tag:theconversation.com,2011:/au/topics/english-5811/articlesEnglish – The Conversation2024-02-15T19:04:36Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2233122024-02-15T19:04:36Z2024-02-15T19:04:36ZShould Taylor Swift be taught alongside Shakespeare? A professor of literature says yes<p>Does Taylor Swift’s music belong in the English classroom? No, obviously. We should teach the classics, like <a href="https://www.folger.edu/explore/shakespeares-works/shakespeares-sonnets/">Shakespeare’s Sonnets</a>. After all, they have stood the test of time. It’s 2024 and he was born in 1564, and she’s only 34. What’s more, she is a pop singer, not a poet. Sliding her into the classroom would be yet another example of a dumbed-down curriculum. It’s ridiculous. It makes everyone look bad. </p>
<p>I’ve heard all that. And plenty more like it. But none of it is right. Well, the dates might be, but not the assumptions – about Shakespeare, about English, about teaching, and about Swift. </p>
<p>Swift is, by the way, a poet. She sees herself this way and her songs bear her out. In Sweet Nothing, on the <a href="https://pitchfork.com/reviews/albums/taylor-swift-midnights/">Midnights</a> album, she sings:</p>
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<p>On the way home<br>
I wrote a poem<br>
You say “What a mind”<br>
This happens all the time.<br> </p>
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<p>I’m sure it does. Swift is relentlessly productive as a songwriter. With Midnights, she picked up <a href="https://edition.cnn.com/2024/02/04/entertainment/taylor-swift-album-of-the-year-grammys/index.html">her fourth Grammy for Album of the Year</a>. And here we are, on the brink of another studio album, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tortured_Poets_Department">The Tortured Poets Department</a>, somehow written and produced amid the gargantuan success of Midnights and the Eras World Tour. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-did-taylor-swift-get-so-popular-she-never-goes-out-of-style-213871">How did Taylor Swift get so popular? She never goes out of style</a>
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<h2>An ally of literature</h2>
<p>Regardless of what The Tortured Poets Department ends up being about, Swift is already a firm ally of literature and reading. She is <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/taylor-swift-donates-6000-books-to-library/">a donor of thousands of books</a> to public libraries in the United States, an advocate to schoolchildren of the importance of reading and songwriting, and a lover of the process of crafting lyrics. </p>
<p>In a <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XnbCSboujF4">2016 Vogue interview</a>, Swift declared with glee that, if she were a teacher, she would teach English. The literary references in her songs are endlessly noted. “I love Shakespeare as much as the next girl,” she wrote in a <a href="https://www.elle.com/uk/life-and-culture/a26546099/taylor-swift-pop-music/">2019 article for Elle</a>. </p>
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<p>Her interview Read Every Day gives a good sense of this. Swift speaks about her writing process in ways that make it accessible. She explains how songs come to her anywhere and everywhere, like an idea randomly appearing “on a cloud” that becomes the first piece in a “puzzle” that will be assembled into a song. She furtively whisper-sings song ideas into her phone when out with friends. </p>
<p>In her <a href="https://www.thelineofbestfit.com/news/read-taylor-swifts-full-nsai-songwriter-artist-of-the-decade-award-speech">acceptance speech for the Nashville Songwriter-Artist of the Decade Award</a> in 2022, Swift explained how she writes in three broad styles, imagining she is holding either a “quill”, a “fountain pen”, or a “glitter gel pen”. Songcraft is a joyous challenge for her. </p>
<p>If, as teachers of literature, we are too proud to credit Swift’s plainly expressed love of English (regardless of whether we like her songs or not), we are likely missing something. To bluntly rule her out of the English classroom feels more absurd than allowing her in. </p>
<p>Clio Doyle, a lecturer in early modern literature, has <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-taylor-swift-belongs-on-english-literature-degree-courses-219660">summarised</a> Swift’s suitability for English in a recent article which concludes:</p>
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<p>The important thing isn’t whether or not Swift might be the new Shakespeare. It’s that the discipline of English literature is flexible, capacious and open-minded. A class on reading Swift’s work as literature is just another English class, because every English class requires grappling with the idea of reading anything as literature. Even Shakespeare. </p>
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<p>Doyle reminds us Swift’s work has been taught at universities for a while now and, inevitably, the singer’s name keeps cropping up in relation to Shakespeare. This isn’t just a case of fandom gone wild or Shakespeare professors, like <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/culture/music/why-taylor-swift-is-a-literary-giant-by-a-shakespeare-professor-20230518-p5d9cn.html">Jonathan Bate</a>, gone rogue. </p>
<p>The global interest in the world-first academic <a href="https://swiftposium2024.com/">Swiftposium</a> is a good measure of how things are trending. Moreover, it is wrong to think Swift’s songs are included in units of study purely to be adored. Her wide appeal is part of her appeal to educators, but that doesn’t mean her art is uncritically included. </p>
<p>The reverse is true. Claire Hansen <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/pop-star-philosopher-poet-taylor-swift-is-shaking-up-how-we-think-20240207-p5f342.html">taught Swift in one of her literature units at the Australian National University</a> last year precisely because this influential singer-songwriter prompts students to explore the boundaries of the canon.</p>
<p>I will be teaching Midnights and Shakespeare’s Sonnets together in a literature unit at the University of Sydney this semester. Why? Not because I think Swift is as good as Shakespeare, or because I think she is not as good as Shakespeare. These statements are fine as personal opinions, but unhelpful as blanket declarations without context. The nature of English as a discipline is far more complex, interesting and valuable than a labelling and ranking exercise. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/guide-to-the-classics-shakespeares-sonnets-an-honest-account-of-love-and-a-surprising-portal-to-the-man-himself-156964">Guide to the classics: Shakespeare’s sonnets — an honest account of love and a surprising portal to the man himself</a>
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<h2>Teaching Midnights and Shakespeare’s Sonnets</h2>
<p>I teach Shakespeare’s sonnets as exquisite poems, reflective of their time and culture. I also teach three modern artworks that shed contemporary light on the sonnets. </p>
<p>The first is Jen Bervin’s 2004 book <a href="https://www.jenbervin.com/projects/nets">Nets</a>. Bervin prints a selection of the sonnets, one per page, in grey text. In each of these grey sonnets, some of Shakespeare’s words and phrases are printed in black and thus stand out boldly. </p>
<p>The result is a <a href="https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/palimpsest">palimpsest</a>. The Shakespearean sonnet appears lying, like fertile soil, beneath the briefer poem that emerges from it. Bervin describes this technique as a stripping down of the sonnets to “nets” in order “to make the space of the poems open, porous, possible – a divergent elsewhere”. The creative relationship between the Shakespearean base and Bervin’s proverb-like poems proves that, as Bervin says, “when we write poems, the history of poetry is with us”. </p>
<p>The second text is Luke Kennard’s prizewinning 2021 collection <a href="https://www.pennedinthemargins.co.uk/index.php/2021/04/notes-on-the-sonnets/">Notes on the Sonnets</a>. Kennard recasts the sonnets as a series of entertaining prose poems. Each poem responds to a specific Shakespearean sonnet, recasting it as the freewheeling thought bubble of a fictional attendee at an unappealing house party. In an interview with C.D. Rose, Kennard <a href="https://thequietus.com/articles/30078-luke-kennard-interview-the-answer-to-everything-notes-on-the-sonnets">explains</a> how his house party design puts the reader </p>
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<p>in between a public and private space, you’re at home and you’re out, you’re free, you’re enclosed. And that’s similar in the sonnets.</p>
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<p>The third text is Swift’s Midnights. Unlike Bervin’s and Kennard’s collections, in which individual pieces relate to specific sonnets, there is no explicit adaptation. Instead, Midnights raises broader themes. </p>
<h2>Deep connection</h2>
<p>In her Elle article, Swift describes songwriting as akin to photography. She strives to capture moments of lived experience: </p>
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<p>The fun challenge of writing a pop song is squeezing those evocative details into the catchiest melody you can possibly think of. I thrive on the challenge of sprinkling personal mementos and shreds of reality into a genre of music that is universally known for being, well, universal.</p>
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<p>Her point is that the pop songs that “cut through the most are actually the most detailed” in their snippets of reality and biography. She says “people are reaching out for connection and comfort” and “music lovers want some biographical glimpse into the world of our narrator, a hole in the emotional walls people put up around themselves to survive”.</p>
<p>Midnights exemplifies this. It is a concept album built on the idea that midnight is a time for pursuit of and confrontation with the self – or better, the selves. Swift says the songs form “the full picture of the intensities of that mystifying, mad hour”. </p>
<p>The album, she says, is “a journey through terrors and sweet dreams” for those “who have tossed and turned and decided to keep the lanterns lit and go searching – hoping that just maybe, when the clock strikes twelve […] we’ll meet ourselves”.<br>
Swift claims that Midnights lets listeners in through her protective walls to enable deep connection: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>I really don’t think I’ve delved this far into my insecurities in this detail before. I struggle with the idea that my life has become unmanageably sized and […] I just struggle with the idea of not feeling like a person.</p>
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<p>Midnights is not a sonnet collection, but it has fascinating parallels. There is no firm narrative through-line. Nor is there a through-line in early modern sonnet collections such as Shakespeare’s. Instead, both gather songs and poems that let us see aspects of the singing or speaking persona’s thoughts, emotions and experiences. Shakespeare’s speaker is also troubled through the night in sonnets 27, 43 and 61.</p>
<p>The sonnets come in thematic clusters, pairs and mini-sequences. It can be interesting to ask students if they can see something similar in the order of songs on the Midnights album – or the “3am” edition with its seven extra tracks, or the “Til Dawn” edition with another three songs. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575766/original/file-20240215-16-akcmh0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575766/original/file-20240215-16-akcmh0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575766/original/file-20240215-16-akcmh0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=769&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575766/original/file-20240215-16-akcmh0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=769&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575766/original/file-20240215-16-akcmh0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=769&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575766/original/file-20240215-16-akcmh0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=966&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575766/original/file-20240215-16-akcmh0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=966&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575766/original/file-20240215-16-akcmh0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=966&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Portrait of William Shakespeare – John Taylor (1610).</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Shakespeare.jpg">Public domain.</a></span>
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<p>Paul Edmondson and Stanley Wells, in their edition of <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/all-the-sonnets-of-shakespeare/AE1912C43BE4F50391B25B83C0C03B1F">All the Sonnets of Shakespeare</a>, say Shakespeare’s collection is “the most idiosyncratic gathering of sonnets in the period” because he “uses the sonnet form to work out his intimate thoughts and feelings”. </p>
<p>This connects very well with the agenda of Midnights. Both collections are piecemeal psychic landscapes. The singing or speaking voice sometimes feels autobiographical – compare, for example, sonnets 23, 129, 135-6 and 145 to Swift’s songs Anti-hero, You’re On Your Own, Kid, Sweet Nothing, and Would’ve, Could’ve, Should’ve. At other times the voices feel less autobiographical. Often there is no way to distinguish one from the other. </p>
<p>Swift’s songs and Shakespeare’s Sonnets are meditations on deeply personal aspects of their narrators’ experiences. They present us with encounters, memories, relationships, values and claims. Swift’s persona is that of a self-reflective singer, just as Shakespeare’s is that of a self-reflective sonneteer. Both focus on love in all its shades. Both present themselves as vulnerable to industry rivals and pressures. Both dwell on issues of power. </p>
<h2>Close reading</h2>
<p>Shakespeare’s sonnets are rewarding texts for close reading because of their poetic intricacy. Students can look at end rhymes and internal rhymes, the way the argument progresses through <a href="https://www.poetryfoundation.org/learn/glossary-terms/quatrain">quatrains</a>, the positioning of the “turn”, which is often in line 9 or 13, and the way the final couplet wraps things up (or doesn’t). </p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575756/original/file-20240215-26-s2wemm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575756/original/file-20240215-26-s2wemm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=865&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575756/original/file-20240215-26-s2wemm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=865&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575756/original/file-20240215-26-s2wemm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=865&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575756/original/file-20240215-26-s2wemm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1087&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575756/original/file-20240215-26-s2wemm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1087&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575756/original/file-20240215-26-s2wemm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1087&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Title page of the first edition of Shakespeare’s Sonnets (1609).</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sonnets1609titlepage.jpg">Public domain</a></span>
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<p>The songs on Midnights are also rewarding because Swift has a great vocabulary, a love of metaphor, terrific turns of phrase, and a strong sense of symmetry and balance in wording. More complex songs like Maroon and Question…? are great for detailed analysis. </p>
<p>Karma and Mastermind are simpler, yet contain plenty of metaphoric language to be unpacked for meaning and aesthetic effectiveness. Shakespeare’s controlled use of metaphor in Sonnet 73 makes for a telling contrast. </p>
<p>The Great War, Glitch and Snow on the Beach are good for exploring how well a single extended metaphor can function to carry the meaning of a song. Sonnets 8, 18, 143 and 147 can be explored in similar terms.</p>
<p>Just as students can analyse the “turn” or concluding couplet in a Shakespearean sonnet to see how it reshapes the poem, they can do the same with songs on Midnights. Swift is known for writing effective bridges that contribute fresh, important content towards the end of a song: Sweet Nothing, Mastermind and Dear Reader are excellent examples. </p>
<p>Such unexpected pairings are valuable because they require close attention and careful articulation of what is similar and what is not. Shakespeare’s Sonnet 129, for example (the famous one on lust), and Swift’s Bigger than the Whole Sky (a powerful expression of loss) make for a gripping comparison of how intense feeling can be expressed poetically. </p>
<p>Or consider Sonnet 29 (“When in disgrace with fortune and men’s eyes”) and Sweet Nothing: both celebrate intimacy as a defence against the pressures of the public world. How about High Infidelity and Sonnet 138 (where love and self-deception coexist), considered in terms of truth in relationships? </p>
<p>There is nothing to lose and plenty to gain in teaching Swift’s Midnights and Shakespeare’s Sonnets together. There’s no dumbing-down involved. And there’s no need for reductive assertions about who is “better”.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/223312/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Liam E Semler receives research funding from the Better Strangers project which is a collaborative education research project between the University of Sydney and Barker College. Better Strangers hosts the Shakespeare Reloaded website (<a href="https://shakespearereloaded.edu.au/">https://shakespearereloaded.edu.au/</a>) and explores innovative approaches to teaching and learning Shakespeare. </span></em></p>There is nothing to lose and plenty to gain in teaching Swift’s Midnights and Shakespeare’s Sonnets together. There’s no dumbing-down, and no need for reductive assertions about who is “better”.Liam E Semler, Professor of Early Modern Literature, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2200452024-01-29T19:04:52Z2024-01-29T19:04:52Z60% of Australian English teachers think video games are a ‘legitimate’ text to study. But only 15% have used one<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568121/original/file-20240107-27-ot63a8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C38%2C5152%2C3368&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/closeup-of-white-sony-ps4-controller-HUBNTCzE-R8">Caspar Camille Rubin/ Unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Are you worried about how much time your child spends playing video games? Do they “hibernate” for hours in their room, talking what seems like gibberish to their friends? </p>
<p>Fresh air and life away from gaming are undeniably important. But it may help to know <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0742051X23002664?via%3Dihub">our research</a> shows many English teachers are thinking seriously about how gaming applies in their classrooms – even if there are divided opinions about how to approach it. </p>
<h2>Video games and English education</h2>
<p>The global gaming industry <a href="https://olympics.com/en/news/ioc-president-thomas-bach-exploring-plans-to-create-olympic-esports-games">is huge</a> and continues to grow. It is tipped to be worth <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/07/gaming-pandemic-lockdowns-pwc-growth/">US$321 billion (A$477 billion) by 2026</a>. </p>
<p>While many gamers are over 18, we know video games are very important to young people’s <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17439884.2021.1936017">culture and identity</a>. In 2023, Bond University <a href="https://igea.net/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/IGEA_AP2023_FINAL_REPORT.pdf">surveyed</a> 1,219 Australian households on behalf of the Interactive Games and Entertainment Association. It found 93% of 5-14 year-olds and 91% of 15-24 year-olds surveyed in Australia play video games. </p>
<p>More than fifteen years of <a href="https://research-repository.griffith.edu.au/bitstream/handle/10072/61222/88437_1.pdf">research</a> has also shown video games can also have <a href="https://www.acmi.net.au/education/school-program-and-resources/game-lessons/">educational benefits</a>. This includes developing problem solving and <a href="https://www.nzcer.org.nz/system/files/Critical%20literacy%20and%20games%20working%20paper.pdf">literacy skills</a>, creativity, team work and developing a critical understanding of their place in the world.</p>
<p>From an English teachers’ perspective, many video games have complex narrative scripts and plots and clear character development. They also typically require players to interpret cultural contexts and apply them. For example, games like <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/games/2023/may/12/nintendo-legend-of-zelda-tears-of-kingdom-launches-critical-acclaim">The Legend of Zelda</a> (first released in 1986 with multiple spin-offs) contain back-stories and plot-lines that are ripe for analysis. </p>
<p>However, these sorts of games (or texts) are still not valued in English curricula. Greater value is placed on studying favourite classics such as Shakespeare, John Steinbeck, Ernest Hemingway and other print-based literature. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A young person holds a gaming controller." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568123/original/file-20240107-27-tf6kwm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568123/original/file-20240107-27-tf6kwm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568123/original/file-20240107-27-tf6kwm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568123/original/file-20240107-27-tf6kwm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568123/original/file-20240107-27-tf6kwm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568123/original/file-20240107-27-tf6kwm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568123/original/file-20240107-27-tf6kwm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Video games such as The Legend of Zelda contain complex plots and characters.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/person-holding-black-game-controller-1563796/">Deeanna Arts/ Peels</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
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<p>
<em>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/heres-why-the-legend-of-zelda-tears-of-the-kingdom-is-big-news-even-among-those-who-dont-see-themselves-as-gamers-205229">Here's why The Legend of Zelda: Tears of the Kingdom is big news – even among those who don't see themselves as 'gamers'</a>
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<h2>Our research</h2>
<p>To better understand how teachers value digital games in their classrooms and how they use them, we surveyed 201 high school English teachers around Australia. They came from all school sectors. More than 60% of those surveyed had been teaching for at least ten years. </p>
<p>Our research found: </p>
<ul>
<li><p>58.6% of teachers surveyed believed digital games are a “legitimate text type”. This means they thought they can be taught in English programs alongside other texts such as plays, books and poetry. A further 27.4% were unsure and 14% of respondents said digital games were not legitimate texts </p></li>
<li><p>85% had not used digital games as a main or “focus” text for classroom study, with 74% having no plans to do so in the future</p></li>
<li><p>teachers with less experience were more likely to think they could use video games as a text for classroom study. For example, teachers who had used digital games with their students were 260% more likely to have 15 years or less experience </p></li>
<li><p>of those not using digital games as a focus or supplementary text, 23% reported limited knowledge of, and time to explore, how to use them in the classroom</p></li>
<li><p>80% of teachers had not received professional development on how to use digital games but 60% had independently read articles, books, or chapters about them.</p></li>
</ul>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/video-gaming-can-bolster-classroom-learning-but-not-without-teacher-support-190483">Video gaming can bolster classroom learning, but not without teacher support</a>
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<h2>What does the curriculum say?</h2>
<p>The term “multimodal” appears more than 300 times in the Australian English curriculum. Multimodal means a text contains two or more modes, such as written or spoken text, video images and audio. </p>
<p>While digital games are indeed multimodal texts, the curriculum does not overtly name digital games (or video games) as an example of a multimodal text.</p>
<p>Perhaps unsurprisingly, only 30% of our respondents felt digital games were mentioned in the curriculum.</p>
<h2>Teachers in their own words</h2>
<p>In open-ended questions, teachers revealed strong and in some cases, polarised views about video games in their classrooms. Those who were positive, emphasised their ability to engage students. As one teacher told us: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>I think digital games are the future of education […] a medium all students are familiar with, engage in, and enjoy. Students do not read books ‘en masse’ anymore, yet we as English teachers insist on dragging them kicking and screaming through texts they detest, whilst penalising them for playing the digital games they love. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Teachers also spoke of the rich, complex nature of some games. For example, they valued the way digital games have “multiple plot lines”, “connectivity between segments”, and “immerse students in worlds” as “active rather than passive” users of a text.</p>
<p>But some teachers also said video games hampered students’ creativity: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>I am so over this stupid fixation. Digital games stymie imaginative writing and actually ‘flatten’ affect in the student’s ‘voice’. It comes to define their idea of writing and they regurgitate silly game stories that lack any emotional or creative flair.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>They also expressed strong concerns they were were not good for students (echoing similar, <a href="https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2023/05/31/1178977198/video-games-kids-good-limits">ongoing concerns</a> in news media), with one stating: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>I really hate video games and I do not think they are healthy for kids […].</p>
</blockquote>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A closeup of a computer keyboard." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568122/original/file-20240107-17-jrz2iz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568122/original/file-20240107-17-jrz2iz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568122/original/file-20240107-17-jrz2iz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568122/original/file-20240107-17-jrz2iz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568122/original/file-20240107-17-jrz2iz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568122/original/file-20240107-17-jrz2iz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568122/original/file-20240107-17-jrz2iz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Teachers in the study variously described computer games as the ‘future’ and a ‘stupid fixation’.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/purple-and-black-computer-keyboard-74JeU2jfnfk">Syed Ali/ Unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What does this mean?</h2>
<p>Our research shows digital games remain a contentious issue among English teachers. This suggests there needs to be clearer curriculum guidelines about their use in the classroom (rather than general references to “multimodal” texts). </p>
<p>It also suggests teachers need more professional development around video games, including their potential benefits as well as how to use them effectively and for critical understanding in their English programs. This will require practical resources and research-based examples. </p>
<p>We need students to be able to think critically when engaging with all types of texts. Especially those that feature so prominently in their lives. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/vacuuming-moving-house-unpacking-are-boring-in-real-life-so-why-is-doing-them-in-a-video-game-so-fun-214853">Vacuuming, moving house, unpacking are boring in real life – so why is doing them in a video game so fun?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/220045/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Laura Scholes has received funding from The Australian Research Council, Catholic Education, Qld, The Department of Education, Qld, and the Young and Well Cooperative Research Centre. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amanda Gutierrez, Kathy Mills, and Luke Rowe do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Many English teachers are thinking seriously about how gaming applies in their classrooms. But opinions are divided about how to approach it.Amanda Gutierrez, Associate Professor in Literacy and WIL partnerships, Australian Catholic UniversityKathy Mills, Professor of Literacies and Digital Cultures, Australian Catholic UniversityLaura Scholes, Associate Professor of Gender and Literacies, Australian Catholic UniversityLuke Rowe, Lecturer and Researcher (Science of Learning), Australian Catholic UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2087502023-07-18T20:02:38Z2023-07-18T20:02:38ZNon-native English speaking scientists work much harder just to keep up, global research reveals<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537939/original/file-20230718-29-b0ibpg.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=10%2C346%2C6987%2C4311&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>These days it’s necessary to have at least a basic level of English proficiency in most research contexts. But at the same time, our collective emphasis on English places a significant burden on scientists who speak a different first language.</p>
<p>In research <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3002184">published today in PLOS Biology</a>, my colleagues and I reveal the enormity of the language barrier faced by scientists who are non-native English speakers.</p>
<h2>English has become essential in academic life</h2>
<p>Scientists need to know English to extract knowledge from others’ work, publish their findings, attend international conferences, and collaborate with their peers from around the world. </p>
<p>There’s no doubt this poses a significant challenge for non-native English speakers, who make up more than <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2015/04/23/the-worlds-languages-in-7-maps-and-charts/">90% of the global population</a>. </p>
<p>Yet there is a shocking lack of insight into how much extra effort non-native English speakers must invest in order to survive and thrive in their fields. </p>
<p>Making these hurdles visible is the first step towards achieving fair participation for scientists whose first language isn’t English.</p>
<p>We launched the <a href="https://translatesciences.com/">translatE project</a> in 2019 with the aim of understanding the consequences of language barriers in science. </p>
<p>We surveyed 908 environmental scientists from eight countries – both native and non-native English speakers – and compared the amount of effort the individuals required to complete different scientific milestones.</p>
<h2>Big hurdles to jump</h2>
<p>Imagine you’re a non-native English-speaking PhD student. Based on our findings, there are several major hurdles you’ll need to overcome.</p>
<p>The first hurdle is reading papers: a prerequisite for scientists. </p>
<p>Compared to a fellow PhD student who happens to be a native English speaker, you’ll need 91% more time to read a paper in English. This equates to an additional three weeks per year for reading the same number of papers.</p>
<p>The next big hurdle comes when trying to publish your own paper in English. </p>
<p>First, you’ll need 51% more time to write the paper. Then you’ll likely need someone to proofread your text, such as a professional editor. </p>
<p>That is if you can afford them. In Colombia, for instance, the cost of these services can be up to half the average <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238372">monthly salary</a> of a PhD student.</p>
