https://staterra.ca/research/">have set out to research this</a>.</p>
<h2>No scientific consensus</h2>
<p>Endurance runners who train intensely lose critical metabolites due to increased energy expenditure and increased protein synthesis during the recovery period. As a result, both elite and non-elite athletes experiment with a variety of nutritional supplements in an attempt to improve their physical performance. </p>
<p>Recently, there has been an explosion in these amino acid supplements. There is <a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-040617-013638">very little scientific evidence</a> to back up the claims made about many supplements, and yet a wide variety are now being marketed to runners. </p>
<p>In some cases, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Whey+Protein+Improves+Marathon-Induced+Injury+and+Exercise+Performance+in+Elite+Track+Runners">amino acid supplementation can improve training sessions</a> and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=The+Supplementation+of+Branched-Chain+Amino+Acids%2C+Arginine%2C+and+Citrulline+Improves+Endurance+Exercise+Performance+in+Two+Consecutive+Days">recovery in runners</a>. However, we must consider that both training and diet can affect metabolism. Few studies investigate this relationship, which could explain why scientific consensus on the ideal supplementation for endurance runners is still highly debated. </p>
<p>If you misuse or take too much of a nutritional supplement it can <a href="https://journals.humankinetics.com/doi/abs/10.1123/ijsnem.2017-0429">also hinder your performance and have long-term, unwanted health effects</a>, so it’s important to understand and study the science behind any supplement. </p>
<h2>Tailoring a ‘smart supplement’</h2>
<p>The research team from Staterra Inc. and Carleton University <a href="http://oce-ontario.org/projects%20and%20https://staterra.ca/research/">has set out to quantify exercise-induced changes in several metabolites in the body</a>. </p>
<p>Using the technique of <a href="https://www.asms.org/about-mass-spectrometry">mass spectrometry</a>, methods have been developed to examine metabolites extracted from dried blood samples of athletes at set intervals over the course of a long-distance run. </p>
<p>This leading-edge technique allows for easy identification of important metabolites required during physical activity. With this information, a “smart supplement” can be tailored to aid in efficient performance and recovery.</p>
<p>Only the necessary and required metabolites are included — to avoid burdening the athlete’s body with excretion of unnecessary components. </p>
<h2>Focus on metabolic effect</h2>
<p>Significant knowledge gaps exist regarding the ways that metabolites, such as amino acids, impact athletic performance and recovery. </p>
<p>This study attempts to fill in these gaps by determining whether there is a specific metabolic pattern in endurance runners. To paint a clearer picture of what is happening to amino acids during endurance training, participants in the study do not take any type of amino acid supplementation. </p>
<p>Preliminary data indicate a clear pattern in several metabolites. More surprisingly, the data show that several amino acids, which are currently very popular as fitness supplements, are dependent on the individual. This means that different athletes would have a different metabolic pattern as they exercise. This may explain why some athletes thrive on fitness supplements while others do not.</p>
<p>Our study suggests a new and innovative approach to fitness supplementation, where the metabolic changes at the cellular level are identified — to develop supplements that will enhance performance, increase recovery and prevent injury. </p>
<p>Focusing on metabolic effects during physical activity should be the new norm in developing safe and efficient supplements.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/98524/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jeffrey Smith collaborates with Staterra Inc. Together they have received one year of funding from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada Engage program and the Ontario Centres of Excellence Voucher for Innovation and Productivity program. </span></em></p>
New research aims to better understand the bodies of runners, so that ‘smart’ nutritional supplements can be developed.
