tag:theconversation.com,2011:/au/topics/fire-25/articlesFire – The Conversation2024-03-08T05:37:23Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2243372024-03-08T05:37:23Z2024-03-08T05:37:23ZCultural burning is better for Australian soils than prescribed burning, or no burning at all<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580328/original/file-20240307-10578-g6monm.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=28%2C5%2C3805%2C2149&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ulladulla Local Aboriginal Land Council and Mane Collective</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Imagine a landscape shaped by fire, not as a destructive force but as a life-giving tool. That’s the reality in Australia, where Indigenous communities have long understood the intricate relationship between fire, soil and life. <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/emr.12592?saml_referrer">Cultural burning</a>
has been used for millennia to care for landscapes and nurture biodiversity. In contrast, government agencies conduct “<a href="https://knowledge.aidr.org.au/media/4893/overview-of-prescribed-burning-in-australasia.pdf">prescribed burning</a>” mainly to reduce fuel loads.</p>
<p>In <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2571-6255/7/3/75">our new research</a>, we compared cultural burning to agency-led prescribed burning or no burning. We studied the effects on soil properties such as moisture content, density and nutrient levels.</p>
<p>Both fire treatments increased soil moisture and organic matter, while reducing soil density. That means burning improved soil health overall. But cultural burning was the best way to boost soil carbon and nitrogen while also reducing soil density, which improves the soil’s ability to nurture plants.</p>
<p>Understanding the effects of different fire management techniques is crucial for developing more sustainable land management practices. By studying what happens to the soil, we can work out how best to promote healthy, resilient ecosystems while also reducing risks of uncontrolled bushfires. </p>
<figure>
<iframe src="https://player.vimeo.com/video/603712505" width="500" height="281" frameborder="0" webkitallowfullscreen="" mozallowfullscreen="" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Cultural Burning for Resilience (2021), a mini documentary featuring coauthors Vic Channell, Leanne Brook and Katharine Haynes.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/before-the-colonists-came-we-burned-small-and-burned-often-to-avoid-big-fires-its-time-to-relearn-cultural-burning-201475">Before the colonists came, we burned small and burned often to avoid big fires. It's time to relearn cultural burning</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>The vital role of fire</h2>
<p>Fire has shaped Australian landscapes for millions of years, transforming ecosystems and influencing biodiversity.</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580338/original/file-20240307-22-oaacq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="People standing around a slow-burning patch of bracken" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580338/original/file-20240307-22-oaacq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580338/original/file-20240307-22-oaacq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580338/original/file-20240307-22-oaacq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580338/original/file-20240307-22-oaacq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580338/original/file-20240307-22-oaacq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580338/original/file-20240307-22-oaacq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580338/original/file-20240307-22-oaacq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Slow, cool burns are safe for onlookers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ulladulla Local Aboriginal Land Council</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For Indigenous Australians, fire is not just a tool but a way of life. Fire is used to care for Country, for cultural purposes including ceremonies, to promote new plant growth and food resources, and to facilitate hunting and gathering. </p>
<p>Cultural burning is only ever conducted when it will benefit the health of Country. It is a practice deeply rooted in Indigenous knowledge and traditions. Fires are small, slow and cool. Practitioners read signs in the environment in relation to the local flora and fauna that provide guidance on the right time to burn. </p>
<p>In comparison, prescribed burning, conducted by government agencies, is principally conducted to reduce fuel loads and minimise the risk of wildfires. Fires are often larger and burn hotter than cultural burning. </p>
<p>In recent times, bushfires have become <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0242484">more frequent and severe</a> in parts of Australia. So understanding and <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/wf/pdf/WFv29n11_BR">supporting Indigenous-led fire management practices</a> is becoming increasingly important for sustainable land management. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-1970s-conservation-laws-turned-this-paradise-on-earth-into-a-tinderbox-192401">How 1970s conservation laws turned this ‘paradise on Earth’ into a tinderbox</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Unlocking the secrets of soil health</h2>
<p>Our new research sheds light on the impact of fire management techniques on soil properties. The study was conducted on the south coast of New South Wales, on land managed by the Ulladulla Local Aboriginal Land Council. At this plot, one area of land experienced no burn, another was burnt by NSW Rural Fire Service and another experienced a cultural burn. </p>
<p>While the area burnt was relatively small, about 5,000 square metres for each plot, it can still help shed a light on the effect of fire treatments on soil properties.</p>
<p>We found both agency-led prescribed burning and cultural burning increased soil moisture levels. There may be different reasons for this. For soils that experienced the cultural burn, the extra moisture could be explained by the reduction in soil density, which promotes water flow. For soils that experienced the agency-led prescribed burn, where density didn’t decrease much, it’s possible the hotter fire removed the water-repellant layer of soil that sometimes develops following a fire, allowing more moisture to soak in.</p>
<p>Cultural burning had a more pronounced effect on reducing soil density and increasing organic matter content. Having more organic matter in the soil means more nutrients such as carbon and nitrogen are available to plants. Lower density improves soil structure. Both improve the capacity of ecosystems to withstand environmental stress such as drought and wildfire. </p>
<p>These findings suggest cultural burning not only benefits soil health but also helps make ecosystems more resilient, by providing more water and nutrients that native plants need. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580352/original/file-20240307-16-a0d19p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Research student Jessica Davis measuring carbon dioxide emissions from soil" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580352/original/file-20240307-16-a0d19p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580352/original/file-20240307-16-a0d19p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580352/original/file-20240307-16-a0d19p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580352/original/file-20240307-16-a0d19p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580352/original/file-20240307-16-a0d19p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580352/original/file-20240307-16-a0d19p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580352/original/file-20240307-16-a0d19p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Carbon dioxide emissions from soil can be measured in the field.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jessica Davis</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Embracing Indigenous wisdom</h2>
<p>Indigenous communities use cultural land management practices, of which cultural burning is one tool, to care for Country as kin. They do not see themselves as separate to the environment. Instead their practices are guided by place-based knowledge that weaves human, spiritual and ecological needs together in a symbiotic relationship where one cannot thrive without the other. </p>
<p>Supporting Indigenous-led fire practices is not just about what it can do for the environment. It’s also a recognition of the deep cultural and spiritual connections Indigenous communities have with the land. </p>
<p>By learning from and working with Indigenous communities, we can foster a more harmonious relationship with Country, one that benefits both people and the environment.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580335/original/file-20240307-24-m4ckp4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A group of people standing in the bush during a controlled burn, with the sun in the background peeking through the smoke" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580335/original/file-20240307-24-m4ckp4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580335/original/file-20240307-24-m4ckp4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580335/original/file-20240307-24-m4ckp4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580335/original/file-20240307-24-m4ckp4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580335/original/file-20240307-24-m4ckp4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580335/original/file-20240307-24-m4ckp4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580335/original/file-20240307-24-m4ckp4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cultural burning is a team effort.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ulladulla Local Aboriginal Land Council</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Rekindling our relationships</h2>
<p>Indigenous fire management practices offer invaluable wisdom and the potential to transform our approach to land stewardship. </p>
<p>By embracing these practices, we can nurture healthier soils, promote biodiversity, and foster more resilient ecosystems. </p>
<p>Practically, to make this possible, ongoing investment is required to build the capacity of Indigenous communities to fulfil their obligations to care for Country. Policies must be updated to allow greater access to Country and to reduce red tape and bureaucracy.</p>
<p>There is a danger here. Government agencies often want to incorporate or take on some of the principles of cool burns themselves, forgetting the cultural aspects and the need for this to be Indigenous-led. We must understand this is not just about managing fires, it’s about rekindling our relationship with the land and learning from those who have lived in harmony with it for thousands of years. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/new-research-in-arnhem-land-reveals-why-institutional-fire-management-is-inferior-to-cultural-burning-184562">New research in Arnhem Land reveals why institutional fire management is inferior to cultural burning</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/224337/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anthony Dosseto receives funding from the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Katharine Haynes, Leanne Brook, and Victor Channell do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>What does fire management do to soils? We compared prescribed burning to cultural burning and looked at how soil properties changed after fire. Cultural burning was better.Anthony Dosseto, Professor, University of WollongongKatharine Haynes, Honorary Senior Research Fellow, University of WollongongLeanne Brook, CEO, Ulladulla Local Aboriginal Land Council, Indigenous KnowledgeVictor Channell, Murramarang and Walbunga Elder, Indigenous KnowledgeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2225712024-03-05T14:00:28Z2024-03-05T14:00:28ZLithium-ion batteries don’t work well in the cold − a battery researcher explains the chemistry at low temperatures<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579001/original/file-20240229-20-z7oy0y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C2120%2C1414&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Why do batteries lose charge more quickly when it's cold? </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/man-charging-electric-car-in-front-his-cabin-in-royalty-free-image/1977511649?phrase=battery+cold&adppopup=true">Halfpoint Images/Moment</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Rechargeable batteries are great for storing energy and powering electronics from smartphones to electric vehicles. In cold environments, however, they can be more difficult to charge and may even catch on fire. </p>
<p>I’m a mechanical engineering professor who’s been interested in batteries since college. I now lead a <a href="https://research.drexel.edu/mem/changlab">battery research group</a> at Drexel University. </p>
<p>In just this past decade, I have watched the <a href="https://about.bnef.com/blog/lithium-ion-battery-pack-prices-hit-record-low-of-139-kwh/">price of lithium-ion batteries drop</a> as the production market <a href="https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2023/trends-in-batteries">has grown much larger</a>. Future projections predict the market could reach <a href="https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/automotive-and-assembly/our-insights/battery-2030-resilient-sustainable-and-circular">thousands of GWh per year by 2030</a>, a significant increase. </p>
<p>But, lithium-ion batteries aren’t perfect – this rise comes with risks, such as their tendency to slow down during cold weather and even catch on fire.</p>
<h2>Behind the Li-ion battery</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/electrochemical-energy-storage">electrochemical energy storage</a> within batteries works by storing electricity <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/ion-physics">in the form of ions</a>. Ions are atoms that have a nonzero charge because they have either too many or not enough electrons. </p>
<p>When you plug in your electric car or phone, the electricity provided by the outlet <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4-1psMHSpKs&ab_channel=TheLimitingFactor">drives these ions</a> from the battery’s positive electrode into its negative electrode. The electrodes are solid materials in a battery that can store ions, and all batteries have both a positive and a negative electrode. </p>
<p>Electrons pass through the battery as electricity. With each electron that passes to one electrode, a lithium ion also passes into the same electrode. This ensures the balance of charges in the battery. As you drive your car, the stored ions in the negative electrode move back to the positive electrode, and the resulting flow of electricity powers the motor. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578759/original/file-20240228-8828-q6kh1t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A diagram showing three boxes, one labeled cathode, one labeled electrolyte, and one labeled anode. Small circles representing lithium ions move to the anode to charge and the cathode to discharge." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578759/original/file-20240228-8828-q6kh1t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578759/original/file-20240228-8828-q6kh1t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578759/original/file-20240228-8828-q6kh1t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578759/original/file-20240228-8828-q6kh1t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578759/original/file-20240228-8828-q6kh1t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=708&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578759/original/file-20240228-8828-q6kh1t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=708&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578759/original/file-20240228-8828-q6kh1t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=708&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">When a lithium-ion battery delivers energy to a device, lithium ions – atoms that carry an electrical charge – move from the negative electrode, the anode, to the positive electrode, the cathode. The ions move in reverse when recharging.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/argonne/5029455937">Argonne National Laboratory</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>While AA or AAA batteries can power small electronics, they can be used only once and cannot be charged. Rechargeable Li-ion batteries can operate for thousands of cycles of full charge and discharge. For each cycle, they can also store a much higher amount of charge than an AA or AAA battery.</p>
<p>Since lithium is the lightest metal, it has a high <a href="https://doi.org/10.1039/C3EE40795K">specific capacity</a>, meaning it can store a <a href="https://chang-lab.notion.site/How-To-Become-a-Battery-Expert-20a8edebe395403c9a158d7caca06ef4?pvs=4">huge amount of charge per weight</a>. This is why lithium-ion batteries are useful not just for portable electronics but for powering modes of transportation with limited weight or volume, such as electric cars. </p>
<h2>Battery fires</h2>
<p>However, lithium-ion batteries have risks that AA or AAA batteries don’t. For one, they’re more likely to catch on fire. For example, the number of <a href="https://gothamist.com/news/e-bike-battery-fires-keep-climbing-in-nyc">electric bike battery fires</a> reported in New York City has increased from 30 to nearly 300 in the past five years. </p>
<p>Lots of different issues can cause a battery fire. Poorly manufactured cells could contain defects, such as trace impurities or particles left behind from the manufacturing process, that increase the risk of an internal failure. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578754/original/file-20240228-30-b8mmfs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A car in a garage is on fire with the door cracked open, a firefighter carrying a hose runs towards it." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578754/original/file-20240228-30-b8mmfs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578754/original/file-20240228-30-b8mmfs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578754/original/file-20240228-30-b8mmfs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578754/original/file-20240228-30-b8mmfs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578754/original/file-20240228-30-b8mmfs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=497&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578754/original/file-20240228-30-b8mmfs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=497&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578754/original/file-20240228-30-b8mmfs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=497&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles have a higher risk of catching on fire when it’s cold out.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/ElectricCarsBatteryFires/0624a4c4cadb4ee0be42d58b8aab0161/photo?Query=ev%20battery%20fire&mediaType=photo&sortBy=&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=300&digitizationType=Digitized&currentItemNo=0&vs=true&vs=true">Orange County Sheriff’s Department/National Transportation Safety Board via AP</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Climate can also affect battery operation. <a href="https://about.bnef.com/electric-vehicle-outlook/">Electric vehicle sales</a> have increased across the U.S., particularly in cold regions such as the Northeast and Midwest, where the frigid temperatures can hinder battery performance. </p>
<p>Batteries contain fluids called electrolytes, and cold temperatures cause fluids to flow more slowly. So, the electrolytes in batteries slow and thicken in the cold, causing the lithium ions inside to move slower. This slowdown can prevent the lithium ions from properly inserting into the electrodes. Instead, they may deposit on the electrode surface and form <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xcrp.2020.100035">lithium metal</a>. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/G_TCFgEdEGc?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The molecules in fluids move slower at colder temperatures – the same thing happens inside batteries.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>If too much lithium deposits on the electrode’s surface during charging, it may cause an internal short circuit. This process can <a href="https://theconversation.com/lithium-ion-battery-fires-are-a-growing-public-safety-concern-heres-how-to-reduce-the-risk-209359">start a battery fire</a>.</p>
<h2>Making safer batteries</h2>
<p><a href="https://research.coe.drexel.edu/mem/changlab">My research group</a>, along with many others, is studying how to make batteries that operate more efficiently in the cold. </p>
<p>For example, researchers are exploring swapping out the usual battery electrolyte and replacing it with an alternative electrolyte that doesn’t thicken at cold temperatures. Another potential option is <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate-solutions/2024/01/19/electric-vehicle-battery-cold/">heating up the battery pack</a> before charging so that the charging process occurs at a warmer temperature. </p>
<p>My group is also investigating new types of batteries beyond lithium ion. These could be battery types that are more stable at wider temperature ranges, types that don’t even use liquid electrolytes at all, or batteries that use sodium instead of lithium. <a href="https://www.technologyreview.com/2023/05/11/1072865/how-sodium-could-change-the-game-for-batteries/">Sodium-ion batteries</a> could work well and cost less, as sodium is a very abundant resource.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-023-01208-9">Solid-state batteries</a> use solid electrolytes that aren’t flammable, which reduces the risk of fire. But these batteries don’t work quite as well as Li-ion batteries, so it’ll take more research to tell whether these are a good option.</p>
<p>Lithium-ion batteries power technologies that people across the country use every day, and research in these areas aims to find solutions that will make this technology even safer for the consumer.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222571/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Wesley Chang receives funding from Solid Energy Systems, Inc., Electric Power Research Institute, Drexel University. Wesley Chang consults for The Electrochemical Society. </span></em></p>Electric vehicles are catching on across the US, but they’re also catching on fire in colder regions like the Northeast and Midwest.Wesley Chang, Assistant Professor of Mechanical Engineering and Mechanics, Drexel UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2227432024-02-21T19:12:19Z2024-02-21T19:12:19ZHard to kill: here’s why eucalypts are survival experts<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576420/original/file-20240219-24-nbwq6k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C2094%2C1551&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flickr.com/photos/88123769@N02/8065560838">Bernard Spragg/Flickr</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>They can recover from fire. Grow back from a bare stump. Shrug aside bark loss that would kill a lesser tree. Endure drought and floods. </p>
<p>Eucalypts are not interested in dying. They’re survivors. The world’s 800-plus species are almost all found in Australia, a continent with old, degraded soils and frequent fires and droughts. </p>
<p>In the fossil record, they first appear about 34 million years ago. As the Australian continent dried out, eucalypts <a href="https://www.science.org.au/curious/earth-environment/story-our-eucalypts">gradually emerged</a> as the dominant trees in all but the most arid and tropical areas. </p>
<p>But what is it about eucalypts that makes them survivors? It’s a combination. Leathery leaves. Fire-resistant bark. Dormant buds under bark, waiting for fire. Mallee roots (lignotubers) at ground level to let them regrow. Roots which put out special chemicals to unlock scarce nutrients. And gumnuts which use fire to germinate and get a head-start on any rivals. </p>
<p>In a difficult place to survive, they thrive. Here’s how they do it. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/new-research-reveals-how-forests-reduce-their-own-bushfire-risk-if-theyre-left-alone-201868">New research reveals how forests reduce their own bushfire risk, if they're left alone</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Leaves</h2>
<p>Many gum species have leaves which hang vertically. These adaptations are about water. Water in Australia is often scarce, and it makes sense for trees to hold onto it when they have it. Vertical leaves means less direct sun, which means less evaporation. Their dry, leathery leaves also keep the water inside. It also improves their tolerance to bushfire. </p>
<h2>Bark</h2>
<p>Stringybark, ironbark, candlebark – the bark of eucalypts is used to identify them. But it’s also one of their great adaptations. The bark is often an excellent insulator against hot, dry summers as well as a <a href="https://www.australiangeographic.com.au/topics/science-environment/2021/11/eucalyptus-and-the-ancient-kingdom-of-fire/">protective barrier</a> against fire. </p>
<p>Stringy bark is so fibrous that despite singeing and looking black on the surface, it <a href="https://www.theage.com.au/interactive/2023/tree-flammability/index.html">often doesn’t burn</a>, meaning buds beneath it are protected from damage.</p>
<h2>Buds</h2>
<p>Underneath the bark of a normal-looking eucalypt lie <a href="https://www.treenet.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/2010-fire-trees-and-climate-change-g.-m.-moore.pdf">thousands of dormant buds</a>. These invisible “epicormic” buds are a remarkable adaptation, letting the tree rapidly regrow after bushfires, severe insect and animal grazing, storms, droughts or floods. </p>
<p>You can spot epicormic shoots sprouting up and down the trunks of gum trees after a fire, making them look like “toothbrush trees”. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Eucalyptus Epicormic Buds" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576427/original/file-20240219-16-2svnqh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576427/original/file-20240219-16-2svnqh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576427/original/file-20240219-16-2svnqh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576427/original/file-20240219-16-2svnqh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576427/original/file-20240219-16-2svnqh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576427/original/file-20240219-16-2svnqh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576427/original/file-20240219-16-2svnqh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Epicormic Shoots emerge from Eucalyptus buds hidden under the bark after a bush fire.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/usforestservice/49836705293">Forest Service/Flickr</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Epicormic shoots <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03071375.2015.1066559">can grow</a> 27cm in a single day, or up to 6 metres in a year. When epicormic buds touch soil, they can sometimes develop as roots. This allows fallen trees or even large branches to re-establish and anchor after storms and floods. </p>