<p>The bad news doesn’t end there. On average, your papers will still be rejected 2.6 times more often by journals. If a paper isn’t rejected, you’ll be asked to revise it 12.5 times more often than your native English-speaking counterparts.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/long-before-silicon-valley-scholars-in-ancient-iraq-created-an-intellectual-hub-that-revolutionised-science-191589">Long before Silicon Valley, scholars in ancient Iraq created an intellectual hub that revolutionised science</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Attending international conferences is key to developing your research network. But you might hesitate to register because you “feel uncomfortable and embarrassed speaking in English”, as one of our participants told us. </p>
<p>If you do decide to go and give a presentation, you’ll need 94% more time to prepare for it, compared to a native-English speaker. </p>
<p>And to stay in academia, you’ll need to overcome all of these hurdles again and again. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537459/original/file-20230714-17-g2t785.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537459/original/file-20230714-17-g2t785.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537459/original/file-20230714-17-g2t785.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=321&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537459/original/file-20230714-17-g2t785.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=321&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537459/original/file-20230714-17-g2t785.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=321&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537459/original/file-20230714-17-g2t785.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537459/original/file-20230714-17-g2t785.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537459/original/file-20230714-17-g2t785.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Non-native English speakers (yellow) who published an English-language paper had to overcome much greater hurdles than their native English-speaking counterparts.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3002184">Amano et al (2023) / PLOS Biology</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Language barriers have a widespread impact</h2>
<p>These hurdles lead to considerable disadvantages for non-native English speakers. Our study participants expressed feeling “great stress and anxiety”. They felt “incompetent and insecure”, even as they made massive investments of time and money into their work.</p>
<p>We can imagine how such experiences might ultimately drive people out of scientific careers at an early stage.</p>
<p>One particularly unhelpful and shortsighted view is that language barriers are “their problem”. In fact, language barriers have significant consequences for scientific communities more broadly, and for science itself.</p>
<p>Research has shown us that diversity in science delivers <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1915378117">innovation</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-07634-8">impact</a>. Scientific work conducted by non-native English speakers has been, and will be, imperative to solving global challenges such as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3001296">the biodiversity crisis</a>. </p>
<p>If indeed, “much research remains unpublished due to language barriers” – as one of our participants said – we could be missing out on substantial scientific contributions from a number of intelligent minds.</p>
<h2>What the scientific community can do</h2>
<p>Historically, the scientific community has <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41562-021-01137-1">rarely provided genuine support</a> for non-native English speakers. Instead, the task of overcoming language barriers has been left to individuals’ own efforts. </p>
<p>There are a number of actions individuals, institutions, journals, funders and conference organisers can take to change this.</p>
<p>As a first step, journals could do more to provide English editing support to academics (as Evolution has <a href="https://www.evolutionsociety.org/publications/evolution-english-language-support-program.html">started doing</a>) and could accept multilingual publications (as the preprint server <a href="https://www.sortee.org/blog/2023/04/18/2023_ecoevorxiv_languages/">EcoEvoRxiv does</a>).</p>
<p>Conference organisers also have myriad opportunities to support non-native English-speaking participants. For example, last year’s Animal Behaviour Society conference incorporated a multilingual buddy program to <a href="https://www.animalbehaviorsociety.org/2022/abstracts-buddy-program.php">improve inclusivity</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537469/original/file-20230714-15-e17pa4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537469/original/file-20230714-15-e17pa4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537469/original/file-20230714-15-e17pa4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=286&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537469/original/file-20230714-15-e17pa4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=286&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537469/original/file-20230714-15-e17pa4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=286&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537469/original/file-20230714-15-e17pa4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537469/original/file-20230714-15-e17pa4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537469/original/file-20230714-15-e17pa4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Examples of potential solutions to reducing disadvantages for non-native English speakers in each type of scientific activity.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3002184">Amano et al (2023) / PLOS Biology</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Artificial intelligence (AI) may have a role to play, too. AI was widely used by our survey participants for English editing. </p>
<p>The British Ecological Society recently integrated an <a href="https://blog.writefull.com/british-ecological-society-integrates-writefull-into-submission-system/">AI language editing tool</a> into its journals’ submission system. However, some journals <a href="https://theconversation.com/major-publishers-are-banning-chatgpt-from-being-listed-as-an-academic-author-whats-the-big-deal-198765">have banned</a> <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adg9714">the use</a> of such tools. </p>
<p>We believe it’s worth exploring how the effective and ethical use of AI can help break down language barriers, especially since it can provide free or affordable editing to those who need it.</p>
<h2>It’s time to re-frame</h2>
<blockquote>
<p>I wish English was my first language. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>This comment by one of our participants underscores the way non-native English speakers in science are often viewed by themselves and the whole community: through <a href="https://theconversation.com/remote-learning-is-even-harder-when-english-isnt-students-first-language-schools-told-us-their-priorities-for-supporting-them-166957">a deficit lens</a>. The focus is solely on what’s lacking. </p>
<p>We should, instead, view these people through an asset lens. By transferring information across language barriers, non-native English speakers provide diverse views that can’t otherwise be accessed. They have an indispensable role in contributing to humanity’s knowledge base. </p>
<p>The scientific community urgently needs to address language barriers so that future generations of non-native English speakers can proudly contribute to science. Only then can we all enjoy the full breadth of knowledge generated across the globe.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/3-reasons-to-study-science-communication-beyond-the-west-152237">3 reasons to study science communication beyond the West</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/208750/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tatsuya Amano receives funding from the Australian Research Council. </span></em></p>Our research found non-native English speakers face higher rejection rates and 12.5 times more revisions than their native English-speaking counterparts. But there are solutions.Tatsuya Amano, Senior lecturer, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2086512023-07-12T12:39:51Z2023-07-12T12:39:51ZClassic literature still offers rich lessons about life in the deep blue sea<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536664/original/file-20230710-27-mgth0w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C8%2C5815%2C3234&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Novels about underwater adventures offer a glimpse at oceanic life.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/underwater-ocean-royalty-free-image/1485125421?phrase=underwater&adppopup=true">fotograzia via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When OceanGate, the deep-sea exploration enterprise, created a <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wi60tvRwRlE">promotional video</a> for its ill-fated US$250,000-per-head trip to see the wreck of the Titanic, it told prospective passengers to “Get ready for what Jules Verne could only imagine – a 12,500-foot journey to the bottom of the sea.” Those behind the video hoped viewers would recognize the allusion to the author of one of the most influential and widely read oceanic novels of all time, “<a href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/855909314">20,000 Leagues Under the Sea</a>.”</p>
<p>There are indeed eerie similarities between the 1870 French novel and the circumstances surrounding the Titan submersible, which <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/06/20/us/missing-submarine-titanic-search.html">lost contact less than two hours into its descent</a> into the depths of the Atlantic.</p>
<p>In the novel, a supposedly indestructible vessel strikes an iceberg. A man of untold wealth dreams of voyaging to the bottom of the sea, sharing with a select few passengers a glimpse of the mysteries of the deep. He descends to the ocean floor in order to gawk at the wreckage of a great ship that sank years before. But later in the novel a technical problem in the submarine starts a race against time as crew members try to reach the surface before their oxygen tanks are empty. And not everyone survives.</p>
<p>For me, as the leader of a “<a href="https://ihr.asu.edu/blue-humanities">Blue Humanities” initiative at Arizona State University</a> that explores how the literature of the past can inform the present about the importance of the oceans, revisiting the novel served another purpose. It reaffirmed for me how classic literature – particularly stories about adventures at sea and, quite frankly, misadventures, as well – continues to serve as one of the best ways for humanity to educate itself about the largely unexplored realm.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="A character from Jules Verne's novel '20,000 Leagues Under the Sea' looks out a submarine." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536679/original/file-20230710-25-v6kppz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536679/original/file-20230710-25-v6kppz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=888&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536679/original/file-20230710-25-v6kppz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=888&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536679/original/file-20230710-25-v6kppz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=888&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536679/original/file-20230710-25-v6kppz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1116&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536679/original/file-20230710-25-v6kppz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1116&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536679/original/file-20230710-25-v6kppz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1116&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Jules Verne’s novel ‘20,000 Leagues Under the Sea’ follows a wealthy man who voyages to the bottom of the sea to explore a ship that sank years before.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/captain-nemo-twenty-thousand-leagues-under-the-sea-jules-news-photo/869034230?adppopup=true">Marka/Universal Images Group Editorial via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Exploring the ‘seven seas’</h2>
<p>Verne’s original title had “les mers” - seas, plural. A “league” (French “lieue”) was a measure that has been different lengths at different times in history. In the novel, it is just over 2 miles. So Verne was alluding to distance traveled, not depth of descent. The deepest place on Earth, the <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-mariana-trench-is-7-miles-deep-whats-down-there/">Mariana Trench</a> in the Pacific, is only 3½ leagues down, whereas the journey of the imaginary submarine, Captain Nemo’s Nautilus, is a 40,000-mile circumnavigation of what used to be called “the seven seas.”</p>
<p>Verne’s novel and other classics – such as Herman Melville’s “<a href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/1263807806">Moby-Dick</a>” in 1851, and Thomas Hardy’s 1912 poem on the sinking of the Titanic, “<a href="https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/47266/the-convergence-of-the-twain">The Convergence of the Twain</a>” – are allegories of nature shattering the hubris of technology.</p>
<p>In Melville’s novel, the great white whale rams the good ship Pequod and drags Captain Ahab to a watery death. </p>
<p>For Hardy, <a href="https://www.historyonthenet.com/the-titanic-why-did-people-believe-titanic-was-unsinkable">the claim that the Titanic was “unsinkable</a>” is a prime example of human arrogance. In his poem, he imagines how sea-worms – “grotesque, slimed, dumb, indifferent” – now crawl over the gilded mirrors that were meant to “glass the opulent.”</p>
<h2>Unexplored depths</h2>
<p>The ocean bed remains an alien world. Like outer space, it is truly a final frontier. Indeed, it is often said that <a href="https://whalebonemag.com/know-more-about-mars-bottom-ocean/">we know more about Mars than we do about the bottom of the sea</a>. The National Ocean Service reminds us that the seas cover more than two-thirds of the planet. Still, “more than eighty percent of this vast, underwater realm remains <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/exploration.html">unmapped, unobserved, and unexplored</a>.”</p>
<p>The mysteriousness of what lurks down there makes the seabed a prime location for fantasy. This can be seen in <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/atlantis">Plato’s ancient idea of a lost kingdom called Atlantis</a>. And it can also be seen in the enduring idea of the <a href="https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/topics/what-mermaid">mermaid</a>, or the comic world of SpongeBob SquarePants – which was created by a marine science educator, the late <a href="https://variety.com/2018/tv/news/spongebob-squarepants-creator-dead-dies-stephen-hillenburg-1203037362/">Stephen Hillenburg</a>.</p>
<p>There is an ingrained human fear of sinking below the waves. This fear is depicted in such haunting paintings as Théodore Géricault’s “<a href="https://smarthistory.org/theodore-gericault-raft-of-the-medusa/">The Raft of the Medusa</a>” and J.M.W. Turner’s “<a href="https://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/turner-the-shipwreck-n00476">The Shipwreck</a>.” So too, from the Greek tragedy of “<a href="https://fitzmuseum.cam.ac.uk/objects-and-artworks/highlights/context/stories-and-histories/the-death-of-hippolytus#:%7E:text=As%20he%20leaves%20his%20home,tell%20Theseus%20of%20the%20disaster.">Hippolytus” by Euripides</a> to “<a href="https://www.tor.com/2009/10/13/the-way-the-world-ends-john-wyndhams-lemgthe-kraken-wakeslemg/">The Kraken Wakes</a>,” a 1953 novel by science fiction writer John Wyndham, there is terror at the idea of a monster rising from the deep.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A photo of the Titanic sitting on the ocean floor." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536665/original/file-20230710-19-7wbdbv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536665/original/file-20230710-19-7wbdbv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536665/original/file-20230710-19-7wbdbv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536665/original/file-20230710-19-7wbdbv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536665/original/file-20230710-19-7wbdbv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536665/original/file-20230710-19-7wbdbv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536665/original/file-20230710-19-7wbdbv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A spare anchor sits in its well on the forepeak of the shipwrecked Titanic.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/forepeek-of-titanic-shipwreck-royalty-free-image/520112444?phrase=titanic&adppopup=true">Ralph White via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In our world of <a href="https://www.nrdc.org/bio/lauren-kubiak/marine-biodiversity-dangerous-decline-finds-new-report">marine biodiversity loss</a>, <a href="https://insideclimatenews.org/news/08062016/coral-bleaching-alarms-scientists-climate-change-global-warming-great-barrier-reef/">bleached coral</a> and <a href="https://marinesanctuary.org/blog/ocean-acidification/">ocean acidification</a>, we need positive as well as paranoid imaginings of the deep. The literature of the sea gives us not only tales of maritime bravery and catastrophe, but also compelling imagery that fosters a more sobering understanding of the threats to the world’s oceans and oceanic life.</p>
<h2>Among the first</h2>
<p>Jules Verne was indeed a pioneer of the celebration of underwater life that has been the mission of natural history documentaries from Jacques Cousteau’s “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xr4FrELKfvk">The Silent World</a>” in 1956 to Sir David Attenborough’s “<a href="https://www.bbcearth.com/shows/blue-planet">The Blue Planet</a>” in 2001.</p>
<p>It was only with the invention of the submarine that humans could reach more than a few feet below the surface of the waves. In the 1620s the Dutch inventor <a href="http://scihi.org/cornelis-drebbel-submarine/">Cornelis Drebbel</a> descended into the River Thames in a bell-shaped submersible powered by oars, his oxygen supplied by setting fire to saltpeter. </p>
<p>At the end of the 18th century there were <a href="https://archive.org/details/robertfultonsubm00parsrich/page/n15/mode/2up">rudimentary attempts at designing military submarines</a>, including a French one called the Nautilus, which gave Verne the name for his imaginary invention. His more immediate inspiration was the <a href="https://www.thevintagenews.com/2016/08/02/priority-plongeur-french-submarine-launched-1863-first-world-propelled-mechanical-rather-human-power/">Plongeur</a>, designed for the French navy in the early 1860s. It reached a depth of 30 feet – or 9 meters – and could stay underwater for two hours. </p>
<p>Verne saw a model of it at the <a href="https://library.brown.edu/cds/paris/worldfairs.html#de1867">1867 Exposition Universelle</a> in Paris, where he also learned about a recent discovery: the mechanical power of electricity. He put the two things together and set about writing a novel about an electrically powered submarine with an invincible hull, snaking under the oceans at unprecedented speed.</p>
<p>In the initial draft, the fabulously wealthy and cultured Captain Nemo is a Polish nobleman and political radical in flight from the Russian imperialism that has destroyed his family and homeland. But <a href="https://frenchquest.com/2020/11/08/hidden-treasures-the-manuscripts-of-twenty-thousand-leagues-under-the-sea/">Verne’s publisher made him remove the politics</a>, since Russia was a French ally at the time, so Nemo becomes a figure of mysterious origins. <a href="http://www.verniana.org/volumes/10/HTML/Bertman.html">The name, meaning “no one,</a>” was taken from the pseudonym for Odysseus, the original maritime voyager of Western literature and main character in Homer’s poem “The Odyssey.”</p>
<p>Nemo is both a hero and a murderous hater of humankind. Disillusioned by the modern world, he takes refuge in the wonders of the deep.</p>
<p>Verne read deeply in the nascent science of marine biology, poring over such works as M.F. Maury’s pioneering “<a href="https://library.si.edu/digital-library/book/physicalgeograp00maura">The Physical Geography of the Sea</a>,” published in 1855. By incorporating Maury’s research into an adventure story, Verne was able to educate readers of all ages about the astonishing richness of marine life. The novel is filled with detailed catalogs of fish and corals, delighted observations of organic forms ranging from sharks and whales to mollusks and tiny phosphorescent zoophytes. Like <a href="https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/A/bo27616248.html">Melville in “Moby-Dick</a>” a few years before him and the great environmentalist Rachel Carson in her “<a href="https://loa.org/books/699-the-sea-trilogy">Sea Trilogy</a>” nearly a century after him, Verne braids together scientific taxonomy and poetic imagery. Melville’s novel vividly realizes barnacles and squid as well as whales and sharks. Carson even makes the reader empathize with slimy eels. So too, Verne’s novel includes dozens of sentences <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/2488/2488-h/2488-h.htm">such as this</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Then, as specimens of other genera, blowfish resembling a dark brown egg, furrowed with white bands, and lacking tails; globefish, genuine porcupines of the sea, armed with stings and able to inflate themselves until they look like a pin cushion bristling with needles; seahorses common to every ocean; flying dragonfish with long snouts and highly distended pectoral fins shaped like wings, which enable them, if not to fly, at least to spring into the air; spatula-shaped paddlefish whose tails are covered with many scaly rings; snipefish with long jaws, excellent animals twenty-five centimeters long and gleaming with the most cheerful colors; bluish gray dragonets with wrinkled heads; myriads of leaping blennies with black stripes and long pectoral fins, gliding over the surface of the water with prodigious speed; delicious sailfish that can hoist their fins in a favorable current like so many unfurled sails; splendid nurseryfish on which nature has lavished yellow, azure, silver, and gold; yellow mackerel with wings made of filaments; bullheads forever spattered with mud, which make distinct hissing sounds; sea robins whose livers are thought to be poisonous; ladyfish that can flutter their eyelids; finally, archerfish with long, tubular snouts, real oceangoing flycatchers, armed with a rifle unforeseen by either Remington or Chassepot: it slays insects by shooting them with a simple drop of water.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The scientist <a href="https://jbshaldane.org/">J.B.S. Haldane</a> once said, “The world will not perish for want of wonders, but for want of wonder.” Perhaps it is now time to reawaken a sense of wonder at the life of the oceans by returning to such classics of marine literature.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/208651/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jonathan Bate does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The recent tragedy of the Titan submersible bore striking parallels to one of the most widely read novels about life at sea.Jonathan Bate, Foundation Professor of Environmental Humanities, Arizona State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2056202023-06-12T12:24:33Z2023-06-12T12:24:33ZLinguists have identified a new English dialect that’s emerging in South Florida<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530654/original/file-20230607-23-bbcsrb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=3%2C9%2C2171%2C1548&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Travel to Miami, and you might hear people say 'get down from the car' instead of 'get out of the car.'</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/protesters-hang-out-the-window-of-a-car-on-flagler-street-news-photo/51091597?adppopup=true">Miami Herald/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>“We got down from the car and went inside.” </p>
<p>“I made the line to pay for groceries.”</p>
<p>“He made a party to celebrate his son’s birthday.”</p>
<p>These phrases might sound off to the ears of most English-speaking Americans.</p>
<p>In Miami, however, they’ve become part of the local parlance.</p>
<p>According to <a href="https://news.fiu.edu/2023/get-down-from-the-car-miami-dialect">my recently published research</a>, these expressions – along with a host of others – form part of a new dialect taking shape in South Florida.</p>
<p>This language variety came about through sustained contact between Spanish and English speakers, particularly when speakers translated directly from Spanish. </p>
<h2>When French collided with English</h2>
<p>Whether you’re an English speaker living in Miami or elsewhere, chances are you don’t know where the words you know and use come from. </p>
<p>You’re probably aware that a limited number of words – usually foods, such as “sriracha” or “croissant” – are borrowed from other languages. But borrowed words are far more pervasive than you might think. </p>
<p>They’re all over English vocabulary: “<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pajamas">pajamas</a>” from Hindi; “<a href="https://animalia.bio/arabian-gazelle">gazelle</a>” from Arabic, via French; and “<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/tsunami">tsunami</a>” from Japanese.</p>
<p>Borrowed words usually come from the minds and mouths of bilingual speakers who end up moving between different cultures and places. This can happen when certain events – war, colonialism, political exile, immigration and climate change – put speakers of different language groups into contact with one another. </p>
<p>When the contact takes place over an extended period of time – decades, generations or longer – the structures of the languages in question may begin to influence one another, and the speakers can begin to share each other’s vocabulary.</p>
<p>One bilingual confluence famously changed the trajectory of the English language. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Norman-Conquest">In 1066</a>, the Norman French, led by William the Conqueror, invaded England in an event now known as “<a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Norman-Conquest">the Norman Conquest</a>.” </p>
<p>Soon thereafter, a French-speaking ruling class replaced the English-speaking aristocracy, and for roughly 200 years, the elites of England – including the kings – did their business in French.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Faded color illustration of soldiers and injured troops." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530640/original/file-20230607-26-mlovtv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530640/original/file-20230607-26-mlovtv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=357&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530640/original/file-20230607-26-mlovtv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=357&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530640/original/file-20230607-26-mlovtv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=357&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530640/original/file-20230607-26-mlovtv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=449&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530640/original/file-20230607-26-mlovtv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=449&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530640/original/file-20230607-26-mlovtv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=449&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An 18th-century illustration of the Battle of Hastings, which initiated the Norman Conquest of England in 1066.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/the-battle-of-hastings-found-in-the-collection-of-british-news-photo/520722235?adppopup=true">Heritage Images/Hulton Fine Art Collection via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>English never really caught on with the aristocracy, but since servants and the middle classes needed to communicate with aristocrats – and with people of different classes intermarrying – French words trickled down the class hierarchy and into the language. </p>
<p>During this period, <a href="https://medium.com/english-language-faq/how-many-french-words-are-there-in-english-how-did-they-get-there-538f54ea016b">more than 10,000 loanwords</a> from French entered the English language, mostly in domains where the aristocracy held sway: the arts, military, medicine, law and religion. Words that today seem basic, even fundamental, to English vocabulary were, just 800 years ago, borrowed from French: prince, government, administer, liberty, court, prayer, judge, justice, literature, music, poetry, to name just a few.</p>
<h2>Spanish meets English in Miami</h2>
<p>Fast forward to today, where a similar form of language contact involving Spanish and English has been going on in Miami since the end of <a href="https://dp.la/primary-source-sets/cuban-immigration-after-the-revolution-1959-1973">the Cuban Revolution</a> in 1959.</p>
<p>In the years following the revolution, hundreds of thousands of Cubans left the island nation for South Florida, setting the stage for what would become one of the most important linguistic convergences in all of the Americas. </p>
<p>Today, the vast majority of the population is bilingual. In 2010, more than 65% of the population of Miami-Dade County identified as Hispanic or Latina/o, and in the large municipalities of Doral and Hialeah, <a href="https://www.academia.edu/15765243/Multilingual_Miami_Trends_in_Sociolinguistic_Research">the figure is 80% and 95%</a>, respectively.</p>
<p>Of course, identifying as Latina/o is not synonymous with speaking Spanish, and language loss has occurred among second- and third-generation Cuban Americans. But the point is that there is a lot of Spanish – and a lot of English – being spoken in Miami. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Black and white photo of Cubans walking on beach holding luggage and children." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530639/original/file-20230607-29-tu4xz9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530639/original/file-20230607-29-tu4xz9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=433&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530639/original/file-20230607-29-tu4xz9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=433&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530639/original/file-20230607-29-tu4xz9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=433&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530639/original/file-20230607-29-tu4xz9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=544&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530639/original/file-20230607-29-tu4xz9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=544&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530639/original/file-20230607-29-tu4xz9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=544&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cuban refugees on the island of Cay Sal wait for the U.S. Coast Guard to take them to Florida in 1962.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/cuban-refugees-on-sal-cay-waiting-for-us-coast-guard-to-news-photo/50679206?adppopup=true">Lynn Pelham/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Among this mix are bilinguals. Some are more proficient in Spanish, and others are more skilled English speakers. Together, they navigate the sociolinguistic landscape of South Florida in complex ways, knowing when and with whom to use which language – and when it’s OK to mix them.</p>
<p>When the first large group of Cubans came to Miami in the wake of the revolution, they did precisely this, in two ways. </p>
<p>First, people alternated between Spanish and English, sometimes within the same sentence or clause. This set the stage for the enduring presence of Spanish vocabulary in South Florida, as well as the emergence of what some people refer to as “<a href="https://www.npr.org/2012/08/10/158570815/puedes-believe-it-spanglish-gets-in-el-dictionary">Spanglish</a>.” </p>
<p>Second, as people learned English, they tended to translate directly from Spanish. These translations are a type of borrowing that linguists call “<a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/loan-translation-calque-1691255">calques</a>.”</p>
<p>Calques are all over the English language. </p>