Jeffrey Smith, Associate Professor, Department of Chemistry and Institute of Biochemistry, Carleton University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/92690
2018-03-16T14:26:52Z
2018-03-16T14:26:52Z
Free divers have long defied science – and we still don’t really understand how they go so deep
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/209739/original/file-20180309-30969-e317hq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">'Under', Martina Amati.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">© Martina Amati</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Free divers swim to extreme depths underwater (the current record is 214m) without any breathing apparatus. Champions can hold their breath for extraordinary amounts of time – the record for women is nine minutes, and men 11. </p>
<p>I’m a doctor with a special interest in extreme environments, so was intrigued when I was asked to collaborate in an art project about free diving for the Wellcome Collection’s new exhibition <a href="https://wellcomecollection.org/exhibitions/WhvoAykAACgAlDoo">Somewhere in Between</a>. Scientists and those who practise free diving are in many ways utterly alien to one another. When you look at the stresses this sport places on our physiology, it initially looks almost impossible that anyone should be able to dive to such profound depths – and yet they do.</p>
<p>Unsupported, breathing only air, you could just about climb Everest without any additional support other than your protective clothing. That’s 9km or so above sea level. But when you go into the ocean actually things change much more quickly because of the rapid pressure differences.</p>
<p>If you descend only 10m into the ocean, you are subjected to another additional atmosphere of pressure: that’s twice as much pressure as you’ve been used to at the surface. And for every 10m beyond you get another atmosphere of pressure. That starts to manipulate your body, your anatomy and your physiology in quite profound ways, which actually make the endeavour of diving into the deep ocean uniquely difficult. Not only does it compress you and shrink the air-containing spaces in your body, but also it alters your physiology, alters the way the gases act within your blood stream and how they act on everything, including your nervous system.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/209741/original/file-20180309-30965-vrevf1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/209741/original/file-20180309-30965-vrevf1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/209741/original/file-20180309-30965-vrevf1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/209741/original/file-20180309-30965-vrevf1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/209741/original/file-20180309-30965-vrevf1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/209741/original/file-20180309-30965-vrevf1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/209741/original/file-20180309-30965-vrevf1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Somewhere in Between installation shot.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">© Wellcome Collection</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In the very early days of free-diving, physiologists were pretty convinced that people couldn’t go beyond about 30 or 40 metres. They’d drawn their graphs as scientists and they’d worked out what they saw. They worked out what they understood about the human body and the effects of pressure on it and they said: “Well, look, your lungs are going to be crushed and you’re going to be spitting blood by the time you’re at 30 or 40 metres. So there’s no way that you can do this on breath-hold diving. It just can’t be done.”</p>
<p>But of course, free divers decided to do it anyway – and they swam well past those theoretical limits. How? Martina Amati, the free diver and artist involved in the project, tried to explain the mind set that goes with this extreme sport:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>There is an element of physicality but it’s mainly mental. That’s what is incredible about free diving. It’s not about your physical ability, but about your mental skills and mental training basically. You need to let go of everything that you know and everything that makes you feel good or bad. And so it’s a very liberating process. But equally you need to stay completely aware of your body and where you are, entirely in the moment.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>At a depth of 10m we need more oxygen in our bloodstream than at 100m, because the pressure of the water all around makes the oxygen more potent. So the most tricky part of a deep dive is the last stage of the ascent, when there is the risk of a shallow water black-out as the pressure fades and the oxygen levels in our tissues suddenly drop. </p>
<p>Getting started is hard too. You are buoyant at the surface and for the first few metres of the dive. As you start to descend, the pressure of the water pushes you back towards the surface, until around 13m to 20m deep when the dynamic is reversed. Here, according to Amati: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>Your body begins to sink a little bit like a stone. We call this part the free-fall, the moment when freedivers stop moving completely, and the most beautiful part of the dive. When you eventually come back from a dive and you take your first breath, every time it feels like your first breath ever. So for me, it feels like being born again. I think of the water a little like the womb.</p>