<p>You can sometimes see hundreds of woody spines on the trunks of old dead trees. These are a pointy reminder of how many undeveloped epicormic buds lurk under the bark.</p>
<h2>Mallee roots (lignotubers)</h2>
<p>As remarkable as epicormic buds are, they’re not the recovery mechanism of last resort. That job falls to the bulge at the bottom of many eucalypt trunks, which we often call “mallee roots”. </p>
<p>These are <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03071375.2015.1066559">lignotubers</a>, remarkable adaptations possessed by most eucalypts. </p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="Base of Eucalyptus Tree" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576423/original/file-20240219-30-66bvoo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576423/original/file-20240219-30-66bvoo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576423/original/file-20240219-30-66bvoo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576423/original/file-20240219-30-66bvoo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576423/original/file-20240219-30-66bvoo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576423/original/file-20240219-30-66bvoo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576423/original/file-20240219-30-66bvoo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Lignotubers growing at the base of eucalyptus tree.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/eucalyptus-gum-tree-colorful-small-trunk-765407536">Anitham Raju Yaragorla/ShutterStock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>To appreciate the complexity and biological beauty of a lignotuber, imagine the trunk of a eucalypt with all its epicormic buds scrunched into a ball at the base of the trunk. The buds have direct access to a large root system able to supply water, nutrients and carbohydrates. </p>
<p>This is a gum tree’s emergency reboot option. Even when the tree above is falling apart, the lignotuber can rapidly regrow the tree at a rate of 6 metres or more in a year. </p>
<h2>Roots</h2>
<p>The roots of species such as river red gums drive deep into the soil along water courses, searching for subterranean water supplies as a backup in case the river dries up. </p>
<p>For other species, the solution to limited water is to send roots far and wide, often many times further than the tree’s height. In many species, the lignotuber and roots are buried under an insulating layer of soil. This acts as protection against fire. </p>
<p>That’s not all. Many eucalypt species produce “exudates” from their roots – chemicals which leach into the soil and free any locked-up nutrients in poor soils. </p>
<p>Still other exudates seep out to help feed mycorrhizal fungi in the soil. The gum trees do this as part of a wonderful symbiosis, allowing both tree and fungus to thrive. The gum gives sugar, the fungi give water and nutrients. </p>
<p>This underground exchange <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/root-exudate">greatly improves soil quality</a> and lets other species grow in difficult conditions. </p>
<h2>Gumnuts</h2>
<p>Gumnuts – woody fruits of eucalypts – are familiar to many of us from May Gibbs’ famous Snugglepot and Cuddlepie stories. </p>
<p>These capsules protect the tiny seeds inside from desiccation and fire. After a fire, eucalyptus fruit may be damaged or dry out. This frees the fine seeds, which sprinkle over the soil like pepper over dinner. </p>
<p>Some eucalypts rely not on lignotubers or epicormic buds but on the seeds <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/australians-love-a-home-among-gum-trees-but-can-eucalyptus-forests-recover-from-the-fires/2020/01/17/413d25fa-36b7-11ea-a1ff-c48c1d59a4a1_story.html">contained and protected</a> in those woody gumnuts. The seeds fall to the ground and germinate when conditions are right renewing the forest. </p>
<h2>Survivors – but not immortal</h2>
<p>In the years ahead, we’ll see natural disasters occurring more often and with greater ferocity as the climate changes. And in the aftermath, we will also see the spectacular and rapid responses of eucalypts – one of the world’s great families of survivors. </p>
<p>But we will also see dead forests. Gum trees do perish, despite their abilities to regenerate. Some species such as mountain ash are <a href="https://theconversation.com/its-not-just-victorias-iconic-mountain-ash-trees-at-risk-its-every-species-in-their-community-214582">not coping</a> with pressures such as logging and climate change, while thin-barked snow gums are <a href="https://pursuit.unimelb.edu.au/articles/recurring-fires-are-threatening-the-iconic-snow-gum">struggling to cope</a> with new fire regimes. Every living thing has limits. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/yes-the-australian-bush-is-recovering-from-bushfires-but-it-may-never-be-the-same-131390">Yes, the Australian bush is recovering from bushfires – but it may never be the same</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222743/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gregory Moore does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>From sacrificial bark to fire-germinating gumnuts to stealthy buds the eucalyptus has evolved an arsenal of protective measures.Gregory Moore, Senior Research Associate, School of Ecosystem and Forest Sciences, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2172752024-02-20T19:57:01Z2024-02-20T19:57:01ZFire is a chemical reaction. Here’s why Australia is supremely suited to it<p>Over the last 15 million years, Australia has slowly dried out. After humans arrived more than 65,000 years ago, they learned to use fire to their advantage. Today, fire weather is getting more frequent – and <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-021-27225-4">fires are following</a> as the world heats up. This month, fires have flared in Victoria, destroying 46 houses, while Western Australia endures a heatwave and braces for <a href="https://www.watoday.com.au/national/western-australia/extreme-fire-danger-conditions-on-tuesday-to-close-wa-schools-dfes-warns-20240219-p5f65r.html">potential fires</a>. </p>
<p>We use controlled fire for food, industry and many other uses. But we fear it when it is uncontrolled. For something so common, it’s not well understood. </p>
<p>Fire is chemistry – a set of reactions known as combustion. Here’s what that means – and why parts of Australia are so well suited to fire. </p>
<h2>What is fire?</h2>
<p>For a fire to start, it needs three things: fuel, an oxidising agent and heat. </p>
<p>In bushfires, the fuel is plant material, the oxidising agent is oxygen in the atmosphere, and the heat could come from lightning or the fire itself once it starts. </p>
<p>First, the heat has to get to the fuel. Plants are mostly comprised of cellulose (a natural carbohydrate polymer we can’t digest) and lignin (a complex aromatic hydrocarbon), alongside other organic molecules. </p>
<p>But big molecules such as cellulose and lignin don’t burn easily, unlike small molecules such as propane or ethanol. It takes an external heat source to get them to burn. This is normally in the form of lightning, the cause of <a href="https://fennerschool.anu.edu.au/news-events/events/which-lightning-strikes-ignite-bushfires-review-fire-neural-network-fnn-high-risk">most large bushfires</a>. But humans have added other sources – a flicked cigarette, angle-grinders, or sparks from a downed powerline. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576640/original/file-20240220-24-1z8zna.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="lightning striking tree" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576640/original/file-20240220-24-1z8zna.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576640/original/file-20240220-24-1z8zna.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576640/original/file-20240220-24-1z8zna.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576640/original/file-20240220-24-1z8zna.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576640/original/file-20240220-24-1z8zna.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576640/original/file-20240220-24-1z8zna.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576640/original/file-20240220-24-1z8zna.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">To start a fire, you need an external heat source such as lightning.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/lightning-oak-tree-625416632">David Wheat/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A little bit of extra heat won’t do it. But when cellulose and lignin are heated to 300°C, pyrolysis begins and the natural polymers begin to break down into small organic molecules, which promptly evaporate and form a gas. </p>
<p>At these temperatures, this gas rapidly reacts with oxygen in the air to produce carbon dioxide, water vapour – and heat. This is combustion. </p>
<p>As it burns, the gas becomes hot enough to glow, as do any solid particles within it. When we gaze at a campfire, that’s what we’re seeing – burning gas, glowing particles. </p>
<p>Many believe it’s the breaking of chemical bonds in the fuel that produces heat. But it’s actually the opposite. When we break any chemical bond, heat is absorbed. It’s making new chemical bonds that releases heat – the creation of water vapour and carbon dioxide. </p>
<p>These newly formed bonds are stronger than the bonds in the hydrocarbon fuel, meaning heat is released overall. So much heat that pyrolysis is sustained, consuming more fuel and spreading the fire. </p>
<h2>What about the water in plants?</h2>
<p>Plant material contains water as well as organic compounds. </p>
<p>There’s a unique bit of chemistry which takes place here. When heat first hits plant material, the water within begins to warm. But water has an extraordinarily high ability to store heat. </p>
<p>As water heats up, it begins to evaporate. Evaporation is endothermic, meaning it absorbs heat. That’s why we use it to stop ourselves overheating – we rely on sweat evaporating off our skin and taking heat with it. </p>
<p>This means you need still more energy to increase the temperature and overcome water’s heat absorbing properties. For pyrolysis to occur at all, the water in the plant matter has to evaporate. If there’s still water in the leaves or bark, it won’t burn. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-does-the-stuff-in-a-fire-extinguisher-stop-a-fire-120859">How does the stuff in a fire extinguisher stop a fire?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Fire weather and gum trees</h2>
<p>Australia’s forests and bushlands are mostly on the east coast, avoiding the arid interior. But they can’t avoid the extremely hot and dry air the deserts produce, especially over summer. </p>
<p>Hot air can hold a remarkable amount of water. Its ability to soak up water roughly doubles every 10°C. So hot, dry air acts like a sponge. It scours the water from plant matter and soaks it up. </p>
<p>Plant material largely comes from gum trees. Our hundreds of species are famously messy, dropping bark, leaves and limbs on the forest floor. </p>
<p>Eucalyptus leaves often contain large amounts of volatile organic oils. In dry conditions, these leaves act as like natural lighter fluid, or “pre-pyrolysed material”. </p>
<p>This is because eucalypts like fire. Fire wipes out competitor species and can trigger gumnut germination.</p>
<p>When a bushfire begins and starts to spread, it’s usually burning the dead, dry litter and grasses, not large living trees with plenty of water. </p>
<p>Dry fuel is one thing. But a bushfire needs wind to spread. </p>
<p>Hot days in Australia are often windy, due to the temperature difference between hot deserts and cold oceans. If a lightning triggers pyrolysis and starts a fire, wind is what makes it spread. </p>
<p>Wind provides fresh oxygen to the fire front, making it more intense. It also blows hot dry air over fresh fuel ahead of the fire front, drying it out. If there’s no wind, fire spreads much more slowly. </p>
<p>What does it take to end a bushfire? A large fire will naturally burn itself out if there’s no more fuel for it. Heavy rain can douse a fire, though coals can keep smouldering and restart fires if dry, hot air arrives again. </p>
<p>Firefighters make firebreaks to try to starve the fire of its fuel, spray water to wet and cool the fuel or apply chemical agents such as fire-fighting foam to prevent oxygen getting in. </p>
<p>If we add more and more carbon dioxide to the atmosphere it traps more heat, leading to hotter days. More heat means fire weather – hot, dry and windy conditions – is more likely. And that means combustion will be more likely in some places. Under climate change, there’s more fire in our future. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/before-fusion-a-human-history-of-fire-55198">Before fusion: a human history of fire</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/217275/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jason Dutton receives funding from The Australian Research Council. </span></em></p>We’re all familiar with fire. But do you really know what it is and how it starts? Here’s the chemistry of fire – and why Australia is so prone to going up in flames.Jason Dutton, Professor of Chemistry, La Trobe UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2212432024-01-22T18:12:43Z2024-01-22T18:12:43ZDespite the climate crisis, Scotland is burning as much carbon-rich peatland as it did in the 1980s<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/570602/original/file-20240122-16-9614j8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4493%2C2485&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/gamekeeper-burns-heather-on-british-moors-1273656262">Joe H Taylor/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Hillsides splashed with purple heather are a symbol of Scotland and its natural beauty. But these picturesque moorlands are actually maintained by people – a practice that is coming under intense scrutiny as the climate crisis escalates. </p>
<p>Scotland’s moorlands are deliberately burned from October to mid-April in a practice known as <a href="https://www.nature.scot/muirburn-code">“muirburn”</a>, which encourages new grass and heather that feeds grouse and livestock. This arrangement suits landowners who shoot these game birds and farmers who graze sheep, but it poses a problem when it happens on peatland.</p>
<p>A healthy peatland is a soggy and spongy terrain made up of partially decomposed plant matter known as peat. Peat soils lock away vast amounts of carbon. In fact, peatlands globally store <a href="https://www.iucn-uk-peatlandprogramme.org/about-peatlands">twice as much carbon</a> as the world’s forests. Peat soils damaged by fire <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo2325">release this carbon</a>, warming the climate. Fire damage can also mean the peat retains less water, and so rain washes more quickly into rivers which <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/2014WR016782">increases flooding</a> downstream.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A small waterfall surrounded by moorland vegetation." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/570601/original/file-20240122-25-7obsg9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/570601/original/file-20240122-25-7obsg9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570601/original/file-20240122-25-7obsg9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570601/original/file-20240122-25-7obsg9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570601/original/file-20240122-25-7obsg9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570601/original/file-20240122-25-7obsg9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570601/original/file-20240122-25-7obsg9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Damaged peatlands are less able to retain water, exacerbating flooding.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/small-waterfall-froth-maich-water-mistylaw-2407474299">Ian Woolner/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Scotland contains <a href="https://www.iucn-uk-peatlandprogramme.org/resources/commission-inquiry">7% of Europe’s peatlands</a> and their sustainable management is of global importance. In order to address climate change in Scotland, we need to know how much muirburn is happening, and how much of it is happening on peatland,</p>
<p>We made the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/2688-8319.12296">first assessment</a> of burning on Scottish moorlands over the past 38 years using images from Nasa’s Landsat satellites. These satellites have been snapping pictures of our entire planet every few days since the 1980s. Fires leave behind a burn scar that is visible in these images. Through careful analysis, we can map the areas burned and track changes in burning over time. </p>
<p>We found that the area of moorland being burned increased between 1985 and 2022 – but not by much. Our analysis suggests that there is about as much burning happening now as there was nearly four decades ago.</p>
<h2>Up in smoke</h2>
<p>We used <a href="https://soils.environment.gov.scot/maps/thematic-maps/carbon-and-peatland-2016-map/">a dataset</a> that maps out peatlands with the deepest peat soils – at least 50cm deep. These are the peatlands that store the greatest amount of carbon. We overlaid this peatland map on our new muirburn map. </p>
<p>We discovered that the burning of Scottish peatlands is widespread. Almost one-third of all moorland burning in Scotland occurs on peatlands. On average, 1,900 hectares of peatland are burned each year. </p>
<p>Scottish peatlands store a gigantic <a href="https://www.nature.scot/doc/peatland-action-case-study-whats-connection-between-peat-and-carbon-storage">1.7 billion tonnes of carbon</a>, equivalent to 140 years of Scotland’s greenhouse gas emissions. Protecting this carbon store is critical – its widespread and intentional burning is alarming. </p>
<p>Moorland burning in Scotland is subject to <a href="https://www.nature.scot/doc/guidance-muirburn-code">a set of rules</a> known as <a href="https://www.nature.scot/muirburn-code">the Muirburn Code</a>, which offers guidance and sets out the relevant statutory restrictions. In 2017, this code was <a href="https://scotlandsnature.blog/2018/03/07/muirburn-code/#:%7E:text=The%20Code%20was%20revised%20by,reducing%20the%20risk%20of%20wildfire.">revised</a> to suggest burning on peatlands should be avoided. </p>
<p>The amount of burning that has happened on peatlands hasn’t changed since then. Many landowners and land managers continue to burn in defiance of these voluntary guidelines.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A hunter in a stone-laid gun butt shoots a gun surrounded by moorland." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/570603/original/file-20240122-21-gye6lj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/570603/original/file-20240122-21-gye6lj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570603/original/file-20240122-21-gye6lj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570603/original/file-20240122-21-gye6lj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570603/original/file-20240122-21-gye6lj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570603/original/file-20240122-21-gye6lj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570603/original/file-20240122-21-gye6lj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Moorlands maintained for grouse shooting are frequently burned.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/gun-butts-on-grouse-moor-1346281361">Nigel Housden/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The case for new laws</h2>
<p>In November 2023, the Scottish parliament <a href="https://www.parliament.scot/chamber-and-committees/votes-and-motions/S6M-11496">agreed</a> to the general principles of the <a href="https://www.parliament.scot/bills-and-laws/bills/wildlife-management-and-muirburn-scotland-bill">Wildlife Management and Muirburn (Scotland) bill</a>, which would require licenses for people to burn moorland and restrict burning on peatland. MSPs are proposing <a href="https://www.parliament.scot/bills-and-laws/bills/wildlife-management-and-muirburn-scotland-bill/stage-2">amendments</a> to the bill which could strengthen or weaken its ability to regulate future burning, so this is a crucial stage of the process. </p>
<p>One argument often made in favour of muirburn on peatland is that burning vegetation in a controlled manner reduces the risk of wildfires. But a major reason that peatlands are susceptible to wildfire in the first place is that they have been drained and in some cases overgrazed by livestock, creating dry and flammable peat.</p>
<p>An alternative way to reduce the risk of wildfires is to restore peatlands by blocking ditches and <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-019-0477-5">rewetting the peat</a>. Wet peat is less likely to burn and heather does not grow well on it, so there is less fuel.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/peat-bogs-restoring-them-could-slow-climate-change-and-revive-a-forgotten-world-139182">Peat bogs: restoring them could slow climate change – and revive a forgotten world</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The <a href="https://www.gov.scot/publications/securing-green-recovery-path-net-zero-update-climate-change-plan-20182032/pages/12/">Scottish government’s climate change plan</a> aims to restore at least 250,000 hectares of degraded peatland by 2030. This would make sound financial sense. It has been estimated that restoring one-fifth of Scotland’s peatlands would aid carbon storage, water quality and wildlife habitat to the tune of <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/21606544.2018.1434562">£80 to £288 million</a>.</p>
<p>Satellite images have shown that landowners continue to burn Scottish peatlands even as the climate consequences become ever more stark. In the future, satellites will monitor whether any restrictions imposed by the new bill have been successful.</p>
<p>For now, our evidence should inform the debate on peatland burning within the Scottish parliament. It highlights the scale of the issue and demonstrates that voluntary guidelines to control burning are not working. We urge Scottish lawmakers to develop robust legislation to prevent further damage.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong><em>Don’t have time to read about climate change as much as you’d like?</em></strong>
<br><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/newsletters/imagine-57?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=Imagine&utm_content=DontHaveTimeTop">Get a weekly roundup in your inbox instead.</a> Every Wednesday, The Conversation’s environment editor writes Imagine, a short email that goes a little deeper into just one climate issue. <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/newsletters/imagine-57?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=Imagine&utm_content=DontHaveTimeBottom">Join the 30,000+ readers who’ve subscribed so far.</a></em></p>
<hr><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/221243/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dominick Spracklen receives funding from the European Research Council under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (DECAF project, grant agreement no. 771492).</span></em></p>Nearly a third of all moorland burning in Scotland occurs on peat soil – a vital carbon sink.Dominick Spracklen, Professor of Biosphere-Atmosphere Interactions, University of LeedsLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2185672024-01-04T07:28:41Z2024-01-04T07:28:41ZElectric vehicles and the challenge of fire risks in car parks<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/567162/original/file-20231221-17-kar11.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3000%2C1356&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption"></span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/es/image-photo/electric-car-charging-station-charge-ev-2306319639">Fahroni/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Due to the urgent need to cut fossil fuel emissions, the adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) is both inevitable and essential. The EU is aiming to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from transport by 90% by 2040, and foresees 13 million zero and low-emission vehicles on the roads by 2025. Several European countries have introduced their own measures to encourage the uptake of EVs. </p>
<p>Thanks to these policies and rapid technological advancements, electric vehicle sales in Europe surged from 3.2% of the total market share in 2019 to approximately 10% in 2020, according to the <a href="https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-tools/global-ev-data-explorer">International Energy Agency</a>. This upward trajectory is expected to continue, reaching 19% by 2025 and 35% by 2030.</p>
<p>These vehicles, however, are not without risk.</p>
<h2>Where is your car right now?</h2>
<p>Our towns and cities are designed around roads which were built for cars, but according to some estimates these vehicles in fact spend around <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2214140517304498">95% of their time in the garage</a>.</p>
<p>This presents a new series of safety challenges: <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10694-019-00944-3">studies indicate</a> that the batteries in electric vehicles carry the risks of <a href="https://ul.org/research/electrochemical-safety/getting-started-electrochemical-safety/what-thermal-runaway">thermal runaway</a>, a phenomenon which can potentially result in sudden, extensive vehicle fires.</p>
<p>The dangers are far from hypothetical: in central Madrid, on 29 August 2023, a <a href="https://www.caranddriver.com/es/coches/planeta-motor/a44945356/video-incendio-coche-hibrido-enchufable-madrid/">plug-in hybrid vehicle caught fire</a> in a busy shopping centre car park on the bustling Paseo de La Castellana. In a similar <a href="https://metropoliabierta.elespanol.com/sucesos/20220925/arden-dos-coches-electricos-en-un-parking-subterraneo/705929464_0.html">incident</a> on 25 September 2022, an electric vehicle caught fire in Barcelona, destroying not only itself but also an adjacent vehicle. </p>