<p>Take “dandelion.” This flower grows in central Europe, and when the Germans realized they didn’t have a word for it, they looked to botany books written in Latin, <a href="https://www.etymonline.com/word/dandelion">where it was called dens lionis</a>, or “lion’s tooth.” The Germans borrowed that concept and named the flower “<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/L%C3%B6wenzahn">Löwenzahn</a>” – a literal translation of “lion’s tooth.” The French didn’t have a word for the flower, so they too borrowed the concept of “lion’s tooth,” calquing it as “<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2012/may/25/plantwatch-dandelions-hawthorn-sunshine">dent de lion</a>.” The English, also not having a word for this flower, heard the French term without understanding it, and borrowed it, adapting “dent de lion” into English, calling it “dandelion.” </p>
<h2>A new lingo emerges</h2>
<p>This is exactly the sort of thing that’s been happening in Miami.</p>
<p>As a part of my ongoing research with students and colleagues on the way English is spoken in Miami, I conducted <a href="https://www.jbe-platform.com/content/journals/10.1075/eww.22036.car">a study</a> with linguist <a href="https://buffalo.academia.edu/KristenDAlessandroMerii">Kristen D’Allessandro Merii</a> to document Spanish-origin calques in the English spoken in South Florida. </p>
<p>We found several types of loan translations. </p>
<p>There were “<a href="https://pureenglish.org/2012/05/06/calques-loan-translations/">literal lexical calques</a>,” a direct, word-for-word translation. </p>
<p>For example, we found people to use expressions such as “get down from the car” instead of “get out of the car.” This is based on the Spanish phrase “bajar del carro,” which translates, for speakers outside of Miami, as “get out of the car.” But “bajar” means “to get down,” so it makes sense that many Miamians think of “exiting” a car in terms of “getting down” and not “getting out.” </p>
<p>Locals often say “married with,” as in “Alex got married with José,” based on the Spanish “casarse con” – literally translated as “married with.” They’ll also say “make a party,” a literal translation of the Spanish “hacer una fiesta.”</p>
<p>We also found “<a href="https://langeek.co/en/grammar/course/359/loan-words-and-calque">semantic calques</a>,” or loan translations of meaning. In Spanish, “carne,” which translates as “meat,” can refer to both all meat, or to beef, a specific kind of meat. We discovered local speakers saying “meat” to refer specifically to “beef” – as in, “I’ll have one meat empanada and two chicken empanadas.” </p>
<p>And then there were “phonetic calques,” or the translation of certain sounds. </p>
<p>“Thanks God,” a type of loan translation from “gracias a Dios,” is common in Miami. In this case, speakers analogize the “s” sound at the end of “gracias” and apply it to the English form.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/yoTeQ73rP9I?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Examples of unique expressions that have emerged in Miami.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The Miami-born adopt the calques</h2>
<p>We found that some expressions were used only among the immigrant generation – for example, “throw a photo,” from “tirar una foto,” as a variation of “take a photo.” </p>
<p>But other expressions were used among the Miami-born, a group who may be bilingual but speak English as their primary language. </p>
<p>In an experiment, we asked Miamians and people from elsewhere in the U.S. to rate local expressions such as “married with” alongside the nonlocal versions, like “married to.” Both groups deemed the nonlocal versions acceptable. But Miamians rated most of the local expressions significantly more favorably than folks from elsewhere.</p>
<p>“Language is always changing” is practically a truism; most people know that Old English is radically different from Modern English, or that English in London sounds different from English in New Delhi, New York City, Sydney and Cape Town, South Africa. </p>
<p>But rarely do we pause to think about how these changes take place, or to ponder where dialects and words come from. </p>
<p>“Get down from the car,” just like “dandelion,” is a reminder that every word and every expression have a history.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/205620/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Phillip M. Carter does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>It came about through sustained contact with native Spanish speakers who directly translated phrases from Spanish into English, a form of linguistic borrowing called ‘calques.’Phillip M. Carter, Associate Professor of Linguistics, Florida International UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2044152023-05-15T15:43:18Z2023-05-15T15:43:18ZEsol English classes are crucial for migrant integration, yet challenges remain unaddressed<p><em>You can also read this article <a href="https://theconversation.com/esol-pwysigrwydd-dosbarthiadau-saesneg-i-ymfudwyr-ar-heriau-iw-datrys-205783">in Welsh</a>.</em> </p>
<p>In the year ending September 2022, <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/immigration-system-statistics-year-ending-december-2022/summary-of-latest-statistics">more than 70,000 people</a> had claimed asylum in the UK. The vast majority were from countries that do not use English as a first language. </p>
<p>Being able to communicate in English is essential for newly arrived migrants. People who have gone through traumatic experiences are, understandably, often desperate to build new lives. They want to use the skills and knowledge they have to access work and education. To do that, they have to navigate the health, social security, housing and education systems. </p>
<p>Language is the single most important area that can promote integration for migrants. My research has shown that <a href="https://www.academia.edu/44971642/Exploring_ESOL_Teacher_Working_Conditions_and_Professional_Development_In_England_And_Wales">language teachers</a> are uniquely placed to positively affect the lives of people in these situations. </p>
<p>In fact, the 2016 <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/the-casey-review-a-review-into-opportunity-and-integration">Casey review</a>, a government-commissioned report on the state of social cohesion in Britain, highlighted that developing fluency in English is critical to integration.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/its-like-youre-a-criminal-but-i-am-not-a-criminal-first-hand-accounts-of-the-trauma-of-being-stuck-in-the-uk-asylum-system-202276">'It’s like you’re a criminal, but I am not a criminal.' First-hand accounts of the trauma of being stuck in the UK asylum system</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<p>Given its importance, refugees and people seeking asylum are often keen to enrol in English for Speakers of Other Languages (Esol) classes. And these classes can provide more than language tuition alone. They are a social space, providing a sense of structure to daily lives, offering both linguistic and psychological support. </p>
<p>But <a href="https://ifs.org.uk/news/plans-will-leave-spending-adult-education-and-apprenticeships-25-below-2010-levels-2025#:%7E:text=Press%20Release-,Plans%20will%20leave%20spending%20on%20adult%20education%20and%20apprenticeships,below%202010%20levels%20by%202025&text=Total%20spending%20on%20adult%20education,as%20compared%20with%202010%E2%80%9311.">cuts to adult education budgets</a> following the change of government in 2010, and the introduction of austerity, mean access to Esol language support is often difficult. There can be long waiting lists and <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2226-471X/4/3/74">too few classes</a> available. </p>
<p>Also, the way adult education is funded in the UK means teachers are obliged to follow an assessment system to measure language competence. That constraint frequently results in classroom time being focused more on passing exams than on developing fluency or bestowing a warm welcome and sense of belonging. </p>
<p>While coping with the demands of building a life in a different country through a new language, many Esol learners are also dealing with the trauma associated with forced displacement. That’s on top of the <a href="https://lordslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/lln-2018-0064/">stress involved</a> in navigating an often hostile and complex asylum system. </p>
<p>Such challenges mean Esol teachers can be a vital bridge to the new society. And the Esol classroom can be the prime location for getting information and for creating the bonds needed for successful integration. With that in mind, how Esol classes are organised and managed is fundamental to a person’s success in learning English and all the associated opportunities. </p>
<p>However, providing Esol classes, primarily through colleges of further education, is a hugely bureaucratic undertaking. This often results in the potential of Esol classes to promote integration being missed. </p>
<p>One of the reasons is that these classes are funded in the same way as other adult education subjects. Accordingly, teachers must follow a curriculum that provides evidence that learners are progressing. This results in teachers putting their efforts into preparing students for constant tests and assessments. And that leaves little time to address the real-life concerns, needs and interests of their migrant learners. </p>
<p>It also means the opportunities to bring about a sense of belonging are instead replaced with learning about matters such as verb conjugations and the English tense system. </p>
<p>Changes are needed to both the way Esol is funded and organised, and to the way Esol professionals are educated to view the language classroom. </p>
<h2>Solutions</h2>
<p>Removing some of the requirements to produce evidence of learning would shorten teacher administration time. It would also relieve the pressure on students and teachers to be constantly preparing for the next assessment. This would allow more time to focus on discussing issues of relevance to the learners.</p>
<p>There is much support from language experts for viewing Esol from this more human perspective. It is an understanding of the classroom that resonates with educators who have been advocating for a <a href="https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/sites/teacheng/files/pub_BC_NEXUS_booklet_web.pdf">participatory pedagogy</a> – which involves more collaboration and decision making among students – for Esol since the turn of the century.</p>
<p>This style of teaching focuses classroom content on the <a href="https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/%22When-I-wake-up-I-dream-of-electricity%22%3A-The-lives%2C-Cooke/a9ad375c87803c59b586b05e3ce5825d4f758d9d">lives of learners</a>. Examples of typical issues that dominate such discussions include the challenge of finding meaningful employment, the effects of trauma, culture shock, separation from family, money worries and finding accommodation.</p>
<p>This means more time is taken up with learners using language to express thoughts, anxieties, hopes and concerns that affect their new lives. And far less time is used by the teacher striving to cover an externally imposed syllabus. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Creative workshops to enhance language acquisition and integration for people seeking sanctuary.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Thinking afresh about language education for forced migrants means considering how a participatory approach may be an effective way to welcome newcomers and help with their integration. With little effort, language education for migrants could allow space for the development of projects that bring people together. It could foster friendship and understanding while also promoting language development.</p>
<p>Esol is not just another academic subject, it is the most important area that promotes integration. But, at present, opportunities to provide holistic, person-centred language education to people seeking refuge in the UK are being missed because of the overly bureaucratic and exam-focused system that prevails.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/204415/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mike Chick is affiliated with the Welsh Refugee Council as a Trustee</span></em></p>Although English to speakers of other languages (Esol) is treated like any other subject, it can offer far more to those learners.Mike Chick, Senior Lecturer in TESOL/English, University of South WalesLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1997132023-02-14T16:29:55Z2023-02-14T16:29:55ZGrayson Perry’s Full English shows why England’s regions are crucial to its identity<p>In his Channel 4 series, <a href="https://www.channel4.com/programmes/grayson-perrys-full-english">Full English</a>, artist Grayson Perry travels around England in a white van searching for an answer to the question: “Is there a viable version of England and Englishness that will feed my soul?”</p>
<p>What Perry discovers in his encounters with people from across the country, is a version of Englishness that draws on a subjective sense of local or regional identity, rather than a uniform idea of the nation.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">The trailer for Grayson Perry’s Full English.</span></figcaption>
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<p>For football fan Jay, England is first and foremost the borough of Lambeth. For grime musician Jaykae, England is Birmingham’s Small Heath, where he lives and finds inspiration for his lyrics. For fashion designer Pearl Lowe, England is evoked through dinner on a Somerset lawn.</p>
<p>Perry’s observations on regionalism (giving greater weight to viewpoints from people belonging to regions rather than the capital) chime with debates about what it means to be English. They are also in keeping with <a href="https://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/whats-on/arts-culture-news/it-feels-like-were-being-26147394">growing calls</a> from politicians, cultural institutions and the public to give greater recognition to the contribution of England’s regions to the political, cultural and social fabric of the nation.</p>
<p>Full English confronts unease about English nationalism and the racism, chauvinism and the selective and nostalgic view of a national past <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781351047326-22/racism-nationalism-politics-resentment-contemporary-england-james-rhodes-natalie-anne-hall">that has often accompanied it</a>. </p>
<p>Numerous <a href="https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/politicsandpolicy/englishness-racism-brexit/">articles</a>, <a href="https://www.economist.com/britain/2020/01/30/brexit-and-english-nationalism">commentaries</a> and <a href="https://www.trtworld.com/magazine/the-factors-underlying-english-nationalism-resentment-racism-insecurity-47817">opinion pieces</a> have connected these views with the outcome of the 2016 Brexit referendum. At the same time, scholars and politicians have predicted a rethink of what it means to be English in response to the <a href="https://www.chathamhouse.org/2021/05/scottish-independence-will-impact-uks-global-role">independence movement in Scotland</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-44306737">Surveys</a> show that <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-44142843">younger generations are less proud to be English</a> and the latest census data indicates that <a href="https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/is-englishness-out-of-fashion-most-people-identify-as-british-in-census-f7bf07cl8">fewer people are identifying as English</a>, opting for the more inclusive “British” instead.</p>
<p>The regionalism celebrated in Full English reflects cross-bench support in Westminster for strategies to overcome persistent geographical disparities in wealth and opportunity. </p>
<p>The government’s <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1095544/Executive_Summary.pdf">levelling up white paper</a> promises to realise “the potential of every place and every person across the UK”, but its strategy of making regional areas compete for funding controlled by Whitehall has been <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2023/jan/30/tory-mayor-andy-street-says-levelling-up-policy-should-trust-local-people-more">criticised</a>.</p>
<p>The Labour Party’s <a href="https://labour.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/Commission-on-the-UKs-Future.pdf">Brown Report</a> puts forward ambitious plans to scrap the House of Lords in favour of a second chamber called the Assembly of the Nations and Regions. The report concludes:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>The United Kingdom will only succeed economically, politically and socially if it harnesses the talents and listens to the voices of all its people, ensuring that no part of the country is left behind, ignored or silenced.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>All the while, calls for more <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/politics/commentisfree/2023/jan/29/the-guardian-view-on-english-devolution-an-idea-whose-time-has-come">devolution</a> (moving decision making out of London) in England are growing, with a <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-tyne-64107989">new north-east mayor created as part of £1.4 billion deal</a> announced in December 2022.</p>
<h2>Victorian visions of the nation</h2>
<p>Nineteenth century literature shows us that England and Englishness have long been interpreted through the lens of regional cultures and communities.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509497/original/file-20230210-30-ibe6wq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A sepia side profile portrait of Charles Dickens. He has a beard which covers only his chin and not his jawline." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509497/original/file-20230210-30-ibe6wq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509497/original/file-20230210-30-ibe6wq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=826&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509497/original/file-20230210-30-ibe6wq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=826&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509497/original/file-20230210-30-ibe6wq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=826&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509497/original/file-20230210-30-ibe6wq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1039&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509497/original/file-20230210-30-ibe6wq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1039&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509497/original/file-20230210-30-ibe6wq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1039&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Portrait of Charles Dickens (1850).</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://viewer.library.wales/4671094#?c=&m=&s=&cv=&manifest=https%3A%2F%2Fdamsssl.llgc.org.uk%2Fiiif%2F2.0%2F4671094%2Fmanifest.json&xywh=-1104%2C-152%2C4086%2C3033">National Library of Wales</a></span>
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<p>To modern debates, this writing provides valuable insights about the ways regional voices have been repeatedly sidelined, subjugated or overridden by decision makers at the centre.</p>
<p>Charles Dickens is widely recognised as <a href="https://www.bbc.com/culture/article/20151204-the-25-greatest-british-novels">one of Britain’s greatest novelists</a> but it is the geography of his adopted home, London, that is in sharpest focus in his work. His <a href="http://repository.bilkent.edu.tr/bitstream/handle/11693/51265/Dickens_and_Englishness_A_Fundamental_Ambivalence.pdf?sequence=1">ambivalence</a> towards “Englishness” can be seen in the extreme patriotism of <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/mono/10.4324/9781315256542-7/introduction-angelia-poon">John Podsnap</a> from Our Mutual Friend, for example.</p>
<p>Charlotte Brontë’s Jane Eyre is perennially crisscrossing the moors of the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1179/030977601794164295">Pennines</a> familiar to her author. Settings like Thornfield Hall and Morton School are situated first and foremost by their remote regional locations, rather than in relation to the geography of a wider England. </p>
<p>This foregrounding of regional characteristics complicates the status of both these places because they are sites where Jane, as both school mistress and governess, is responsible for teaching an English education that takes for granted the unity and cohesion of the nation. </p>
<h2>Thomas Hardy’s ‘partly dream country’</h2>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509499/original/file-20230210-24-dlbcea.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A portrait of Thomas Hardy with a twiddly moustache." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509499/original/file-20230210-24-dlbcea.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509499/original/file-20230210-24-dlbcea.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=871&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509499/original/file-20230210-24-dlbcea.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=871&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509499/original/file-20230210-24-dlbcea.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=871&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509499/original/file-20230210-24-dlbcea.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1094&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509499/original/file-20230210-24-dlbcea.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1094&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509499/original/file-20230210-24-dlbcea.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1094&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Portrait of Thomas Hardy (1910).</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Thomashardy_restored.jpg">United States Library of Congress's Prints and Photographs</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But the relationship between regionalism and national identity that Grayson Perry discovers in modern England has its clearest parallel in the writing of Thomas Hardy.</p>
<p>In Hardy’s Wessex poems, tales and novels, readers are immersed in a <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/10/travel/on-englands-coast-thomas-hardy-made-his-world.html">“partly real, partly dream country”</a> that is both distinct from and connected to 19th century England.</p>
<p>Hardy’s blurring of fiction and reality sees that <a href="https://www.bl.uk/collection-items/map-of-thomas-hardys-wessex">Wessex</a> (his fictional county) is granted an importance and degree of autonomy beyond that normally afforded to real regional settings. </p>
<p>Nevertheless, readers are invited to construct versions of England and Englishness through the lens of Wessex. </p>
<p>Take, for instance, this extract from Hardy’s novel, Tess of the d’Urbervilles, where Tess and Angel Clare reflect on the journey of the milk they just brought to the railway station:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>‘Londoners will drink it at their breakfasts tomorrow, won’t they?’ she asked. ‘Strange people that we have never seen … Who don’t know anything of us, and where it comes from; or think how we two drove miles across the moor to-night in the rain that it might reach ’em in time?’</p>
</blockquote>
<p>In this passage, Hardy reorientates the power dynamics of the map, showing the dependence of the people in the capital on the frequently overlooked and stigmatised people of the region.</p>
<p>In this sense, Grayson Perry’s Full English is a modern take on the significance of regional cultures and communities described in 19th century literature. Perhaps such a timely celebration of regionalism has the capacity to provide a basis for the productive version of Englishness Perry seeks.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/199713/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>John Blackmore receives funding from the AHRC via the South, West & Wales Doctoral Training Partnership. </span></em></p>Grayson Perry’s Full English is a timely celebration of regionalism and its capacity to provide a basis for a productive version of Englishness.John Blackmore, PhD Candidate in English Literature, University of BristolLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1978752023-01-19T13:36:13Z2023-01-19T13:36:13ZHow ChatGPT robs students of motivation to write and think for themselves<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/504967/original/file-20230117-13536-r12t6t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=52%2C10%2C6937%2C4285&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">AI writing tools may carry hidden dangers that harm the creative process.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/robotic-hand-pressing-a-keyboard-on-a-laptop-3d-royalty-free-image/1418475387?phrase=AI%20writing&adppopup=true">Guillaume via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When the company <a href="https://openai.com/blog/chatgpt/">OpenAI launched</a> its new artificial intelligence program, ChatGPT, in late 2022, educators began to worry. ChatGPT could generate text that seemed like a human wrote it. How could teachers detect whether students were using language generated by an AI chatbot to <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/education/2022/12/28/chatbot-cheating-ai-chatbotgpt-teachers/">cheat</a> on a writing assignment?</p>
<p>As a <a href="https://www.american.edu/cas/faculty/nbaron.cfm">linguist</a> who studies the effects of technology on how people <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/how-we-read-now-9780197656884?cc=us&lang=en&">read</a>, <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Alphabet-to-Email-How-Written-English-Evolved-and-Where-Its-Heading/Baron/p/book/9780415186865">write</a>
and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378216621000187">think</a>, I believe there are other, equally pressing concerns besides cheating. These include whether AI, more generally, threatens student writing skills, the value of writing as a process, and the importance of seeing writing as a vehicle for thinking. </p>
<p>As part of the research for my new book on the <a href="https://www.american.edu/cas/faculty/nbaron.cfm">effects of artificial intelligence on human writing</a>, I surveyed young adults in the U.S. and Europe about a host of issues related to those effects. They reported a litany of concerns about how AI tools can undermine what they do as writers. However, as I note in my book, these concerns have been a long time in the making.</p>
<h2>Users see negative effects</h2>
<p>Tools like ChatGPT are only the latest in a progression of AI programs for editing or generating text. In fact, the potential for AI undermining both writing skills and motivation to do your own composing has been decades in the making.</p>
<p>Spellcheck and now sophisticated grammar and style programs like <a href="https://www.grammarly.com">Grammarly</a> and <a href="https://support.microsoft.com/en-us/office/microsoft-editor-checks-grammar-and-more-in-documents-mail-and-the-web-91ecbe1b-d021-4e9e-a82e-abc4cd7163d7">Microsoft Editor</a> are among the most widely known AI-driven editing tools. Besides correcting spelling and punctuation, they identify grammar issues as well as offer alternative wording. </p>
<p>AI text-generation developments have included autocomplete for online searches and predictive texting. Enter “Was Rome” into a Google search and you’re given a list of choices like “Was Rome built in a day.” Type “ple” into a text message and you’re offered “please” and “plenty.” These tools inject themselves into our writing endeavors without being invited, incessantly asking us to follow their suggestions. </p>
<p>Young adults in my surveys appreciated AI assistance with spelling and word completion, but they also spoke of negative effects. One survey participant said that “At some point, if you depend on a predictive text [program], you’re going to lose your spelling abilities.” Another observed that “Spellcheck and AI software … can … be used by people who want to take an easier way out.”</p>
<p>One respondent mentioned laziness when relying on predictive texting: “It’s OK when I am feeling particularly lazy.” </p>
<h2>Personal expression diminished</h2>
<p>AI tools can also affect a person’s writing voice. One person in my survey said that with predictive texting, “[I] don’t feel I wrote it.”</p>
<p>A <a href="https://standard.asl.org/16178/opinions/does-grammarly-help-or-hinder-students/">high school student in Britain</a> echoed the same concern about individual writing style when describing Grammarly: “Grammarly can remove students’ artistic voice. … Rather than using their own unique style when writing, Grammarly can strip that away from students by suggesting severe changes to their work.”</p>
<p>In a similar vein, Evan Selinger, a philosopher, worried that predictive texting reduces the power of writing as a form of mental activity and personal expression.</p>
<p>“[B]y encouraging us not to think too deeply about our words, predictive technology may subtly change how we interact with each other,” <a href="https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20150115-is-autocorrect-making-you-boring">Selinger wrote</a>. “[W]e give others more algorithm and less of ourselves. … [A]utomation … can stop us thinking.”</p>
<p>In literate societies, writing has long been recognized as a <a href="https://quoteinvestigator.com/2019/12/11/know-say/">way to help people think</a>. Many people have quoted author <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Flannery-OConnor">Flannery O’Connor</a>’s comment that “I write because I don’t know what I think until I read what I say.” A host of other accomplished writers, from <a href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/literature/1949/faulkner/biographical/">William Faulkner</a> to <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1976/12/05/archives/why-i-write-why-i-write.html">Joan Didion</a>, have also voiced this sentiment. If AI text generation does our writing for us, we diminish opportunities to think out problems for ourselves. </p>
<p>One eerie consequence of using programs like ChatGPT to generate language is that the text is grammatically perfect. A finished product. It turns out that <a href="https://www.technologyreview.com/2022/12/19/1065596/how-to-spot-ai-generated-text/">lack of errors</a> is a sign that AI, not a human, probably wrote the words, since even accomplished writers and editors make mistakes. Human writing is a process. We question what we originally wrote, we rewrite, or sometimes start over entirely.</p>
<h2>Challenges in schools</h2>
<p>When undertaking school writing assignments, ideally there is ongoing dialogue between teacher and student: Discuss what the student wants to write about. Share and comment on initial drafts. Then it’s time for the student to rethink and revise. But this practice often doesn’t happen. Most teachers don’t have time to fill a collaborative editorial – and educational – role. Moreover, they might lack interest or the necessary skills, or both. </p>
<p>Conscientious students sometimes undertake aspects of the process themselves – as professional authors typically do. But the temptation to lean on editing and text generation tools like Grammarly and ChatGPT makes it all too easy for people to substitute ready-made technology results for opportunities to think and learn. </p>
<p>Educators are brainstorming <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/01/12/technology/chatgpt-schools-teachers.html">how to make good use</a> of AI writing technology. Some point up AI’s potential to kick-start thinking or to collaborate. Before the appearance of ChatGPT, an earlier version of the same underlying program, GPT-3, was licensed by commercial ventures <a href="https://www.sudowrite.com">such as Sudowrite</a>. Users can enter a phrase or sentence and then ask the software to fill in more words, potentially stimulating the human writer’s creative juices.</p>
<h2>A fading sense of ownership</h2>
<p>Yet there’s a slippery slope between collaboration and encroachment. Writer <a href="https://www.theverge.com/c/23194235/ai-fiction-writing-amazon-kindle-sudowrite-jasper">Jennifer Lepp admits</a> that as she increasingly relied on Sudowrite, the resulting text “didn’t feel like mine anymore. It was very uncomfortable to look back over what I wrote and not really feel connected to the words or ideas.”</p>
<p>Students are even less likely than seasoned writers to recognize where to draw the line between a writing assist and letting an AI text generator take over their content and style. </p>
<p>As the technology becomes more powerful and pervasive, I expect schools will strive to teach students about generative AI’s <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/01/16/technology/chatgpt-artificial-intelligence-universities.html">pros and cons</a>. However, the lure of efficiency can make it hard to resist relying on AI to polish a writing assignment or do much of the writing for you. Spellcheck, grammar check and autocomplete programs have already paved the way.</p>