</blockquote>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/209740/original/file-20180309-30983-1hsf0br.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/209740/original/file-20180309-30983-1hsf0br.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/209740/original/file-20180309-30983-1hsf0br.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/209740/original/file-20180309-30983-1hsf0br.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/209740/original/file-20180309-30983-1hsf0br.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/209740/original/file-20180309-30983-1hsf0br.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/209740/original/file-20180309-30983-1hsf0br.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Martina Amati swimming back to surfaced. Photograph by Daan Verhoeven.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">© Martina Amati</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As a diver, what you experience is the changing chemistry of your blood stream as the increased pressure allows gases to dissolve more easily and exert their effects more readily. So the nitrogen, the larger amount of nitrogen that dissolves in your blood stream, behaves as a narcotic and actually makes you feel quite drunk and at only 30 or 40 metres. If you dive at those limits, the additional nitrogen can make you feel quite euphoric.</p>
<p>As a free diver, going deeper, you’re just squeezing those last dregs of oxygen out of your blood stream and trying to subsist on much lower levels than any human being normally ever does. And you go into this sort of strange balance between the pressures that exist at depth temporarily helping to support you while your breath-holding is threatening your life. It’s really a very, very precarious balance and it requires you to enact some very weird and very strange and not all that well understood physiological feats just to stay alive. The depth records for human free diving now are quite absurd: not tens but hundreds of metres.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/209742/original/file-20180309-30983-bei9vr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/209742/original/file-20180309-30983-bei9vr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/209742/original/file-20180309-30983-bei9vr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=1009&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/209742/original/file-20180309-30983-bei9vr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=1009&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/209742/original/file-20180309-30983-bei9vr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=1009&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/209742/original/file-20180309-30983-bei9vr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1268&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/209742/original/file-20180309-30983-bei9vr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1268&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/209742/original/file-20180309-30983-bei9vr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1268&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">‘Under’ film still.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">© Martina Amati</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>People have rough models of how that is achieved. It’s not a total mystery – but clearly there’s more going on than we fully understand. What I found really fascinating working on this project was that the free divers and non-scientists that participate in free diving talk about this sort of quite holistic experience of being at one with the ocean and this great feeling of well-being. To a physiologist, that’s the euphoria of oxygen starvation and hypoxia, which is not great, but for the free divers themselves this is part of the experience. It’s impossible for them to disentangle that from the diving itself.</p>
<p>There’s a grey area between life and death in which there is a chance and things can happen. In medicine we don’t explore this boundary for fun – but people who are involved in endeavours like free diving do it as a pastime.</p>
<p>And so the act of free diving, looked at by two different cultures – the free divers and the scientists – has very little real overlap. One looks on in fascinated horror and the other sort of sees it as a way of life. For me, then, this was much more than just an art-science collaboration. There was a real reason to bring those two spheres together here – each can learn an awful lot from the other.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Martina Amati’s multi-screen installation “Under”, for which she collaborated with Kevin Fong, can be seen at <a href="https://wellcomecollection.org/exhibitions/WhvoAykAACgAlDoo">Somewhere in Between</a>, an exhibition at the Wellcome Collection, open until August 27 2018.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/92690/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kevin Fong was a Wellcome Public Engagement Fellow from 2011-2012, and collaborated with the artist Martina Amati as part of the Wellcome Collection's latest exhibition, Somewhere in Between.</span></em></p>
Diving without oxygen tanks requires you to enact some very weird and very strange and not all that well understood physiological feats just to stay alive.