<p>While batteries are a significant risk factor, our research has shown that other potential causes of electric vehicle fires include <a href="https://open-research-europe.ec.europa.eu/articles/3-178">vehicle faults, management factors, human factors, and external factors</a>.</p>
<h2>Fire in enclosed spaces</h2>
<p>From a fire safety engineering perspective, enclosed spaces such as underground car parks greatly increase the risk of deadly and destructive <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-75498-3_7">compartment fires</a>. In these situations the heat and fumes from a fire become trapped, increasing the severity of the fire and its impact on those exposed. Compartment fires also lead to incomplete combustion, releasing large amounts of hazardous gases and extreme heat, which can be lethal in such environments.</p>
<p>As car parks fill up with more and more electric vehicles, these structures become, essentially, large-scale battery storage systems, <a href="http://article.sapub.org/10.5923.j.arch.20221201.01.html">greatly heightening the risk of fire</a>. The installation of charging stations may further increase the likelihood of a blaze. </p>
<h2>National regulations present a roadblock</h2>
<p>Though the uptake of electric vehicles is widespread across all of Europe, approaches to fire safety regulations for new and existing buildings vary considerably among countries. This is due to variations in government structures, legal systems, and the differing roles of public and private sectors within each nation. </p>
<p>Despite these discrepancies, the most pressing concern is the conspicuous lack of specific fire safety regulations for alternative vehicles, including electric vehicles, in some European countries. As of 2020, building codes in several countries – <a href="http://article.sapub.org/10.5923.j.arch.20221201.01.html">Spain</a>, <a href="https://nipv.nl/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/20210715-NIPV-Fire-safety-of-indoor-car-parks-accommodating-electrically-powered-vehicles.pdf">the Netherlands</a>, and <a href="https://risefr.no/media/publikasjoner/upload/2020/report-2020-30-charging-of-electric-cars-in-parking-garages.pdf">Norway</a> – all lacked specific fire safety design regulations for electric vehicles in car parks.</p>
<p>This absence of specific regulations raises significant questions for the design of both new and existing enclosed car parks. With the incidents in Madrid and Barcelona serving as stark reminders, the need for a comprehensive understanding of the fire risks associated with electric vehicles is becoming increasingly urgent. </p>
<h2>The road ahead</h2>
<p>A <a href="https://www.evrisk.eu/home">collaborative effort</a> is currently underway to provide such a framework. It involves researchers from the Universidad de Navarra in Spain and Universiti Putra Malaysia, and builds on previous research projects that have focused on <a href="https://www.evrisk.eu/team_1/vehicle-fires-in-car-parks-publications">vehicle fires in car parks</a>. However, the scope of this topic is vast, meaning many specialised researchers will have to be included over the coming months and years. </p>
<p>The future of sustainable transportation hinges on our ability to understand and mitigate these risks. We not only need specific regulatory frameworks, but also a cohesive Europe-wide strategy to ensure a uniformly high level of safety. Only by making advances in this critical field can we ensure that the transition to electric mobility is safe and beneficial for society as a whole.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/218567/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>César Martín-Gómez recibe fondos de Cátedra Fundación Saltoki. Es miembro de Asociación Técnica Española de Climatización y Refrigeración ATECYR. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>MOHD ZAHIRASRI BIN MOHD TOHIR has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon Europe research and innovation programme under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie Actions (MSCA) grant agreement ID: 101064984.</span></em></p>Electric vehicle batteries have the potential to catch fire, posing a problem for existing infrastructure, especially in enclosed car parks.César Martín-Gómez, Catedrático en instalaciones y sistemas energéticos en arquitectura y urbanismo, Universidad de NavarraMohd Zahirasri Bin Mohd Tohir, Investigador postdoctoral en ingeniería de seguridad contra incendios, Universidad de NavarraLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2196882023-12-19T06:13:08Z2023-12-19T06:13:08ZGrenfell should have been a wake-up call – but the UK still doesn’t take fire safety seriously because of who is most at risk<p>In March 2023, a fire in Tower Hamlets, east London, claimed the life of Mizanur Rahman, a 41-year-old father-of-two from Bangladesh. <a href="https://www.london-fire.gov.uk/incidents/2023/march/flat-fire-shadwell/">Five fire engines and 35 firefighters</a> attended the call to the two-bedroom flat in Maddocks House, on the Tarling West housing estate, in the early hours of the morning.</p>
<p>Rahman, who had only recently arrived in the UK, was rescued and taken to the Royal London Hospital suffering from smoke inhalation, where he died from his injuries. On the night of the fire, estate residents claimed that <a href="https://tarlingwestestate.wordpress.com/2023/04/13/tarling-west-estate-residents-association-report-1-04-2023-on-recovery-ofresidents-of-18-maddocks-house-possessions-after-the-fire-on-friday-17-march-2023/">18 men</a> had been sleeping in the flat’s three rooms including a converted lounge – despite the premises only being licensed to accommodate a maximum of three people.</p>
<p>While the fire itself was caused by a <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-66774376">faulty lithium e-bike battery</a>, an inspection by the London Fire Brigade prior to the fire had <a href="https://www.bigissue.com/news/housing/shadwell-flat-fire-maddocks-house-uk-housing-crisis/">raised serious safety concerns</a>, finding that the flat “was not in a good condition with multiple people living in it”.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/GDiGJ-fuRM8?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Report on the Maddocks House fire (March 2023). Film by Rainbow Collective.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Seven months after the fire, Tower Hamlets Council took the flat’s landlords to court for breaches of the 2004 Housing Act. They have subsequently <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2023/nov/28/landlords-of-crowded-london-flat-that-caught-fire-plead-guilty-to-criminal-charges">pleaded guilty</a> to nine charges <a href="https://www.towerhamlets.gov.uk/News_events/2023/November/Tower-Hamlets-landlords-plead-guilty-to-overcrowding-charges.aspx">including</a> multiple failures to comply with licence conditions, carry out inspections and have a valid gas safety certificate, as well as allowing the premises to be overcrowded. The landlords await sentencing.</p>
<p>However, following the inquest into Rahman’s death, the assistant coroner did not comment on overcrowding in the property in his <a href="https://www.judiciary.uk/prevention-of-future-death-reports/mizanur-rahman-prevention-of-future-deaths-report/">prevention of future deaths report</a>. He did, though, recommend that the government introduces standards regulating the sale of lithium batteries for e-bikes.</p>
<p>Ahead of the court case, <a href="https://grenfellunited.org.uk/about-us">Grenfell United</a>, a group of survivors and bereaved families founded days after the Grenfell Tower fire on June 14 2017, <a href="https://x.com/GrenfellUnited/status/1719025477854155043?s=20">pledged its support</a> to all those affected by the Maddocks House fire, stating:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Seven months since the Tarling West estate fire in which an innocent man lost his life … We stand with the family, residents, friends and all those campaigning for justice.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The Grenfell disaster – the UK’s worst post-war residential fire – claimed the lives of 72 people in <a href="https://www.mylondon.news/lifestyle/londons-richest-poorest-boroughs-average-23380005">London’s richest borough</a>, Kensington & Chelsea. The <a href="https://www.grenfelltowerinquiry.org.uk/">inquiry into the disaster</a> is expected to make a host of recommendations about the need to strengthen residential fire safety when it is finally published, after <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2023/nov/25/grenfell-tower-inquiry-final-report-delayed-again">yet more delays</a>, in 2024. But this is too late for Mizanur Rahman.</p>
<p>Indeed, more than six years after the Grenfell fire, community groups and homelessness charities have taken matters into their own hands to support renters and tenants who continue to be endangered by unsafe housing conditions in London and throughout the UK. But despite their best efforts, the risks facing residents of multiple-occupancy housing appear largely undiminished. Worryingly, policymakers – especially those who have responsibility for English housing and safety legislation – have seemingly forgotten the lessons from the UK’s <a href="https://uolpress.co.uk/book/before-grenfell/">past experiences of mass-fatality fire</a>.</p>
<h2>Another Grenfell-style fire?</h2>
<p>The Maddocks House fire added to widespread concerns that, despite Grenfell having been <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2022/nov/10/every-death-was-avoidable-grenfell-tower-inquiry-closes-after-400-days">an eminently avoidable disaster</a>, another major fire involving a large loss of life could happen in a bedsit, converted flat or other <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2004/34/part/7/crossheading/meaning-of-house-in-multiple-occupation#:%7E:text=254Meaning%20of%20%E2%80%9Chouse%20in%20multiple%20occupation%E2%80%9D&text=(f)rents%20are%20payable%20or,occupation%20of%20the%20living%20accommodation.">house in multiple occupation</a>. In part, this is the result of safety being neglected by <a href="https://hansard.parliament.uk/Lords/2016-06-10/debates/40C06C83-5A10-4F0B-8855-C10BF76E4182/Renters%E2%80%99RightsBill(HL)?highlight=%22the%20term%20%E2%80%98rogue%20landlord%E2%80%99%20is%20widely%20understood%20in%20the%20lettings%20industry%20to%20describe%20a%20landlord%20who%20knowingly%20flouts%20their%20obligations%20by%20renting%20out%20unsafe%20and%20substandard%20accommodation%20to%20tenants%2C%20many%20of%20whom%20may%20be%20vulnerable%22#contribution-50867390-8CF2-4915-B369-5DA6BCFF2699">rogue landlords</a> who <a href="https://hansard.parliament.uk/Lords/2016-06-10/debates/40C06C83-5A10-4F0B-8855-C10BF76E4182/Renters%E2%80%99RightsBill(HL)?highlight=%22the%20term%20%E2%80%98rogue%20landlord%E2%80%99%20is%20widely%20understood%20in%20the%20lettings%20industry%20to%20describe%20a%20landlord%20who%20knowingly%20flouts%20their%20obligations%20by%20renting%20out%20unsafe%20and%20substandard%20accommodation%20to%20tenants%2C%20many%20of%20whom%20may%20be%20vulnerable%22#contribution-50867390-8CF2-4915-B369-5DA6BCFF2699">“knowingly flout their obligations</a> by renting out unsafe and substandard accommodation to tenants, many of whom may be vulnerable”.</p>
<p>Another <a href="https://www.fsmatters.com/London-HMO-landlord-receives-substantial-fine">recently completed case</a> saw a landlord and property management company <a href="https://www.rbkc.gov.uk/newsroom/council-prosecutes-landlord-poor-housing-conditions-hyde-park-gate-houseshare">fined £480,000 plus costs</a> for leasing an unlicensed 22-bedroom property with multiple fire safety and damp-related risks in the same borough, Kensington & Chelsea, in which <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/inequality/ng-interactive/2017/nov/18/life-shadow-grenfell-tower-next-door">Grenfell Tower is located</a>. Throughout the UK, local authorities <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.1201/9781003246534-10/regulating-houses-multiple-occupation-hmos-louise-harford-kevin-thompson">face multiple challenges</a> – including lack of resources, limits to their legal powers, and cultural barriers – when reactively trying to regulate the standard of privately rented accommodation in houses in multiple occupation (known as HMOs).</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/288776/original/file-20190820-170910-8bv1s7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/288776/original/file-20190820-170910-8bv1s7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288776/original/file-20190820-170910-8bv1s7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288776/original/file-20190820-170910-8bv1s7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288776/original/file-20190820-170910-8bv1s7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288776/original/file-20190820-170910-8bv1s7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288776/original/file-20190820-170910-8bv1s7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong><em>This article is part of Conversation Insights</em></strong>
<br><em>The Insights team generates <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/insights-series-71218">long-form journalism</a> derived from interdisciplinary research. The team is working with academics from different backgrounds who have been engaged in projects aimed at tackling societal and scientific challenges.</em></p>
<hr>
<p><a href="https://blog.shelter.org.uk/2023/06/government-is-risking-another-fatal-fire-by-deregulating-hmo-accommodation/">Housing</a> and <a href="https://www.fbu.org.uk/news/2019/05/21/government-complacency-risks-another-grenfell">fire safety</a> campaigners have repeatedly warned of complacency over enforcing safety in the UK’s private rented sector, among others. In recent years, the government’s own safety experts have <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/society/2023/nov/16/experts-warned-government-of-tower-block-collapse-risk-last-year-leak-reveals">expressed concern</a> about ministers’ failures to tackle “potentially catastrophic life safety implications” in buildings ranging from tower blocks and HMOs to schools and hospitals.</p>
<p>Since 2022, the <a href="https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp-9428/">cost of living crisis</a> has left <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/statutory-homelessness-in-england-january-to-march-2023/statutory-homelessness-in-england-january-to-march-2023">record numbers</a> of disadvantaged people living in overcrowded, unfit and unsafe accommodation – including families with young children, frail older people, those with long-term health conditions, university students and migrants. They have little hope of accessing affordable and safe housing. And people living in the private rented sector are <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/english-housing-survey-2020-to-2021-feeling-safe-from-fire/english-housing-survey-2020-to-2021-feeling-safe-from-fire">twice as likely to feel unsafe in their home</a> as owner-occupiers, because of their fear that a fire might break out.</p>
<h2>A generation of rogue landlords</h2>
<p>While the campaign for improved standards of safety in HMOs originated in the 1960s, it intensified during the early 1980s following <a href="https://hansard.parliament.uk/Lords/2023-06-07/debates/41061D9F-F385-4CF5-9B77-8EB8852381A3/IllegalMigrationBill?highlight=hmo%20fire#contribution-74FECC2F-0658-405B-905B-E19EBCDAA212">several mass-fatality fires</a> – as I chart in my new book, <a href="https://uolpress.co.uk/book/before-grenfell/">Before Grenfell: Fire, Safety and Deregulation in Twentieth-Century Britain</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565792/original/file-20231214-15-a47go8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Smoke coming out of the window of a large London apartment" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565792/original/file-20231214-15-a47go8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565792/original/file-20231214-15-a47go8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=942&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565792/original/file-20231214-15-a47go8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=942&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565792/original/file-20231214-15-a47go8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=942&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565792/original/file-20231214-15-a47go8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1184&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565792/original/file-20231214-15-a47go8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1184&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565792/original/file-20231214-15-a47go8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1184&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Clanricarde Gardens fire (1981).</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/">The National Archives</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Shortly before Christmas 1981, <a href="https://read.uolpress.co.uk/read/before-grenfell/section/68c02bc3-7033-4d94-a928-9a2896e9c3b5">fire gutted a residential property</a> in Notting Hill Gate, west London, killing eight residents and injuring many more. The property comprised 56 bedsits across three converted terraced houses on Clanricarde Gardens, a once-fashionable cul-de-sac which, with its low-quality bed-and-breakfast-style accommodation, by then aimed at the cheaper end of London’s rental market. Although estimates vary, almost 100 people are thought to have been sleeping in the property on the night of the fire, which started around four o’clock in the morning. Local newspapers quoted a resident being woken by “a tremendous shouting and screaming”:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>At first I thought it was a Christmas party – but then I knew from the sound that this was no party. </p>
</blockquote>
<p><a href="https://read.uolpress.co.uk/read/before-grenfell/section/68c02bc3-7033-4d94-a928-9a2896e9c3b5">Fire investigators</a> would later find numerous defects in the property, including combustible partition walls, unprotected staircases, a maze of corridors without fire-stopping doors, and a dangerously high electrical loading.</p>
<p>Six of the eight people who died were adult migrants who had come to Britain from Latin America and eastern Europe to study and work; the other two were elderly British men. Many of the residents were employed in the low-paid hospitality sector.</p>
<p>The survivors, having lost their possessions, were clothed and put up in hotels – then interviewed by officials from the Royal Borough of Kensington & Chelsea (RBKC) to determine their eligibility for rehousing. Due to a shortage of available housing, many were rejected. Some had no option but to <a href="https://read.uolpress.co.uk/read/before-grenfell/section/68c02bc3-7033-4d94-a928-9a2896e9c3b5#footnote-061-backlink">move into the property next door</a> to the burnt-out shell of their former home.</p>
<p>The Clanricarde Gardens fire inquest exposed a generation of rogue London landlords who had placed profits before safety in their <a href="https://hansard.parliament.uk/Commons/1982-03-18/debates/888c059e-7af2-4781-8516-8341eb21e941/Hostels(London)?highlight=fire%20clanricarde#contribution-11c52e90-a78c-40d9-83f9-37f12681b496">unregulated “Victorian hostels”</a>. Major shortcomings were also revealed in the level of oversight from RBKC, which was identified as having some of the <a href="https://read.uolpress.co.uk/read/before-grenfell/section/68c02bc3-7033-4d94-a928-9a2896e9c3b5#footnote-060">worst housing conditions</a> in the capital, with unregistered HMOs comprising between a quarter and a third of its housing stock. <a href="https://read.uolpress.co.uk/read/before-grenfell/section/68c02bc3-7033-4d94-a928-9a2896e9c3b5#footnote-059">Early warnings</a> about the dangerous condition of the Notting Hill property had not been acted upon by officers at the time of the fire, and the council was subsequently <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/inequality/2017/jul/24/underfunded-and-overstretched-the-lawyers-seeking-justice-for-grenfell-tower-fire">found guilty of maladministration</a>.</p>
<p>The jury at the inquest returned a verdict of death by misadventure, but found no evidence of negligence by the landlord. <a href="https://read.uolpress.co.uk/read/before-grenfell/section/68c02bc3-7033-4d94-a928-9a2896e9c3b5">The coroner</a> angered campaigners and survivors by declining to add recommendations for the government to improve safety. He claimed that the need to reconcile cheap accommodation for homeless people with “expensive” fire precautions was “insoluble”.</p>
<p>In the aftermath, the Campaign for Bedsit Rights (CBR) – led by tenacious housing activist <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/society/2020/oct/27/nick-beacock-obituary">Nick Beacock</a> – published a <a href="https://archive.org/details/firesafetyguidec0000unse">guide to fire safety</a> for tenants, issued a semi-regular newsletter, and collaborated with sympathetic members of parliament who advocated for statutory licensing and regulation of these “<a href="https://hansard.parliament.uk/Commons/1983-02-25/debates/a0b92dae-fe08-41fe-8191-3c86a5853e9e/Housing(HousesInMultipleOccupation)Bill?highlight=housing%20houses%20multiple%20occupation#contribution-0bc09dc4-c3a9-4f49-b88e-be8171cd818a">Dickensian</a>” lodgings. The urgency of the situation was marked by the scale of homelessness across the capital at that time, with rough sleeping <a href="https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/commons/1985/dec/20/homelessness-london">on the rise</a> due to cuts in housing benefit.</p>
<p>Yet, in February 1983, a <a href="https://hansard.parliament.uk/Commons/1983-02-25/debates/a0b92dae-fe08-41fe-8191-3c86a5853e9e/Housing(HousesInMultipleOccupation)Bill">private members’ bill</a> to introduce licensing was defeated by the government despite enjoying strong cross-party support. Ministers defended the decision on the grounds of public spending restrictions and, <a href="https://read.uolpress.co.uk/read/before-grenfell/section/68c02bc3-7033-4d94-a928-9a2896e9c3b5#footnote-052">in a quote attributed to housing minister George Young</a>, a reluctance to “add unnecessarily” to landlords’ costs in a way that might “discourage them from making accommodation available”. Throughout the 1980s, landlords’ interests were largely prioritised ahead of tenants’, in a decade that saw the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02673039608720868">deregulation of the private rental market</a>.</p>
<p>Four decades on, even after the public outcry following the Grenfell disaster, cases continue to highlight that, around the UK, local authorities vary widely in their interpretation and enforcement of their obligations over licensing rental properties. In many cases, they simply <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2023/nov/19/landlords-double-income-ignoring-hmo-licence-overcrowding">lack the resources</a> to track landlords.</p>
<p>In July 2023, the <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2023/36/enacted">Social Housing (Regulation) Act</a> was given royal assent, introducing a more proactive system whereby complaints about the standard of <a href="https://england.shelter.org.uk/support_us/campaigns/what_is_social_housing">social housing</a> can be investigated by the regulator. It has taken <a href="https://blog.shelter.org.uk/2023/07/royal-assent-transformation-social-housing/">almost six years</a> of campaigning by Grenfell United, Shelter and other organisations to get to this stage. However, the act does not cover the private rented sector, and much work is still needed to protect these residents.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/gGcPtRcpeBU?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">A film by Grenfell United.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Years of inaction</h2>
<p>Over the decades since the 1983 defeat of the licensing bill, it is hard not to conclude that several deadly fires might have been prevented had the UK government introduced mandatory licensing, backed up by strong powers of enforcement.</p>
<p><a href="https://read.uolpress.co.uk/read/before-grenfell/section/68c02bc3-7033-4d94-a928-9a2896e9c3b5#footnote-059">One notable incident</a>, in November 1984, involved the death of a 27-year-old Bangladeshi woman, Mrs Abdul Karim, and her two young children, aged three and five, in a five-storey HMO in Westminster, central London. Despite being a priority for rehousing, the family had lived in a single room at the top of an unenclosed staircase for the previous nine months. In all, more than 50 people lived in the property, including 18 families who had been accommodated there by Camden Borough Council.</p>
<p>Firefighters found as many as seven people sleeping in a single room, and rescued a baby sleeping in a cot in a bathroom. “It was a miracle more people were not killed,” a survivor told a local newspaper. A local homelessness charity representative described the fire as highlighting “all the things we have been saying about the conditions homeless families are forced to live in”. Eventually, following a <a href="https://read.uolpress.co.uk/read/before-grenfell/section/68c02bc3-7033-4d94-a928-9a2896e9c3b5#footnote-059">two-week occupation</a> of Camden town hall by furious families, councillors rehoused the survivors in improved accommodation within the borough.</p>
<p>This fire exposed <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02673030903561842">historic racial inequalities</a> within London’s housing market, with many non-white families left to the whims of exploitative landlords. While the national media showed little interest, author Salmon Rushdie wrote an excoriating piece for the Guardian which was cited in a <a href="https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/commons/1984/dec/14/homeless-persons-accommodation">House of Commons debate</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>When it started, no alarm rang. It had been switched off. The fire extinguishers were empty. The fire exits were blocked. It was night time but the stairs were in darkness because there were no bulbs in the lighting sockets. And in the single, cramped top-floor room where the cooker was next to the bed, Mrs Abdul Karim, a Bangladeshi woman, and her five-year-old son and three-year-old daughter died of suffocation.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Rushdie pointed the finger of blame squarely at the racist landlords and councillors who persistently ignored the complaints of black and Asian families. He wrote: “Those of us who do not live in slum housing get used with remarkable ease to the fact that others do” – not least because black and Asian families “are far more likely than white ones to be placed in such ‘temporary’ places”.</p>
<p>After a Camden councillor was quoted by journalists as complaining that the town hall occupation had been “manipulated” by Bengali families" to jump the housing queue", Rushdie sarcastically added that “presumably not enough people have been burned to death yet” to improve the situation.</p>