<h2>Writing as a human process</h2>
<p>I asked ChatGPT whether it was a threat to humans’ motivation to write. The bot’s response:</p>
<p>“There will always be a demand for creative, original content that requires the unique perspective and insight of a human writer.”</p>
<p>It continued: “[W]riting serves many purposes beyond just the creation of content, such as self-expression, communication, and personal growth, which can continue to motivate people to write even if certain types of writing can be automated.”</p>
<p>I was heartened to find the program seemingly acknowledged its own limitations. </p>
<p>My hope is that educators and students will as well. The purpose of making writing assignments must be more than submitting work for a grade. Crafting written work should be a journey, not just a destination.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/197875/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Naomi S. Baron does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>People who have used AI to help with writing report a loss of pride and ownership in what they produce.Naomi S. Baron, Professor of Linguistics Emerita, American UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1962662023-01-08T13:26:21Z2023-01-08T13:26:21ZSupporting minority languages requires more than token gestures<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/503327/original/file-20230105-12-dlbbtf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=33%2C77%2C7315%2C4825&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Language policy in Canada suggests misunderstanding among government officials and the general public about language use, international language rights and their implications.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>In August 2022, Statistics Canada released the latest census data on languages in Canada. According to the data, <a href="https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/220817/dq220817a-eng.htm">over nine million people — or one in four Canadians</a> — has a mother tongue other than English or French (a record high since the 1901 census). </p>
<p><a href="https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/11-627-m/11-627-m2022051-eng.htm">Twelve per cent of Canadians</a> speak a language other than English or French at home. Statistics Canada observes that the country’s linguistic diversity will likely continue to grow into the future.</p>
<p>Yet, <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/montreal/bill-96-explained-1.6460764">recent developments</a> in language policy and practices in Canada reveal that there is confusion and misunderstanding among government officials and the general public about language use, international language rights and their implications.</p>
<p>In Canada, there must be greater understanding of the cultural and linguistic rights of minorities. According to universally accepted human rights, persons belonging to majorities and minorities should have equal rights. Minorities are entitled to equal conditions and services to enable them to maintain their identity, culture and language.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/503328/original/file-20230105-2013-1d6fbf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A white street sign in the English and Inuit languages that reads: Mittimatalil." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/503328/original/file-20230105-2013-1d6fbf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/503328/original/file-20230105-2013-1d6fbf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503328/original/file-20230105-2013-1d6fbf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503328/original/file-20230105-2013-1d6fbf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503328/original/file-20230105-2013-1d6fbf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503328/original/file-20230105-2013-1d6fbf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503328/original/file-20230105-2013-1d6fbf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A street sign in the English and Inuit languages at Pond Inlet on Baffin Island, Nvt.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The 1966 <a href="https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/international-covenant-civil-and-political-rights">International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights</a>, a human rights treaty to which Canada is a party, provides that “In those States in which ethnic, religious or linguistic minorities exist, persons belonging to such minorities shall not be denied the right, in community with the other members of their group, to enjoy their own culture, to profess and practise their own religion, or to use their own language.”</p>
<p>The 1992 <a href="https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/declaration-rights-persons-belonging-national-or-ethnic">UN Declaration on Minorities</a> clarifies and expands on this treaty provision. It stipulates that UN member states should enact legislative and other measures to protect minority identities.</p>
<h2>Confusing words</h2>
<p>Two words <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s12134-003-1024-0">are often confused</a> in Canada: integration and assimilation. When speaking about immigrants and refugees, <a href="https://laws.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/i-2.5/page-1.html#h-274085">Canadian law’s stated objective is integration</a>. And the default framework for integration is the majority culture and language. </p>
<p>Non-anglophone and non-francophone immigrants are expected to adapt and conform to the Canadian way of doing things, learn Canadian history, celebrate Canadian holidays and speak in one or both of Canada’s official languages.</p>
<p>But these languages reflect the cultures of Canada’s two historically dominant groups. For many Indigenous people and immigrants, histories, holidays and languages differ from the majority of Canadians.</p>
<p>Involuntary assimilation is <a href="https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G05/133/85/PDF/G0513385.pdf?OpenElement">prohibited under international law</a>. This is a colonialist and imperialist practice which ultimately forces people to alter or surrender their identity, culture and dissolve into the majority. </p>
<p>Canada’s notorious <a href="https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/residential-schools">residential schools</a> were one of the harshest examples of such assimilationist policies. Other essentially assimilationist practices continue to this day. For example, the law states that provinces must provide education to English or French-speaking minorities <a href="https://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/csj-sjc/rfc-dlc/ccrf-ccdl/check/art23.html">in their own language</a>. But there is no similar legislation for Indigenous languages, nor for those spoken by people who immigrate from all around the world. These policies will increasingly conflict with growing diversity as <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-63643912">Canada seeks to welcome 1.5 million immigrants</a> over the next three years.</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/language-learning-in-canada-needs-to-change-to-reflect-superdiverse-communities-144037">Language learning in Canada needs to change to reflect 'superdiverse' communities</a>
</strong>
</em>
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<p>In contrast, <a href="https://www.osce.org/files/f/documents/0/9/96883.pdf">integration</a> is based on recognition of diversity. Integration is a two-way process through which minorities and majorities learn about and engage with each other’s cultures and languages. </p>
<p>While maintaining their own distinctiveness, majority and minority groups contribute to shared foundations and institutions of the society out of common interest and for mutual benefit. This is important for the many individuals who possess multiple or overlapping identities.</p>
<p>In 2012, the <a href="https://www.osce.org/">Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe</a>, of which Canada is a participating state, released <a href="https://www.osce.org/files/f/documents/0/9/96883.pdf">Guidelines on Integration of Diverse Societies</a>, in which it explained:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“Integration is a process that requires that all members of a given society accept common public institutions and have a shared sense of belonging to a common State and an inclusive society. This does not exclude the possibility of distinct identities, which are constantly evolving, multiple and contextual. Mechanisms aiming at mutual accommodation are essential to negotiate the legitimate claims put forward by different groups or communities.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Integration requires accommodation of diversity. It also means that governments should invest proportionally in the promotion of majority and minority cultures and languages with a view to facilitating full lives in dignity and equal rights for everyone. This requires more than token support for cultural activities such as traditional food and dance.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/503326/original/file-20230105-22-y6z2o.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="People at a protest carry signs featuring the number 96 with a red line across it." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/503326/original/file-20230105-22-y6z2o.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/503326/original/file-20230105-22-y6z2o.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503326/original/file-20230105-22-y6z2o.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503326/original/file-20230105-22-y6z2o.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503326/original/file-20230105-22-y6z2o.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=567&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503326/original/file-20230105-22-y6z2o.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=567&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503326/original/file-20230105-22-y6z2o.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=567&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">People take part in a protest against Bill 96 in Montréal. Québec’s language law reform, known as Bill 96, forbids provincial government agencies and municipalities from using languages other than French.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Graham Hughes</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There is also confusion around the issue of minority language status. In Canada there is a common belief that the only minority language(s) entitled to protection are the ones with official or other recognized status. But according to international human rights principles, all minority cultures and languages should be protected <a href="https://ap.ohchr.org/documents/E/GA/report/A_74_160.pdf">regardless of whether they hold “official” status</a>. </p>
<p>This means that the languages of Indigenous Peoples as well as of other people living in Canada should be acknowledged and facilitated. This is essential for their well-being and for genuine equality in rights.</p>
<h2>Not a zero-sum game</h2>
<p>Genuine integration should respect and promote diversity in the languages used in various contexts of public life. This does not necessarily require changing the number and status of official languages; it’s not a zero-sum game. But it does require adjusting language policies to reconcile with existing realities in reasonable and meaningful ways. The aim is real and effective equality. </p>
<p>Technological innovations (such as easily accessible <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/2020/02/05/translation-tech-solutions-language-barriers-google-translate-interpreter/4596091002/">real-time translation</a>) make this more possible and cost-effective than ever.</p>
<p>In order to live together peacefully and embrace diversity, Canadians need to understand that languages are not just a means of technical communication, but are often at the core of people’s identity and culture. <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/indigenous/residential-day-school-survivors-who-lost-language-and-culture-seek-redress-1.3032862">Taking away a person’s language</a> often amounts to taking away their sense of self, dignity and community belonging. It also suppresses the remarkable linguistic assets that Canada possesses.</p>
<p>Building a Canadian nation through assimilation of minorities in the face of increasing diversity only generates social tensions and conflicts. It is not democracy, it is majoritarianism. It is contrary to fundamental human rights and signals social regression rather than progress. </p>
<p>Instead, Canada should foster a forward-looking, human-centred and dynamic society that embraces diversity, multiculturalism and multilingualism. This is to our advantage. Canada’s rich linguistic diversity is an asset that should be valued. We must cast off the old colonialist thinking and seize the rich possibilities that are at hand.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/196266/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Veaceslav Balan is a member of the University of Ottawa Human Rights Research and Education Centre.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Frederick John Packer receives funding from SSHRC. He is affiliated with a number of human rights NGOs including Human Rights Watch (Canada Committee) and the International Commission of Jurists (Canada Section). </span></em></p>Canada’s population is more diverse than ever, with many different languages represented. Government policy must reflect that diversity and offer meaningful support to minority languages.Veaceslav Balan, PhD Candidate, Faculty of Law, L’Université d’Ottawa/University of OttawaFrederick John Packer, Associate Professor of Law and Director of the Human Rights Research and Education Centre, L’Université d’Ottawa/University of OttawaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1956782022-12-05T13:44:17Z2022-12-05T13:44:17Z2021 census shows English decreasing as main language but masks England and Wales’ true diversity<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498532/original/file-20221201-18-ucc1x0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=118%2C0%2C4802%2C3253&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Multicultural Tooting High Street, London. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/london-tooting-high-street-south-west-729198901">William Barton/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The <a href="https://www.ons.gov.uk/releases/ethnicgroupnationalidentitylanguageandreligioncensus2021inenglandandwales">latest release of data</a> from the 2021 census has given us new information about the languages people speak across England and Wales. There is <a href="https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/culturalidentity/language/bulletins/languageenglandandwales/census2021">growing linguistic diversity</a>: over 90 different languages were reported as the main language of people living in England and Wales. </p>
<p>However, the ways in which the census asked people about their language use and language proficiency call into question the accuracy and relevance of the data. Many more people may speak additional languages than recorded in the census.</p>
<p>The 2021 census revealed that the proportion of residents who speak English (or English or Welsh in Wales) as their main language has <a href="https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/culturalidentity/language/bulletins/languageenglandandwales/census2021#main-languages-in-england-and-wales">decreased since the last census</a>, falling from 92.3% to 91.1%. This means that 8.9% of residents of England and Wales – over 5 million people – speak another language other than English or Welsh as their main language. </p>
<p>The top ten other languages spoken by residents were Polish, Romanian, Panjabi, Urdu, Portuguese, Spanish, Arabic, Bengali, Gujarati and Italian. </p>
<p><strong>Percentage of people who reported English (English or Welsh in Wales) as a main language in the 2021 census, by local authority:</strong></p>
<iframe height="570px" width="100%" src="https://www.ons.gov.uk/census/maps/choropleth/identity/main-language-detailed/main-language-detailed-23a/english-english-or-welsh-if-in-wales?embed=true&embedInteractive=true&embedAreaSearch=true&embedCategorySelection=false&embedView=geography"></iframe>
<p>However, these figures mask wide variation in language use. The <a href="https://www.ons.gov.uk/census/censustransformationprogramme/questiondevelopment/census2021paperquestionnaires">2021 census asked people</a>, “What is your main language?” with the options given as “English” (“English or Welsh” in Wales) or “other”. If they answered “other”, respondents were asked to give their main language, and also asked, “How well can you speak English?”</p>
<p>People who reported English as their main language were not able to list any additional languages that they spoke. People who answered “other” were also only able to list one language, and then were asked their English language proficiency, with categories ranging from “Can speak English very well” to “Cannot speak English”.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1367526620635033606"}"></div></p>
<p>The census language question required bilingual and multilingual people – who may have grown up speaking one or more languages at home and others at school or with their friends – to choose between their languages. </p>
<p><a href="http://ceemr.uw.edu.pl/sites/default/files/CEEMR_Vol_5_No_1_Moskal_Sime_Polish_Migrant_Childrens_Transcultural_Lives.pdf">Research</a> has shown that multilingual people may already experience conflict around language use and identity in their daily lives. They have to negotiate the requirement to use English at work or school alongside desires to maintain community languages and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/14733285.2021.2003302">connections to their families and heritage</a>. </p>
<p>For some people, their “main language” could be the language they spend most of their time speaking. For others, it may be the language they feel best <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/14649360120073860">represents their identity</a>.</p>
<p>A person who speaks five different languages would only be able to report English or Welsh and one other language, or just English if they consider English their main language. This means that the number of speakers of languages other than English or Welsh could be dramatically underestimated in the 2021 census.</p>
<h2>A different picture</h2>
<p>This is clear in the differences between the language data from the census and that reported by schools. <a href="https://www.gov.uk/guidance/complete-the-school-census/census-dates">All schools in England</a> are required to complete a termly census recording demographic information about their pupils and staff. </p>
<p>In 2020-21, <a href="https://explore-education-statistics.service.gov.uk/find-statistics/school-pupils-and-their-characteristics">19.5% of pupils in schools in England</a> were recorded as having a first language other than English. There is a significant discrepancy between this figure and the <a href="https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/culturalidentity/language/bulletins/languageenglandandwales/census2021#main-languages-in-england-and-wales">9.2% of residents in England</a> who are recorded as speaking a language other than English as their main language in the 2021 census. </p>
<p>It is unlikely that there is a significantly higher proportion of speakers of other languages in school-aged pupils than across the general population. This is because children are likely to live with family members who also speak the same additional language or languages. </p>
<p>My <a href="https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/cross_fac/mgsdtp/studentprofiles/ellenbishop/">own research</a> with pupils in diverse schools has shown that many multilingual young people communicate in several languages in different environments and with different people. Pupils spend so many of their waking hours at school communicating in English that they may consider it their “main language”. But the national census may not fully capture the additional languages they may speak at home, with friends, in their places of worship, or in phone calls with relatives overseas.</p>
<p>The UK census data is used by <a href="https://www.ons.gov.uk/census/2011census/2011censusbenefits/howothersusecensusdata">many different people and industries</a>, including government departments, public sector organisations, local authorities, charities, community groups, businesses and researchers. Census data informs important decision making at local, regional, and national levels around <a href="https://www.ons.gov.uk/census/2011census/whywehaveacensus">public services</a>, such as education, healthcare, and <a href="https://theconversation.com/covid-skewed-journey-to-work-census-data-heres-how-city-planners-can-make-the-best-of-it-189071">transport</a>. It is imperative that census data is accurate to inform decisions and policies. </p>
<p>Regarding language specifically, organisations need a reliable picture of the languages spoken in the UK population and their language needs. This information helps them to plan and provide appropriate translation services, educational support for speakers of other languages, and <a href="https://www.mylondon.news/news/east-london-news/london-underground-stations-bilingual-signs-23438741">translated signage</a> and documentation. </p>
<p>Linguistic inclusivity is also important to make speakers of other languages feel valued and part of <a href="https://www.bell-foundation.org.uk/app/uploads/2020/06/Churchill-Report-2020-FV-web.pdf">multicultural British society</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/195678/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ellen Bishop received funding from the ESRC MGS for her PhD studies, and her current postdoc is funded by the ESRC Impact Acceleration Account. </span></em></p>The way questions on language were posed call the results into question.Ellen Bishop, Postdoctoral Innovation Associate (Human Geography), University of LeicesterLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1932652022-11-29T13:35:33Z2022-11-29T13:35:33Z‘Y'all,’ that most Southern of Southernisms, is going mainstream – and it’s about time<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/497709/original/file-20221128-25-u3e61t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=113%2C24%2C5041%2C3580&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A sign encourages people to vote in Charlotte, N.C., ahead of the 2022 U.S. midterm elections.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/sign-made-by-the-group-democracy-nc-reads-its-time-to-vote-news-photo/1244530643?phrase=y'all&adppopup=true"> Sean Rayford/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://www.proquest.com/docview/233049240?accountid=11824&parentSessionId=kVHOP8EzU2pwO4y4LFLsjx0xdUKGkFopcW7QCWFFPPs%3D">Southern Living</a> magazine once described “y’all” as “the quintessential Southern pronoun.” It’s as iconically Southern as sweet tea and grits.</p>
<p>While “y’all” is considered <a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-nonstandard-english-1691438">slang</a>, it’s a useful word nonetheless. The English language doesn’t have a good second person plural pronoun; “you” can be both singular and plural, but it’s sometimes awkward to use as a plural. It’s almost like <a href="https://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0311/p18s04-hfes.html">there’s a pronoun missing</a>. “Y’all” fills that second person plural slot – as does “you guys,” “youse,” “you-uns” and a few others.</p>
<p>I’m interested in “y’all” because I was born in North Carolina and grew up saying it. I still do, probably a couple dozen times a day, usually without intention or even awareness. <a href="https://works.bepress.com/david-parker/">As a historian</a> who has researched the early history of the word, I’m also interested in how the word’s use has changed over the years.</p>
<h2>Like something a ‘hillbilly redneck’ would say</h2>
<p>“Y’all” might serve an important function, but it has acquired negative connotations. </p>
<p>Back in 1886, <a href="https://www.proquest.com/hnpnewyorktimes/docview/94432411/31D5C386FF6A456FPQ/1?accountid=11824">The New York Times</a> ran a piece titled “Odd Southernisms” that described “y’all” as “one of the most ridiculous of all the Southernisms.” </p>
<p>That perception has persisted. Like the <a href="https://digitalrepository.unm.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1014&context=ling_etds">Southern dialect</a> in general, the use of “y’all” has often been seen as vulgar, low-class, uncultured and uneducated. As someone noted in <a href="https://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=y%27all&page=2">Urban Dictionary</a>, “Whoever uses [y’all] sounds like a hillbilly redneck.”</p>
<p>In a more recent <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/10/18/magazine/yall.html">New York Times essay</a>, writer Maud Newton said that she associated the word with her father, who “defended slavery, demanded the subservience of women and adhered to ‘spare the rod and spoil the child.’” He also demanded that his children say “y’all” rather than “you guys.” She grew up hating the word. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Red and white-striped water tower featuring the text 'Florence Y'all.'" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/497706/original/file-20221128-4861-6pnfb3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/497706/original/file-20221128-4861-6pnfb3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/497706/original/file-20221128-4861-6pnfb3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/497706/original/file-20221128-4861-6pnfb3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/497706/original/file-20221128-4861-6pnfb3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/497706/original/file-20221128-4861-6pnfb3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/497706/original/file-20221128-4861-6pnfb3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A water tower in Florence, Ky., proudly displays the collective form of address long associated with the U.S. South.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/water-tank-with-florence-y-all-greeting-painted-on-the-side-news-photo/535788459?phrase=y'all&adppopup=true">Education Images/Universal Images Group via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>At a time when many Americans are calling for the <a href="https://www.npr.org/2021/02/23/970610428/nearly-100-confederate-monuments-removed-in-2020-report-says-more-than-700-remai">removal of Confederate monuments</a> and opposing the <a href="https://inclusivehistorian.com/lost-cause-myth/">Lost Cause mythology</a>, “y’all,” with its Southern overtones, might make some people uncomfortable – a misguided reaction, perhaps, but one that has been felt by both those who hear it and those who say it.</p>
<h2>Imagine ‘y’all’ with a British accent</h2>
<p>The word has not always had such negative connotations. </p>
<p>The etymology of “y’all” is murky. Some <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Old-English-New-Linguistics-Humanities/dp/0815310862">linguists</a> trace it back to the Scots-Irish phrase “ye aw”; <a href="https://www.jbe-platform.com/content/journals/10.1075/eww.14.1.03lip">others</a> suggest an African American origin, perhaps from the Igbo word for “you” brought over by Nigerian-born slaves. According to the “Oxford English Dictionary,” the word first appeared in print in 1856, and all of its examples are sources connected to the American South. <a href="https://uncpress.org/book/9780807858066/the-new-encyclopedia-of-southern-culture/">Michael Montgomery</a>, a noted linguist, said that early use of the word “is unknown in the British Isles.”</p>
<p>But recently I used some of the new digital literary databases to search for older uses of the word, and <a href="https://historynewsnetwork.org/article/159662">I found over a dozen examples</a>. They were all in dramatic or poetic works dating back to the 17th century and published in London. The earliest “y’all” that I uncovered was in William Lisle’s “The Faire Æthiopian,” published in 1631 – “and this y'all know is true.”</p>
<p>My examples push “y’all” back 225 years before the citation in the “Oxford English Dictionary,” and they show that the word appeared first in England rather than the United States. </p>
<p>I think it’s important to point out that it originated in a more formal context than what’s commonly assumed. There are none of the class or cultural connotations of the later American examples.</p>
<p>I should also note that there is almost a centurylong gap between the last known usage of this British version of “y’all” and the first known usage of the American version. Scholars may well decide that these versions of “y’all” are essentially two different words. </p>
<p>Still, there it is, in an English poem written in 1631. </p>
<h2>‘Y'all means all’</h2>
<p>Ironically, at the same time that some people have shied away from using “y’all,” the word seems to have grown in popularity. An article on exactly this topic, published in the Journal of English Linguistics in 2000, was titled “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/00754240022005045">The Nationalization of a Southernism</a>”; based on scientific polling, the authors suggested that “y’all” will soon be seen as an American, rather than Southern, word. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Man walks by billboard with text reading 'love all y'all.'" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/497701/original/file-20221128-20-uy7x4v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/497701/original/file-20221128-20-uy7x4v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/497701/original/file-20221128-20-uy7x4v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/497701/original/file-20221128-20-uy7x4v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/497701/original/file-20221128-20-uy7x4v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/497701/original/file-20221128-20-uy7x4v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/497701/original/file-20221128-20-uy7x4v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">There’s an inclusivity inherent to ‘y'all.’</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/july11-2017-storefront-sign-love-all-yall-photographed-on-news-photo/1145913265?phrase=y'all&adppopup=true">Bill Tompkins/Getty Images</a></span>
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<p>There might be several reasons for this. One is that African American use of the word in <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rbDiiJv9_Qk">music</a> and <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Icons-African-American-Comedy-Greenwood/dp/0313380848">other forms of popular culture</a> has made it more familiar – and, therefore, acceptable – to those who didn’t grow up with it.</p>
<p>Second, “you guys,” <a href="http://survey.johndal.com/results/290/">another common alternative</a> for the second-person plural pronoun, is losing support because of its sexist connotations. Are females included in you guys? How about those who identify as nonbinary? </p>
<p>Maud Newton eventually came to embrace “y’all.” When she moved to Tallahassee, Florida, after law school, she found that “in grocery stores and coffee shops, on the street and in the library, everyone – Black and white, queer and straight, working-class and wealthy – used y’all, and soon I did, too.”</p>
<p>“Y’all means all” – that’s a wonderful phrase that seems to be popping up everywhere, from <a href="https://scontent-atl3-2.xx.fbcdn.net/v/t1.6435-9/52696104_10155844141826150_4218014470036783104_n.jpg?_nc_cat=105&ccb=1-7&_nc_sid=730e14&_nc_ohc=DVHP94pupXwAX8MRuB1&_nc_ht=scontent-atl3-2.xx&oh=00_AfD9_-BRJfm2m3Y7RjeQN32t_9s_R4k8tg8nRmh4aoOEMg&oe=63A5C5F2">T-shirts</a> and <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Yall-Means-All-Emerging-Appalachia/dp/1629639141?source=ps-sl-shoppingads-lpcontext&ref_=fplfs&psc=1&smid=ATVPDKIKX0DER">book titles</a> to <a href="https://www.syracuseculturalworkers.com/products/poster-yall-means-all">memes</a> and music.
A <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BVW3ZXOrG4E&list=RDBVW3ZXOrG4E&start_radio=1">song</a> written by Miranda Lambert for Netflix’s “Queer Eye” beautifully captures the spirit of the phrase:</p>
<pre class="highlight plaintext"><code> You can be born in Tyler, Texas,
Raised with the Bible Belt;
If you’re torn between the Y’s and X’s,
You ain’t gotta play with the hand you’re dealt ...
Honey, y’all means all.