Kevin Fong, Honorary Professor in Physiology, UCL
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/76168
2017-04-13T13:12:33Z
2017-04-13T13:12:33Z
A five-point checklist for getting around the world in 80 days by bicycle
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/165241/original/image-20170413-25888-16luavw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Mark Beaumont is currently training for his round the world attempt by cycling around Britain</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">markbeaumontonline.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Impossible is nothing, or so goes the saying, which could aptly describe some of the greatest achievements of sporting endeavour. Scots cyclist Mark Beaumont is about to find out if the saying bears truth as he attempts to cycle around the world in 80 days – <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/dec/15/around-the-world-in-123-days-new-zealander-breaks-cycling-record">the current record</a> was set by New Zealander Andrew Nicholson who circumnavigated the globe in 123 days in 2015.</p>
<p>Beaumont is currently preparing with a <a href="http://www.artemisworldcycle.com/the-challenge/around-britain-route-map/">two-week tour of Britain</a> ahead of his world-record attempt in July. While Beaumont is an accomplished ultra-endurance athlete, there are several factors that will determine whether or not he is successful. If Beaumont can take care of the following five points, he should stand a good chance of fulfilling his dream.</p>
<h2>1. Planning</h2>
<p>Logistics. Beaumont’s challenge will take a lot more than his own physical and mental strength. For long periods, he will be reliant on his support team and their individual areas of expertise. He and his team must cross entire continents to ensure they meet their four connecting flights on time – no pressure, then. They will also need to plan for mechanical failure, illness and injury, accommodation issues and a range of environmental challenges including heat, altitude and bad weather.</p>
<p>The route will also have been meticulously planned; Beaumont will need to cover 240 miles a day over 16 hours, at an average speed of 15 miles per hour. But remember this is an average speed; care must be taken to plan daily routes that are not overly challenging or that jeopardise his ability to maintain this average speed. Pacing and self-control are key.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/165250/original/image-20170413-25882-1blxmq1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/165250/original/image-20170413-25882-1blxmq1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=282&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/165250/original/image-20170413-25882-1blxmq1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=282&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/165250/original/image-20170413-25882-1blxmq1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=282&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/165250/original/image-20170413-25882-1blxmq1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=354&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/165250/original/image-20170413-25882-1blxmq1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=354&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/165250/original/image-20170413-25882-1blxmq1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=354&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The route.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://markbeaumontonline.com/">markbeaumontonline.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>2. Fitness</h2>
<p>Undoubtedly, 15mph would be considered pedestrian by most pelotons. The challenge, of course, is not achieving this speed but in maintaining it for 4,800 hours. For this, Beaumont will require a well-developed <a href="http://www.livescience.com/27585-human-body-system-circulation-infographic.html">cardio-respiratory system</a>, that is, his body’s ability to take in oxygen and transport it to the working muscles where it is used to propel his bike forward. </p>
<p>This quality is dependant on his <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27748956">VO2 max</a>, a key metric in the success of endurance athletes, and his lactate threshold, the point at which lactate accumulates in the blood faster than it can be removed. Cycling at an intensity above his lactate threshold will increase <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27806677">fatigue levels</a> and may jeopardise not only his daily goal, but also the entire challenge. </p>
<p>Ideally, he will want the power output that corresponds to his lactate threshold and VO2 max to be as close as possible.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/165252/original/image-20170413-25862-1gf5h2p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/165252/original/image-20170413-25862-1gf5h2p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=692&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/165252/original/image-20170413-25862-1gf5h2p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=692&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/165252/original/image-20170413-25862-1gf5h2p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=692&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/165252/original/image-20170413-25862-1gf5h2p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=870&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/165252/original/image-20170413-25862-1gf5h2p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=870&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/165252/original/image-20170413-25862-1gf5h2p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=870&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Beaumont must sustain a constant 15mph 16 hours a day during his world record challenge.