<p>Following compelling evidence of systematic neglect of the property by its landlord, the inquest jury returned an open verdict on the deaths. Campaigners again called for powers to license hostels: Mel Cairns, an experienced environmental health officer, told a local paper: “People who look after dogs and cats need licences, and the same should apply to landlords who have human beings in their charge.”</p>
<p>The coroner concurred, demanding of ministers that “action be taken to prevent the occurrence of similar fatalities”. <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/society/2014/dec/10/chris-holmes">Chris Holmes</a>, director of the Campaign for the Homeless and Rootless (and a future government adviser on reducing street homelessness), <a href="https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/commons/1984/dec/14/homeless-persons-accommodation">concluded</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>The fire at Gloucester Place tragically shows the need for there to be a legal duty on local authorities to inspect this kind of property. If an HMO Act had existed, that family need not have died.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Yet, despite compiling its own evidence on the extent of the risk, successive consultations by Conservative governments during the 1980s and 1990s rejected mandatory licensing on grounds of proportionality and cost. <a href="https://archive.org/details/firesafetyguidec0000unse/page/2/mode/2up">Four in every five HMOs</a> were identified as having inadequate means of escape in a fire, while the risk of death or injury due to fire was ten times greater for people living in an HMO than in a single-occupancy family house, according to Home Office figures from the early 1990s.</p>
<p>In 1994, a fire in a Scarborough hostel in which a 33-year-old woman and her two-year-old child died finally led the prime minister, John Major, to <a href="https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/commons/1994/may/05/engagements">pledge</a> his government to investigate “the feasibility of introducing a licensing system to control such establishments”. However, the following year, the Department of the Environment <a href="https://read.uolpress.co.uk/read/before-grenfell/section/68c02bc3-7033-4d94-a928-9a2896e9c3b5#footnote-018">concluded</a> that licensing “would lead to excessive cost and bureaucracy by forcing every local authority to follow a standard licensing approach”.</p>
<p>After further government obfuscation and more avoidable deaths, licensing of HMOs was finally introduced in the early 2000s. Although the ruling Labour party had <a href="http://www.labour-party.org.uk/manifestos/1997/1997-labour-manifesto.shtml">promised to introduce licensing</a> in the lead-up to both the 1997 and 2001 general elections, it took further campaigning to secure the legislation through the <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2004/34/contents">2004 Housing Act</a>. The legislation also introduced other measures to improve fire safety, including the <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/housing-health-and-safety-rating-system-hhsrs-guidance">housing health & safety rating system</a>, which required local authorities to take legal action against landlords letting homes with serious hazards.</p>
<p>In 2006, statutory regulations were introduced to guarantee minimum standards within both the <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2006/373/contents/made">licensing</a> and <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2006/372/contents/made">management</a> of multiple occupancy-style rental accommodation. Though far from the end point in the fight for safe housing for all, it signalled a major victory for campaigners such as Beacock. In recent years, however, owing to the growing housing crisis in London and other large UK cities, the problem of rogue landlords who are prepared to “game” the licensing regime has re-emerged.</p>
<p>Across the UK’s private rented sector, we see examples of landlords operating even after being refused a licence. Some fail to sign tenancy agreements, evict tenants without legal grounds, and allow unauthorised people to live in licensed properties. Such has been the scale of the problem that in 2019, the government issued <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cffa8bce5274a3cfa8a4fea/Rogue_Landlord_Enforcement_-_Guidance_for_LAs.pdf">advisory guidance</a> to local authorities to “clamp down on these rogue landlords and force them to improve the condition of their properties, or leave the sector completely”.</p>
<h2>‘A price tag on our lives’</h2>
<p>London has a <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3133531">history</a> of housing managed by a small number of unscrupulous private landlords prepared to use illegal and immoral practices to profit from the poor. Perhaps most famously, <a href="https://academic.oup.com/tcbh/article-abstract/12/1/69/1735310">Peter Rachman</a> operated in Notting Hill during the 1950s and ’60s, exploiting and intimidating his tenants so much that the phrase “Rachmanism” entered popular vocabulary. In 2019, his “<a href="https://hansard.parliament.uk/Lords/2019-01-31/debates/AE8030C8-FF1A-4BBF-A9EF-179616F5E6C9/SocialHousing?highlight=%22peter%20rachman%22#contribution-8D6AC161-3887-4907-8A1B-8EB5B5C3094D">inhumane activities</a>” were still being highlighted in a Lord’s debate on social housing.</p>
<p>But nor are local authority landlords exempt from criticism, as the Grenfell disaster exposed. At the time of the fire, the tower block was owned by the Royal Borough of Kensington & Chelsea, with management services provided by its tenant management organisation (TMO). Many of its residents were tenants of the local authority or a local housing association, while a small number owned the leasehold to their flats or were private renters.</p>
<p>During testimony to the <a href="https://www.grenfelltowerinquiry.org.uk/">Grenfell Tower inquiry</a>, witnesses criticised both the borough and its TMO for ignoring safety concerns raised during the tower block’s refurbishment in 2015-16. <a href="https://assets.grenfelltowerinquiry.org.uk/documents/transcript/Transcript%209%20November%202022.pdf">Residents</a> reported being made to “feel like second-class citizens – a nuisance, troublemakers, who should take what they were given and be grateful”. As one survivor, <a href="https://assets.grenfelltowerinquiry.org.uk/documents/transcript/Transcript%2020%20April%202021.pdf">Emma O’Connor</a>, said in her testimony:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I don’t think it’s fair … that all these corporate companies were allowed to be given the choice to choose what the price tag on our lives should be.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Some local authorities are beginning to tackle the problem through criminal proceedings. In <a href="https://news.camden.gov.uk/first-prosecution-by-camdens-new-rogue-landlord-taskforce/#:%7E:text=Monsoon%20Properties%20Limited%20and%20the,in%20multiple%20occupation%20(HMO)%20and">Camden</a>, a property management company was fined more than £49,000 in 2023 for fire safety breaches at an HMO and added to the Mayor of London’s “<a href="https://www.london.gov.uk/rogue-landlord-checker/3594/nojs?destination=rogue-landlord-checker">rogue landlord database</a>”. In 2020, Coventry City Council obtained a <a href="https://www.local.gov.uk/case-studies/successful-banning-order-against-rogue-landlord">banning order</a> against a landlord who had a “flagrant disregard for housing legislation”, including fire safety measures.</p>
<p>Research commissioned by the UK government into local authority enforcement of housing standards revealed that <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/local-authority-enforcement-in-the-private-rented-sector-headline-report/local-authority-enforcement-in-the-private-rented-sector-headline-report">non-compliance with the law is rife</a> across the private rented sector. Under half of local authorities in England reported that over 90% of notices served for the most serious <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2004/34/part/1#:%7E:text=%E2%80%9Chazard%E2%80%9D%20means%20any%20risk%20of,an%20absence%20of%20maintenance%20or">category-1 hazards</a> had been complied with in 2019-20, while nearly a quarter (23%) reported that fewer than 50% of hazard notices had been complied with.</p>
<p>Much work remains to be done around enforcement by local authorities, to ensure that all landlords meet minimum safety requirements. In the meantime, some appear unconcerned about the risks – and potential consequences – of playing with fire.</p>
<h2>Another avoidable death</h2>
<p>In March 2023, Rahman’s death in the Maddocks House fire exposed once more the problems facing many people who live in a permanent state of precarity, often at the mercy of an exploitative housing market. The flat was licensed for occupancy by three people across two families, yet <a href="https://tarlingwestestate.wordpress.com/2023/04/13/tarling-west-estate-residents-association-report-1-04-2023-on-recovery-ofresidents-of-18-maddocks-house-possessions-after-the-fire-on-friday-17-march-2023/">18 men</a> reportedly occupied the flat on the night of the blaze.</p>
<p>The landlords had converted three rooms into dormitory-like sleeping spaces to pack in as many tenants as possible, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2023/nov/28/landlords-of-crowded-london-flat-that-caught-fire-plead-guilty-to-criminal-charges">allegedly earning</a> over £100,000 a year in rent. <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-64914885">One survivor</a> described how some of the residents, mostly Bangladeshi citizens, were “sleeping in the kitchen, some sharing beds, some sleeping on the floor” – a significant breach of the licence. There was a single shared toilet and bathroom, and the kitchen was out of bounds for cooking. For this, each tenant paid rent of up to £100 a week.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://tarlingwestestate.wordpress.com/2023/04/13/tarling-west-estate-residents-association-report-1-04-2023-on-recovery-ofresidents-of-18-maddocks-house-possessions-after-the-fire-on-friday-17-march-2023/">survivors</a>, who lost everything including their phones and passports, were housed in emergency accommodation by Tower Hamlets council, which owns the freehold to the property. The council <a href="https://democracy.towerhamlets.gov.uk/mgAi.aspx?ID=141846">passed an urgent motion</a> declaring the fire “an abuse of the most socially and economically vulnerable residents and workers by a greedy, vulturous and predatory class of landlord”.</p>
<p>The landlords, Sofina Begum and her husband Aminur Rahman (no relation to the victim), recently <a href="https://www.towerhamlets.gov.uk/News_events/2023/November/Tower-Hamlets-landlords-plead-guilty-to-overcrowding-charges.aspx">pleaded guilty</a> to a total of nine criminal charges at Thames magistrates court in east London, and are due to be sentenced in January 2024.</p>
<p>Anthony Iles, chair of the tenants and residents association, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2023/nov/28/landlords-of-crowded-london-flat-that-caught-fire-plead-guilty-to-criminal-charges">commented</a> that the case provided “some small trickle of justice” and “serves as a warning to other landlords in the borough”. Conditions in Maddocks House were <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/society/2023/apr/23/men-who-escaped-fire-in-crowded-london-flat-face-homelessness">described</a> by one resident as “worse than slums in Bangladesh”.</p>
<p>Yet the men living there, many of whom worked as delivery drivers, restaurant and warehouse workers (some while also studying at university), had been afraid to complain to the council about the conditions because of their fear of being made homeless.</p>
<p>Tower Hamlets council has <a href="https://www.insidehousing.co.uk/news/resident-groups-rally-to-support-survivors-of-flat-fire-in-east-london-left-facing-homelessness-81294">rehoused those residents</a> “who are entitled to recourse to public funds”. It recently <a href="https://www.towerhamlets.gov.uk/News_events/2023/October/Tower-Hamlets-Council-to-manage-housing-directly-from-November-2023.aspx">resumed responsibility</a> for managing its housing stock, and <a href="https://www.towerhamlets.gov.uk/News_events/2023/November/Tower-Hamlets-landlords-plead-guilty-to-overcrowding-charges.aspx">approved plans</a> to renew an additional licensing scheme for HMOs under its jurisdiction.</p>
<p>However, some of the Maddocks House residents have international student visas, which means they are <a href="https://whitechapellondon.co.uk/shadwell-flat-fire-survivors-council-support-ended/">not entitled</a> to homelessness assistance or housing benefit. They have been forced back into the informal housing sector, the ongoing victims of an affordable housing crisis in which the average private rent in Tower Hamlets has <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/society/2023/apr/23/men-who-escaped-fire-in-crowded-london-flat-face-homelessness">risen</a> 33% since 2021 to £2,560 a month – far in excess of the earnings of these Maddocks House survivors.</p>
<p>Given the shortage of affordable housing in London and other UK cities, HMO-style accommodation remains the most, perhaps the only, practicable option for many people and families. In 2019, <a href="https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/sn00708/">nearly 500,000 properties</a> were officially registered as HMOs in England – although recent reports indicate the <a href="https://propertyindustryeye.com/englands-hmo-stock-continues-on-downward-trend/">market is now retracting</a>, due to the introduction of <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2018/221/made">tighter licensing rules in 2018</a> that extended provisions to cover two-storey HMOs.</p>
<p>But HMOs vary widely in terms of their size, occupancy, building type and amenities, which makes them immensely challenging for local authorities to regulate. These same local authorities suffered <a href="https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/explainer/local-government-funding-england">major reductions</a> to their funding from central government in the ten years prior to the COVID pandemic, and council leaders <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2023/nov/26/jeremy-hunt-budget-cuts-chancellor-threat-flagship-councils-england-bankrupt">are warning</a> they are likely to face “a new wave of austerity” during the next parliament, whoever is in power.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/4M7Aoj6gtrI?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The Tower Next Door: Living in the Shadow of Grenfell – a documentary by the Guardian.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Fire <em>does</em> discriminate</h2>
<p>Contrary to the popular mantra that fire doesn’t discriminate, the poor and disadvantaged in UK and other societies are <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/inequality/2017/jul/11/grenfell-tower-tragedy-worldwide-truth-fire-is-an-inequality-issue">disproportionately affected by fire</a> because they are forced to live in unsafe or overcrowded housing.</p>
<p>Over a span of more than 40 years, the fires at Clanricarde Gardens, Gloucester Place, Grenfell Tower and Maddocks House – and many others besides – show us that residents who raise safety concerns with their landlords are too often ignored or dismissed as troublemakers.</p>
<p>The survivors, bereaved and local communities affected by fires have repeatedly called on the government to act more decisively and comprehensively in the interests of residents rather than landlords. In the wake of the Grenfell disaster, they have again spoken out bravely, holding senior ministers to account for their <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2017/jun/29/grenfell-tower-inquiry-judge-to-meet-residents-and-survivors">pledge</a> that “no stone will be left unturned” in the quest to learn lessons from Grenfell. While their representative bodies continue to fight for justice and safer housing, their legal counsel at the Grenfell inquiry <a href="https://assets.grenfelltowerinquiry.org.uk/documents/transcript/Transcript%207%20November%202022.pdf">warned</a> that, if we allow the lessons from Grenfell to be forgotten, we risk facing “another inquiry, following another disaster … where all the same points are being made”.</p>
<p>The UK government claims its response to Grenfell, via the <a href="https://www.gov.uk/guidance/the-building-safety-act">Building Safety Act</a> (2022), has been to introduce “groundbreaking reforms to give residents and homeowners more rights, powers and protections – so homes across the country are safer”. But this does not extend to large numbers of disadvantaged people and homeless families with children, all struggling to cope in the cost of living crisis.</p>
<p>Some landlords are adept at identifying loopholes in the legislation that enable them to evade their obligations towards tenants. Central government has been slow to close these or equip local authorities with the powers to force greater levels of compliance. There is little in the government’s “landmark” legislation (and related <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/news/42-million-to-support-delivery-of-building-safety-reforms">safety funding plans</a>) that indicates any more willingness than its predecessors to tackle the problem of rogue landlords within the private rented sector.</p>
<p>As long ago as the 1980s, pioneering campaign organisations like the Campaign for Bedsit Rights (which <a href="https://www.lgcplus.com/archive/shelter-takes-over-campaign-for-bedsit-rights-10-12-1997/">became part of Shelter in 1997</a>) recognised that fire safety is a social equality issue. Forty years and many fires later, it is long overdue that everyone in a position of power recognises this principle – and acts upon it to reduce fire inequality. It is too late for Mizanur Rahman, who died inside Maddocks House, and for the 72 people who lost their lives in Grenfell Tower in 2017. How many more lives must be lost?</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/313478/original/file-20200204-41481-1n8vco4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/313478/original/file-20200204-41481-1n8vco4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=112&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313478/original/file-20200204-41481-1n8vco4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=112&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313478/original/file-20200204-41481-1n8vco4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=112&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313478/original/file-20200204-41481-1n8vco4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313478/original/file-20200204-41481-1n8vco4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313478/original/file-20200204-41481-1n8vco4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><em>For you: more from our <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/insights-series-71218?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=InsightsUK">Insights series</a>:</em></p>
<ul>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/covid-heroes-left-behind-the-invisible-women-struggling-to-make-ends-meet-198210?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=InsightsUK">COVID heroes left behind: the ‘invisible’ women struggling to make ends meet
</a></em></p></li>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/the-hidden-danger-of-asbestos-in-uk-schools-i-dont-think-they-realise-how-much-risk-it-poses-to-students-203582?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=InsightsUK">The hidden danger of asbestos in UK schools: ‘I don’t think they realise how much risk it poses to students’
</a></em></p></li>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-solve-our-mental-health-crisis-214776?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=InsightsUK">How to solve our mental health crisis
</a></em></p></li>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/im-always-delivering-food-while-hungry-how-undocumented-migrants-find-work-as-substitute-couriers-in-the-uk-201695?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=InsightsUK">‘I’m always delivering food while hungry’: how undocumented migrants find work as substitute couriers in the UK
</a></em></p></li>
</ul>
<p><em>To hear about new Insights articles, join the hundreds of thousands of people who value The Conversation’s evidence-based news. <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/newsletters/the-daily-newsletter-2?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=InsightsUK"><strong>Subscribe to our newsletter</strong></a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/219688/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Shane Ewen received funding from an Arts and Humanities Research Council Standard Open Grant: Forged by Fire: Burns Injury and Identity in Britain, c.1800-2000. He would like to thank Anthony Iles (Tarling West TRA), Deborah Garvie (Shelter), Paul Hampton (Fire Brigades Union) and Rachel Rich (Leeds Beckett University) for their assistance with this article.</span></em></p>Fire is a social equality issue. Amid fresh concerns over rogue landlords and dangerous overcrowding, why have calls for change gone unheeded for so long?Shane Ewen, Professor of History, Leeds Beckett UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2154062023-12-14T13:10:42Z2023-12-14T13:10:42ZLighting a fire using friction requires an understanding of some physics principles − but there are ways to make the process easier<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565288/original/file-20231212-25-x4dxir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=24%2C0%2C4001%2C3017&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Humans have been making fire by friction for centuries, but it's not easy.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/campfire-on-the-shores-of-the-chesapeake-bay-royalty-free-image/1402162981?phrase=campfire&adppopup=true">Cyndi Monaghan/Moment via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Humans have been making <a href="https://www.primitiveways.com/fire_Baugh.html">fire using friction</a> for <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/fire-combustion">thousands of years</a>, with evidence of its use found in archaeological records <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/53531">across different cultures</a> worldwide. </p>
<p>Fire by friction is a testament to human ingenuity, contributing to the development of early technology and a later understanding of physics, chemistry and heat transfer.</p>
<p>Making fire, one of the <a href="https://theconversation.com/early-humans-used-fire-to-permanently-change-the-landscape-tens-of-thousands-of-years-ago-in-stone-age-africa-158574">key discoveries in human history</a>, has played a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/evan.20275">pivotal role in human evolution</a>, providing warmth, light, protection from predators, a <a href="https://youtu.be/qv6kcj6Uv2Y?si=xEV7rK-k2U9GXRtK">means to cook</a> and the ability to migrate into more hostile climates. </p>
<p>I’m an <a href="https://udayton.edu/directory/graduate/duncan_bradley.php">engineering professor</a>, avid outdoorsman and <a href="https://firecrafter38.wildapricot.org/">Minisino Firecrafter</a> who’s been studying and practicing fire by friction for many years. It’s a great way to explore <a href="https://ecommons.udayton.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1418&context=ece_fac_pub">key science concepts</a> while engaging in a practice that humans have been performing for millennia.</p>
<h2>Ember, flame, fire</h2>
<p>Fire by friction relies on <a href="https://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Friction">the conversion of</a> mechanical energy into thermal energy through friction. Friction is the force <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/friction">of resistance</a> between two surfaces when they slide, or attempt to slide, past one another. </p>
<p>There are many ways to create fire by friction, but the most common and easiest to learn uses <a href="https://www.jonsbushcraft.com/bowdrill%20tutorial.htm">a bow drill set</a>.</p>
<p>A bow drill set consists of a thin spindle, a hearth board, a lightly curved bow, to which a bow cord is attached, and a “thunderhead” or bearing block, which is a stone or block of hard wood with a natural or carved divot used to press down on the top of the spindle. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565523/original/file-20231213-31-9q62ua.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A set of wood tools, including a long stick with a cord attached, a small stick, a piece of wood with grooves carved into it, a pile of dried grass, and a small, triangle-shaped stone." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565523/original/file-20231213-31-9q62ua.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565523/original/file-20231213-31-9q62ua.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565523/original/file-20231213-31-9q62ua.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565523/original/file-20231213-31-9q62ua.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565523/original/file-20231213-31-9q62ua.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565523/original/file-20231213-31-9q62ua.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565523/original/file-20231213-31-9q62ua.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A bow drill set, made entirely from materials found outdoors. From bottom left to top right is a tinder bundle, made from the inner bark of a cottonwood tree and some red cedar bark, a stone thunderhead, a honeysuckle bow with a cord made from dogbane fibers, a goldenrod spindle and a white pine hearth board.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Bradley Duncan</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>First, the firemaker wraps the bow cord tightly around the spindle and uses it to <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S5h5tSAYPcw">rapidly spin</a> the spindle against the hearth board, while simultaneously pressing down with the thunderhead. </p>