</code></pre><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/193265/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David B. Parker does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The use of ‘y'all’ has often been seen as vulgar, low-class and uncultured. That’s starting to change.David B. Parker, Professor of History, Kennesaw State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1895052022-09-22T17:02:02Z2022-09-22T17:02:02ZIndian Matchmaking: English can be a valuable asset for young women seeking husbands – but it can also backfire<p>After a popular and <a href="https://theconversation.com/netflixs-indian-matchmaking-at-the-emmys-the-problems-with-nominating-this-indian-reality-167011">controversial</a> first season, Netflix’s Indian Matchmaking is back with more Mumbai elites and American <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/brown-desi-south-asian-diaspora-reflects-terms-represent-erase-rcna1886">Desis (diasporic South Asians)</a> looking for love. The show offers a glimpse into matrimonial negotiations and the arranged marriage process, guided by matchmaker Sima Taparia. Contestants and their families outline their preferences – from values to profession, hobbies to looks – and scrutinise potential partners. </p>
<p>While some criteria are more or less explicit (“must like dogs”), others, such as “good education”, work as implicit references to social class. In India – much like <a href="https://theconversation.com/when-english-becomes-the-global-language-of-education-we-risk-losing-other-often-better-ways-of-learning-143744">across the globe</a> – good education is synonymous with an English medium education. </p>
<p>This is where English is the language through which all subjects are taught – <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315107929-8/mind-language-medium-gap-chaise-ladousa">a model favoured by fee-paying institutions</a>. English speakers are widely assumed to be more educated, more affluent, more modern. </p>
<p>August marked 75 years of Indian independence from British colonial rule. But the English language has continued to play a key role in upholding inequality. For years it remained accessible only to the wealthy. </p>
<p>Over the past two decades, as India’s economic policies shifted, English has become more widely accessible and demand continues to increase. Part of this is due to the longstanding <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/modern-asian-studies/article/abs/below-english-line-an-ethnographic-exploration-of-class-and-the-english-language-in-postliberalization-india/BFC18D5713CFC14EECC62AAE280BBBEB">prestige of speaking English</a>, and the narrative that investing in English can bring opportunity and success. </p>
<p>Young Indians are feeling pressure to speak English, both to boost their chances of securing a professional job and to increase the probability of finding a good match for marriage. Unmarried women aspiring to the middle classes are bearing the brunt of the pressure. </p>
<p>In my <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/josl.12567">ethnographic research</a>, I looked at how English gets linked to social mobility in India. I spent several months working alongside young adults at a free English and employability training organisation on the outskirts of South Delhi. </p>
<p>While most of the students enrolled had hopes of becoming socially mobile, many of the young women were also aware that their newly acquired English skills could benefit them in the search for a husband. But, as my interviews with these young women showed, their association with English sometimes ended up backfiring.</p>
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<p>In matrimonial negotiations, English is often favoured by both sides, but is increasingly becoming a requirement for women. At times this appears more explicitly transactional. Young English-speaking brides are in high demand for their potential to secure a place at an international higher education institution. </p>
<p>Some have termed this phenomenon “<a href="https://www.dw.com/en/ielts-marriages-indias-ideal-bride-is-proficient-in-english/a-53341947">IELTS brides</a>”, indicating young women who have scored highly on the International English Language Testing System. But mostly, the desire for English in a future wife is more about what the language says about her class status and her perceived ability to be a part of modern India.</p>
<p>This was the case for Rupal – one of the teachers from the organisation – who was in the process of meeting potential husbands with her parents when I met her. After attending a school where Hindi was the language of instruction, she joined the organisation as a student to develop her English skills. </p>
<p>She was the first member of her family to speak English, and then trained to become a teacher at the same organisation. Rupal knew that this could be leveraged to find a “better” husband, someone from a more securely middle-class background. Her parents had already rejected a proposal from a young man who had not finished school, arguing that, “My daughter is an English teacher … she is so educated.”</p>
<p>English gave Rupal a form of cultural capital which worked in her favour. This was an advantage that her sister, who had left education early to help financially support the family, was not able to wield.</p>
<h2>When English backfires</h2>
<p>But, as Rupal told me, “converting” her English capital into marriage appeal was not so straightforward. More than once, Rupal was rejected by the families of potential suitors precisely because she spoke English. Because of the widespread associations between English, modernity and progressiveness, Rupal’s language skills raised suspicions about the type of wife she would be. </p>
<p>Parents of potential matches worried, “She will control my son, she will not allow him to do anything else, she will order [him].” Rather than giving her leverage in marriage negotiations, Rupal’s status as an English speaker was taken by some families as an indication that her behaviour may not conform to what they expected from a woman and a wife. </p>
<p>Pursuing social mobility through the promise of English turned out to be a risky investment. Rupal was forced to carefully balance contradictory demands of “tradition” and “modernity” to show she was capable of being a respectable woman and a good wife. While inability to speak English can disadvantage both men and women, the risks of speaking English are specific to expectations of womanhood.</p>
<p>In its first season, Indian Matchmaking <a href="https://theconversation.com/indian-matchmaking-a-show-about-arranged-marriages-cant-ignore-the-political-reality-in-india-144441">came under fire</a> for its silence on the politics of caste, gender, religion and nationalism. It has been equally quiet on the unspoken dimensions of language on the marriage market, and what speaking certain languages represents socially. </p>
<p>The increasing demand placed on young Indians aspiring to the middle classes to speak English is fuelled by an often unquestioned acceptance of the utility of English across the globe. But what this narrative hides is how English is deeply entrenched in unequal social stratification through class, caste and gender. </p>
<p>Stories like Rupal’s reveal how the lists of criteria for potential matches that Indian Matchmaking puts into the spotlight are less about “personal preferences”, and much more about maintaining social order.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/189505/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Katy Highet received funding from Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC Postdoctoral Fellowship) 2021-2022.</span></em></p>The controversial reality show is only part of the picture when it comes to class and education in Indian marriage negotiations.Katy Highet, Lecturer in English Language & TESOL, University of the West of ScotlandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1881972022-09-16T12:17:16Z2022-09-16T12:17:16ZThese high school ‘classics’ have been taught for generations – could they be on their way out?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/484952/original/file-20220915-25735-8jjzi8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=17%2C34%2C5734%2C3794&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">High school students have studied many of the same books for generations. Is it time for a change?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/william-shakespeare-royalty-free-image/168625734?adppopup=true">Andrew_Howe via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>If you went to high school in the United States anytime since the 1960s, you were likely assigned some of the following books: Shakespeare’s “Romeo and Juliet,” “Julius Caesar” and “Macbeth”; John Steinbeck’s “Of Mice and Men”; F. Scott Fitzgerald’s “The Great Gatsby”; Harper Lee’s “To Kill a Mockingbird”; and William Golding’s “The Lord of the Flies.”</p>
<p>For many former students, these books and other so-called “classics” represent high school English. But despite the efforts of reformers, both <a href="https://eric.ed.gov/?q=multicultural+canon&id=ED371401">past</a> and <a href="https://disrupttexts.org/">present</a>, the most frequently assigned titles have never represented America’s diverse student body.</p>
<p>Why did these books become classics in the U.S.? How have they withstood challenges to their status? And will they continue to dominate high school reading lists? Or will they be replaced by a different set of books that will become classics for students in the 21st century?</p>
<h2>The high school canon</h2>
<p>The set of books that is taught again and again, broadly across the country, is referred to by literature scholars and English teachers as “the canon.” </p>
<p>The high school canon has been shaped by many factors. Shakespeare’s plays, especially “Macbeth” and “Julius Caesar,” have been taught consistently <a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/1488191">since the beginning of the 20th century</a>, when the curriculum was determined by college entrance requirements. Others, like “To Kill a Mockingbird,” winner of the 1961 Pulitzer Prize for fiction, were ushered into the classroom by current events – in the case of Lee’s book, <a href="https://time.com/3928162/mockingbird-civil-rights-movement/">the civil rights movement</a>. Some books just seem especially suited for classroom teaching: “Of Mice and Men” has a straightforward plot, easily identifiable themes and is under 100 pages long.</p>
<p>Titles become “traditional” when they are passed down through generations. As the education historian Jonna Perrillo observes, <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/made-by-history/2022/09/12/todays-book-bans-might-be-more-dangerous-than-those-past/">parents tend to approve</a> of having their children study the same books that they once did.</p>
<p>The last period of significant change to the canon was during the 1960s and 1970s, when the largest generation of the 20th century, the baby boomers, went to high school. For instance, in 1963, <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/810053">a survey of 800 students</a> at Evanston Township High School in Illinois revealed that “To Kill a Mockingbird,” first published in 1960, was by far the “most enjoyed book,” followed by two books that had been published in the 1950s, J.D. Salinger’s “The Catcher in the Rye” and Golding’s “The Lord of the Flies.” None of these books were yet traditional, yet they became so for the next generation.</p>
<p>A comparison of national surveys conducted in 1963 and 1988 shows how several books that were introduced to the classroom when the boomers were students had become classics when boomers were teachers.</p>
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<p>During the 1960s and 1970s, teachers even reframed “Romeo and Juliet” as a contemporary work. Lesson plans from the era referred to its adaptations into “<a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/811316">West Side Story</a>” – a musical that <a href="https://www.westsidestory.com/1957-broadway">initially came out in 1957</a> – and Franco Zefferelli’s <a href="https://eric.ed.gov/?q=zeffirelli+romeo&id=ED026386">risqué 1968 film version</a> of Shakespeare’s story of star-crossed lovers. It became the perfect hook for ninth graders in a study of Shakespeare that would conclude in 12th grade with “Macbeth.”</p>
<h2>Efforts to diversify</h2>
<p>English education professor <a href="https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED309453">Arthur Applebee observed in 1989</a> that, since the 1960s, “leaders in the profession of English teaching have tried to broaden the curriculum to include more selections by women and minority authors.” But in the late 1980s, according to his findings, the high school “top ten” still included only one book by a woman – Lee’s “To Kill a Mockingbird” – and none by minority authors.</p>
<p>At that time, a <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1991/09/23/opinion/the-mosaic-and-the-melting-pot.html">raging debate</a> was underway about whether America was a “melting pot” in which many cultures became one, or a colorful “mosaic” in which many cultures coexisted. Proponents of the latter view argued for a multicultural canon, but they were ultimately unable to establish one. A 2011 survey of Southern schools by Joyce Stallworth and Louel C. Gibbons, published in “English Leadership Quarterly,” found that the five most frequently taught books were all traditional selections: “The Great Gatsby,” “Romeo and Juliet,” Homer’s “The Odyssey,” Arthur Miller’s “The Crucible” and “To Kill a Mockingbird.”</p>
<p>One explanation for this persistence is that the canon is not simply a list: It takes form as stacks of copies on shelves in the storage area known as the “book room.” Changes to the inventory require time, money and effort. Depending on the district, replacing a classic <a href="https://ncte.org/statement/material-selection-ela/">might require approval by the school board</a>. And it would create more work for teachers who are already maxed out. </p>
<p>“Too many teachers, probably myself included, teach from the traditional canon,” a teacher told Stallworth and Gibbons. “We are overworked and underpaid and struggle to find the time to develop quality lessons for new books.” </p>
<h2>The end of an era?</h2>
<p>Esau McCauley, the author of “Reading While Black,” describes the list of classics by white authors as the “<a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/09/07/opinion/what-should-high-schoolers-read.html?searchResultPosition=1">pre-integration canon</a>.” At least two factors suggest that its dominance over the curriculum is coming to an end.</p>
<p>First, the battles over which books should be taught have become more intense than ever. On the one hand, progressives like the teachers of the growing <a href="https://disrupttexts.org/">#DisruptTexts movement</a> call for the inclusion of books by <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/article/what-is-bipoc.html">Black, Native American and other authors of color</a> - and they question the status of the classics. On the other hand, conservatives have challenged or successfully banned the teaching of many new books that deal with gender and sexuality or race.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/484967/original/file-20220915-6106-4kq0zl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Toni Morrison wears her hair in gray locks under a cream-colored hat." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/484967/original/file-20220915-6106-4kq0zl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/484967/original/file-20220915-6106-4kq0zl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/484967/original/file-20220915-6106-4kq0zl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/484967/original/file-20220915-6106-4kq0zl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/484967/original/file-20220915-6106-4kq0zl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/484967/original/file-20220915-6106-4kq0zl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/484967/original/file-20220915-6106-4kq0zl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Conservatives have sought to ban books written by Toni Morrison.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/toni-morrison-american-writer-novelist-editor-italy-news-photo/1129511612?adppopup=true">Leonardo Cendamo via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>PEN America, a nonprofit organization that fights for free expression for writers, reports “<a href="https://pen.org/banned-in-the-usa/">a profound increase</a>” in book bans. The outcome might be a literature curriculum that more resembles the political divisions in this country. Much more than in the past, students in conservative and progressive districts might read very different books.</p>
<p>Second, English Language Arts education itself is changing. State standards, such as those <a href="http://www.nysed.gov/common/nysed/files/912elastandardsglance.pdf">adopted by New York in 2017</a>, no longer make the teaching of literature the primary focus of English class. Instead, there is a new emphasis on “<a href="http://www.nysed.gov/curriculum-instruction/teaching-learning-information-literacy">information literacy</a>.” And while preceding generations of teachers voiced concerns about the distractions of <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/42832830">radio</a> and then <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/42799566">television</a>, books may have an even smaller share of students’ attention in <a href="https://countercurrents.org/2021/04/impact-of-social-media-on-our-attention-span-and-its-drastic-aftermath/">the age of cellphones, the internet, social media and online gaming</a>.</p>
<p>“We no longer live in a print-dominant, text-only world,” the National Council of Teachers of English proclaims in <a href="https://ncte.org/statement/media_education/">a 2022 position statement</a>. The group calls for English teachers to put less emphasis on books in order to train students to use and analyze a variety of media. Accordingly, students across the country may not only have fewer books in common, but they also may be reading fewer books altogether.</p>
<h2>Why teach literature?</h2>
<p>Over generations, English teachers have voiced many reasons to teach books, and the canon in particular: to instill a <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/816405">common culture</a>, foster <a href="https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED027289">citizenship</a>, build <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/820324">empathy</a> and cultivate <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4128931">lifelong readers</a>. These goals have little to do with the skills emphasized by contemporary academic standards. But if literature is going to continue to be an important part of American education, it is important to talk not only about what books to teach, but the reasons why.</p>
<p><em>This story has been updated to correct the year that “West Side Story” appeared as a musical.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/188197/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrew Newman has received funding from John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation.</span></em></p>An English professor takes a critical look at why today’s students are assigned the same books that were assigned decades ago – and why American school curricula are so difficult to change.Andrew Newman, Professor and Chair, Stony Brook University (The State University of New York)Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1894012022-09-14T16:49:10Z2022-09-14T16:49:10ZPosh Spice sounds posher, but changing your working-class accent isn’t a ticket out of discrimination<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/484102/original/file-20220912-14-735n3g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=53%2C47%2C4425%2C2943&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Even one of the UK's most famous couples isn't free from accent discrimination.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/david-beckham-victoria-arrive-fashion-awards-1256351692">Bakounine / Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Accentism – discriminating against someone because of their accent – has a long history in the UK, where the way someone speaks is often an easy way to tell their social class. People with working-class accents are frequently criticised and encouraged to speak “properly”. This is true even for people who have achieved fame or success in the media or politics. </p>
<p>But changing the way one speaks isn’t necessarily a fix. When people with working-class accents begin to speak in a more “posh” way, it is often seen as inauthentic and insincere. The latest example is Victoria Beckham, whose accent in a recent video has been <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/tvshowbiz/article-11133919/Victoria-Beckham-leaves-fans-baffled-posh-accent-Instagram-makeup-tutorial-video.html">subject to criticism</a>.</p>
<p>Beckham was born in Essex and raised in Hertfordshire, and her husband David Beckham was raised in east London. Despite the couple’s enormous wealth and success, they come from working-class backgrounds and continue to be seen as such. They have previously been <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/tvshowbiz/article-409087/The-Chav-Rich-List.html">labelled</a> “chavs” a <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/books/interactive/2011/sep/01/extract-chavs-owen-jones">contemptuous, stereotyped moniker</a> of the working class. </p>
<p>Their accents have typically included working-class, vernacular linguistic traits from London or southern England more broadly. In 2014, David Beckham was <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/birmingham/voices2005/stats.shtml">voted</a> one of the British public’s least pleasant voices. In 2010, Victoria Beckham was slated for both her appearance and her accent when she was a guest judge on American Idol. </p>
<p>US paper the Village Voice, <a href="https://www.villagevoice.com/2010/01/13/american-idol-season-9-chris-brown-touches-kids-victoria-beckham-has-no-spice-at-boston-auditions/">wrote</a>: “I always thought a British accent made people sound smart but I guess I was wrong.” Her fellow British judge, privately educated Simon Cowell, was not criticised for his very standard, southern English accent. </p>
<p>A recent makeup tutorial video posted by Victoria Beckham revived longstanding speculation that the Beckhams are <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/theobserver/2013/apr/20/debate-accent-david-victoria-beckham">changing their accents</a> and even having <a href="https://www.cosmopolitan.com/uk/entertainment/news/a7195/poshs-elocution-classes-94623/">elocution lessons</a>.</p>
<h2>Changing accents</h2>
<p>We all have different accents. We can speak in <a href="https://www.waterstones.com/book/style/nikolas-coupland/9780521618144">different ways</a> depending on factors like who we are talking to, our emotional state, the formality of the situation and the topic of conversation. But our accents can also change throughout our life, depending on the ways of speaking we are exposed to, depending on where we live and who we talk to (footballer Joey Barton was a remarkable <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/football/video/2012/nov/26/joey-barton-english-french-accent-video">example</a>). </p>
<p>Even Queen Elizabeth II experienced <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-international-phonetic-association/article/abs/monophthongal-vowel-changes-in-received-pronunciation-an-acoustic-analysis-of-the-queens-christmas-broadcasts/6CE5E6C291D0D896F125ECF381F0A8A0">accent change</a> throughout her life, which matched the subtle changes happening in standard southern English. <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24671937#metadata_info_tab_contents">Research</a> has also found that Glaswegians who are fans of the soap opera EastEnders are more likely to speak with elements of a cockney accent. </p>
<p>A person with a working-class accent may also consciously adapt their accent if they feel it holds them back or they are perceived as unintelligent (<a href="https://theconversation.com/working-class-and-ethnic-minority-accents-in-south-east-england-judged-as-less-intelligent-new-research-162886">which probably is the case</a>). Changing your accent is no easy feat, and the burden is greater for those whose accent is further from the standard. </p>
<p>There are also examples of people with standard accents suddenly and uncharacteristically speaking with less standard and more working-class accents, such as politician Ed Miliband when talking to comedian Russell Brand. Although Miliband was seen as hospitably finding an “<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2015/apr/29/accent-on-common-ground-as-miliband-takes-on-russell-brands-estuary-twang">accent on common ground</a>” in a generous act of extending familiarity.</p>
<p>But when a person is thought to have begun speaking more “posh”, like Victoria Beckham (and also <a href="https://www.nzherald.co.nz/lifestyle/meghan-markles-posh-accent-baffles-fans/H4HF64OBGOVYCNLPODMVA36XS4/">Meghan Markle</a>), they can be unfairly ridiculed as fake or pretentious. Victoria Beckham perfectly exemplifies how working-class people are criticised for speaking, no matter how posh their accent is. It is being working-class that is the problem. </p>
<h2>Working-class accentism</h2>
<p>My own Essex accent is often brought up when sharing my expertise in linguistics. On a BBC radio interview, the presenter read aloud a listeners’ text: “Try getting someone who can speak correctly if you’re going to talk about grammar.” My experience is <a href="https://www.researchprofessionalnews.com/rr-news-uk-universities-2022-5-academics-complain-of-ongoing-accentism-at-uk-universities/">not unusual</a> for academics with working-class accents. </p>
<p>People in the public eye with working-class accents are constantly singled out. Rylan Clark was <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/tvshowbiz/article-10431059/Viewers-left-tizz-Rylan-Clarks-dropped-Ts-One-Show.html">slammed</a> for t-glottalling (dropping t) on The One Show. A BBC announcer was <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-4931694/Viewers-slam-BBC-announcer-saying-f-instead-th.html">criticised</a> for th-fronting (“thriller” as “friller”). </p>
<p><a href="https://twitter.com/JeremyVineOn5/status/1544237167978971137">Debate</a> constantly ensues about whether Angela Rayner, the deputy leader of the Labour party, sounds sufficiently “professional” in Parliament. And Alastair Campbell <a href="https://www.thesun.co.uk/news/12681191/alistair-campbell-mock-priti-patel-accent/">wrote</a> about Priti Patel: “I don’t want a home secretary who can’t pronounce a G at the end of a word.”</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Angela Rayner speaking at a podium with a red placard reading Stronger Future Together, Labour Party" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/484319/original/file-20220913-4133-o2cvok.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/484319/original/file-20220913-4133-o2cvok.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/484319/original/file-20220913-4133-o2cvok.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/484319/original/file-20220913-4133-o2cvok.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/484319/original/file-20220913-4133-o2cvok.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/484319/original/file-20220913-4133-o2cvok.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/484319/original/file-20220913-4133-o2cvok.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Angela Rayner, deputy leader of the Labour party, is a regular target of accentism.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/brighton-uk-0925-labour-party-deputy-2047401542">Rupert Rivett / Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Lord Digby Jones singled out <a href="https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/im-proud-of-my-accent-says-alex-scott-after-lord-joness-jibe-nfs0t9bps#:%7E:text=The%20sports%20presenter%20Alex%20Scott,not%20pronouncing%20her%20'g's%E2%80%9D">sports commentator Alex Scott</a> for saying “swimming” as “swimmin’ in her Olympics coverage. She hit back that she was proud of her working-class accent, to which Jones accused her of ”<a href="https://www.standard.co.uk/news/uk/lord-digby-jones-alex-scott-criticism-b948671.html">playing the class card</a>“. He insisted it was "not about accents” but instead: “It is about the fact that she is wrong. You do not pronounce the English language ending in a ‘g’ without the ‘g’”. </p>
<p>Comments like these demonstrate a spectacular misunderstanding of <a href="https://theconversation.com/ask-or-aks-how-linguistic-prejudice-perpetuates-inequality-175839">basic linguistic principles</a>. Beyond this, saying swimmin’ – or indeed, dropping t or th-fronting – has everything to do with both accent and class. Across Britain, working-class people are the most likely to speak with accents that mark out where they are from and are the furthest removed from Queen’s English.</p>
<p>If working-class accents are not seen as appropriate in the media, politics and academia, then working-class people are not seen as appropriate in these domains. The commonplace notion that accent pedantry is actually just upholding good diction, decent standards, clear articulation or the inherent “correctness” of English is a rickety scaffolding for <a href="https://accentism.org/">accent prejudice</a> that keeps working-class people in their place.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/189401/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amanda Cole is affiliated with The Accentism Project which she runs along with Dr Rob Drummond to raise awareness and challenge accentism. </span></em></p>People change their accents for many reasons, but it doesn’t necessarily protect them from accentism.Amanda Cole, Postdoctoral Research Fellow (Institute for Analytics and Data Science) Department of Language and Linguistics, University of EssexLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1890962022-08-29T18:05:17Z2022-08-29T18:05:17ZIs it important to post election signs in languages other than French in Québec?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481629/original/file-20220829-24-109am8.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=40%2C0%2C4550%2C2997&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Coalition Avenir Québec Leader François Legault launches his campaign at the Montmorency Falls with candidates, Aug. 28, 2022 in Québec City.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Jacques Boissinot</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/is-it-important-to-post-election-signs-in-languages-other-than-french-in-quebec" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>In electoral campaigns, election signs help candidates market themselves. But does the language of an election sign matter in a multilingual society?</p>
<p>This question is relevant in Québec, especially as the province begins <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/montreal/quebec-2022-election-campaign-start-1.6564813">its fall election campaign</a>. </p>
<p>While Québec is predominantly French-speaking, the population of potential voters in Québec is linguistically diverse. According <a href="https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm">to the 2021 census</a>, 93.7 per cent of Quebecers know French, but 28.2 per cent speak a language other than French at home. And the majority of the population <a href="https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/as-sa/fogs-spg/Page.cfm?Lang=E&Dguid=2021A000224&topic=6">knows more than one language</a> — 14.5 per cent know three or more. This makes Québec the province with the most bilingual and multilingual people in Canada. </p>
<h2>Languages on election signs</h2>
<p>Despite that linguistic diversity, Québec’s political parties post few signs in languages other than French during campaigns. In fact, our research — yet to be published — shows that over the last 100 years, less than 10 per cent of political signs posted in the province were bilingual or in English. </p>
<p>The majority of signs were in French or did not convey a particular message other than the name of the candidate, party or riding. </p>
<p>Our findings also show that the presence of English on election signs has fluctuated over time. For example, 22 per cent of signs had some English on them in the 1950s and ‘60s. This percentage fell to 2 per cent from the 1970s to 2000s, followed by a timid resurgence of English in the 2010s. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/480924/original/file-20220824-10117-wneb24.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Languages on election signs by decade in Québec" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/480924/original/file-20220824-10117-wneb24.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/480924/original/file-20220824-10117-wneb24.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=327&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480924/original/file-20220824-10117-wneb24.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=327&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480924/original/file-20220824-10117-wneb24.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=327&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480924/original/file-20220824-10117-wneb24.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=410&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480924/original/file-20220824-10117-wneb24.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=410&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480924/original/file-20220824-10117-wneb24.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=410&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Which language appears on election signs in Québec has varied for the past 100 years.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Marc Pomerleau)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In translation studies, we say that translation not only serves as a textual indicator of meaning, but also as a sociopolitical indicator. This is clearly the case when it comes to election signs. </p>