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">markbeaumontonline.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Beaumont will also have to deal with altitudes and extreme heat; the fitness required to complete this challenge will have taken years of systematically planned and monitored training. This will be a series of long, relatively slow cycles combined with shorter distances at higher speeds, known as interval training. The former trains his specific endurance and the latter increases his VO2 max and lactate threshold in preparation for days when he comes up against a strong headwind or is in the mountains. During his training he will have learned how to listen to his body and interpret the heart rate associated with different exercise intensities.</p>
<h2>3. Resilience</h2>
<p>There will be many people who display similar and possibly superior physiological qualities to those exhibited by Beaumont, but few who could actually take on and complete this challenge – so what makes him different? What is likely to determine those capable of such feats of human endeavour is resilience: <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352250X16301440">mental toughness</a>. There will undoubtedly be days when things don’t go to plan and he falls behind his schedule; in these instances it will be his resilience that propels him forward.</p>
<h2>4. Nutrition</h2>
<p><a href="https://markbeaumontonline.com">Beaumont’s website</a> highlights the meticulous planning that has gone into devising an effective <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fh2KYUACjVo">nutritional strategy</a>, something that has been associated with successful teams in the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ian_L_ahart/publication/44585182_Energy_expenditure_in_the_Race_Across_America_RAAM/links/0046352161e1c5fb7d000000.pdf">Race Across America</a>.</p>
<p>Meals need to be calorie rich, up to 1,000 per sitting; supplements need to be effective yet not cause gastro-intestinal discomfort; snacks need to be able to be consumed on the bike; and Beaumont needs to eat every 60 to 90 minutes. The right nutritional strategy will ensure that he has the necessary energy to prevent excessive weight loss. While many of the components of his nutritional intake can be planned in advance, Beaumont will require the discipline to stick to the plan, even on days when his palate tells him otherwise.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/b2NQQl5Ie9c?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Mark Beaumont in training for his world record attempt.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>5. Recovery</h2>
<p>The prospect of cycling for 16 hours a day may leave many wondering whether there is any time left for recovery in the remaining eight hours. But Beaumont must make the time; this will include ice baths, recovery drinks and massage, all before bed, which is the most critical component of his recovery regime. He must also sleep well, especially given strong evidence <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25315456">linking poor performance with a lack of sleep</a>, exacerbated by jet lag. </p>
<p>I believe Mark Beaumont has what it takes to succeed in pushing the boundaries of what many consider to be the limits of human performance. But when it comes to physical and mental toughness, one is nothing without the other.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/76168/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
In July, Scots cyclist Mark Beaumont will attempt to cycle around the world in 80 days, smashing the world record by 43 days. Here’s what he has to get right.
Neil Gibson, Director of Sport, Performance and Health, Heriot-Watt University
Ann-Marie Gibson, Lecturer in Physical Activity for Health, University of Strathclyde
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/63326
2016-08-14T20:15:48Z
2016-08-14T20:15:48Z
From plate to podium: what does it take to fuel Olympic athletes?
<p>Just over a week into the Olympics, most of those watching the events have had at least one moment of awe about the feats of athleticism on display. We all know that competing at the Olympics is the end product of years of training, but how much fuel do elite athletes need?</p>
<p>The <a href="http://www.humankinetics.com/products/all-products/practical-sports-nutrition">energy needs of athletes vary</a> depending on their overall body composition and performance goals, as well as day-to-day training type, duration and intensity. This means energy intake is the one dietary factor that tends to differ most between sports. </p>
<p>An artistic gymnast, for instance, needs to be relatively light but muscular – to work against gravity and perform aerial twists. In Olympic weightlifting, weight categories for competition range from 48kg for women to 105kg-plus for men. This wide range in weight and size results in large differences in the amount of fuel that individual sportspeople need.</p>
<h2>Eating right</h2>
<p>In <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22360344">endurance sports</a>, such as marathon, triathlon, <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19602187">road cycling</a> and the <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9243495">longer distances in swimming</a>, the amount of training and competition can result in estimated energy requirements in excess of 20 MJ/day. </p>
<p>That’s about the equivalent of approximately eight slices of bread; two cups of porridge; six pieces of fruit; 200g cooked steak and 200g cooked chicken; two cups cooked rice; two large potatoes; five cups of green and yellow vegetables; 30g nuts; 60g cheese; and 1.5L of milk.</p>