<p>Similar to how your hands become warmer when you vigorously rub them together, friction causes a rapid increase in temperature where the spindle meets the hearth board. This drives away any residual moisture. The wood also heats up mostly in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charcoal">absence of oxygen</a>, resulting in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charring">charring</a>, a chemical process from incomplete combustion. What’s left over is <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/charcoal">mostly carbon</a>. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/S5h5tSAYPcw?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The friction of the spindle against the hearth board creates heat – kind of like how your hands warm up when you rub them together.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As the spindle continues to spin, it grinds away the charred wood to form a small pile of <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GzLvqCTvOQY">charcoal</a> dust. As the dust pile grows, it will eventually coalesce and ignite to form an ember. </p>
<p>The ember’s ignition point depends on a variety of factors, including the type of wood, the temperature and the humidity. <a href="https://www.primitiveways.com/fire_Baugh2.html">Experiments often yield</a> ignition temperatures in the range of 650-800 degrees Farenheit (340-430 degrees Celsius), with the most reliable estimates on the order of 700 degrees F (370 degrees C). Getting to this temperature is essential to create an ember and start the fire.</p>
<p>After an ember forms, the firemaker then transfers it to a tinder bundle made of dry leaves or grass, dead tree bark or other fibrous organic materials. The firemaker blows into the tinder bundle to further <a href="https://gearuphiking.com/why-does-blowing-on-a-fire-make-it-burn-better/">raise the temperature</a> by increasing oxygen flow. </p>
<p>Eventually, the <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ibaMy_WvhE0">tinder bursts into flame</a>, after which the firemaker can kindle it into a larger fire. Young fires are usually fragile – if the firemaker doesn’t provide them with enough fuel, air flow and protection from the wind and rain, they can go out.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/B0E4PX3e3RE?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The smoke you see rising from a fire results from incomplete combustion.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Work smarter, not harder</h2>
<p>Understanding <a href="https://ecommons.udayton.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1418&context=ece_fac_pub">the physics of fire by friction</a> and the <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8zEC1qSjKjg">different variables involved</a> can make a big difference and help the fire start more quickly with less effort.</p>
<p>First, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gnsDMEOVShQ">keep it small</a>. Firemakers should make bow drill sets carved from standing dead, dry tree limbs maybe an inch or so (2.5 centimeters) in diameter. Optimal spindles have diameters between three-eighths of an inch and a half-inch (1-1.25 cm). </p>
<p>How fast the friction force generates heat is directly proportional to how fast the firemaker bows, on average, and is independent of the diameter of the spindle. So, the faster you move the bow, the more heat you will create, <a href="https://ecommons.udayton.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1418&context=ece_fac_pub">regardless of the spindle’s size</a>. </p>
<p>But because they have smaller cross-sectional areas, thin spindles increase the heat density at the spindle-hearth board interface, which is where the ember forms and ignites. By concentrating the heat in a smaller area at this interface, thin spindles reduce the time and effort required to form and ignite an ember.</p>
<p>Dry, unpigmented, medium-density woods – elm, poplar and cottonwood are some examples – will work well for the spindle and the hearth board. I’ve tested lots of wood types and found that, with a few exceptions, wood hardness <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2VleagqhZjU">mostly doesn’t matter</a>. </p>
<p>I’ve also found that mature wildflower stalks – harvested fresh and allowed to dry out – work well as spindles. Tall, woody wildflowers like <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rz_wiVyBG8c">goldenrod</a>, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W7hpmbdu2n0">ironweed</a>, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9sLKdif9BGQ">teasel</a>, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q33d__UYZ8c">mullein</a> and the like can produce embers in seconds. If time permits, you can even make a bow cord with <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1R1wC_mLPVo">natural fibers</a> extracted from flax, dogbane or nettle plants commonly found in the woods.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565286/original/file-20231212-17-7tuxrb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A yellow goldenrod flower, with green leaves." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565286/original/file-20231212-17-7tuxrb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565286/original/file-20231212-17-7tuxrb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565286/original/file-20231212-17-7tuxrb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565286/original/file-20231212-17-7tuxrb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565286/original/file-20231212-17-7tuxrb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565286/original/file-20231212-17-7tuxrb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565286/original/file-20231212-17-7tuxrb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The thick, woody stalks from wildflowers like goldenrod can work as effective spindles.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/solidago-goldenrod-royalty-free-image/157186277?phrase=goldenrod&adppopup=true">Solidago/E+ via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The fire-making process</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8zEC1qSjKjg">key variables</a> the firemaker can control during the bowing process are the speed at which they’re moving the bow and how much pressure they’re applying to the spindle via the thunderhead. Start by seating the spindle tip into a <a href="http://paulkirtley.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/notch.jpg">notched divot</a> carved into the hearth board. Then move the bow slowly until you get your balance. </p>
<p>Initially press down with the thunderhead just hard enough <a href="https://www.ars.usda.gov/northeast-area/wyndmoor-pa/eastern-regional-research-center/docs/biomass-pyrolysis-research-1/what-is-pyrolysis/">for pyrolysis to begin</a>. Pyrolysis happens when heat causes organic material to decompose without oxygen. You’ll know when pyrolysis starts because you’ll see smoke rising from the spindle-hearth board interface. </p>
<p>Then, begin to increase your bow speed until you are bowing as rapidly as you can sustain for a minute or so. Don’t hold your breath, and use bow strokes as long as you can manage without compromising bow speed. The time it takes to form an ember decreases the faster you bow, though the length of your <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8zEC1qSjKjg">stroke doesn’t matter</a>.</p>
<p>As speed increases, begin to increase the pressure you’re putting on the spindle, stopping when the increased friction begins to affect your ability to sustain a rapid bow speed. With good materials you’ll likely have a nice ember in well under a minute.</p>
<p>While modern technology has largely replaced primitive methods, fire by friction continues to be a source of fascination and a testament to human ingenuity. Understanding this process not only enriches humanity’s connection to the ancient past, but it also underscores how physics comes into play throughout daily life.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/215406/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bradley Duncan does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>You may have seen contestants on reality shows like “Survivor” make fire using friction, but do you know the physics behind the process?Bradley Duncan, Professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of DaytonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2187792023-12-07T14:24:36Z2023-12-07T14:24:36ZYule – a celebration of the return of light and warmth<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564046/original/file-20231206-23-nd15am.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=104%2C26%2C5701%2C3838&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">People gather for Pagan sunrise celebrations in Ireland, on the morning of the winter solstice.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/people-gather-for-sunrise-at-newgrange-co-meath-on-the-news-photo/1245764534?adppopup=true">Brian Lawless/PA Images via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Yule will be celebrated by Wiccans and many other Pagans in the Northern Hemisphere on Dec. 21, the day of the winter solstice. For Pagans, the shortest day of the year marks the <a href="https://uscpress.com/Search?q=A+community+of+Witches">end of the descent into darkness</a> and the beginning of the return of the light as the days begin to get longer after the solstice. Like many other religious holidays, <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/photo/2016/12/festivals-of-light/510518/">Yule is a celebration of light</a>.</p>
<p>As a <a href="https://www.helenaliceberger.com/">sociologist who has been studying contemporary Pagans</a> for more than 30 years, I know that Yule is also a time of reflection. The cold dark period of the year, many Wiccans feel, encourages us to not only spend more time at home, but also to become more reflective about our lives – and often about spirituality. </p>
<h2>Marking the beginning of winter</h2>
<p>Wicca is a minority religion that is part of the larger contemporary Pagan movement. Pagans normally define their religion as earth-based. By this they mean <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-wicca-an-expert-on-modern-witchcraft-explains-165939">they see divinity in nature</a> and connect their rituals to the changing seasons. All forms of contemporary Paganism look to pre-Christian European religions to inform their religious practice. </p>
<p>Wiccans regularly call themselves Witches, although not all Witches are Wiccans. The religion puts more emphasis on participating in rituals and having spiritual experiences than on particular beliefs.</p>
<p>Yule is one of the eight major holidays or “sabbats” that divide the year into the beginning and peak of each season. Yule denotes the beginning of winter. There is a <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/wicca-9781845197544?cc=us&lang=en&">ritual for each holiday</a> that focuses on what is occurring in nature and correspondingly in people’s lives. At this time of year, people are experiencing both the height of darkness and the knowledge and hope that the light and warmth will return. </p>
<p>When I began my research about this religion in 1986, the norm for contemporary Pagans was to form into small groups, which Wiccans call covens. These spiritual congregations meet regularly for holidays, learning and discussions. While covens still exist, the primary way of practicing is as “solitaires.” These solitary practitioners may join others for one or more of these sabbats, or they may do their own ritual. </p>
<h2>Yule rituals</h2>
<p>I have always found the group rituals I have attended for Yule, as part of my research, to be joyous occasions. </p>
<p>As with all Wiccan rituals, participants gather in a circle. Those leading the ritual sanctify the space by walking around the circle chanting and sprinkling salt and water. This is followed by representations of the four elements – water, fire, air and earth. Often, a candle is lit to denote fire, a shell to represent water, a feather for air, and a crystal for earth. </p>
<p>Divinities or spirits are called into the circle to help with the ritual. There is always a reading or meditation <a href="https://uscpress.com/Search?q=A+community+of+Witches">related to the holiday and the changes that are occurring</a> in the natural world at that season. </p>
<p>At Yule there is always a fire or lights to symbolize the returning sun. In one outdoor ritual I attended, a bonfire was built in a clearing in the woods. The night was cold and dark, and there was snow on the ground. The circle was formed around the fire. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563758/original/file-20231205-23-25zbmn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A large number of people gathered around a big bonfire in the woods." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563758/original/file-20231205-23-25zbmn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563758/original/file-20231205-23-25zbmn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563758/original/file-20231205-23-25zbmn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563758/original/file-20231205-23-25zbmn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563758/original/file-20231205-23-25zbmn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563758/original/file-20231205-23-25zbmn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563758/original/file-20231205-23-25zbmn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Bonfires can be built at Yule in the clearing of the woods.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/people-celebration-around-big-huge-traditional-fire-royalty-free-image/922771128?phrase=winter+solstice+fire&adppopup=true">Drepicter/iStock via Getty images plus</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>However, most of the rituals I have attended, particularly for Yule, are indoors, and fires are made in cauldrons, or by lighting candles. However, at one large ritual I attended, <a href="https://uscpress.com/Search?q=A+community+of+Witches">there was a large, bright, yellow-and-orange paper mache image of the sun</a> on a long stick. </p>
<p>All of the attendees were asked to wear shiny clothing. Some people had glitter in their hair and on their face; some wore golden or silver clothing; the room and the people glowed with light and sparkles. At other rituals I have attended, people were asked to bring a small candle or light. In all instances the participants are symbolically part of the returning light, either by carrying a light or, in this one ritual, reflecting the room light. </p>
<p>The reading or meditation at Yule rituals normally includes reference to the darkness of winter that people experience around this time of year. </p>
<h2>Light during darkest time</h2>
<p>The rituals normally end with dancing and chanting. At the ritual in which there was a large representation of the sun, all the participants danced joyously behind the person carrying the sun, chanting about the sun returning. </p>
<p>The ritual I attended in the forest ended with everyone dancing around the fire before making sure it was completely put out. We then turned on our flashlights and found our way in the dark out of the woods. </p>
<p>The juxtaposition of the celebration of the returning sun and having the time and inclination for reflection during a dark and cold time makes this an interesting holiday.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/218779/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Helen A. Berger does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Yule, celebrated by Wiccans and many other Pagans in the Northern Hemisphere on Dec. 21, the day of the winter solstice, is a time for reflection.Helen A. Berger, Affliated Scholar at the Women's Studies Research Center, Brandeis UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2146582023-11-15T12:17:52Z2023-11-15T12:17:52ZFlame retardant chemicals can cause serious health risks – and they only slow fire by a few seconds<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558056/original/file-20231107-23-uxqwi1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=70%2C30%2C6639%2C4436&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Many flame retardant additives have been banned. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/chemicals-production-factory-experienced-workers-fully-2287552083">Aleksandar Malivuk/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>House fires are many people’s worst nightmare. But chemicals created decades ago to protect people’s homes from out of control flames opened our front doors to a new menace: toxic chemicals. Ones that we are consistently exposed to in our homes, offices and vehicles.</p>
<p>Plastics are everywhere and are highly flammable materials. To combat this, in around the <a href="https://iris.who.int/handle/10665/41961">mid to late 20th century</a>, a class of chemicals known as flame retardants (FRs) were developed to reduce the fire risks of plastic materials.</p>
<p>These were <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-19269-2">widely used in plastic items with electrical componants</a> including domestic appliances like cookers and kettles, electronics like TVs and computers, and especially electric heaters. </p>
<p>Their use was later extended to other items such as household furniture, vehicles, building insulation and even some children’s products, such as changing mats and cot mattresses. These FRs work by starving a fire of oxygen for a short time, allowing us time to fight a fire <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-19269-2">before it gets out of control</a>. </p>
<p>But, like for other chemicals such as pesticides <a href="https://www.hse.gov.uk/asbestos/dangerous.htm">and asbestos</a>, research caught up with the most widely used FRs in the early 2000s and found that the benefits of these chemicals may be outweighed by the dangers. These FRs <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.150747">leach out during everyday activities</a>, particularly from soft and flexible items like beds, couches and blankets. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.11.068">Simply using these items</a> is enough to make FRs leach into indoor air and dust where we can inhale or ingest them, or <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2018.05.027">even absorb them through our skin</a>. Research has shown these chemicals have <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0301479722021740">hazardous properties</a> when enough is absorbed into our bodies. For example, they have been shown to be carcinogenic and can lead to infertility.</p>
<h2>Legacy flame retardants</h2>
<p>Some of these FRs were <a href="http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2019/1021/oj">banned for use in these kinds of products</a>. But there is a danger from both legacy FRs still in circulation as well as so-called “emerging FRs” that replaced the banned chemicals. </p>
<p>New FRs, with slightly different properties to banned ones, are being introduced all the time. This is because, in many cases, regulations in the UK and Ireland require furniture products to meet fire-retardancy standards. The cheapest way is by using additive FRs. </p>
<p>Our <a href="https://www.epa.ie/publications/research/waste/research-434-persistent-organic-chemicals-in-the-irish-waste-stream.php">recent research project</a>, conducted by the University of Birmingham and the University of Galway, highlighted how these chemicals are still widely present in consumer goods. The research found restricted FRs in roughly half of the household furniture items we analysed. They were also prominently found in household electronics and building insulation foams. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Man staining wood with white spray gun." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558059/original/file-20231107-253657-z3ridc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558059/original/file-20231107-253657-z3ridc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558059/original/file-20231107-253657-z3ridc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558059/original/file-20231107-253657-z3ridc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558059/original/file-20231107-253657-z3ridc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558059/original/file-20231107-253657-z3ridc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558059/original/file-20231107-253657-z3ridc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Additive FRs are often the cheapest way of meeting fire safety standards.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/staining-wood-white-spray-gun-application-1316976761">il21/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>When these items are recycled, we would hope that these banned harmful chemicals are removed from circulation. However, these chemicals are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.05.132">very difficult to remove from waste</a>. Approximately 10% of hazardous waste containing restricted FRs goes into the recycling stream. </p>
<p>Research shows that products <a href="https://www.epa.ie/publications/research/waste/research-272.php#">made from recycled materials</a> contain banned FRs at relatively low concentrations. Banned FRs have been found in electronics, furniture and polystyrene packaging foams, but also, <a href="https://www.epa.ie/publications/research/waste/research-434-persistent-organic-chemicals-in-the-irish-waste-stream.php">more worryingly</a>, children’s toys, kitchen utensils and food packaging. </p>
<p>The low concentrations of banned FRs in these products are consistent with leftovers from recycled waste rather than deliberate treatment. </p>
<p>Additionally, almost all the mattresses, furniture and vehicle foams we investigated for our research project contained emerging FRs, which research shows have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.160250">similar hazards to their banned predecessors</a>. </p>
<p>Unlike the UK and Ireland, most of Europe does not have such stringent furniture fire safety standards. However, <a href="https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/fire-death-rates">we do not see significantly fewer</a> fires or fire-related fatalities in the UK and Ireland. </p>
<p>Irish government <a href="https://www.gov.ie/en/collection/4c5e7-fire-fatality-statistics/">data suggests that other factors</a> such as the indoor smoking ban, requirements for smoke alarms in all rooms, reduced numbers of open fires in homes, and increased fire safety awareness have contributed more to the decrease in fire fatalities in Ireland over the last 20 years than FRs. </p>
<p>The recently published European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) <a href="https://echa.europa.eu/documents/10162/2082415/flame_retardants_strategy_en.pdf/">strategy on FRs</a> outlines the EU’s road map for removing hazardous FRs from circulation. It specifically cites the UK’s and Ireland’s stringent furniture foam fire safety standards as one of the reasons FRs are so prevalent in the EU market. </p>
<p>No one likes the idea of fires in their homes. But the amount of time a fire is slowed by these FRs is in the order of seconds. </p>
<p>In Ireland, <a href="https://www.gov.ie/en/collection/4c5e7-fire-fatality-statistics/">the majority of fatalities</a> from fires happen overnight, meaning people aren’t awake to take advantage of the few extra seconds before fire takes hold. The smoke produced by <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0045653518320496?via%3Dihub">burning FR-treated items</a> is also more toxic compared to non-FR- treated materials, leading to increased risk of asphyxiation, the leading cause of death from fires.</p>
<h2>Know the risks</h2>
<p>Few people are aware that these chemical additives are in so many items and fewer still know the hazards they pose. At the moment, it is difficult to know which FRs are used where and at what concentrations. </p>
<p>There should, at the very least, be a more robust labelling system which outlines exactly what chemicals are in these items so that consumers can make informed decisions. Not all products contain FRs but it’s hard for consumers to tell because manufacturers only have to state whether safety standards have been met, now how they have been met. </p>
<p>We need to ask ourselves: are these additive chemicals worth it? New FRs can be developed faster than research can determine their toxicity, making it difficult to tell how safe they really are. </p>
<p>It is vital we have a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160412023000557">long overdue discussion</a> on fire safety regulations. The negatives of FRs seem to substantially outweigh the benefits. So perhaps the path forward is removing the need for these additives and finally revising fire standards to reflect modern research.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/214658/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Martin Sharkey is a post-doctoral researcher at the University of Galway and received funding from the Environmental Protection Agency of Ireland. The research project referenced below was funded under the EPA Research Programme 2014-2020 (2018-RE-LS-3).</span></em></p>Flame retardants were developed to prevent house fires and help save lives. But they come with some serious health risks.Martin Sharkey, Senior Post-Doctoral Researcher, University of GalwayLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2132152023-09-14T23:05:59Z2023-09-14T23:05:59ZOur planet is burning in unexpected ways - here’s how we can protect people and nature<p>People have been using fire for millennia. It is a vital part of many ecosystems and cultures. Yet human activities in the current era, sometimes called the “<a href="https://theconversation.com/did-the-anthropocene-start-in-1950-or-much-earlier-heres-why-debate-over-our-world-changing-impact-matters-209869">Anthropocene</a>”, are reshaping patterns of fire across the planet.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev-environ-120220-055357">In our new research</a>, published in the Annual Review of Environment and Resources, we used satellite data to create global maps of where and how fires are burning. We calculated about 3.98 million square kilometres of Earth’s land surface burns each year. We also examined research spanning archaeology, climatology, ecology, Indigenous knowledge and paleoecology, to better understand the causes and consequences of fires.</p>
<p>Our international team found strong evidence fires are burning in unexpected places, at unusual times and in rarely observed ways. These changes in fire patterns are threatening human lives and modifying ecosystems.</p>
<p>But the future does not have to be bleak. There are many opportunities to apply knowledge and practice of fire to benefit people and nature.</p>
<h2>Here’s how fire patterns are changing</h2>
<p>Exploring multiple approaches and scales enables a deeper understanding of where, when and how fires burn.</p>