<p>The overall disappearance of English from election signs coincides with the redefinition of the political and social balance of power in Québec <a href="https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/quiet-revolution">since the 1960s</a>. </p>
<p>One might assume that posters are almost exclusively in French because of the <a href="https://www.legisquebec.gouv.qc.ca/en/document/cs/C-11/19991022#se:59">Charter of the French Language</a>, but in no way does it prevent political advertising in other languages. The explanation here lies in the context rather than the law.</p>
<h2>Should political parties post signs in different languages?</h2>
<p>As the vast majority of Quebecers know French, political parties could easily decide to post their election signs in French only. But it is also true that people tend to <a href="https://csa-research.com/Featured-Content/For-Global-Enterprises/Global-Growth/CRWB-Series/CRWB-B2C">prefer content in their mother tongue</a>. </p>
<p>That fact however doesn’t mean a political party would gain votes by posting signs in English or other languages. </p>
<p>To find out how Quebecers perceive election signs in different languages, we conducted a survey on electorate language preferences — the results of which will soon be published in <a href="https://www.erudit.org/en/journals/meta/"><em>Meta</em></a>. Our survey consisted of multiple-choice questions where participants were shown several hypothetical unilingual and bilingual election signs.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/480926/original/file-20220824-12-911l98.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A collage of three election signs with varying degrees of bilingualism." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/480926/original/file-20220824-12-911l98.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/480926/original/file-20220824-12-911l98.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=302&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480926/original/file-20220824-12-911l98.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=302&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480926/original/file-20220824-12-911l98.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=302&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480926/original/file-20220824-12-911l98.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=379&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480926/original/file-20220824-12-911l98.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=379&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480926/original/file-20220824-12-911l98.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=379&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In Québec, election signs are predominantly in French.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Musée québécois de culture populaire, Collection Dave Turcotte/Musée virtuel d'histoire politique du Québec, Québec Solidaire)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Perception of French and English signs</h2>
<p>The vast majority of Francophones (82.9 per cent) had positive feelings towards a unilingual French poster. Among non-Francophones, 61 per cent felt the same. </p>
<p>For a sign in English only, a mere 4 per cent of Francophones liked it, compared to 18.7 per cent of non-Francophones. When it came to bilingual (French-English) signs, 39.1 per cent of Francophones and 69.5 per cent of non-Francophones had positive feelings. </p>
<p>This shows that what bothers Québec voters is not so much the presence of English on signs, but the absence of French — English-only signs bothered 91.5 per cent of Francophones and 61 per cent of non-Francophones. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/480927/original/file-20220824-9546-6hueb.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A graph showing how people feel about bilingual election signs in Québec." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/480927/original/file-20220824-9546-6hueb.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/480927/original/file-20220824-9546-6hueb.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=333&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480927/original/file-20220824-9546-6hueb.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=333&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480927/original/file-20220824-9546-6hueb.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=333&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480927/original/file-20220824-9546-6hueb.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=418&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480927/original/file-20220824-9546-6hueb.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=418&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480927/original/file-20220824-9546-6hueb.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=418&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Over 69 per cent of non-Francophones had positive feelings towards bilingual signs.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Marc Pomerleau)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Perception of signs in other languages</h2>
<p>When presented with signs with a message in a foreign language, participants generally felt more positively towards those showcasing languages closer to French like Spanish, Italian and Portuguese — especially compared to those using a different script like Arabic, Mandarin and Russian. </p>
<p>The bilingual French-Spanish sign was the most widely accepted. Spanish is also the most widely understood foreign language in the province with a total of over 450,000 speakers. So what seemed to bother participants was their inability to understand a language. </p>
<p>However, a sign in Inuktitut generated very positive feelings across all Quebecers, especially when the sign was bilingual with French. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/480932/original/file-20220824-4026-r6jk1z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Québec election signs in French from over the years." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/480932/original/file-20220824-4026-r6jk1z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/480932/original/file-20220824-4026-r6jk1z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=303&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480932/original/file-20220824-4026-r6jk1z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=303&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480932/original/file-20220824-4026-r6jk1z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=303&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480932/original/file-20220824-4026-r6jk1z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480932/original/file-20220824-4026-r6jk1z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480932/original/file-20220824-4026-r6jk1z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">As the vast majority of Quebecers know French, political parties could easily decide to post their election signs in French only.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Bibliothèque de l'Assemblée nationale du Québec, Collection Richard G. Gervais/Bibliothèque de l'Assemblée nationale du Québec, Marc Pomerleau)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Should political parties post signs in multiple languages?</h2>
<p>Although our participants’ perceptions of hypothetical signs don’t necessarily translate into who they will vote for in real situations, they exemplify the linguistic preferences of the Québec electorate. </p>
<p>Francophones prefer by far French-only signs and non-Francophones have similar positive feelings towards French-only signs and bilingual French-English signs, the latter being slightly preferred. </p>
<p>Our findings suggest that Québec politicians who wish to put up provincial election signs in languages other than French should do so with caution. </p>
<p>Bilingual signs and signs in other languages could be used strategically in locations chosen with care, taking into account where said languages are actually spoken. </p>
<p>It will be interesting to see what political parties actually do during the 2022 campaign, especially in the context of <a href="http://m.assnat.qc.ca/en/travaux-parlementaires/projets-loi/projet-loi-96-42-1.html">Bill 96</a> and the newly released census data showing a <a href="https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/220817/g-a002-eng.htm">decline of French</a>. </p>
<p>Signs in languages other than French could be seen as an outstretched hand in yet another episode of linguistic tensions, but also as an indicator that French is indeed losing ground.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/189096/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Marc Pomerleau receives funding from Fonds d’aide institutionnel à la recherche, Université TÉLUQ.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Esmaeil Kalantari does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Signs in languages other than French could be seen as an outstretched hand in yet another episode of linguistic tensions, but also as an indicator that French is indeed losing ground.Marc Pomerleau, Professeur de linguistique et de traductologie / Professor of linguistics and translation, Université TÉLUQ Esmaeil Kalantari, Auxiliaire de recherche, Université TÉLUQ Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1854412022-06-23T14:29:00Z2022-06-23T14:29:00ZKinyafranglais: how Rwanda became a melting pot of official languages<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/470539/original/file-20220623-51620-2s4nw3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Rwanda has four official languages; Kinyarwanda, English, French and Swahili.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Stephanie Aglietti/AFP via Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Today, Rwanda is a melting pot of official languages. Although <a href="https://nalrc.indiana.edu/doc/brochures/kinyarwanda.pdf">more than</a> 99% of Rwandans speak Kinyarwanda – a Bantu language and the country’s mother-tongue – Rwanda has three other official languages: French, English and Swahili. </p>
<p>How did the Central African nation end up with four official languages? Looking at the country’s language policies and history can help us to decode the linguistic trends. As a <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0021909619885974">researcher in these fields</a>, I’ve found that though transitions have overlapped, and that various languages are now used interchangeably, Rwanda’s melting pot of languages has also brought various benefits.</p>
<p>Between 1899 and 1918, Ruanda-Urundi – today’s Rwanda and Burundi – was colonised by the German empire and was ruled indirectly. This relied on local leaders and so the German language never really took root. </p>
<p>In 1923, following the first world war, Belgium administered Ruanda-Urundi as the seventh province of Belgian Congo. This was done under a League of Nations mandate. French was adopted by the central administration as the <a href="https://www.africa.upenn.edu/NEH/rwhistory.htm">official language</a>. Flemish, Belgium’s most widely spoken language, was mostly used by missionaries and administrators at the local level. After independence, the 1962 constitution consolidated French and Kinyarwanda as official languages. </p>
<p>Rwanda seemed well-entrenched within the Francophone sphere until the end of the 20th century. But from 1990 to 1994, France <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.2307/2658125">offered</a> increasing economic and military assistance to the Hutu president Juvenal Habyarimana. And after Habyarimana’s plane was shot down on 6 April 1994, <a href="https://www.history.com/topics/africa/rwandan-genocide">around</a> 800,000 Tutsi were killed in retaliation. France was <a href="https://www.amazon.co.uk/Rwanda-ils-parlent-T%C3%A9moignages-lhistoire/dp/202141888X">accused of complicity</a> – either defined as unresponsiveness or direct involvement – in the genocide for failing to protect civilians and using <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/jan/11/rwanda.insideafrica">Opération Turquoise</a> to prop up the Hutu regime. </p>
<p>Closely associated with the colonial era and a genocide, the French language was progressively sidelined as Paul Kagame rose to power. In just over a decade (1996-2009), Rwanda switched from French to English. At the time, English was then only used by a minority of Tanzanian and Ugandan immigrants, including the new government incumbents. </p>
<h2>The adoption of English</h2>
<p>Rwanda’s switch to English can either be viewed as a large-scale linguistic gamble or a carefully crafted transition. In 1996, the constitution <a href="https://www.axl.cefan.ulaval.ca/afrique/rwanda.htm">enthroned English</a> as an official language; in 2007, Rwanda <a href="https://www.eac.int/eac-partner-states/rwanda">joined</a> the East African Community; in 2008, <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275122876_Policy_without_a_plan_English_as_a_medium_of_instruction_in_Rwanda">English became</a> the medium of instruction at all school levels; and in 2009, Rwanda <a href="https://thecommonwealth.org/our-member-countries/rwanda">became a member</a> of the Commonwealth. </p>
<p>In education, East African Community membership enabled Rwanda <a href="https://researchmap.jp/read0060133/published_papers/14967519?lang=en">to harmonise</a> schools and universities’ curricula with neighbouring member countries. Comparatively higher than Francophone West Africa in the 2000s, the East African Community economic growth rate <a href="https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2014/wp14150.pdf">also spurred</a> the flow of goods and labour from and to the Indian Ocean, thus helping Rwanda overcome its landlocked position. </p>
<p>Tilting towards the English-speaking sphere <a href="https://thegiin.org/assets/documents/pub/East%20Africa%20Landscape%20Study/08Rwanda_GIIN_eastafrica_DIGITAL.pdf">significantly increased</a> Rwanda’s attractiveness in terms of foreign direct investment and official development assistance, especially from the US and the UK. </p>
<p>But apart from mere economic parameters, does the imposition of new languages fit in with the lives of Rwandans?</p>
<h2>Kinyafranglais</h2>
<p>Colonisation, genocide and changes in official languages have resulted in the hybridisation of languages. A mix of Kinyarwanda, French and English – dubbed <a href="https://www.ajol.info/index.php/rje/article/view/111556">kinyafranglais</a> – has become a household “language”. Conversations slip from one language to another and sentences are peppered with words from all of them. </p>
<p>The mix of languages can also be seen beyond the household. In 2011, public curricula reverted to Kinyarwanda as the medium of instruction for the first three years at primary school. English was introduced from the fourth year and French was sidelined. Some private schools still bolster French and English as the language of instruction. </p>
<p>Government announcements are made in English on international issues, in Kinyarwanda when domestic audiences are targeted and in French for Francophone-specific items. Citizens in their 30s and above are more likely to master French while those who graduated from high school or university after the pivotal year of 2008 speak fluent English. And city-dwellers, being more exposed than rural people to foreigners and English media, tend to have a slightly better command of English. </p>
<p>This far from complete transition to an all-out English environment is likely to persist for two main reasons: the resilience of Kinyarwanda and Swahili; and Rwanda’s double allegiance to the <a href="https://www.francophonie.org/">Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie</a> and the Commonwealth. </p>
<h2>Local trends</h2>
<p>Looking to the future, things may continue to shift. Throughout the years, Kinyarwanda never ceased to act as the vernacular lingua franca. In parallel, recent eastward pressures are reinvigorating Swahili within and beyond its traditional military, Muslim and business circles. </p>
<p>Regulations from the African Union and East African Community <a href="https://www.eac.int/press-releases/138-education,-science-technology-news/2419-eac-sectoral-council-on-education,-science-and-technology,-culture-and-sports-scestcs-adopts-roadmap-for-implementation-of-kiswahili-and-french-as-official-languages-of-the-community">encourage</a> the use of Swahili in official documents. And last year Rwanda requested Tanzania <a href="http://apanews.net/en/news/rwanda-seeks-to-hire-kiswahili-teachers-from-tanzania">to dispatch</a> Swahili teachers with a view on upgrading it as a principal subject at school.</p>
<p>With infrastructure projects connecting the Swahili-speaking area ranging from Eastern DR Congo to Dar es Salaam in Tanzania and Mombasa in Kenya, Swahili’s status is rising in the hub that Rwanda has turned itself into.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/185441/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jeremie Eyssette does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Colonisation, genocide and changes in official languages have resulted in the hybridisation of languages. A mix of Kinyarwanda, French and English is dubbed kinyafranglais.Jeremie Eyssette, Assistant Professor, Chosun UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1838162022-06-08T01:38:42Z2022-06-08T01:38:42ZWhat’s Japanese for ‘ruck’? Turning rugby’s technical terms into an international language<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/467613/original/file-20220608-18-ci80ry.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=8%2C8%2C5416%2C3603&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The winter rugby season is well under way, with fields and sidelines ringing to the unique language of the game. Learning this vocabulary comes through playing and talking about the game, no matter if the players are in Taranaki, Twickenham, Tonga or Tokyo. </p>
<p>If you know the terms – back, penalty, intercept, front row, scrum, clean out, advantage line, ruck, offload, prop, loosies and so on – chances are you’re a rugby fan, a player, or both.</p>
<p>Now spare a thought for those players, coaches and administrators plying their trade in a foreign language country. They must be able to communicate at a technical level with other coaches, captains, referees, teammates and perhaps even media. </p>
<p>Rugby language is predominantly spoken. It’s mostly used at training sessions, during warm-ups and games, in dressing rooms, in television or radio commentary, in homes, workplaces and even at a pub after the game. </p>
<p>But learning a language through speaking it, especially in pressure-cooker situations such as training or a game, can be highly stressful. Knowing the difference between a “loosie” (loose forward) and a reference to the ball being “loose” may seem like Rugby 101 to aficionados, but games are played at speed and spoken language moves fast too.</p>
<p>One way to reduce that stress is to have a shared vocabulary of key words and phrases that everyone can learn and know in advance – and that was the aim of <a href="https://cdn.theconversation.com/static_files/files/2128/Benson_and_Coxhead_2022.pdf?1654570407">our research</a>.</p>
<p>We set out to establish the words and phrases commonly used in rugby in English. The goal is to create technical word lists to help native and non-native English speakers alike prepare for playing, coaching and talking about rugby in foreign environments. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/467614/original/file-20220608-28-9xkpay.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/467614/original/file-20220608-28-9xkpay.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/467614/original/file-20220608-28-9xkpay.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/467614/original/file-20220608-28-9xkpay.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/467614/original/file-20220608-28-9xkpay.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/467614/original/file-20220608-28-9xkpay.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/467614/original/file-20220608-28-9xkpay.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An international game: former All Black Aaron Cruden playing for the Kobelco Kobe Steelers in Japan.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Getty Images</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The rugby vocabulary</h2>
<p>The game of rugby originated in England, so it stands to reason the first language of rugby is English. But since the game became professional in 1995, there has been a huge increase in the number of players and coaches moving between English-speaking countries and places like Japan and France, with their highly lucrative top competitions. </p>
<p>With a world cup every four years, and millions of people playing at various levels, rugby is a truly international sport – and it’s growing. A common rugby language should make mobility within the international game that much easier.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/art-or-science-decision-making-in-rugby-3119">Art or science? Decision-making in rugby</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>To create our rugby word list, we used recordings from actual rugby team interactions and television commentaries. From these we identified words that occurred more often in rugby than in general English. </p>
<p>Three experts with more than 50 years of combined rugby experience then checked the meanings of the words and confirmed the ones that are technical to rugby, such as “loosie”, “ruck”, “maul” and “prop”. </p>
<p>The same procedure was followed for phrases with technical meanings, such as “swing it away”, “clean out” and “advantage line”.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"829315287203852289"}"></div></p>
<h2>Language rules</h2>
<p>The resulting “Rugby Word List” contains 252 technical words and 267 technical phrases. This vocabulary accounts for around 12% of all the words in our original rugby recordings, which means roughly one word in every ten is technical.</p>
<p>We found six words unique to rugby: scrum, lineout, ruck, loosehead, loosies and tighties (the five core forwards in a scrum). </p>
<p>A further 84 words are used in rugby but also have a general meaning in English – for example, “advantage”, “conversion”, “drill” and “try”. Because people can assume they know the word already, these can pose a challenge to learning. The rugby context requires an understanding of aspects of the game and the use of a technical English vocabulary. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/six-nations-why-more-rugby-referees-should-be-bilingual-73645">Six Nations: why more rugby referees should be bilingual</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The list also contains a large number of words used in rugby and in general English with the same meaning, like “referee”, “kick”, “field” and “replacement”.</p>
<p>The phrases were identified firstly through finding the core or root structure – that is, the word strings that occurred most often, such as “advantage line”, “knock on” and “the ball”. </p>
<p>The next step was to identify the words that occurred regularly before or after the core structures. For example, words that can appear before “the ball” include “over”, “off”, “onto” and “with”. For “advantage line”, the preceding word is often “over”, and “knocked on” often appears as “knocked on by”.</p>
<h2>The translation game</h2>
<p>The resulting list can be used by rugby players and coaches, but also by people new to the game. </p>
<p>Those planning to play or coach rugby in English or non-English-speaking countries can use the list as a way to structure their learning of these technical terms in the new language – be that French, Japanese or Spanish or English itself.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/brains-not-brawn-is-the-key-to-success-in-international-rugby-47930">Brains not brawn is the key to success in international rugby</a>
</strong>
</em>
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<p>Specialised language courses for rugby players and coaches can be developed using the list to ensure they learn the vocabulary they’re most likely to encounter in rugby settings.</p>
<p>The list is being used as the basis for the development of an app, and is being translated into Japanese. This is a large undertaking requiring bilingual speakers with expert knowledge of the game, but we hope other languages will follow. </p>
<p>The resource will be useful for the ever increasing number of players wanting to play abroad, and should help establish a common language in an already international game.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Stuart Benson is a co-author and keen rugby player whose research formed the basis of the Rugby Word List.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/183816/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Averil Coxhead does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A project to identify rugby’s technical terms aims to make the international game easier to play, ref and watch for everyone, regardless of their native tongue.Averil Coxhead, Professor in Applied Linguistics and TESOL, Te Herenga Waka — Victoria University of WellingtonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1818972022-06-01T10:15:37Z2022-06-01T10:15:37ZWhy we’re searching England for new dialects<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/466374/original/file-20220531-14-mcvtf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=38%2C38%2C5161%2C2432&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/women-said-woman-listening-gossip-76664440">Sukhonosova Anastasia / Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When you meet someone new in person, one of the first things you notice is how they speak – if they speak the same language as you or have a different accent. You’ll also notice if they use different dialect words or phrases to describe things.</p>
<p>Dialects can tell us lots about the history, culture and traditions of a place, a group of people or even an individual family – which is why my team at the <a href="https://dialectandheritage.org.uk/">Dialect and Heritage Project</a> is launching the Great Big Dialect Hunt. Like the rest of the UK, England has a rich and varied dialect landscape, from the dialects of Cumbria and Northumberland in the north, to those of Cornwall, Kent and Sussex in the south. We are interested in hearing all of them, whether you come from a tiny village or a large city.</p>
<p>By capturing a snapshot of present-day usage in England, researchers will be able to ascertain the extent to which dialects are still used, how they vary across the country, and why they matter to people. The project will investigate whether dialects are shaped only by where we grow up and go to school, or if there are other factors in play, such as words inherited from family members, or adopted as people move from place to place or form new relationships.</p>
<h2>What is a dialect?</h2>
<p>The linguistic boundaries between a language and a dialect are much less distinct than might be imagined. As linguist Max Weinreich said: “a language is a dialect with an army and a navy.” Some languages are mutually intelligible and less distinctive from each other than some dialects. But typically, we think of languages containing multiple localised variants called dialects.</p>
<p>A dialect is a set of sounds, words, phrases and grammatical structures associated with a particular place or social group. Location is the most common definition – you may know (or be) someone who speaks Yorkshire dialect, for example. </p>
<p>An accent, on the other hand, is simply a way of pronouncing –- we all have an accent. When people talk about not having an accent, what they really mean is that their accent doesn’t “betray” their geographical origins.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-does-the-uk-have-so-many-accents-88434">Why does the UK have so many accents?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Dialects can be found in both speech and writing, though are much more commonly encountered in spoken language. Oddly enough, many people who speak in dialect don’t read or write it, and vice versa.</p>
<p>Dialects can be a source of local pride, but they also underline differences. Many of us have had the experience of encountering unfamiliar words from other places, or using what we think of as an unremarkable expression – only to be met with blank stares and requests for explanation.</p>
<h2>What dialects tell us</h2>
<p>Dialects can tell us about society, history and movements of people. There are words with Old Norse influence in the Yorkshire dialect (such as “beck” meaning “stream”) because it formed part of the viking Danelaw – those parts of the country that were colonised by vikings during the Anglo-Saxon period. </p>
<p>The words “sneck” for “door latch” or “flit” meaning “to move house” are found as far apart as Scotland and Yorkshire. Why? Because both can be traced back to the Northumbrian variety of Old English, which straddled the present-day Scottish/English border.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Black and white photo, one man mock interviews an older man with a tape recorder and old-fashioned microphone, standing outside a rural home. The older man is wearing a knit cap and smiling" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/466555/original/file-20220601-48567-9pr3mr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/466555/original/file-20220601-48567-9pr3mr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466555/original/file-20220601-48567-9pr3mr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466555/original/file-20220601-48567-9pr3mr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466555/original/file-20220601-48567-9pr3mr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=623&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466555/original/file-20220601-48567-9pr3mr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=623&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/466555/original/file-20220601-48567-9pr3mr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=623&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Survey of English Dialects focused on ‘old men with good teeth’ in rural areas.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">The Survey of English Dialects / University of Leeds</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Traditional dialect studies such as the <a href="https://library.leeds.ac.uk/special-collections/collection/2574">Survey of English Dialects</a>, which was carried out during the 1950s and early 1960s, used dialects as a way to learn about earlier forms of language. Researchers from the University of Leeds visited 313, mainly rural, village locations across England, interviewing two to three speakers in each place. They asked participants some 1,300 questions about the language they used in everyday life. </p>
<p>Fieldworkers were careful to select older speakers who, ideally, were lifelong residents, and likely to be “good” speakers of “traditional dialect”. The research methodology specified a preference for “old men with good teeth”.</p>
<p>Our research makes no such demands about age, length or place of residence, or the state of one’s teeth. We would like to hear from everyone –- young or old, long-term resident or recent arrival –- whether you think you use dialect or not. This is a dialect study for today and the way we live now, and a linguistic time capsule for the future.</p>
<h2>Why dialects matter</h2>
<p>There is something almost visceral about hearing someone use a word from your childhood, local town or village, or a familiar accent that immediately transports you to a specific time and place.</p>
<p>In addition to collecting present-day dialects, we are sharing historical materials (sound recordings, photographs, dialect fieldworkers’ notebooks, fascinating stories of life in times past) from the <a href="https://library.leeds.ac.uk/special-collections/collection/2574">Survey of English Dialects</a> and the <a href="https://library.leeds.ac.uk/special-collections/collection/2571">Leeds Archive of Vernacular Culture</a> with the communities from which they were originally collected. </p>
<p>Dialects are living heritage that we carry within us throughout our lives, connecting us to past and present, people and places. They are about who we are, our sense of self and identity, and where we feel we belong. As such, they deserve to be studied and celebrated, in all of their glorious diversity.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/181897/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Financial support for the Dialect and Heritage Project has come from National Lottery Heritage Fund (£530,500), the University of Leeds’ Footsteps Fund and alumni donations (£110,000), and partner museums (£23,000).