<p>Training programs typically vary in duration, intensity and volume over a competition cycle, and this “periodisation” changes the amount of energy needed. </p>
<p>Athletes who chronically restrict food intake (to stay lean, for instance, or to “weigh in” for events) are more likely to experience fatigue, nutrient deficiencies and loss of lean mass and strength. They also risk developing longer-term health issues, such as impaired cardiovascular and bone health, as well as decreased immunity. </p>
<p>The International Olympic Committee has <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260718696_The_IOC_consensus_statement_beyond_the_Female_Athlete_Triad-Relative_Energy_Deficiency_in_Sport_RED-_S">produced a consensus statement</a> on the risks of relative energy deficiency in sport in response to these detrimental effects to help make athletes and coaches aware of this important issue. </p>
<h2>How much to eat</h2>
<p>But what about the composition of athletes’ diet? Is it more important to get protein or carbs?</p>
<p>Athletes need more protein than sedentary people and <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26920240">recommended requirements are approximately</a> 1.2 to 2g protein per kilogram of body weight per day. So for a rower weighing about 85kg this could be up to 170g of protein a day. </p>
<p>We usually teach athletes about servings of different foods that contain 10g of protein, such as two small eggs; 30g reduced fat cheese; 50g grilled fish; 200g reduced fat yoghurt; four slices of bread; and 35g lean beef or lamb. The protein requirements for athletes are easily achieved as most people in developed countries typically eat close to this amount of protein each day. </p>
<p>Carbohydrate requirements vary depending on the training type, intensity and volume. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26920240">Most athletes need</a> between three and seven grams per kg of body weight every day. </p>
<p>Endurance athletes, who may be training or competing three or more hours a day, are generally recommended to consume between 6-10g of carbohydrate per kg body weight every day. But this can go up to 12g per kg body weight during more extreme, strenuous training or competition (more than five hours a day). </p>
<p>To support recovery, timing some protein and carbohydrate intake around training is beneficial. </p>
<p>Consuming around 20g of protein (often milk or dairy sources are used) <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26920240">in the immediate post-exercise period</a> is beneficial for supporting increased synthesis or manufacture of protein. This can help athletes gain lean mass and strength. </p>
<p>More rapid restoration of muscle glycogen (the stored form of carbohydrate) can be supported by including 1 to 1.2g carbohydrate per kg per hour for the first four hours after intense (glycogen-depleting) exercise. It’s particularly important if there are repeated, strenuous training sessions over the day or there’s a need for fast recovery (during a strenuous week of repeated competition games or events, for instance).</p>
<h2>Eating for gold</h2>
<p>Athletes competing at the Rio Games, who are living in the Olympic village, <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21631513">eat at a temporary dining facility</a> that can cater for 4,000 to 5,000 people in one seating. It’s open 24 hours a day and employs hundreds of managers, chefs and service staff. </p>
<p>The menu caters for athletes from a range of competition events – and thus with different energy and nutrient requirements – as well as different cultural and religious beliefs (vegetarian food for Hindus, for instance, or halal meals for Muslims) and food preferences (vegan or lactose-free, for example). </p>
<p>Speciality chefs cater for different regions and there’s usually a focus on the style of eating from the host country. In Rio, for example, there’s a strong emphasis on South American and Brazilian dishes, particularly desserts.</p>
<p>As well as the dining hall, there is a range of other food options where athletes can “grab and go” or eat in a more relaxed environment. Food is also provided for travel to the various competition venues and at the venues themselves.</p>
<p>The complexity of providing food for a major competition has <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21631513">evolved over time</a> in response to increasing numbers of athletes, countries and competition events. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24219495">There’s evidence suggesting</a> that more athletes are following different types of dietary regimens, but we don’t know if this is simply a trend or for medical reasons. In particular, requests for gluten-free items have been increasing. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19827460">Sports dietitians work with Olympic caterers</a> to ensure the menu accommodates all kinds of diets and can guide athletes with their food choices in the dining hall.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/63326/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Helen O'Connor was president of Sports Dietititans Australia from 1996-2000. The position was unpaid.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Fiona Pelly was on the board of Sports Dietititans Australia from 1996-2000. The position was unpaid.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Janelle Gifford does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
We all know that competing at the Olympics is the end product of years of training, but how much fuel do elite athletes need?