<p>Satellite data provide evidence of changes in fire patterns at a global scale. <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2020RG000726">Annual fire season length</a> increased by 14 days from 1979 to 2020 and <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-04325-1">night fires</a>, which indicate fires that cannot be quickly controlled, increased in intensity by 7.2% from 2003 to 2020.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/547993/original/file-20230913-19-hsuqm8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An image showing a portion of the globe, as seen from space, showing bushfire smoke mixing into the atmosphere." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/547993/original/file-20230913-19-hsuqm8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/547993/original/file-20230913-19-hsuqm8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=289&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547993/original/file-20230913-19-hsuqm8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=289&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547993/original/file-20230913-19-hsuqm8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=289&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547993/original/file-20230913-19-hsuqm8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=363&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547993/original/file-20230913-19-hsuqm8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=363&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547993/original/file-20230913-19-hsuqm8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=363&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The coupling of landscape fires with the atmosphere can create storms that inject smoke into the stratosphere.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Cooperative Institute for Research in the Atmosphere. Used with permission from David A. Peterson.</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Other changes are apparent only when we look at data from particular regions. An increase in fire size and the frequency of large fires has recently been observed in <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.2103135118">forests and woodlands of the western United States</a>. Meanwhile fire-dependent grasslands and savannahs across <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/gcb.14711">Africa</a> and <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2019GL082327">Brazil</a> have experienced reductions in fire frequency.</p>
<p>It’s also important to consider the timescale and type of fire when interpreting changes. In Australia, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-021-27225-4">satellite records show</a> the frequency of very large forest fires has increased over the past four decades. At longer time scales, <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13280-020-01339-3">charcoal and pollen records</a> indicate the frequency of low-intensity fires <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/fee.2395">decreased in parts of southeastern Australia</a> following British colonisation in 1788.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/before-the-colonists-came-we-burned-small-and-burned-often-to-avoid-big-fires-its-time-to-relearn-cultural-burning-201475">Before the colonists came, we burned small and burned often to avoid big fires. It's time to relearn cultural burning</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Changes in fire affect air, land and water</h2>
<p>Many animals and plants have evolved strategies that enable them to thrive under particular fire patterns. This means changes to fire characteristics can <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abb0355">harm populations and ecosystems</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/547998/original/file-20230913-15-15pk1s.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A closeup photo of epicormic growth in an Australian eucalypt. Small colourful leaves are sprouting from the trunk." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/547998/original/file-20230913-15-15pk1s.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/547998/original/file-20230913-15-15pk1s.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547998/original/file-20230913-15-15pk1s.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547998/original/file-20230913-15-15pk1s.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547998/original/file-20230913-15-15pk1s.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547998/original/file-20230913-15-15pk1s.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547998/original/file-20230913-15-15pk1s.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Some eucalypts in southern Australia resprout after fire via epicormic buds along the trunk and branches. Resprouting influences how rapidly the tree layer, important habitat for animals, regenerates.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Thomas A. Fairman</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/conl.12905">Large and intense fires</a> are reducing the available forest habitat preferred by the greater glider. But a <a href="https://theconversation.com/research-reveals-fire-is-pushing-88-of-australias-threatened-land-mammals-closer-to-extinction-185965">lack of fire can be problematic too</a>. Threatened species of native rodents can benefit from food resources and habitats that flourish shortly after fire.</p>
<p>There is evidence that emissions from recent fires are already modifying the atmosphere. The historically exceptional 2019–20 Australian wildfires produced <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abe1415#:%7E:text=Intense%2C%20widespread%20bushfires%20in%20Australia,from%20a%20moderate%20volcanic%20eruption.">record-breaking levels of aerosols</a> over the Southern Hemisphere, as well as substantial carbon emissions.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-020-00610-5">wildfire smoke-related health costs</a> of the 2019–20 wildfires in Australia included an estimated 429 smoke-related premature deaths as well as 3,230 hospital admissions for cardiovascular and respiratory disorders.</p>
<p>Changes in fire patterns are modifying water cycles, too. In the western United States, <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2009717118">fires are reaching higher elevations</a> and having strong impacts on <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2200333119">snow</a> and water availability. </p>
<p>New studies are revealing how the air, land and water that support life on Earth are connected by fires. Smoke plumes from the 2019–20 Australian wildfires transported nutrients to the Southern Ocean, resulting in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03805-8">widespread phytoplankton blooms</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-protect-yourself-against-bushfire-smoke-this-summer-154720">How to protect yourself against bushfire smoke this summer</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Humans are responsible for the changes</h2>
<p>Human drivers such as climate change, land use, fire use and suppression, and transportation and extinction of species <a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev-environ-120220-055357">are causing shifts in fire patterns</a>.</p>
<p>Increasing global temperatures and more frequent heatwaves and droughts increase the likelihood of fire by promoting hot, dry and windy conditions. A pattern of extreme fire weather outside of natural climate variation is already emerging in <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.15388">North America</a>, <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10584-014-1183-3">southern Europe</a> and <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/ac1e3a/meta">the Amazon basin</a>.</p>
<p>Humans modify fire regimes by changing land use for agricultural, forestry and urban purposes. Until recent decades, large fires in tropical forests were uncommon. But <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03876-7">deforestation fires</a> used to clear primary forest for agriculture often promotes more frequent and intense uncontrolled fires.</p>
<p>Humans have transported plants and animals across the globe, resulting in novel mixes of species that modify fuels and fire regimes. In many parts of the world, <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.1908253116">invasive grasses</a> have increased flammability and fire activity.</p>
<p>Social and economic changes propel these drivers. Colonisation by Europeans and the displacement of Indigenous peoples and their skilful use of fire has been linked with fire changes in <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/fee.2395">Australia</a>, <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2116264119">North America</a> and <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2015.0174">South America</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/indigenous-rangers-are-burning-the-desert-the-right-way-to-stop-the-wrong-kind-of-intense-fires-from-raging-211900">Indigenous rangers are burning the desert the right way – to stop the wrong kind of intense fires from raging</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/548003/original/file-20230913-25-gqnccm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A photograph of an experimental fire in temperate savannah in Minnesota, US, at the Cedar Creek Ecosystem Science Reserve. A low flame is visible on the right hand side of the smoky image." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/548003/original/file-20230913-25-gqnccm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/548003/original/file-20230913-25-gqnccm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548003/original/file-20230913-25-gqnccm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548003/original/file-20230913-25-gqnccm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548003/original/file-20230913-25-gqnccm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548003/original/file-20230913-25-gqnccm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548003/original/file-20230913-25-gqnccm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Experimental fires help us learn about ecosystems and sustainability. This is an experimental fire in temperate savannah in Minnesota, US, at the Cedar Creek Ecosystem Science Reserve.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Frank Meuschke</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Using knowledge and practice of fire to achieve sustainability goals</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev-environ-120220-055357">The pace and scale of these changes</a> represent challenges to humanity, but knowledge and practice of fire can help to achieve sustainability goals.</p>
<p>This includes:</p>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2015.0174">good health and wellbeing</a>, by supporting community-owned solutions and fire practices that increase social cohesion and health</li>
<li><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301479718314658">sustainable cities and communities</a>, by designing green firebreaks and mixed-use areas with low fuels, strategically located in the landscape</li>
<li><a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aam7672">life on land</a>,
by tailoring use of fire to promote and restore species and ecosystems</li>
<li><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-021-00867-1">climate action</a>,
by applying low-intensity fire to promote the stability of soil organic matter and increase carbon storage</li>
<li><a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/18/8/3921">reduced inequalities</a>, by allocating resources before, during, and after wildfires to at-risk communities and residents.</li>
</ul>
<p>As the world changes, society as a whole needs to keep learning about the interplay between people and fire.</p>
<p>A deep understanding of fire is essential for achieving a sustainable future – in other words, <a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev-environ-120220-055357">a better Anthropocene</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/213215/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Luke Kelly receives funding from the Australian Research Council, Victorian Department of Energy, Environment and Climate Action, Natural Hazards Research Australia, and NSW Department of Planning and Environment.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Bowman receives funding from the Australian Research Council, Natural Hazards Research Australia, and NSW Department of Planning and Environment.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ella Plumanns Pouton receives funding from the Australian Research Training Program, the Victorian Department of Energy, Environment and Climate Action, and Natural Hazards Research Australia.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Grant Williamson receives funding from the Australian Research Council, Natural Hazards Research Australia, and NSW Department of Planning and Environment.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael-Shawn Fletcher receives funding from the Australian Research Council. </span></em></p>We used satellite data to create global maps of where and how fires are burning. Fire season lasts two weeks longer than it used to and fires are more intense. But there are regional differences.Luke Kelly, Associate Professor in Quantitative Ecology, The University of MelbourneDavid Bowman, Professor of Pyrogeography and Fire Science, University of TasmaniaElla Plumanns Pouton, PhD candidate, The University of MelbourneGrant Williamson, Research Fellow in Environmental Science, University of TasmaniaMichael-Shawn Fletcher, Professor in Biogeography, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2127322023-09-02T09:29:19Z2023-09-02T09:29:19ZJohannesburg fire disaster: why eradicating hijacked buildings is not the answer<p>The fire that killed at least 76 people in a five storey building <a href="https://www.news24.com/news24/southafrica/news/joburg-fire-dying-in-agony-in-a-city-owned-deathtrap-20230901">in Johannesburg</a> on 31 August is not an isolated incident, and has elicited the usual unhelpful response from some city officials and politicians.</p>
<p>They <a href="https://www.google.com/search?sca_esv=561932315&rlz=1C1FKPE_enZA996ZA996&sxsrf=AB5stBgsuLcpby9TilRBTN3Gns0ydPwoyg:1693575557197&q=herman+mashaba&tbm=vid&source=lnms&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiVpvLLxImBAxX1SPEDHTxoD4YQ0pQJegQIChAB&biw=1707&bih=762&dpr=1.13#fpstate=ive&vld=cid:3cd64a0c,vid:WiQrZI9EwjY">have placed the blame</a> on the informal occupation of abandoned buildings, a phenomenon known as “hijacking”. They have also blamed immigrant populations who, they say, are the primary residents of such buildings. To solve the problem, they argue, hijacked buildings should be expropriated and redeveloped by the private sector.</p>
<p>A politician in the city council <a href="https://www.businesslive.co.za/bd/national/2023-08-31-joburg-inferno-raises-questions-over-citys-service-delivery-failures/">has also called</a> for “mass deportations” of “illegal foreigners”.</p>
<p>Based on my work as a researcher on how cities are built and transform at the <a href="https://www.gcro.ac.za/">Gauteng City-Region Observatory (GCRO)</a>, I argue that all of this is a distraction from the urgent work of reducing risks in the living environments of the poor, and reducing the risk of fire more generally. The observatory, a partnership between the Gauteng provincial government, the universities of the Witwatersrand and Johannesburg, and the South African Local Government Association, builds the data and analysis to help inform development in the Gauteng City-Region.</p>
<p>The rhetoric by politicians and city officials treats the latest tragedy as a freakish problem of hijacked buildings occupied by migrant populations. Yet as human geographer <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781351261562-16/catastrophe-usual-nigel-clark">Nigel Clark</a> sadly notes, it is important to acknowledge the way in which catastrophes are a normal part of life – particularly for vulnerable groups – rather than exceptional or unusual events. </p>
<p>In Johannesburg, fires are not limited to “hijacked” buildings. They have also occurred in legally occupied buildings. Furthermore, fires are not a specific risk to inner city populations. They are a regular occurrence in shack settlements across the city. The use of this tragedy by some politicians to argue in favour of removing hijacked buildings is part of a longstanding pattern of blaming the poor for the conditions and justifying further suffering that they wish to heap on them. </p>
<h2>A pervasive problem</h2>
<p>There is no doubt that unscrupulous or negligent informal landlords bear much responsibility for failing to ensure basic fire safety. Yet this problem is not limited to hijacked buildings.</p>
<p>In 2018, emergency services were unable to contain a fire at the <a href="https://www.news24.com/news24/southafrica/news/bank-of-lisbon-fire-das-jack-bloom-accuses-govt-of-covering-up-findings-20221125">Bank of Lisbon Building</a> in downtown Johannesburg because there was insufficient water pressure in the building and no fire suppression systems had been installed. </p>
<p>Three firefighters died, and the building itself was subsequently demolished. The building had not been illegally occupied; it was rented by the Gauteng provincial government, which <a href="https://www.iol.co.za/news/south-africa/gauteng/joburgfire-firefighters-leave-building-due-to-low-water-pressure-16915344">was aware</a> that the building was non-compliant in advance of the incident. </p>
<p>Three years later, emergency services were hampered in their efforts to contain the fire at a public hospital, <a href="https://www.medicalbrief.co.za/what-really-happened-in-the-charlotte-maxeke-hospital-fire/">Charlotte Maxeke</a>, by incompatible fire hydrant couplings. As these cases show, eradicating “hijacked” buildings would not have solved failures to comply with fire regulations in legally occupied buildings in the city.</p>
<p>Nor would eradicating “hijacked” buildings remove the risk of fire posed to low income groups across the city as a whole. In Johannesburg more than one in ten households lives in an informal dwelling outside the city centre, either in shack settlements or in back yards. This is calculated from the Gauteng City-Region Observatory’s <a href="https://www.gcro.ac.za/research/project/detail/quality-life-survey-vi-202021/">Quality of Life 6 survey 2020/21</a>. </p>
<p>These kinds of settlements are also prone to fires as a result of the materials used to construct dwellings, the density of settlements and the risky sources of energy for heating, cooking and light. </p>
<p>Once again, some politicians and officials have arrived at the idea that since these settlements are not fit for human habitation, they should be eliminated. In 2006 the elected representative responsible for housing in the KwaZulu-Natal province announced <a href="https://abahlali.org/files/KZN%20Slums%20Act.pdf">legislation</a> </p>
<blockquote>
<p>to provide for the progressive elimination of slums. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>It would have forced private land owners to evict shack dwellers. But the shack dwellers movement <a href="https://abahlali.org/">Abahlali Basemjondolo</a> successfully <a href="https://abahlali.org/node/date/2009/10/">challenged</a> this initiative in the Constitutional Court.</p>
<h2>Disposable lives</h2>
<p>According to the geographer <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-2427.2009.00835.x">Martin Murray</a>, shack fires underscore the disposability of the lives of the poor. South Africa’s acute levels of inequality and poverty mean that some people can afford to buy their way out of risks while others cannot. </p>
<p>Inner city occupations and shack settlements alike are the inevitable consequence of the fact that huge populations of people have to get by without a living wage. If these households earned higher wages, they would not choose to live in places that were at risk of fire, flooding and other potential disasters. </p>
<p>As with the push to evict shack dwellers, the impulse to evict the residents of hijacked buildings conflates unsafe living conditions with those who live in them. A similar conflation occurs on the imagined solution: eradicating the problem means eradicating communities of people in which the problem manifests. In other words, the language of eradication blames the victims of social inequality for their own suffering, and sets the stage for exposing them to further risk.</p>
<h2>Helping without eradicating</h2>
<p>Cyril Ramaphosa, South Africa’s president, <a href="https://ewn.co.za/2023/08/31/joburg-cbd-fire-wake-up-call-for-govt-to-provide-habitable-housing-ramaphosa">stated</a> that the fire was a wake up call for the government to provide habitable housing. Government does indeed have a vital role to play in promoting the right to decent housing for all. It needs to do so in a way that takes into account the full complexity of the structural conditions at play, providing giveaway housing, or working with other stakeholders to correct for failings in the housing market that leave poor and working class people without affordable options. </p>
<p>A good example is the City of Johannesburg’s recent <a href="https://housingfinanceafrica.org/app/uploads/City-of-Johannesburg-Inclusionary-Housing-2019.pdf">inclusionary housing policy</a> that obliges developers to include affordable housing in all projects. Much more should be done by the state to provide housing. </p>
<p>Yet informal settlements and illegal occupations of inner city buildings will not be eradicated – no matter how many houses the state builds – as long as <a href="https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/southafrica/overview">acute levels of unemployment and poverty</a> continue. Rather than abandoning residents of such places until they can be formally accommodated, or rendering them homeless through eviction, they need to be supported where they live or provided with alternative accommodation. </p>
<p>The living environments of the poor can be made less risky. The epidemic of shack fires can be reduced with fire breaks and fire fighting infrastructure. Similarly, the risk of fire in inner city buildings can be reduced by enforcing tried and tested fire regulations: ensuring that fire escapes and fire fighting infrastructure are functional. Authorities should compel landlords – whether informal or formal – to implement them. </p>
<p>These and many other measures – rather than the impulse to “eradicate” – are the basis through which society cares for vulnerable people.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/212732/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gauteng City-Region Observatory (GCRO) is primarily funded by the Gauteng Provincial Government. </span></em></p>Inner city occupations and shack settlements alike are the inevitable consequence of the fact that huge populations of people have to get by without a living wage.Richard Ballard, Chief Researcher: Gauteng City-Region Observatory, Wits University and University of Johannesburg, University of the WitwatersrandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2086522023-08-22T12:26:33Z2023-08-22T12:26:33ZLiving with wildfire: How to protect more homes as fire risk rises in a warming climate<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540799/original/file-20230802-27-bb4tna.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C6%2C4288%2C2837&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Homeowners and local governments can take steps to help protect homes from fires.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/APTOPIXUSWildfires/db3162a1c93d49e7984c38f7fb7915bb/photo">AP Photo/Keith D. Cullom</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Humans have learned to fear wildfire. It can <a href="https://theconversation.com/after-maui-fires-human-health-risks-linger-in-the-air-water-and-even-surviving-buildings-211404">destroy communities</a>, torch pristine forests and <a href="https://theconversation.com/wildfire-smoke-can-harm-human-health-even-when-the-fire-is-burning-hundreds-of-miles-away-a-toxicologist-explains-why-206057">choke even faraway cities</a> with toxic smoke.</p>
<p>Wildfire is scary for good reason, and over a century of fire suppression efforts has conditioned people to expect wildland firefighters to snuff it out. But as journalist Nick Mott and I explore our new book, “<a href="https://www.bloomsbury.com/us/this-is-wildfire-9781639730797/">This Is Wildfire: How to Protect Your Home, Yourself, and Your Community in the Age of Heat</a>,” and in <a href="https://www.firelinepodcast.org/">our podcast “Fireline</a>,” this expectation and the approach to wildfire will have to change.</p>
<p>Over time, extensive fire suppression has set the stage for the increasingly destructive wildfires we see today.</p>
<h2>The problem with fighting every fire</h2>
<p>The way the U.S. deals with wildfires today dates back to around 1910, when <a href="https://theconversation.com/big-fires-demand-a-big-response-how-1910s-big-burn-can-help-us-think-smarter-about-fighting-wildfires-and-living-with-fire-167317">the Great Burn</a> torched some 3 million acres across Washington, Idaho, Montana and British Columbia. After watching the fire’s swift and unstoppable spread, the fledgling Forest Service developed a military-style apparatus built <a href="https://foresthistory.org/research-explore/us-forest-service-history/policy-and-law/fire-u-s-forest-service/u-s-forest-service-fire-suppression/">to eradicate wildfire</a>.</p>
<p>The U.S. got really good at putting out fires. So good that citizens grew to accept fire suppression as something the government simply does.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A black and white photo shows a man standing on a mountaintop rock looking through binoculars, with mountains in the background. Another sits on the rock beside him." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539168/original/file-20230725-19-dvfcwg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539168/original/file-20230725-19-dvfcwg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=489&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539168/original/file-20230725-19-dvfcwg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=489&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539168/original/file-20230725-19-dvfcwg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=489&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539168/original/file-20230725-19-dvfcwg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=614&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539168/original/file-20230725-19-dvfcwg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=614&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539168/original/file-20230725-19-dvfcwg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=614&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A ranger and forest guard on fire patrol duty near Thompson Falls, Mont., in 1909.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/usforestservice/39390975804/in/album-72157669003030369/">Forest Service photo by W.J. Lubken</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Today, state, federal and private firefighters deploy across the country when fires break out, along with tankers, bulldozers, helicopters and planes. The Forest Service touts a record of <a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/detailfull/r5/home/?cid=FSEPRD1064021">snuffing out 98% of wildfires</a> before they reach 100 acres (40 hectares). </p>