</span></em></p>Dialects can unlock secrets of history, culture, class and movements of people. An expert explains what they are and why they matter.Fiona Douglas, Associate Professor in English Language, University of LeedsLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1823202022-05-05T13:47:15Z2022-05-05T13:47:15ZBill 96 will harm Indigenous people in Québec. We need more equitable language laws<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/461349/original/file-20220504-15-euyt2q.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=10%2C0%2C3487%2C2375&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Québec Premier François Legault defended Bill 96 saying he doesn't want the province to become Louisiana.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Ryan Remiorz</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/bill-96-will-harm-indigenous-people-in-quebec--we-need-more-equitable-language-laws" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>One of the reasons I moved to Québec in 2015 was because of the <em>mélange</em> of languages in which many Quebecers — <a href="https://languagescompany.com/wp-content/uploads/14_1228-LUCIDE-Montreal-Report-V8_HRONLINE.pdf">especially in Montréal</a> — live and work. Some are able to change languages from sentence to sentence; others will switch in the middle of sentences or speak in an ever-changing <a href="https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2011/dp-pd/vc-rv/index.cfm?Lang=ENG&VIEW=D&GEOCODE=24&TOPIC_ID=4">medley of languages</a>.</p>
<p>The language dance happens most frequently between French and English, but other languages can be involved — such as Indigenous and immigrant languages. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/quebecs-bill-40-further-undermines-the-provinces-english-language-school-system-131595">Québec's Bill 40 further undermines the province's English-language school system</a>
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<p>The reality of multilingualism goes very far back in Québec: the perceived founder of French Québec, Samuel de Champlain, even knew “<a href="https://www.penguinrandomhouse.ca/books/49790/champlains-dream-by-david-hackett-fischer/9780307397676">a smattering of [Indigenous] languages, not enough to speak directly on sensitive questions. Most of his communications had to happen through interpreters</a>.” However the mythic view of historical dominance held by some Quebecers is that “<a href="https://www.journaldemontreal.com/2022/01/04/a-propos-du-respect-de-notre-langue"><em>la langue française […] s’est implantée officiellement au Québec avec Samuel de Champlain en 1608</em></a>” or, the French language was officially established in Québec with Samuel de Champlain in 1608.</p>
<p>As the leader of a tiny, vulnerable French outpost, Champlain probably thought more about making alliances with Indigenous nations, which would allow the French colonists to survive, than he did about official languages. </p>
<p>Indigenous nations, and languages, have endured — as have the descendants of the original French settlers (including me), joined by British settlers and a mix of immigrants from all over the world, to create a diverse and complex society.</p>
<p>And all of this contributes to why Bill 96 is so problematic. The <a href="http://m.assnat.qc.ca/en/travaux-parlementaires/projets-loi/projet-loi-96-42-1.html">proposed bill</a>, “An Act respecting French, the official and common language of Québec,” will reduce the accessibility to health-care services in English, which will <a href="https://montrealgazette.com/news/local-news/first-nations-leaders-call-bill-96-cultural-genocide">drastically and negatively impact Indigenous people</a>. As a researcher and teacher of Inuit health, I find this deeply troubling.</p>
<h2>Indigenous experience in Québec</h2>
<p>Part of Québec’s complexity is ensuring equity for all its citizens. For Indigenous people in the province, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s12939-021-01500-8">equitable treatment can seem fleeting</a>. </p>
<p>In the health-care system, systemic discrimination against Indigenous people has been formally recognized. In 2019, the Québec-mandated Viens Commission concluded that “<a href="https://www.cerp.gouv.qc.ca/fileadmin/Fichiers_clients/Rapport/Final_report.pdf">it is clear that prejudice toward Indigenous Peoples remains widespread in the interaction between caregivers and patients</a>,” and recommended “cultural safeguard principles” be incorporated into health services and programs for Indigenous people. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Protesters walk wearing ribbon skirts, holding signs that read 'Justice pour Joyce'" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/461325/original/file-20220504-27-me06yd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/461325/original/file-20220504-27-me06yd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461325/original/file-20220504-27-me06yd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461325/original/file-20220504-27-me06yd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461325/original/file-20220504-27-me06yd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=552&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461325/original/file-20220504-27-me06yd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=552&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461325/original/file-20220504-27-me06yd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=552&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Thousands of people take part in a rally in support of Joyce Echaquan in Trois-Rivières, Que., in June, 2021.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Ryan Remiorz</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In October 2021, coroner Géhane Kamel’s <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/montreal/joyce-echaquan-systemic-racism-quebec-government-1.6196038">top recommendation</a> in her report on the death of Joyce Echaquan was that the province needs to recognize that systemic racism exists and take concrete action to eliminate it. </p>
<p>To receive health care in a language that you speak is obviously a dimension of cultural safety. So it’s all the more disappointing that a recently released plan to reform the Québec health-care system <a href="https://montrealgazette.com/opinion/opinion-quebec-health-care-plan-fails-to-respond-to-indigenous-concerns">ignores systemic discrimination and cultural safety for patients</a>.</p>
<h2>The problem with Bill 96</h2>
<p>In an analysis of Bill 96, Montréal lawyer and advocate Eric Maldoff <a href="https://montrealgazette.com/opinion/opinion-its-essential-to-exempt-health-and-social-services-from-bill-96">says</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“Even when the staff and institutions have the option to use another language, Bill 96 strongly directs them to avoid exercising it and specifies that a language other than French should not be used systematically, such as by establishing translation services. There is an option to use a language other than French in case of health, public safety and natural justice. However, it seems aimed at dealing with a health emergency of an individual.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Nunavik Inuit in northern Québec have been identifying challenges within the health-care system for years. A report prepared by <a href="https://nrbhss.ca/sites/default/files/health_surveys/The_IQI_Model_of_Health_and_Well-Being_report_en.pdf">the Nunavik Regional Board of Health and Social Services</a> says: “Many [Inuit] do not understand medical terms and translation is sometimes inefficient, as many terms do not have an equivalent in Inuktitut. Consequently, many people struggle to understand their health problems and to follow medical advice.” </p>
<p>Ninety-eight per cent of Nunavik Inuit <a href="https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/89-656-x/89-656-x2016016-eng.htm">speak Inuktitut as their first language</a>. This should be celebrated, not hindered during the <a href="https://en.unesco.org/idil2022-2032">Decade of Indigenous Languages</a>, which Canada supports. Although many Indigenous people in Québec — including most Inuit — may have recognized rights to services in English, many, including myself, think Bill 96 will create greater impediments to accessible health care for Inuit and First Nations people. The bill will worsen health and health care, instead of improving it.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1514348290506203136"}"></div></p>
<h2>Multilingualism shouldn’t be a threat</h2>
<p>Bill 96 will also create new <a href="https://montrealgazette.com/opinion/opinion-quebecs-language-requirements-put-first-nations-students-at-a-disadvantage">challenges in education for Inuit and First Nations people</a> who use English. </p>
<p>Indigenous students will now have to complete an additional three French-language courses <a href="https://montreal.ctvnews.ca/quebec-rolls-back-proposal-forcing-english-cegep-students-into-three-french-language-classes-1.5877572">to receive a CÉGEP diploma</a> (typically required for university admission). In practice, most Inuit, and about half of First Nations students have been predominantly educated in English and will struggle with an additional French requirements.</p>
<p>Québec Premier François Legault recently <a href="https://montrealgazette.com/news/local-news/new-political-parties-would-turn-quebec-into-a-new-louisiana-legault">defended the draft Bill 96 by saying</a>: “If Québec is bilingual, unfortunately the attraction in North America to English will be so strong it will be a matter of time before we don’t speak French in Québec and we become Louisiana.”</p>
<p>Turning into Louisiana is a commonly deployed bogeyman in Québec, to imply that without restrictive measures on the use of other languages, French is endangered.</p>
<p>For most Québec residents, there is broad consensus that French should be protected. But many of us believe that multilingualism — including Indigenous languages — need not threaten French.</p>
<p><em>This is an updated version of a story originally published on May 5, 2022. It clarifies that many Indigenous people in Québec have recognized rights to services in English.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/182320/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Richard Budgell does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>For most Québec residents, there is broad consensus that French should be protected. But many of us believe that multilingualism need not threaten French.Richard Budgell, Assistant Professor, Family Medicine; Ph.D. student, History and Classical Studies, McGill UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1798692022-05-05T10:18:09Z2022-05-05T10:18:09ZSix English words borrowed from the Romany language<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/460009/original/file-20220427-22-a3m5i8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C22%2C4992%2C2784&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/romani-peoples-flag-blowing-wind-3d-2057422496">Tavarius/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Gypsy, Roma and Traveller communities have been part of the UK’s regional populations for centuries. Roma communities are documented to have migrated to the UK during the early 15th century and evidence is found among a variety of official <a href="https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/citizenship/citizen_subject/docs/egyptians.htm">legal documentation</a> and formal correspondence. As part of a wider community referred to as Gypsy Roma and Traveller, Roma have often faced hostility and inequality. It may be surprising then to hear that Romany, an unwritten language spoken by Roma communities is used in everyday English. Romany is a language spoken by communities who live largely across Europe.</p>
<p>The Romany language and culture have been associated with <a href="https://www.history.org.uk/podcasts/categories/438/podcast/655/romani-history">central and northern</a> India and inherits a significant part of its linguistic heritage from Sanskrit alongside modern Indian languages such as Hindi, Urdu and Gujarati. In this sense, it is considered the only Indo Aryan-derived European language.</p>
<p>While there are large communities of Romany speakers across Europe and beyond, only a small number of people in the UK speak a fully grammatical version. Within the UK, the majority of speakers use what is referred to as Anglo-Romany. This is a language unique to the Anglo-Roma of the UK and with a historical and linguistic connection to Romany culture. You may be surprised by some of the words that have been incorrectly labelled as colloquial or slang in English, which are in fact words that have crossed over from Anglo-Romany.</p>
<p>Here are six such words including their meaning found in regional dialects in England with their Romany historical links explained.</p>
<h2>1. Wonga</h2>
<p>This is a word considered slang according to many online dictionaries. However, this is actually an Anglo-Romany word used for “money”. The word derives from the European Romany word “<em>vangar</em>” and is a word used for “coal”, having a clear and historical association of value. There are a number of variations used across Anglo-Romany speaking communities for money and these range from “<em>vonga</em>” to “<em>luvna</em>”. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Loads of notes." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/460015/original/file-20220427-22-4yswlf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/460015/original/file-20220427-22-4yswlf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/460015/original/file-20220427-22-4yswlf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/460015/original/file-20220427-22-4yswlf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/460015/original/file-20220427-22-4yswlf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/460015/original/file-20220427-22-4yswlf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/460015/original/file-20220427-22-4yswlf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Wonga derives from the Romany word ‘vangar’, which means money.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/gbp-money-bill-close-finance-background-1093246820">Makhh/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>2. Chav</h2>
<p>The word “chav” has been popularised as a slur in English to mean a person whose behaviour shows a lack of education or someone having <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-13626046">a lower-class status</a>. But the meaning of “chav” or “chavvi” in Anglo-Romany simply means “boy” or “girl” or even just “child”. “chavo” for boy, “chavi” for girl and “chave” meaning children.</p>
<h2>3. Cushty</h2>
<p>This is another word that was brought into mainstream use and is often associated with the comedy character Del Boy in the popular British sitcom Only Fools and Horses. The word “cushty”, sometimes spelled “kushti” in Anglo-Romany is used as an affirmative adjective and means “good” or “fantastic”. The meaning of cushty originates from an older Romany word “<em>kuč</em>”, meaning expensive. Its use in English is most likely linked to dialect mixing of Anglo-Roma communities and east London cockney speakers.</p>
<h2>4. Chingering</h2>
<p>According to the online source the urban dictionary the word “<a href="https://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=Chingering">chingering</a>” means to caress another person’s chin in a sensual way. This is quite far removed from the meaning of the word chingering used amongst speakers of Anglo-Romany. This word is used to refer to quarrelling or to the act of insulting someone. The word again derives from the Romany words “<em>čhinger</em>” and “<em>čhingerel</em>” meaning to quarrel or shout.</p>
<h2>5. Pal</h2>
<p>This is perhaps the most well-used example of a Romany word found in everyday English, most typically meaning “friend” in English. This term actually originates from the Romany word “phral” meaning brother. The Anglo-Romany word pal is also used for brother and has been extended and again crossed over through dialect contact over the centuries into everyday English.</p>
<h2>6. Peeved</h2>
<p>The English slang word “peeved” is sometimes used to refer to someone who has drunk too much alcohol and is again derived from a Romany word. The European Romany word “<em>pijav</em>” means “drink” and shows a direct connection with the English slang. </p>
<p>These are only a few examples and words such as “lollipop”, and “doylum” are also words from Anglo-Romany. There are many other words from Anglo-Romany that have been adopted into English, and most likely a regional dialect you know will have some fascinating examples.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/179869/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Peter Lee does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>There’s a long history of communities speaking Romany in the UK, so it’s hardly surprising that some of its words have found their way into everyday English.Peter Lee, Lecturer in Language and linguistics, Nottingham Trent UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1639782021-07-28T02:31:20Z2021-07-28T02:31:20ZConfused about which English subject to choose in year 11 and 12? Here’s what you need to know<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/413239/original/file-20210727-25-13knyni.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/girl-reading-book-beside-window-1894004068">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>This article is part of a <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/senior-subjects-series-107516">series</a> providing school students with evidence-based advice for choosing subjects in their senior years.</em></p>
<p>English (or an equivalent <a href="https://www.qcaa.qld.edu.au/senior/certificates-and-qualifications/qce/eligibility-requirements/literacy-and-numeracy-requirements">literacy requirement</a>) is a compulsory subject for all secondary students in Australia. In years 11 and 12 there are several types of English subjects to choose from. </p>
<p>There are different versions of “English” in different states, with various titles and levels of difficulty. </p>
<p>There’s <a href="https://senior-secondary.scsa.wa.edu.au/syllabus-and-support-materials/english">English</a>, <a href="https://educationstandards.nsw.edu.au/wps/portal/nesa/11-12/hsc/about-HSC/hsc-courses">English studies</a>, <a href="https://senior-secondary.scsa.wa.edu.au/syllabus-and-support-materials/english/english2">general English</a>, <a href="https://senior-secondary.scsa.wa.edu.au/syllabus-and-support-materials/english/english2">foundation English</a>, <a href="https://educationstandards.nsw.edu.au/wps/portal/nesa/11-12/hsc/about-HSC/hsc-courses">English standard</a>, <a href="https://educationstandards.nsw.edu.au/wps/portal/nesa/11-12/hsc/about-HSC/hsc-courses">English advanced</a>, <a href="https://www.vcaa.vic.edu.au/curriculum/vce/vce-study-designs/englishlanguage/Pages/Index.aspx">English language</a>, <a href="https://www.qcaa.qld.edu.au/senior/senior-subjects/english/english-literature-extension/syllabus">English and literature extension</a> and <a href="https://senior-secondary.scsa.wa.edu.au/syllabus-and-support-materials/english/literature;%20%5Blink%20text%5D(https://www.vcaa.vic.edu.au/curriculum/vce/vce-study-designs/literature/Pages/Index.aspx)">literature</a>. It is important to choose the right version of English to reach your desired destination. </p>
<h2>Different types of English</h2>
<p>The Australian Curriculum is the base for the development of state and territory senior secondary courses. It breaks English down into <a href="https://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/senior-secondary-curriculum/english/">four broad categories</a>: English, literature, EALD (English as an Additional Language or Dialect) and essential English. </p>
<p><strong>Literature</strong> is known as the most challenging of the four and focuses on literary texts such as poetry, prose and drama. Literature explores the creative use of language through in-depth study of culturally important literary works.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/413234/original/file-20210727-19-xqbre4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Book cover" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/413234/original/file-20210727-19-xqbre4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/413234/original/file-20210727-19-xqbre4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=954&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413234/original/file-20210727-19-xqbre4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=954&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413234/original/file-20210727-19-xqbre4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=954&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413234/original/file-20210727-19-xqbre4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1199&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413234/original/file-20210727-19-xqbre4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1199&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413234/original/file-20210727-19-xqbre4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1199&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In a literature course, you could be asked to explore representations of race in Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/cdrummbks/5968515949">Drümmkopf/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For example, students may explore colonial representations of race in Joseph Conrad’s novella <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-conrads-imperial-horror-story-heart-of-darkness-resonates-with-our-globalised-times-94723">Heart of Darkness</a>, the beauty and unsettling nature of Shakespeare’s sonnets, or Australian cultural identity in Jack Davis’ play <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No_Sugar">No Sugar</a>.</p>
<p>Literature is more like philosophy or history than what we think of as English from NAPLAN (grammar and comprehension). </p>
<p>Literature used to be a popular subject in some states, but its popularity has been falling. Recent <a href="https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/year-12-students-leave-literature-on-the-shelf-20201104-p56bhi.html">figures from Victoria</a> show while literature was the 15th most commonly studied subject in 2015 in the senior years, it tumbled to 19th in 2019. In 2020, it fell off the top 20 list entirely. </p>
<p>In Western Australia, some schools have <a href="https://www.perthnow.com.au/news/education/students-miss-out-as-some-wa-high-schools-drop-literature-as-a-subject-ng-b88844222z">dropped literature</a> because of low enrolments. A report in 2018 noted the percentage of year 12s studying literature fell from 26% in 1998 to 11% in 2017.</p>
<p>Theories about this fall include the fact literature is seen as an elitist subject, that you have to be someone who reads all the time to take it, and you have to love great 19th and 20th century literature.</p>
<p>These things aren’t true. Anyone interested but willing to challenge themselves should and can take literature. And some examples of recent texts include Breath (Tim Winton), The Handmaid’s Tale (Margaret Atwood) and The Book Thief (Marcus Zusak). There are many “fun” texts students can study and while literature is challenging it can also be enriching, and can cultivate a love of reading.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/5-australian-books-that-can-help-young-people-understand-their-place-in-the-world-127712">5 Australian books that can help young people understand their place in the world</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Also, my <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/308792340_Embodiment_and_Becoming_in_Secondary_Drama_Classrooms_The_Effects_of_Neoliberal_Education_Cultures_on_Performances_of_Text_and_Self">research</a> showed some students found studying literary texts to be an empowering experience. One year 12 student said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I’m the black sheep in my household. I identified with Rose (a character from Tim Winton’s Cloudstreet) quite a bit as the strong girl who was being resilient and was trying to break out of where she was. I do performing and everyone else does engineering or chemistry.</p>
</blockquote>
<p><strong>English</strong> develops analytical and creative skills through studying a range of literary and non-literary texts (including oral, multimedia and digital “texts” such as documentaries, graphic novels and feature articles).</p>
<p>If you’re not in love with reading or writing but want to study subjects such as commerce or engineering at university, this may be the course for you. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/413260/original/file-20210727-19-1xyxfys.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Girl lying on the couch reading magazine" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/413260/original/file-20210727-19-1xyxfys.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/413260/original/file-20210727-19-1xyxfys.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=383&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413260/original/file-20210727-19-1xyxfys.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=383&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413260/original/file-20210727-19-1xyxfys.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=383&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413260/original/file-20210727-19-1xyxfys.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=481&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413260/original/file-20210727-19-1xyxfys.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=481&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413260/original/file-20210727-19-1xyxfys.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=481&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In English, you can study a range of texts, such as magazine feature articles.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/woman-lying-on-couch-reading-fashion-1362782126">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Although it’s seen as easier than literature, not everyone finds it that way. One Victorian student who had <a href="https://www.vcestudyguides.com/blog/vce-english-vs-vce-literature-which-one-is-right-for-you">taken both literature and English wrote</a> actually found the latter harder. This is because she felt she had more freedom in literature while English “wasn’t really compatible with tangents”. She found it harder to be more concise in her expression.</p>
<p><strong>English as an additional language</strong> is designed for students with English is their second language. This is an ATAR subject in some states such as <a href="https://senior-secondary.scsa.wa.edu.au/syllabus-and-support-materials/english/english-as-an-additional-language-or-dialect#:%7E:text=The%20EAL%2FD%20ATAR%20course,prepare%20students%20for%20tertiary%20study.&text=The%20Authority%20is%20reviewing%20the,first%20or%20'home'%20language.">Western Australia</a> and <a href="https://www.vcaa.vic.edu.au/curriculum/vce/vce-study-designs/english-and-eal/Pages/index.aspx">Victoria</a>. </p>
<p><strong>Essential English</strong> develops students’ use of language, but it is not an ATAR subject (except <a href="https://www.satac.edu.au/satac-publications">in South Australia</a>). Essential English and <a href="https://senior-secondary.scsa.wa.edu.au/syllabus-and-support-materials/english/english2">general English</a> (also an ATAR subject <a href="https://www.satac.edu.au/satac-publications">in South Australia</a>) are generally tailored to students who would like to graduate from high school but don’t want to go to university.</p>
<h2>How do I decide which to take?</h2>
<p>The first question you can ask is: “Do I want to go to university?”. If the answer is “yes”, you are likely to choose an English subject that will go towards your ATAR.</p>
<p>It’s worth noting you can still get into university without an <a href="https://theconversation.com/dont-stress-your-atar-isnt-the-final-call-there-are-many-ways-to-get-into-university-125429">ATAR, or without a very high one</a>, but it does give your more options.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/dont-stress-your-atar-isnt-the-final-call-there-are-many-ways-to-get-into-university-125429">Don't stress, your ATAR isn't the final call. There are many ways to get into university</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>ATAR subjects are traditionally seen as more difficult than non-ATAR ones, although for anyone who has ever studied non-ATAR subjects, this is debatable.</p>
<p>So, let’s take an example student, Mia. She is tossing up between medicine, mechanics or music teaching. </p>
<p>If Mia wants to become a mechanic, she does not need an ATAR to get a school-based apprenticeship. She may be better off studying <a href="https://senior-secondary.scsa.wa.edu.au/syllabus-and-support-materials/english/english2">general English</a>, which focuses on the skills students need to become competent communicators in everyday life, or at work. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/413262/original/file-20210727-20-5f34cq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A woman mechanic." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/413262/original/file-20210727-20-5f34cq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/413262/original/file-20210727-20-5f34cq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413262/original/file-20210727-20-5f34cq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413262/original/file-20210727-20-5f34cq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413262/original/file-20210727-20-5f34cq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413262/original/file-20210727-20-5f34cq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413262/original/file-20210727-20-5f34cq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">If Mia wants to become a mechanic, she doesn’t need to do an English subject that contributes to an ATAR.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/portrait-shot-female-mechanic-working-under-1711144597">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But if Mia wants to be a music teacher or doctor, she is better off choosing an English subject that contributes to an ATAR. If she would like to be a teacher, she could choose something like <a href="https://educationstandards.nsw.edu.au/wps/portal/nesa/11-12/stage-6-learning-areas/stage-6-english">English standard or English advanced</a> and will need an ATAR score over 70 (but more than likely <a href="https://www.ecu.edu.au/future-students/course-entry/atar-requirements">around 85</a>).