Helen O'Connor, Senior Lecturer in Nutrition, University of Sydney
Fiona Pelly, Associate Professor and Discipline Leader Nutrition and Dietics, University of the Sunshine Coast
Janelle Gifford, Lecturer in Sports and Public Health Nutrition, University of Sydney
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/45602
2015-08-20T20:25:38Z
2015-08-20T20:25:38Z
The science of doping and how cheating athletes pass drug tests
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/90983/original/image-20150806-2924-1qvmena.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Two news outlets have alleged there was widespread cheating in endurance sports between 2001 and 2012.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/peterm7/7773673900/">Peter Mooney/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The <a href="http://www.iaaf.org/competitions/iaaf-world-championships">15th Athletics World Championships</a>, which open on August 22 in Beijing, China, present a significant challenge for the organisers. Allegations in early August of <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sport/othersports/article-3182579/Athletics-hit-fresh-doping-crisis-shock-report-claims-one-distance-running-medal-winners-using-drugs.html">mass doping among athletes</a> mean any untoward behaviour will pose a threat to the integrity of the competition. </p>
<p>According to the media revelations, <a href="http://www.express.co.uk/sport/othersport/595488/Top-UK-athlete-among-seven-Britons-suspicious-blood-scores-WADA-revelations">a third of endurance runners</a> who won Olympic and world championship medals from 2001 to 2012 may have cheated by taking performance enhancers or by “blood doping”. More than 800 track and field athletes are thought to have <a href="http://www.foxsports.com.au/more-sports/wada-investigate-accusations-of-widespread-doping-in-athletics/story-e6frf56c-1227467698368">returned abnormal blood tests</a>, suggesting they were cheating with impunity. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.wada-ama.org/en/media/news/2015-08/wada-alarmed-by-widespread-doping-allegations-against-international-athletics">World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA)</a> uses a battery of blood and urine tests to determine if athletes are cheating. A key tool is the biological passport program, which tests all athletes for doping and performance-enhancing drugs.</p>
<h2>Blood doping</h2>
<p>Blood doping increases the blood’s ability to carry oxygen. This can have a direct impact on VO2max, the measure of a person’s aerobic capacity. Ultimately, blood doping is one of the more effective illegal ways of improving endurance performance. </p>
<p>Athletes blood dope by either using <a href="http://bjsm.bmj.com/content/38/1/99.full">blood transfusions</a> or specific drugs to increase their red blood cell count (haemoglobin). When they <a href="http://bjsm.bmj.com/content/38/1/99.full">transfuse blood</a> into their bodies, they can re-infuse their own blood (autologous) or use blood from another person who serves as a donor (homologous). </p>
<p>And when blood is taken out of the body and used for transfusions, up to four components, including red blood cells, platelets, plasma and cryoprecipitated antihemphilic factor (AHF), are removed from the sample and then frozen. Typically the red blood cells are returned to the athlete’s body when the sample is re-infused, in order to increase their ability to carry oxygen. </p>
<p>When athletes re-infuse their own blood, there’s no direct way of detecting what they’ve done. But indirect detecting methods are available, such as measuring their total haemoglobin mass (red blood cell size) or metabolites of <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24764552">blood bag plasticisers</a> (by-products of the container the blood is stored in).</p>
<p>If the athlete transfuses someone else’s blood, drug testers can look directly at the antigen pattern of the red blood cells to detect doping. Since everyone has a different genetic code, doping is easily spotted when red blood cells present different genetic markers. </p>
<p>Testers can also indirectly look for the presence of plasticisers in urine tests. Because stored blood is exposed to plasticisers and their metabolites, they can be detected when expelled through urine. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/91684/original/image-20150813-18071-igsgyr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/91684/original/image-20150813-18071-igsgyr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/91684/original/image-20150813-18071-igsgyr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/91684/original/image-20150813-18071-igsgyr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/91684/original/image-20150813-18071-igsgyr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/91684/original/image-20150813-18071-igsgyr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/91684/original/image-20150813-18071-igsgyr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Blood doping is one of the more effective illegal ways of improving endurance performance.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/40964293@N07/4353440641/">Shannan Muskopf/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As you can see, the combination of both blood and urine analytic techniques is very useful in detecting potential doping infractions involving blood transfusions. </p>