<p>As a result, many forest ecosystems that would have periodically burned have <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-years-of-fighting-every-wildfire-helped-fuel-the-western-megafires-of-today-163165">become clogged with underbrush</a>, new growth and woody debris that can easily ignite. Efforts by the Forest Service to adopt a more selective policy <a href="https://www.latimes.com/california/story/2021-08-04/forest-service-modifies-let-it-burn-policy">have run into opposition from Western politicians</a>. </p>
<p>At the same time, people have built more <a href="https://theconversation.com/human-exposure-to-wildfires-has-more-than-doubled-in-two-decades-who-is-at-risk-might-surprise-you-207903">homes and cities in fire-prone areas</a>. And the greenhouse gases released by decades of increasingly burning fossil fuels have caused global temperatures to rise.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539083/original/file-20230724-14742-2m8lk2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An illustration of the wildland urban interface, showing homes in the mountain foothills next to a city in a valley." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539083/original/file-20230724-14742-2m8lk2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539083/original/file-20230724-14742-2m8lk2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=303&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539083/original/file-20230724-14742-2m8lk2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=303&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539083/original/file-20230724-14742-2m8lk2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=303&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539083/original/file-20230724-14742-2m8lk2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539083/original/file-20230724-14742-2m8lk2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539083/original/file-20230724-14742-2m8lk2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The wildland-urban interface starts on the edges of cities where homes are built closer to forests and grasslands.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Courtesy of Jessy Stevenson</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Climate change and wildfires</h2>
<p>The relationship between climate and wildfire is fairly simple: <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.15388">Higher temperatures lead to more fire</a>. Higher temperatures increase moisture evaporation, drying out plants and soil and making them more likely to burn. When hot, dry winds are blowing, a spark in an already dry area can quickly blow up into dangerous wildfire.</p>
<p>Given the rise in global temperatures that the world has already experienced, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1112839109">much of the Western U.S. is actually in a fire deficit</a> because of the practice of suppressing most fires. That means that, based on historical data, we should expect far more fire than we’re actually seeing.</p>
<p>Fortunately, there are things everyone can do to break this cycle.</p>
<p><iframe id="ug43S" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/ug43S/2/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<h2>What fire managers can do</h2>
<p>First, everyone can accept that firefighters can’t and shouldn’t put out every low-risk wildfire.</p>
<p>Remote fires that pose little threat to communities and property can <a href="https://www.blm.gov/or/resources/recreation/tablerock/files/fire_ecol_intro.pdf">breathe life into ecosystems</a>. Low-level fires that clear out undergrowth but don’t kill the trees create space for trees, plants and wildlife species to thrive, and they <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11676-022-01475-4">return nutrients to the soil</a>. Some tree and plant species <a href="https://www.nps.gov/articles/wildland-fire-in-douglas-fir.htm">depend on fires</a> to open their seeds to reproduce.</p>
<p>Natural fires can also help avoid catastrophic fires that occur when too much underbrush has built up for fuel. And they create fuel breaks on the landscape that could halt the advance of future flames.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A firefighter walks beside a line of low-level flames in a forest. The tree canopies aren't burning, only the ground-level vegetation is." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539085/original/file-20230724-19-eoxi7y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539085/original/file-20230724-19-eoxi7y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539085/original/file-20230724-19-eoxi7y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539085/original/file-20230724-19-eoxi7y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539085/original/file-20230724-19-eoxi7y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539085/original/file-20230724-19-eoxi7y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539085/original/file-20230724-19-eoxi7y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Controlled burns are used to clear out undergrowth that can fuel catastrophic blazes under dry, windy conditions.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:USFWS_Resilient_Landscapes_(17223539378).jpg">U.S. Forest Service</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Fire managers have <a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/research/rmrs/projects/pods">advanced mapping technology</a> that can help them decide when and where forests can burn safely. <a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/sites/default/files/2023-06/Rx-Fire-Strategy.pdf">Thoughtful prescribed burning</a> – meaning low-intensity fires intentionally set by professionals – can offer many of the same benefits as the flames that historically burned in forests and grasslands.</p>
<p>The Forest Service is aiming to <a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/sites/default/files/2023-06/Rx-Fire-Strategy.pdf">ramp up its prescribed burning</a> on more acres in more areas across the country. However, the agency struggles to train adequate staff and pay for the projects, and environmental reviews sometimes cause yearslong delays. <a href="https://www.landscapepartnership.org/key-issues/wildland-fire/prescribed-burning/prescribed-burn-associations">Other groups</a> offer beacons of hope. Indigenous groups across the country, for example, are <a href="https://www.nps.gov/subjects/fire/indigenous-fire-practices-shape-our-land.htm">returning fire to the landscape</a>.</p>
<h2>Adapting homes to fire risk</h2>
<p>For decades, scientists have understood the relationship between wildfire and community destruction. However, little has been done to live safely with fire on the ground. More than one-third of U.S. homes are in what’s known as the <a href="https://www.usfa.fema.gov/wui/">wildland-urban interface</a> – the zone where houses and other structures intermingle with flammable vegetation.</p>
<p>The biggest risk to homes comes from <a href="https://theconversation.com/firebrands-how-to-protect-your-home-from-wildfires-windblown-flaming-debris-166552">burning embers blowing on the wind</a> and landing in weak spots that can set a house ablaze. Those embers can travel over a miles to nestle in dry leaves or pine needles clogging a gutter, <a href="https://codes.iccsafe.org/s/FRC2017/chapter-3-building-planning/FRC2017-Pt03-Ch03-SecR322.3.3">a wood-shingle roof</a> or shrubs, trees and other flammable vegetation close to a structure.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539079/original/file-20230724-12172-g259ai.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An illustration of a house with trees certain distances and advice on how to keep the home safe from fires." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539079/original/file-20230724-12172-g259ai.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539079/original/file-20230724-12172-g259ai.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539079/original/file-20230724-12172-g259ai.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539079/original/file-20230724-12172-g259ai.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539079/original/file-20230724-12172-g259ai.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539079/original/file-20230724-12172-g259ai.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539079/original/file-20230724-12172-g259ai.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Owning a home in the wildland-urban interface means paying attention to fire risks. Risks are highlighted on the left and solutions on the right.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Courtesy of Jessy Stevenson</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Some of these vulnerabilities are easy to fix. Cleaning a home’s gutters or trimming back too-close vegetation requires little effort and tools already around the house.</p>
<p>Grant programs exist to <a href="https://news.caloes.ca.gov/california-sets-framework-for-wildfire-home-hardening-program/">help harden homes</a> against wildfire. But enormous investment is needed to get the work done at the scale the fire risk requires. For example, nearly 1 million U.S. homes in wildfire-prone areas have highly combustible wooden roofs. Retrofitting those roofs will cost an <a href="https://headwaterseconomics.org/natural-hazards/wood-roofs-wildfire/">estimated US$6 billion</a>, but that investment could both saves lives and property and reduce wildfire management costs in the future. </p>
<p>Homeowners can look to resources like Firewise USA to learn about the “<a href="https://www.nfpa.org/Public-Education/Fire-causes-and-risks/Wildfire/Firewise-USA">home ignition zone</a>.” It describes the types of vegetation and other flammable objects that become high risks at different distances from a structure and steps to make properties more fire resilient.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/M9sel3wcBLg?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The fire chief for Spokane, Wash., explains ways to protect your property from wildfires.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For example, homes should not have flammable plants, firewood, dried leaves or needles, or anything burnable, on or under decks and porches <a href="https://www.nfpa.org/Public-Education/Fire-causes-and-risks/Wildfire/Preparing-homes-for-wildfire">within 5 feet (1.5 meters) of the house</a>. Between 5 and 30 feet (9 meters), grasses should be mowed short, tree branches should be pruned to at least 6 feet (2 meters) from the ground, and the tree canopy should be at least 10 feet (3 meters) from the structure.</p>
<h2>What communities can do</h2>
<p>Many counties and cities have their own wildfire programs to educate homeowners and connect them with resources. Some have started “<a href="https://www.kgw.com/article/life/santiam-canyon-tool-library-hopes-to-help-people-rebuild-after-fire/283-6852d11b-97c7-4281-a97e-bf893b77c0fc">tool libraries</a>” to help anyone begin the necessary work on their property.</p>
<p>Beyond individual actions, states and communities can <a href="https://cpaw.headwaterseconomics.org/apps/firetopia/">enact forward-looking wildfire resilience policies</a>. </p>
<p>These can include developing zoning rules and regulations that require developers to build with fire-resistant materials and designs or might even prohibit building in areas where the risk is too high. The <a href="https://codes.iccsafe.org/content/IWUIC2021P1">International Wildland-Urban Interface Code</a>, which provides guidance for safeguarding homes and communities from wildfire, has been adopted in jurisdictions in at least 24 states.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A man carries a chain saw through an overgrown area with trees behind him." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539171/original/file-20230725-17-5050k1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539171/original/file-20230725-17-5050k1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539171/original/file-20230725-17-5050k1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539171/original/file-20230725-17-5050k1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539171/original/file-20230725-17-5050k1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=529&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539171/original/file-20230725-17-5050k1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=529&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539171/original/file-20230725-17-5050k1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=529&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Protecting homes from wildfires includes maintaining a safe perimeter clear of potential fuel for a fire.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/ignacio-vasquez-with-bobs-firesafe-team-clears-brush-to-news-photo/1326159733?adppopup=true">Justin Sullivan/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Living in a world with wildfire</h2>
<p>Prevention and suppression will always be critical pieces of wildfire strategy, but adapting to our fiery future means everyone has a role.</p>
<p>Educate yourself on proposed forest projects in your area. Understand and address risks to your home and community. Help your neighbors. Advocate for better wildfire planning, policy and resources.</p>
<p>Living in a world where more wildfire is inevitable requires that everyone see themselves as part of solving the problem. Wildfire can be terrifying, but also natural and essential. Embracing both isn’t always easy, but I believe it is the only way forward.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/208652/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Justin Angle is under contract with Bloomsbury to publish the forthcoming "This is Wildfire: How to Protect Your Home, Yourself and Your Community in the Age of Heat."</span></em></p>Adapting to our fiery future means preparing for the risks and not putting out every low-risk wildfire, writes the author of a new book on learning to live with fire.Justin Angle, Professor of Marketing, University of MontanaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2115892023-08-18T12:39:32Z2023-08-18T12:39:32ZIdentifying fire victims through DNA analysis can be challenging − a geneticist explains what forensics is learning from archaeology<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543315/original/file-20230817-17-h1y2zw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C1024%2C683&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Identifying victims after a disaster can offer closure to loved ones.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/APTOPIXHawaiiFires/2b2bf672bfc14794b8fbc20138f36c62">AP Photo/Jae C. Hong</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Fire devastates communities and families, and it makes <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1556-4029.2012.02083.x">identification of victims challenging</a>. In the aftermath of the wildfire that swept through Lahaina, Hawaii, <a href="https://www.staradvertiser.com/2023/08/14/hawaii-news/maui-families-provide-dna-to-help-id-remains-of-fire-victims/">officials are collecting DNA samples</a> from relatives of missing persons in the hope that this can aid in identifying those who died in the fire. </p>
<p>But how well does DNA hold up under such extreme conditions, and what is the best way to recover DNA from fire victims? </p>
<p>I am an <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=xqKVKIwAAAAJ&hl=en">anthropological geneticist</a> who studies degraded DNA in archaeological and forensic contexts. <a href="https://stone.lab.asu.edu">My research group</a> applies ancient DNA and forensic analysis methods to optimize DNA recovery from burned bones. Retrieving DNA from severely burned remains in order to identify victims is a particular challenge.</p>
<h2>Forensic DNA analysis</h2>
<p>In a typical forensic investigation, <a href="https://www.forensicsciencesimplified.org/dna/how.html">DNA is extracted</a> from a sample – whether some blood, pieces of tissue or bone – collected from the scene of the disaster or crime. This process chemically separates the DNA from other components of cells within the sample, such as proteins, and purifies it. </p>
<p>This DNA is used as a template for <a href="https://www.genome.gov/about-genomics/fact-sheets/Polymerase-Chain-Reaction-Fact-Sheet">polymerase chain reaction, or PCR, analysis</a>, a method that is essentially the Xerox copier of molecular biology. Even if there are only a few cells present in the sample, PCR can amplify those DNA molecules into thousands or millions of copies. This creates a sufficient amount of DNA for subsequent tests.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/7onjVBsQwQ8?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">DNA analysis can help identify victims by comparing genetic similarities between people.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In forensics, the specific DNA targeted in PCR is usually a set of highly repetitive markers called <a href="https://strbase-archive.nist.gov/intro.htm">microsatellites, or short tandem repeats</a>. Law enforcement agencies around the world use specific sets of these markers for identification purposes. In the U.S., forensic analysts target 20 of these DNA repeats. Each person has two unique alleles, or genetic variants, at each of these markers, and these alleles are uploaded to the FBI’s <a href="https://www.fbi.gov/how-we-can-help-you/dna-fingerprint-act-of-2005-expungement-policy/codis-and-ndis-fact-sheet">Combined DNA Index System database</a> to identify matches. </p>
<p>DNA taken from the <a href="https://namus.nij.ojp.gov/services/dna#faq-what-is-a-family-reference-sample">relatives of missing people</a> will likely be analyzed for short tandem repeat markers and their allele profiles uploaded to the Relatives of Missing Persons index within the database. The expectation is that victims and their biological relatives share a percentage of alleles for these markers. For example, parents and children share 50% of their alleles, since a child inherits half of their DNA from each parent.</p>
<h2>Challenge of degraded DNA</h2>
<p>In forensic contexts, the time between death and DNA sampling is usually short enough that the DNA is often still in fairly good shape, both in terms of quantity and quality. However, DNA is often not found in ideal conditions after a disaster. </p>
<p>Time and the elements <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/20961790.2018.1515594">take their toll</a>. After death, the process of decomposition releases enzymes that can cleave or damage DNA, and additional damage occurs over time depending on the environment in which the body is found. DNA also degrades faster in warm, wet, acidic environments and slower in colder, drier environments that are more pH neutral or slightly basic. </p>
<p>In addition, DNA preservation may vary considerably among the tissues, bones and teeth recovered. For example, researchers found that DNA identification of victims of the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1556-4029.2009.01045.x">World Trade Center attacks</a> in 2001 was most successful when using bones of the feet and legs, compared with bones from the head and torso.</p>
<p>DNA damage can take different forms. Nicks and breaks in the DNA make it difficult to analyze. Chemical modification of the DNA can result in changes to the original sequence or make it unreadable. This includes changes to the building blocks of DNA <a href="https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Nucleotide">called nucleotides</a> that make up an identifiable sequence. For example, exposure to water can cause a chemical reaction <a href="https://doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a012567">called deamination</a> that changes the nucleotide cytosine such that it appears to be the nucleotide thymine upon analysis. Exposures to other chemicals or UV light can <a href="https://chem.libretexts.org/Ancillary_Materials/Exemplars_and_Case_Studies/Exemplars/Biology/Cross-Linking_in_DNA">cause cross-linking</a>, which essentially ties the DNA into knots. As a result, the PCR enzymes used to copy or read the DNA sequence can’t move linearly along the DNA strand. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543323/original/file-20230817-33902-1dr1ti.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Rows of burnt houses and cars in the aftermath of the Lahaina fires." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543323/original/file-20230817-33902-1dr1ti.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543323/original/file-20230817-33902-1dr1ti.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543323/original/file-20230817-33902-1dr1ti.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543323/original/file-20230817-33902-1dr1ti.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543323/original/file-20230817-33902-1dr1ti.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543323/original/file-20230817-33902-1dr1ti.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543323/original/file-20230817-33902-1dr1ti.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Exposure to intense and extended fires can make victim identification through DNA analysis difficult.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/HawaiiFires/185896ea7dfd43b99850521649cf5be6">AP Photo/Jae C. Hong</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Applying methods from archaeology</h2>
<p>Researchers encounter similar issues in handling degraded genetic material when analyzing the DNA of ancient remains that are thousands of years old. To address these challenges, forensic geneticists and ancient DNA researchers like me employ a number of tricks to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s43586-020-00011-0">optimize DNA retrieval</a>.</p>
<p>First, we tend to target dense bone or teeth for sampling, since they are more impervious to the environment. We also use DNA extraction methods that enhance the recovery of short fragments of DNA. </p>
<p>Second, we use PCR to amplify even shorter genetic markers, including mini-short tandem repeats, or sections of the <a href="https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Mitochondrial-DNA">mitochondrial genome</a>. Mitochondria are structures within each cell that produce energy, and each one has its own DNA. Mitochondrial DNA is passed down from mother to child and can be found in hundreds of copies within each mitochondrion, which make it easier to recover and analyze. However, mitochondrial DNA <a href="https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genom.4.070802.110352">may not provide sufficient information</a> for identification, since people who are maternally related, even very distantly, will share the same sequence.</p>
<p>Researchers are also testing newer methods of DNA analysis common in the ancient DNA field for forensic purposes. For example, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s43586-020-00011-0">special enzymes</a> can remove chemically modified nucleotides, such as deaminated cytosines, to prevent misreading of the DNA sequence. Researchers can also use DNA baits to “fish” for specific sequences. This method of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nmeth.1419">targeted enrichment</a> can recover very small fragments that can be used to piece together the full genetic sequence.</p>
<h2>DNA analysis of burned remains</h2>
<p>For <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119682691.ch12">fire victims</a>, particularly those caught in intense, extended fires, the DNA may be highly fragmented, making analysis difficult. High temperatures cause bonds between molecules, including nucleotides, to break. This results in fragmentation and ultimately destruction of the DNA.</p>
<p>Because hard tissue – bones and teeth – are often all that remains after a fire, forensic researchers have studied how bone characteristics such as color and composition <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsigen.2010.08.008">change with temperature</a>. My research team used this information to classify the level of burning that human bone samples have been subjected to.</p>
<p>In investigating DNA preservation in those samples, we found that there is a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsigen.2020.102272">significant point of DNA degradation</a> when bones reached temperatures between 662 degrees Fahrenheit (350 degrees Celsius) and 1,022 F (550 C). For comparison, <a href="https://www.cremationassociation.org/page/CremationProcess">commercial cremation</a> is 1,400 to 1,600 F (760 to 871 C) for 30 to 120 minutes, and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csite.2017.08.001">vehicle fires</a> typically reach 1,652 degrees F (900 C) but can last a shorter period of time.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543318/original/file-20230817-25-qy54jc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="People walking down street past the rubble of wildfire damage in Lahaina" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543318/original/file-20230817-25-qy54jc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543318/original/file-20230817-25-qy54jc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543318/original/file-20230817-25-qy54jc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543318/original/file-20230817-25-qy54jc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543318/original/file-20230817-25-qy54jc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543318/original/file-20230817-25-qy54jc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543318/original/file-20230817-25-qy54jc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Survivors of the Lahaina wildfires, which began on Aug. 8, 2023, walk through the aftermath.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/HawaiiFiresPowerLines/6643e5e332e44e8e8fedbb01c15ece9c">AP Photo/Rick Bowmer</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Our team also found that the likelihood of generating high-quality short tandem repeat data or mitochondrial DNA sequence data, whether using forensic or ancient DNA methods, decreases significantly at temperatures <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsigen.2021.102610">greater than 1,022 F</a> (550 C). </p>
<p>In sum, as temperature and exposure time increase, the amount of remaining DNA decreases. This leads to only partial DNA profiles, which can limit analysts’ ability to match a victim to a relative with high statistical certainty or prevent results altogether.</p>