If she would like to study medicine, she will need an <a href="https://www.monash.edu/study/courses/admissions-transparency/atar-offer-profile-report">ATAR closer to 99</a>. </p>
<h2>What about scaling?</h2>
<p>Some English subjects are scaled higher, while others lower.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.tisc.edu.au/static/statistics/scaling/scaling-index.tisc">Scaling</a> uses an algorithm to make subject scores more or less comparable to each other. This also makes sure if a student takes a difficult subject, they aren’t disadvantaged. It’s easier to get an A in an easier subject than a harder subject, so scaling generally adds more points to students doing harder subjects.</p>
<p>ATAR literature, a traditionally more difficult course, is usually scaled up. In Western Australia in 2020, for instance, English was <a href="https://www.tisc.edu.au/static/statistics/scaling/scaling-index.tisc">scaled down</a> about two points and literature was scaled up by nearly seven.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/choosing-your-senior-school-subjects-doesnt-have-to-be-scary-here-are-6-things-to-keep-in-mind-160257">Choosing your senior school subjects doesn't have to be scary. Here are 6 things to keep in mind</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>But students shouldn’t just take a subject like literature because it’s scaled up. Because it’s harder, they may get a lower mark and the scaling won’t make much difference. You should do what interests you, and what you think will contribute best to your future while ensuring a good senior school experience.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1417399025930698752"}"></div></p>
<h2>What could I do with English?</h2>
<p>English is compulsory because you need it for everything in life, from social communication to employment. </p>
<p>Studying literature, which isn’t compulsory, can be useful for occupations that require an advanced command of language such as journalism, research, law, public relations, philosophy and politics. </p>
<p><em>Read the other articles in our series on choosing senior subjects, <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/senior-subjects-series-107516">here</a>.</em></p>
<hr>
<p><em>This article has been corrected to note that essential English and general English can contribute to an ATAR in South Australia. Students should consult with the subject advisers in their own schools to confirm their subject choices align with their goals.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/163978/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kirsten Lambert does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>There are different versions of ‘English’ in different states, with various titles and levels of difficulty. It’s important to choose the right one to reach your desired destination.Kirsten Lambert, Lecturer, Edith Cowan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1648362021-07-25T14:11:31Z2021-07-25T14:11:31ZShould bilingualism change in Canada? The debate over Gov. Gen. Mary Simon<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412707/original/file-20210722-21-175fml0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=8%2C275%2C5551%2C3417&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Mary Simon, an Inuk leader and former Canadian diplomat, has been named as Canada's next governor general — the first Indigenous person to serve in the role.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Sean Kilpatrick </span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Raymond Théberge, Canada’s official languages commissioner, says his office has received more than <a href="https://montrealgazette.com/news/local-news/probe-launched-after-400-complaints-over-new-ggs-lack-of-french">400 complaints about the appointment of Inuk leader Mary Simon</a> as governor general. </p>
<p>The “problem” is her lack of French-English bilingualism, although she is bilingual, speaking both Inuktitut and English. </p>
<p>Canada has had an <a href="https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/official-languages-act-1969">official bilingualism policy for 50 years</a>, established to deal with a <a href="https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/quiet-revolution">1960s constitutional crisis</a> regarding francophone Canadians. </p>
<p>Today a very different crisis presents itself: the reckoning of Canada’s colonial practices towards Indigenous people. The uncomfortable clash between different minority languages is coming to a head with the appointment of Simon. </p>
<p>But which languages “count” in Canada? And who gets to be the “right” kind of bilingual? </p>
<h2>Anglophones vs. francophones</h2>
<p>In the 1960s, the Canadian government was dealing with <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/history/EPISCONTENTSE1EP16CH1PA1LE.html">the Révolution Tranquille (Quiet Revolution)</a> in Québec. This period of social unrest caused the Catholic Church’s influence to decline and placed language at the forefront of Québécois identity. </p>
<p>This was after a long history of economic asymmetry in Québec. In the 18th and 19th centuries, the English made up <a href="https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/francophone-anglophone-relations">the bulk of the governing and merchant class</a>, while the French laboured for the English (for instance <a href="https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/coureurs-de-bois">as coureurs de bois</a>, or unlicensed fur traders), or <a href="https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/quebec-rural-society">lived on subsistence farms</a>. Overall, the French were more populous, but also more rural, less educated and poorer. </p>
<p>This pattern changed only slightly over the decades, coming to a head in the 1960s during the <a href="https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/royal-commission-on-bilingualism-and-biculturalism">Laurendeau-Dunton Commission — also known as the Bilingualism and Biculturalism Commission</a> — that revealed deep economic and social inequities between francophones and anglophones in Québec. </p>
<p>In order to raise the status of francophones in Canada, Pierre Trudeau’s government passed the <a href="https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/o-3.01/page-1.html#h-384138">Official Languages Act in 1969 (revamped in 1985)</a>, giving French equal institutional status as English. </p>
<p>This set the stage for today, where most Canadians take official bilingualism as a given. It is perhaps unsurprising, then, that Simon’s lack of French fluency would raise some eyebrows.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Stop sign reads STOP in english, french and Inuktitut" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412733/original/file-20210722-23-1wy47d8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412733/original/file-20210722-23-1wy47d8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412733/original/file-20210722-23-1wy47d8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412733/original/file-20210722-23-1wy47d8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412733/original/file-20210722-23-1wy47d8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412733/original/file-20210722-23-1wy47d8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412733/original/file-20210722-23-1wy47d8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A stop sign in English, French and Inuktitut is seen in Iqaluit, Nunavut.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Paul Chiasson</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Bilingualism vs. Multiculturalism</h2>
<p>The Official Languages Act has always been at odds with Canada’s claims of multiculturalism. The Canadian ideal was to promote multiple cultures while promoting only two languages, or as linguist Eve Haque has called it, “<a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3138/9781442686083">Multiculturalism within a Bilingual Framework</a>.” </p>
<p>However, given that language is usually believed to be an essential component of culture (indeed, <a href="https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/language-policy">Québecers argued this</a>), this is already a tenuous policy. </p>
<p>When we establish “official” languages, we demote all other languages to “unofficial.” Equality is only for French and English, not for Cree, or Mohawk, or Inuktitut, or even German — whose speakers have always <a href="http://www.canadanewsagency.com/Sociology/1029.html">greatly outnumbered French speakers on the Prairies</a>. In fact, <a href="https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/as-sa/fogs-spg/Facts-PR-Eng.cfm?TOPIC=5&LANG=Eng&GK=PR&GC=46">the 2016 census reports more than 66,000 German mother-tongue speakers in Manitoba</a>, compared to 46,000 French mother-tongue speakers.</p>
<p>Current language policy in Canada establishes a hierarchy of French and English above all other languages that underpins how we talk about everything in this country. The census reports on French and English separately, but groups all other languages together. Being bilingual only <a href="https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/bilingualism">“counts” if it is French-English</a>. </p>
<p>This is why more than 400 complainants to the official languages commissioner consider Simon’s bilingualism inadequate, despite Inuktitut being <a href="https://www.clo-ocol.gc.ca/en/timeline-event/the-legislative-assembly-of-nunavut-adopts-the-official-languages-act-and-the-inuit">one of three official languages of Nunavut</a>. </p>
<p>Although most may agree that it is always desirable to speak an Indigenous language, it is <em>in addition</em> to French and English, not as a replacement.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Simon stands behind a podium in front of Canada Flags" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412732/original/file-20210722-27-1g7qsch.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412732/original/file-20210722-27-1g7qsch.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412732/original/file-20210722-27-1g7qsch.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412732/original/file-20210722-27-1g7qsch.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412732/original/file-20210722-27-1g7qsch.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412732/original/file-20210722-27-1g7qsch.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412732/original/file-20210722-27-1g7qsch.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Simon speaks during an announcement at the Canadian Museum of History in Gatineau, Que., on July 6, 2021.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Sean Kilpatrick</span></span>
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<h2>Indigenous language endangerment</h2>
<p>Fast forward 50 years from the Official Languages Act, and there is a different crisis afoot in Canada. </p>
<p>Today we are reckoning with decades of colonial government practices towards Indigenous people and languages. Policies such as <a href="https://indigenousfoundations.arts.ubc.ca/the_residential_school_system/">residential schools</a> and <a href="https://indigenousfoundations.arts.ubc.ca/sixties_scoop/">the 60s scoop</a> were the direct cause of Indigenous language loss. </p>
<p>Removing children from their families and forcing them to learn an “official” language <a href="https://essentialsoflinguistics.pressbooks.com/chapter/11-2-indigenous-languages-and-the-legacy-of-residential-schools">resulted in an abrupt end of familial language transmission</a> for nearly all of the <a href="https://en.ccunesco.ca/-/media/Files/Unesco/Resources/2018/09/IndigenousLanguagesCCUNESCO.pdf">70-plus Indigenous languages spoken in this country</a>. </p>
<p>The <a href="http://trc.ca/assets/pdf/Calls_to_Action_English2.pdf">Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) Calls to Action</a> include the revitalization and re-establishment of these languages. The federal government response to these recommendations led to the <a href="https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/I-7.85/page-1.html">Indigenous Languages Act of 2019</a>. </p>
<p>Canada’s Official Languages Act states that it will “advance the equality of status and use of the English and French languages within Canadian society.” And the Indigenous Languages Act states that the “recognition and implementation of rights related to Indigenous languages are at the core of reconciliation with Indigenous peoples, and are fundamental to shaping the country.” </p>
<p>How can Canada reconcile the two?</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/canadas-new-governor-general-mary-simon-is-poised-to-engage-in-her-most-challenging-diplomatic-mission-yet-164229">Canada's new governor general, Mary Simon, is poised to engage in her most challenging diplomatic mission yet</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>While French remains a minority language in Canada, many <a href="https://www.ictinc.ca/blog/why-is-it-important-to-protect-revitalize-indigenous-languages">Indigenous languages are on the brink of extinction</a>. Inuktitut is among the Indigenous languages most spoken today as a mother tongue, and even <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/north/inuktut-nunavut-statistics-canada-1.5205870">it is declining</a>. The federal government and all Canadians have an obligation to work towards reconciliation with Indigenous people, and to implement the TRC recommendations. </p>
<p>Recognizing Indigenous languages as equal in status to French and English, and accepting Inuktitut-English bilingualism in a first Indigenous governor general, would be a good start.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/164836/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nicole Rosen receives funding from The Social Sciences and Humanities Council of Canada and Canada Research Chairs. </span></em></p>Which languages get to “count” as bilingual in Canada? And who gets to be the “right” kind of bilingual?Nicole Rosen, Professor and Canada Research Chair in Language Interactions, University of ManitobaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1586052021-05-14T12:46:32Z2021-05-14T12:46:32ZNew teachers face complex cultural challenges – the stories of 3 Latina teachers in their toughest moments<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/396125/original/file-20210420-23-1ghs1gv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=36%2C0%2C8115%2C6123&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Identity and race play significant factors in the first-year experiences of Latina teachers in the U.S.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/high-school-teacher-and-students-in-classroom-royalty-free-image/1264702811?adppopup=true">RichLegg/E+ via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Gun control. Hallway decorations. Hairstyles.</p>
<p>Those aren’t the things I expected to be stumbling blocks for three Latina educators that I helped prepare to become schoolteachers in recent years. But each situation came up in their classroom or in the course of their jobs at various elementary and middle schools in the state of Indiana, where I teach. Their situations are indicative of a time in our society when we are called to more closely pay attention to issues of racism and social justice.</p>
<p>I’m tracking these former students – along with three others – as part of a study I am doing on the first-year experiences of Latina teachers. As an <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=d7Q3n0UAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">educator who helps prepare future school teachers</a>, I believe these experiences help shine light on some of the expectations that students, parents and school administrators might sometimes have of classroom teachers. Conversely, my research also shows some of the culturally dicey situations that schoolteachers may have to navigate once they get a classroom of their own.</p>
<p>On a broader level, my research shows the complex interactions that can take place within schools with student bodies that are becoming <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2019/local/education/teacher-diversity/">increasingly diverse</a>.</p>
<p>With that in mind, here are three examples based on the experiences of three former students of mine in their first year of teaching. All names in the following examples are pseudonyms.</p>
<h2>Gun control</h2>
<p>When Ms. Raymond, a sixth grade social studies teacher, discussed the Second Amendment, Mary, a white female student, expressed her view that Democrats wanted to take everyone’s guns away and that people needed guns in their home for protection.</p>
<p>Ms. Raymond clarified that some people want to see laws passed that make guns less accessible. That same day, Mary’s parents reached out to Ms. Raymond and insisted she meet with them in person. After Ms. Raymond refused to meet in person due to COVID-19 restrictions and her own sense of safety, the parents refused to meet via Zoom or discuss it over the telephone and instead explained their concerns via a messaging app the school uses for teachers and parents to communicate.</p>
<p>Mary’s parents claimed in their messages to Ms. Raymond that Mary felt Ms. Raymond is biased against her opinions and prevents her from stating them by not calling on her. They said Ms. Raymond should allow all students to speak their opinions, even if she doesn’t agree with them, which Ms. Raymond believes she does. They also insisted Ms. Raymond not speak to their child individually because she feels “threatened” by Ms. Raymond. They asked that the homeroom teacher, a white male teacher, be present during any further one-on-one interactions with Mary. The principal agreed that the student should be accommodated in order to make her feel more comfortable.</p>
<p>Ms. Raymond believes this is a move to undermine her position as a teacher. It also serves to uphold the stereotype of Latinas as being loud, hot-tempered and volatile, as indicated in the suggestion that she made the student feel “threatened.” </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/399068/original/file-20210505-17-1vshczw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A female teacher wearing a mask conducts her zoom class." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/399068/original/file-20210505-17-1vshczw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/399068/original/file-20210505-17-1vshczw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/399068/original/file-20210505-17-1vshczw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/399068/original/file-20210505-17-1vshczw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/399068/original/file-20210505-17-1vshczw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=516&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/399068/original/file-20210505-17-1vshczw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=516&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/399068/original/file-20210505-17-1vshczw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=516&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Classroom discussions around race can be difficult to navigate.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/gladys-alvarez-a-5th-grade-teacher-at-manchester-ave-news-photo/1228141222?adppopup=true">Mel Melcon/Los Angeles Times via Getty Images</a></span>
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</figure>
<h2>Hallway decorations</h2>
<p>Ms. Sanchez teaches in a school district where the dual language program is prominently featured on the district’s website. And with good reason. The teachers in this program have gone above and beyond to make the students feel welcomed and part of the school community.</p>
<p>Behind the scenes, however, the principal told the teachers in the program – including Ms. Sanchez – that they couldn’t do certain activities, such as decorating the school hallways with student work, unless they involved the other teachers in the same grade level but who are not part of the program. This happened after those teachers – veteran white teachers – complained that they weren’t being invited to participate in dual language program activities. As a practical matter, Ms. Sanchez says this means the dual language program has to involve white teachers who know neither the students nor the program.</p>
<p>The irony of the situation, according to Ms. Sanchez, is that the non-Spanish-speaking teachers were always welcome to participate in the dual language program activities – they just didn’t want to stay after school to do it.</p>
<p>In effect, while the district promotes the dual language program on its website to create an image of diversity and inclusion, the dual language program in Ms. Sanchez’s school has little autonomy, and she feels it is subjected to white surveillance and control.</p>
<h2>Hairstyles</h2>
<p>During a sixth grade science lesson that was fully online due to the pandemic, several Black girls began to comment on the hair of a white student, Amy, because her hair was braided in small cornrows with beads, seemingly in emulation of a hairstyle typically worn by Black girls.</p>
<p>“Ms. Gonzales, do you think Amy is culturally appropriating right now?” one Black female student asked.</p>
<p>Rather than address the matter on the spot, Ms. Gonzales told her students that these types of conversations are important and that they would address it two days later.</p>
<p>That day, Ms. Gonzales spoke with her team and the principal. Her team concluded that this is a conversation that obviously matters to their Black female students and that waiting two days to talk to them was too long. The principal agreed, adding that racial equality is a key part of their school and the only way to show students this is by hearing their voices. </p>
<p>She also spoke with Amy, the white student who explained that she just loved her friend’s braids and wanted to style her hair the same way, so she had her aunt do her hair. After watching a couple of videos and reading a book with Ms. Gonzales about Black hair, Amy came to realize how it could offend some of her Black peers. Ms. Gonzales also spoke with Amy’s mother, who was supportive and understood why Black students were offended.</p>
<p>Before getting into the full conversation of cultural appropriation, the class discussed what it meant to “pull people in” kindly to these kinds of conversations and not singling people out. Ms. Gonzales also discussed a bit of how Black women’s hair has been discriminated against, <a href="https://www.essence.com/hair/tignon-laws-cultural-appropriation-black-natural-hair/">historically</a> as well as in <a href="https://www.fisherphillips.com/news-insights/the-roots-of-the-crown-act-what-employers-need-to-know-about-hairstyle-discrimination-laws.html">contemporary times</a>. </p>
<p>She also brought in opinions from Black friends and colleagues on how they feel about white people wearing Black hairstyles, as well as Tik Tok videos of persons of color explaining why it’s cultural appropriation or not.</p>
<p>At the end of the meeting, which her mother also attended, Amy decided to make a statement which in part said, “I understand that I had my hair done and it offended some of my peers of color. I love the Black culture and I wanted to respect it. I didn’t know I would be offending the Black culture, and I thought I would be called out in a positive way and not a negative way.”</p>
<p>Ms. Gonzales said she received a lot of backlash from co-workers outside of her team who told her that having such conversations is wrong. Ms. Gonzales defends her actions, saying she sees it as important to provide a space where all students can voice their feelings and learn about issues such as cultural appropriation.</p>
<p>As these three accounts indicate, teachers in their first year of teaching must navigate various concerns – and sometimes concerns that conflict – among parents, students and administrators. Knowing this in advance can help teachers better prepare for the various cultural dilemmas they are likely to face in today’s classroom and beyond.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/158605/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Teresa Sosa does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Dicey cultural situations and power struggles await Latina teachers in America’s schools.Teresa Sosa, Associate Professor of Education, IUPUILicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1579362021-04-18T11:42:45Z2021-04-18T11:42:45ZDivided Britain: north and south more estranged than Scotland and England<p>For many of us, a national identity is an essential part of who we are. For others, it’s a source of division. National boundaries, like any boundary, imply that some are on the outside. As long as there’s an in-group, there must also be an out-group. But one important idea about national identity is that it provides a sort of “psychological glue” holding the citizens of a country together. It provides a sense of moral commitment to our fellow citizens.</p>
<p>But there are concerns that the psychological glue holding the United Kingdom together has dried out and lost its sticking power. Gordon Brown, the former prime minister, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2021/jan/25/uk-at-risk-of-becoming-failed-state-says-gordon-brown">recently argued</a> that the UK is at risk of becoming a failed state and breaking up. He warned that the coronavirus pandemic had exposed divisions between different parts of the UK:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>You’ve got not only the Scottish first minister but you’ve got the regional mayors saying they are not consulted and listened to … you’ve got no mechanism, no forum for coordinating the regions and nations, and I think that the public are fed up.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>These concerns have been bubbling under for some time. However, the problem is not just a lack of kinship between the different nations of the UK but also between people in England. In fact, the north/south divide appears to run deeper than the England/Scotland divide. </p>
<h2>Shared values?</h2>
<p>We asked a series of questions in a nationally representative online survey in 2019 as part of our ongoing research for a forthcoming paper. We asked whether participants felt people in other parts of the country shared their values. We found that the pattern of responses was largely driven by one’s national or regional identity. There was a marked tendency for what psychologists term “in-group preference” – a tendency to favour people we see as similar to ourselves. </p>
<p>Among people who think of themselves as Scottish, nearly 90% felt that fellow Scots were people who “share my values”. Less than 60% felt the same about English people. People who describe themselves as English also show substantially greater affinity with other English people than with members of the Scottish “out-group”.</p>
<p><strong>In-groups and out-groups</strong></p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/393102/original/file-20210401-17-1fucjfj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A graph showing that Scottish people are more likely to say other Scottish people share their values and English people are more likely to the same of other English people." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/393102/original/file-20210401-17-1fucjfj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/393102/original/file-20210401-17-1fucjfj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=272&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/393102/original/file-20210401-17-1fucjfj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=272&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/393102/original/file-20210401-17-1fucjfj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=272&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/393102/original/file-20210401-17-1fucjfj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=342&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/393102/original/file-20210401-17-1fucjfj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=342&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/393102/original/file-20210401-17-1fucjfj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=342&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
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<p>This is in line with with a <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-44300916">great deal of research</a> on the way English and Scottish people feel about their identities, their national flags and their national achievements. We also know that fewer Scots now subscribe to a shared British identity than before devolution happened in the 1990s. Devolution was, in many respects, a consequence of the rise of nationalist movements in Scotland, Ireland and Wales seeking greater independence within or even from the UK.</p>
<p>What is perhaps more surprising is how English people feel about each other. One might have expected that devolution would have strengthened a sense of Englishness at the same time that it weakened Britishness. But when we looked at shared values within England, we found an even larger gulf between northerners and southerners than we did between English and Scots.</p>
<p>Northerners and southerners both showed substantial in-group preference, but unlike the Scottish/English situation we also found a marked asymmetry. Northerners show rather positive assessments of their fellow northerners alongside surprisingly negative views of the southerner out-group: more than 80% of northerners said they shared values with fellow northerners but barely more than 30% felt the same way about southerners. </p>
<p><strong>North/south divide</strong></p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/393103/original/file-20210401-15-6maftx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A graph showing that people the North of England are more likely to say other people in their region share their values rather than people in the South and vice versa." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/393103/original/file-20210401-15-6maftx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/393103/original/file-20210401-15-6maftx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=272&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/393103/original/file-20210401-15-6maftx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=272&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/393103/original/file-20210401-15-6maftx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=272&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/393103/original/file-20210401-15-6maftx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=342&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/393103/original/file-20210401-15-6maftx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=342&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/393103/original/file-20210401-15-6maftx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=342&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
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<p>It is possible that Brexit is further exacerbating these centrifugal tendencies, making Scottish independence and Irish re-unification more likely. Many Scots, for example, feel they have been <a href="https://www.scotsman.com/news/opinion/columnists/scotland-did-not-vote-be-dragged-out-eu-michael-russell-3006463">dragged out of the EU</a> against their will.</p>
<p>Brexit may also be a catalyst for fragmentation within England. There were certainly <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-geography-of-brexit-what-the-vote-reveals-about-the-disunited-kingdom-61633">large divisions across England</a> (greater indeed than the divisions between the four constituent nations of the UK) in support for Brexit.</p>
<h2>Cold shoulder to Westminster</h2>
<p>One explanation for these divisions may be related to how people are treated, or feel that they are treated. COVID provided an example of this in late 2020 when some northern mayors <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/oct/10/north-of-england-leaders-not-consulted-on-local-covid-lockdowns">expressed anger</a> at not being consulted or even listened to by the Westminster government when decisions were made about lockdowns.</p>
<p>Our data suggests that negative perceptions of the Westminster government might be widespread among the general public in northern regions, not just among northern mayors. We asked: “In general, which regions, if any, does the government look after best, and which the least well?” We found that when a region is more negative about how well the Westminster government treats it, it is also more negative towards southerners.</p>
<p><strong>Emotional miles from Westminster</strong></p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/393104/original/file-20210401-21-11bsj70.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A graph showing that negative feelings about how Westminster treats a region correlate with feelings of estrangement from southerners." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/393104/original/file-20210401-21-11bsj70.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/393104/original/file-20210401-21-11bsj70.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=312&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/393104/original/file-20210401-21-11bsj70.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=312&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/393104/original/file-20210401-21-11bsj70.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=312&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/393104/original/file-20210401-21-11bsj70.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/393104/original/file-20210401-21-11bsj70.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/393104/original/file-20210401-21-11bsj70.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Feelings about Westminster and feelings about Southerners.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These results strongly suggest that it’s right to see problems within England, not just between the four nations of the UK. Future questions of national identity might therefore also apply to the relations between the Westminster government and the people of northern regions as well as between the government and Scotland or the other devolved powers. Indeed, if anything, the divisions within England are greater than those between England and Scotland. Perhaps this is something <a href="https://www.newstatesman.com/politics/uk/2021/04/why-you-should-take-tongue-cheek-northern-independence-party-seriously">the new Northern Independence Party</a> can capitalise on.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/157936/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lindsay Richards receives funding from the ESRC. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anthony Heath receives funding from the ESRC. He is a Fellow of the British Academy.</span></em></p>We studied shared values within England and found an even larger gulf between Northerners and Southerners than we did between English and Scots.Lindsay Richards, Lecturer in Sociology, University of OxfordAnthony Heath, Director of the Centre for Social Investigation, Nuffield College, University of OxfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1509202021-01-11T13:14:22Z2021-01-11T13:14:22ZWhy does grammar matter?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/377040/original/file-20210104-23-1keuyz1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C40%2C3003%2C1954&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Children begin to learn grammar well before they start school, when they craft their first short sentences.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/school-chalkboard-2-royalty-free-image/182149461?adppopup=true"> RonTech2000/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span></figcaption></figure><figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/curious-kids-us-74795">Curious Kids</a> is a series for children of all ages. If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, send it to <a href="mailto:curiouskidsus@theconversation.com">curiouskidsus@theconversation.com</a>.</em></p>
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<p><strong>Why does grammar matter? – Maci, 13, Indianapolis, Indiana</strong></p>
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<p>After 20 years of teaching academic writing to both native speakers and English language learners, I can attest that at some point, just about everyone asks me why, or even whether, grammar matters. </p>
<p>There is more than one way to define grammar. Linguists – the people who study language – define “grammar” as a description of how a language operates. Though some people use it to bully people for making mistakes, grammar is not <a href="https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/grammar#:%7E:text=For%20linguists%2C%20grammar%20is%20simply,to%20put%20together%20a%20sentence.&text=Every%20language%20has%20restrictions%20on,syntax%20as%20any%20other%20language">a way to decide if language is right or wrong</a>. Everyone makes mistakes, and the English language is amazingly flexible in how its pieces can be put together and understood. </p>
<p>That’s because English is a “living” language, actively spoken by people worldwide. It grows and changes, picking up <a href="https://ncte.org/blog/2015/03/students-right-to-their-own-language/">new words and new ways of constructing meaning all the time</a>. </p>
<p>All kinds of factors influence the way people talk, including regional variations, age, ethnicity, education level and technology. People from Indianapolis use English differently than <a href="https://www.ling.upenn.edu/phono_atlas/NationalMap/NationalMap.html">people from Alaska or Georgia</a>. And American English sounds and works differently than the English spoken in England, Jamaica or India. But they are all still <a href="https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429506871">considered English</a>. </p>
<p>Through reading, writing and speaking, you have already learned quite a bit about how English works. You began your education in grammar when you first started using simple sentences. For example, my son had to learn to say “carry me,” not “carry you,” when he wanted to be picked up. That’s grammar, even though you didn’t always call it that.</p>
<p>The school subject we call grammar is the next step. It establishes some ground rules that attempt to define what can be considered a more uniform, established version of English. There is a complicated history of <a href="http://www.englishproject.org/resources/development-english-grammar">how those rules were created and who benefits from them</a>. The end result is that schools teach the kind of English students in their country will be expected to use in <a href="https://ncte.org/statement/qandaaboutgrammar/">public, at work and in formal writing</a>. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/377845/original/file-20210108-17-yetdfw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Man in facemask supervises children under a makeshift hut" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/377845/original/file-20210108-17-yetdfw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/377845/original/file-20210108-17-yetdfw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/377845/original/file-20210108-17-yetdfw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/377845/original/file-20210108-17-yetdfw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/377845/original/file-20210108-17-yetdfw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/377845/original/file-20210108-17-yetdfw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/377845/original/file-20210108-17-yetdfw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">An outdoor classroom set up in New Delhi, India, for the pandemic. Indian children learn a different kind of formal English than American children do.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/volunteer-teacher-supervises-lessons-for-underprivileged-news-photo/1290692542?adppopup=true">Anindito Mukherjee/Getty Images</a></span>
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<p>Writing exists to be read. So the reader must be considered when you construct sentences. You write differently for your friends, your parents and your teacher. The grammar you learn in school helps you meet the expectations of the reader. They also learned a similar grammar in school. </p>
<p>Wait, did I just make a grammar mistake using “they” – plural – to refer to a singular “reader”?</p>
<p>Well, maybe not. Remember how I said English is a living language? The use of “their” as a singular, nongendered pronoun is one example of how the language is changing. Traditionally, I would have written “he,” because for so long male was the default gender. As the social thinking about gender changed, people began to write “he or she” to be more inclusive. Now we can use “they,” which is <a href="https://public.oed.com/blog/a-brief-history-of-singular-they/">all-encompassing</a>. </p>
<p>That shift will continue to be debated, as will starting a sentence with a conjunction like “but” or “and,” which used to be discouraged. But I think I get why these changes are happening: <a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/words-at-play/words-to-not-begin-sentences-with">They mimic speech</a>. </p>
<p>Studying grammar helps make communication between people clearer. Once you understand your own language and appreciate its patterns and varieties, you can more easily understand how other languages are constructed, <a href="https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20160811-the-amazing-benefits-of-being-bilingual">making them easier to learn</a>. Being able to understand across languages allows you to share your ideas and the ideas of others more broadly. </p>
<p>Grammar matters a lot – just maybe not for the reasons you thought.</p>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Laurie Ann Britt-Smith does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Grammar isn’t a way to bully people for making mistakes, says a longtime English instructor. It is a way to understand how our language operates, in all its many written and spoken varieties.Laurie Ann Britt-Smith, Director of the Center for Writing, College of the Holy CrossLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.