<h2>Erythropoietin (EPO)</h2>
<p>Another common method of doping is the use of <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Gopinath_Subash/publication/264201220_Monitoring_recombinant_human_erythropoietin_abuse_among_athletes/links/54c4b6950cf256ed5a9562dd.pdf">recombinant human erythropoietin (rHuEPO)</a>, which stimulates the production of red blood cells. Erythropoietin (EPO) is a naturally occurring hormone found in the blood; recombinant EPO is the artificial version. </p>
<p>EPO’s ability to increase the number of red blood cells results in a dramatic increase of oxygen in the blood, which boosts athletic performance. Originally produced to treat several forms of chronic anaemia, EPO has been the source of numerous doping scandals in sport, especially in endurance sports such as cycling, distance running and cross-country skiing. </p>
<p>In addition to rHuEPO, athletes are likely to use erythropoiesis-stimulating agents (ERAs) such as FG-4592 (also known as Rodadustat). These are used to stimulate the body’s natural production of EPO in a fashion similar to training at altitude. </p>
<p>WADA added this compound to its testing regime only this year and athletes have already <a href="http://www.cyclingnews.com/news/taborre-positive-for-novel-epo-stimulating-drug-fg-4592/">been caught</a> using them. It’s likely many athletes have used these types of compounds before they were tested for, receiving a performance benefit without the risk of positive doping test.</p>
<h2>Getting caught or evading detection</h2>
<p>When the athlete’s blood samples are placed into the biological passport program, they are evaluated for changes in blood components (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean_corpuscular_hemoglobin_concentration">haemoglobin concentration</a>; <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reticulocyte">reticulocyte percentage</a>; <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18981937">haemoglobin mass</a>; <a href="http://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/reticulocyte-count">reticulocyte count</a>; <a href="http://www.healthline.com/health/rbc-count#Overview1">red blood cell count</a>; <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean_corpuscular_volume">mean corpuscular volume</a>; <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean_corpuscular_hemoglobin">mean corpuscular haemoglobin</a>; and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean_corpuscular_hemoglobin_concentration">mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration</a>) that are collectively used to assess if he or she may have blood doped. </p>
<p>After the athlete’s blood is thoroughly analysed, the data is used to calculate what has been termed the OFF Score (OFF-hr). This variable is calculated from the haemoglobin (a protein responsible for transporting oxygen in the blood) concentration, the reticulocyte (immature blood cells) percentage and an abnormal profile score. </p>
<p>If a suspicious or abnormal profile is determined with this calculation, the data is forwarded to a panel of doping experts who review it to determine if a doping infraction has actually occurred. If the panel deems that it has, WADA initiates a suspension process. </p>
<p>One way athletes appear to be circumventing the biological passports model is by small, frequent use of EPO. In 2011, <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21336951">Australian researchers</a> found frequent micro-dosing allows athletes to use rhEPO without abnormal changes in the blood variables that are currently monitored by the athlete blood passport. </p>
<p>As the fight against doping continues, athletes appear to be continually searching for ways to elevate their performance and evade detection. The biological passport offers a great tool for limiting the practice of doping, but it seems that many athletes have already found ways to circumvent it.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/45602/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Greg Haff is affiliated with the National Strength and Conditioning Association and currently serves as the organisations president.</span></em></p>
Organisers of the World Championship in Athletics will be on their toes after recent revelations of mass doping by endurance athletes. Here’s what you need to know about doping and how to evade it.
G. Gregory Haff, Senior Lecturer in Exercise and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.