<p>DNA evidence is not the only method used for identification. Investigators <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2008.09.019">combine DNA with other evidence</a> – such as dental, skeletal and contextual information – to identify a victim conclusively. Together, this information hopefully will help bring closure for families and friends.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/211589/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anne Stone receives funding from the National Institute of Justice. </span></em></p>Maui officials have asked relatives to provide DNA samples to help identify victims of the Lahaina wildfires. Time and exposure to the elements, however, can make DNA retrieval from remains difficult.Anne Stone, Professor of Human Evolution and Social Change, Arizona State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2104042023-07-28T09:01:33Z2023-07-28T09:01:33ZGreece wildfires: how climate change is involved, and what we can do about it<p>Fanned by strong winds and record temperatures, wildfires on the Greek island of Rhodes recently spread from the hilly interior to the densely populated coastline with astonishing speed, leaving authorities with the daunting task of evacuating thousands of residents and holidaymakers from <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/tourists-flee-greek-island-rhodes-wildfire-thousands-evacuated-2023-07-23/">harm’s way</a>. </p>
<p>The role of climate change in heightening the risk of wildfires cannot be ignored. The world is, on average, 1.2°C warmer than in the pre-industrial climate, and this extra heat is bringing <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_SPM.pdf">more frequent heatwaves and droughts</a>. These weather conditions make the environment more fire-prone, and their increasing frequency has exposed already fire-susceptible regions such as the Mediterranean to <a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-change-wildfire-risk-has-grown-nearly-everywhere-but-we-can-still-influence-where-and-how-fires-strike-185465">greater risk of disaster</a>.</p>
<p>Scientists use <a href="https://news.sky.com/story/what-is-the-fire-weather-index-and-how-does-it-work-12927035">a fire weather index</a> to estimate how flammable vegetation becomes under a set of weather conditions including temperature, humidity, wind speed and how recently rain fell. In the Mediterranean, the frequency of extreme values on this index has increased faster than virtually anywhere else on Earth since the late 20th century. As a result, the Mediterranean now faces <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2020RG000726">29 additional days</a> of extreme fire weather a year.</p>
<p>Greece’s recent bout of extreme fire weather emerged from a heatwave that would have been at least <a href="https://www.worldweatherattribution.org/extreme-heat-in-north-america-europe-and-china-in-july-2023-made-much-more-likely-by-climate-change/">50 times less likely</a> in the pre-industrial climate. Days with extreme fire weather are set to increase through to 2100 if emissions are not reduced.</p>
<p>Due to changes in the global climate, the UN Environment Programme <a href="https://www.unep.org/resources/report/spreading-wildfire-rising-threat-extraordinary-landscape-fires">predicts</a> an increase in extreme wildfires of up to 14% by 2030 and 50% by 2100. Even at 1.5°C of warming (the threshold nations pledged to halt temperature rise to as part of the 2015 Paris Agreement), a 40% greater area is expected to <a href="https://theconversation.com/wildfires-in-mediterranean-europe-will-increase-by-40-at-1-5-c-warming-say-scientists-104270">burn in the Mediterranean</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A line graph showing measured and projected extreme fire weather frequency in Greece and the Mediterranean, 1850-2100." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539776/original/file-20230727-19593-pi9yq1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539776/original/file-20230727-19593-pi9yq1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=660&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539776/original/file-20230727-19593-pi9yq1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=660&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539776/original/file-20230727-19593-pi9yq1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=660&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539776/original/file-20230727-19593-pi9yq1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=829&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539776/original/file-20230727-19593-pi9yq1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=829&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539776/original/file-20230727-19593-pi9yq1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=829&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Increases in extreme fire weather are set to continue without greater action to address climate change. Asterisks signal the level of global warming at which extreme fire weather is unprecedented, compared with the pre-industrial climate.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jones et al. (2022)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Breaking down the causes of wildfires</h2>
<p>When attributing the cause of a wildfire, it is important to distinguish between the factors that cause a fire to ignite and those that cause vegetation to become so dry that they are primed to burn. Climate change alone cannot ignite a fire – a spark from an ignition source or lightning is necessary.</p>
<p>Arsonists were <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/corfu-wildfires-greece-rhodes-b2381320.html">blamed</a> for starting at least some of the fires in Greece, although arson is actually a minor cause of wildfires in the country. Of the past Greek wildfires with a verified ignition cause, only 23% were <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2571-6255/4/2/18">caused by arson</a>. Most arose from fires on farmland initially started to burn crop waste or encourage new growth of pasture grasses, or from fires on scrubland and grassland that were lit to manage unwanted vegetation.</p>
<p>With climate change providing more of the conditions that support fire, fresh opportunities are arising for people to start fires, whether on purpose or by accident.</p>
<p>The frequency of extreme fire weather will accelerate if <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2020RG000726">global warming exceeds 2°C</a>, but the world can still avoid the most severe outcomes by rapidly reducing emissions of greenhouse gases. It is not too late to stop burning the fossil fuels that are driving climate change and extreme weather.</p>
<h2>The worst can still be avoided</h2>
<p>Regions like the Mediterranean have naturally fire-prone landscapes, and it is unrealistic to expect people to exclude fire from their lives completely. Society must learn to adapt and live with fire while increasing preparations for more extreme fires in the future.</p>
<p>Wildfire budgets have historically prioritised fighting active fires. For example, in Greece, 92% of the national budget for forest fires was devoted to suppressing fires during the 2010s, with <a href="http://awsassets.panda.org/downloads/wwf__the_mediterranean_burns_2019_eng_final.pdf">only 8%</a> devoted to preventing them in the first place. As well as investing in firefighting teams and equipment, countries should develop better early-warning systems, evacuation plans, fire-resistant buildings, and computer models of fire behaviour. Programmes that make communities more aware of their role in fire safety, including stopping arson and accidental ignitions, are also critical.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A mind map of pictures and text describing different ways of reducing wildfire risk." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539724/original/file-20230727-17-jfbfjk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539724/original/file-20230727-17-jfbfjk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539724/original/file-20230727-17-jfbfjk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539724/original/file-20230727-17-jfbfjk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539724/original/file-20230727-17-jfbfjk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=495&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539724/original/file-20230727-17-jfbfjk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=495&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539724/original/file-20230727-17-jfbfjk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=495&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Actions taken before, during and after a fire can reduce the prevalence and severity of wildfires.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.oecd.org/environment/taming-wildfires-in-the-context-of-climate-change-dd00c367-en.htm#:~:text=This%20report%20provides%20a%20global,attribution%20effect%20of%20climate%20change.">OECD</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In many parts of the Mediterranean, decades of rural land being abandoned have caused vegetation to grow more densely than in the past. This denser vegetation can mean more fuel for wildfires, promoting more intense burning. One option to keep this fuel in check is to use controlled burns during <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-good-fire-prescribed-burning-can-prevent-catastrophic-wildfires-in-the-future-189857">safe weather windows</a>.</p>
<p>The wildfires in Greece are a stark reminder of the threat posed by climate change, and the costliness of missing international targets to reduce emissions. Decisive action to curb emissions, manage fuels on the landscape, and prepare communities can still lower the risks that fires will pose in future.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong><em>Don’t have time to read about climate change as much as you’d like?</em></strong>
<br><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/newsletters/imagine-57?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=Imagine&utm_content=DontHaveTimeTop">Get a weekly roundup in your inbox instead.</a> Every Wednesday, The Conversation’s environment editor writes Imagine, a short email that goes a little deeper into just one climate issue. <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/newsletters/imagine-57?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=Imagine&utm_content=DontHaveTimeBottom">Join the 20,000+ readers who’ve subscribed so far.</a></em></p>
<hr><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/210404/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Matthew William Jones receives funding from the UK Natural Environment Research Council (NE/V01417X/1).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Chantelle Burton receives funding from the Met Office Climate Science for Service Partnership Brazil (CSSP Brazil).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Douglas Kelley received funding from the UK Natural Environment Research Council (projects LTSM2 TerraFIRMA, NC-international programme, NE/X006247/1).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stefan H Doerr receives funding from the UK Natural Environment Research Council (NE/T003553/1; NE/R011125/; NE/X005143/1) and the European Commission (H2020 FirEUrisk project no. 101003890).</span></em></p>Climate change promotes ideal conditions for catastrophic fires, but the most drastic changes can still be avoided.Matthew William Jones, NERC Independent Research Fellow in Climate Science, University of East AngliaChantelle Burton, Senior Climate Scientist, Met Office Hadley CentreDouglas Kelley, Land Surface Modeller, UK Centre for Ecology & HydrologyStefan H Doerr, Professor of Geography and Director of the Centre for Wildfire Research, Swansea UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2083452023-07-16T11:56:56Z2023-07-16T11:56:56ZPollution timebombs: Contaminated wetlands are ticking towards ignition<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534433/original/file-20230627-29982-kxs94r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=820%2C20%2C3780%2C1669&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A flaming peatland fire in Alberta, Canada.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Greg Verkaik)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Wetlands across the globe have long served as natural repositories for humanity’s toxic legacy, absorbing and retaining <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2006.03.004">hundreds to thousands of years’ worth of pollution</a>. </p>
<p>These swampy vaults have quietly been trapping air and water pollution for thousands of years, protecting the world from some of the worst effects of lead, mercury, copper, nickel and other poisonous materials. </p>
<p>Now, however, a combination of human disruptions and ever increasing wildfires threaten to open these vaults, unleashing their long dormant toxic contents upon the world. </p>
<h2>Threats to releasing toxic legacies</h2>
<p>The soil in many wetlands is composed of dead and decaying vegetation known as peat. Peat accumulates because perpetually sopping wetland conditions prevent the complete decomposition of dead vegetation. As these deposits accumulate, they form peatlands. </p>
<p>For centuries, peat has been drained, dried and extracted for heating fuel where wood is scarce. Though humans have long burned bricks of peat in their homes, climate change and wetland draining are drying entire wetlands, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-023-01657-w">transforming them into perfect fuel for huge smoky wildfires</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Stacks of dried peat logs to be used for warmth and cooking." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534443/original/file-20230627-18-49gaiz.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534443/original/file-20230627-18-49gaiz.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534443/original/file-20230627-18-49gaiz.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534443/original/file-20230627-18-49gaiz.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534443/original/file-20230627-18-49gaiz.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534443/original/file-20230627-18-49gaiz.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534443/original/file-20230627-18-49gaiz.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Peat logs have long been used for warmth and cooking in communities across the globe.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Colin McCarter)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Centuries of fallout from industrial processes such as smelting has deposited toxic metals in wetlands hundreds or even thousands of kilometres away from their point of origin. Human and industrial wastewater has, in places, added to this burden. </p>
<p>Wetlands have absorbed and stored these contaminants, holding them back from vulnerable aquatic ecosystems and saving humans from ingesting them. </p>
<p>Peat has a tremendous ability to capture and retain toxic metals by binding the metals to the peat itself through a process called adsorption. Once bound, the toxic metals are immobilized and pose little threat to the surrounding environment unless the peatland is disturbed, like from a wildfire.</p>
<h2>Wetlands and fire</h2>
<p>Human activities such as road building and resource extraction have seriously disrupted wetland ecosystems, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aaa136">leaving drained wetlands vulnerable to fire</a>, as Canadians saw in the catastrophic Fort McMurray, Alta., wildfire of 2016.</p>
<p>As climate change and human actions further degrade wetlands, the resulting wildfires threaten to return humanity’s toxic legacy. This cycle carries frightening implications for the health of people and the environment. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Copious amounts of smoke produced from a smouldering peat fire." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534429/original/file-20230627-23-goy4k4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534429/original/file-20230627-23-goy4k4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534429/original/file-20230627-23-goy4k4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534429/original/file-20230627-23-goy4k4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534429/original/file-20230627-23-goy4k4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534429/original/file-20230627-23-goy4k4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534429/original/file-20230627-23-goy4k4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Fire burns away the peat as the resulting smoke is carried on the breeze.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Greg Verkaik)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In 2015, Indonesia recorded about <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/20/world/asia/indonesia-haze-smog-health.html">35,000 excess deaths after a major peatland fire</a>. Meanwhile, Canada and the United States are far from immune from exposure to peat fire smoke. In early June 2023, cities as far away as Washington, D.C., and New York were blanketed in thick smoke from peat fires in northern Canada, which is home to many of the world’s peatlands.</p>
<p>At the same time, climate change is accelerating the drying of peatlands everywhere, turning their huge stores of carbon into a carbon burden. Furthermore, as concentrated pollutants build up in wetlands, the accumulation of toxic metals is killing plants that act as their natural lid, allowing moisture to escape and speeding the conversion of more wetlands to tinderboxes. </p>
<p>Once ignited, peatland fires are difficult to contain as they can smoulder for weeks, months or even years. They produce copious amounts of smoke and ash, filling the air with microscopic particles.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A smoke filled peatland forest from smouldering fires lurking just below the surface." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534431/original/file-20230627-15-5b1mn2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534431/original/file-20230627-15-5b1mn2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534431/original/file-20230627-15-5b1mn2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534431/original/file-20230627-15-5b1mn2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534431/original/file-20230627-15-5b1mn2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534431/original/file-20230627-15-5b1mn2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534431/original/file-20230627-15-5b1mn2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Peatland fires can smoulder underground for months re-emerging under the right conditions.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Greg Verkaik)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Even without metal pollution, these airborne particles can cause severe illness and death. Making a bad situation worse, toxic metals once safely stored in wetlands bind to these airborne particles and spread everywhere.</p>
<h2>Restoring wetlands</h2>
<p>As with many global environmental issues, it is easy to feel helpless to control such a huge and complex problem. Fortunately, nature-based solutions can have a substantial positive impact on keeping this toxic legacy from being released. </p>
<p>We can restore drying or dried-out wetlands back to their original state as functional ecosystems through, at the most basic level, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2021.126793">preventing them from draining down canals and other human infrastructure</a>. Indeed, even without further intervention, re-wetting wetlands can reduce their risk of wildfire ignition. However, restoration must be managed carefully, to avoid flushing toxic metals from wetlands into neighbouring streams, rivers and lakes. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/up-in-smoke-human-activities-are-fuelling-wildfires-that-burn-essential-carbon-sequestering-peatlands-202816">Up in smoke: Human activities are fuelling wildfires that burn essential carbon-sequestering peatlands</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>To preserve wetland plants and return ecosystem functionality without releasing the stored toxic legacy, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2021.126793">we need to bring back fire-resistant mosses such as <em>Sphagnum</em></a>. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2022.106874">Recent research shows that old-fashioned peat “transplants” may be effective</a>, though new restoration techniques in contaminated wetlands need to be further developed and tested. </p>
<p>Although ecosystem restoration can be costly in terms of time and money, actively restoring wetlands appears to be our best chance to defuse the ticking time-bomb that our pollution vaults have become. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/acddfc">Preventing a pollution explosion demands urgent global research, investment and action</a>. The cost of doing nothing will certainly be much greater.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/208345/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Colin McCarter receives funding from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, Nipissing University, and the Canada Research Chair program. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mike Waddington receives funding from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, Blazing Star Environmental, McMaster University, Ganawenim Meshkiki, and Henvey Inlet Wind LP.</span></em></p>Peatlands safely store hundreds to thousands of years’ worth of humanity’s toxic legacy but climate change and physical disturbances are putting these pollution vaults, and us, at risk.Colin McCarter, Assistant Professor, Faculty of Arts and Science, Nipissing UniversityMike Waddington, Professor, School of Earth, Environment & Society, McMaster UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1913112023-06-20T19:37:11Z2023-06-20T19:37:11ZFor some fire-loving insects, wildfires provide the best breeding grounds<iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/for-some-fire-loving-insects--wildfires-provide-the-best-breeding-grounds" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>With the summer solstice and first official day of summer on June 21, hot and dry conditions have already given rise to a <a href="https://globalnews.ca/news/9764583/canada-worst-wildfire-season-21st-century/">very active fire season across Canada</a>. </p>
<p>The smoke from these fires has drifted great distances, disrupting activities and causing a nuisance and breathing hazards in communities far from its source. </p>
<p>But, if you happen to be an insect adapted to wildfires, tracing the smoke back to its source is what you were born to do.</p>
<p>Many insects are attracted to wildfires and lay their eggs in the tissues of fire-killed trees. Some of these insects are wildfire specialists and colonize the area while the fire is still actively burning.</p>
<h2>Adaptations to forest fires</h2>
<p>Known as pyrophilic insects because of their affinity for wildfires, these insects locate and navigate to the fire using their highly sensitive sense of smell. The smoke <a href="https://doi.org/10.1117/12.882421">emitted from forest fires also provide important clues</a> about the tree species fuelling the fire and whether, or not, the trees are suitable hosts for the insects. </p>
<p>As a testament to their co-evolution with fire, some species, like the Australian fire beetle, have even evolved <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s001140050775">sensory organs capable of detecting infrared light</a> emitted from wildfires. These infrared sensors help the insects contend with the unpredictable and dangerous conditions of a typical wildfire, allowing them to avoid <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0192865">hot spots that might be lethal</a>. </p>
<p>About 50 to 60 known insect species are pyrophilic. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2022.120629">This list</a> is made up mostly of beetles and flies but also includes a few true bugs and a single species of wasp called the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/aesa/60.6.1291">cedar wood wasp</a> (<em>Syntexis libocedrii</em>). </p>
<p>Little is known about their role in the ecosystem but some pyrophilic species help initiate recovery after the fire by breaking down decaying trees. Others are associated with pyrophilic fungi that are rarely found outside of recent burns. </p>
<p>Although a recent study suggests that some of these fungi are already <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.funeco.2019.100870">present in a dormant state</a> when the fire erupts through, pyrophilic insects may also play a role in <a href="https://www.frames.gov/catalog/36861">transmission of pyrophilic fungi</a> to burns. These fungi provide a habitat for many insect species and assist in cycling nutrients that helps facilitate regrowth in the burn. </p>
<h2>Heat-sterilized soils</h2>
<p>Why these insects are the first to arrive at the fire only to disappear shortly after is also not well understood. However, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/ecs2.4213">new research</a> suggests that this peculiar behaviour may have evolved to increase offspring survival. </p>
<p>Forest soils are normally chalk-full of small micro-arthropods like mites that readily devour insect eggs. But the extreme heat from wildfires <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-1127(00)00328-5">dramatically reduces invertebrate numbers in soils</a>, effectively sterilizing the soil. </p>
<p>Pyrophilic insects capitalize on this short window of opportunity and lay their eggs in the heat-sterilized soil before mites and other invertebrates recolonize the burn.</p>
<p>This temporary reprieve from egg predation explains part of why pyrophilic insects race to the fire. Comparing reproductive outputs in burnt and unburnt soils, the new study showed that this strategy can increase the number of offspring by 80 per cent.</p>
<p><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.18195/issn.0312-3162.30(1).2015.001-011">Other studies</a> have also noted that the extreme heat and smoke of the active fire helps protect adults from predation during reproduction and egg-laying. </p>
<p>But once this window of opportunity closes, pyrophilic insects must seek out new fires and freshly burnt areas. This explains why, within just a year or two after the fire, the insects disappear from the burnt area.</p>
<h2>Unpredictable habitat</h2>
<p>The unpredictability of wildfires and the need to quickly locate them means pyrophilic insects are likely impacted when humans suppress wildfires. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/jqs.1242">Fossil evidence of pyrophilic insects</a> from <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0031-0182(00)00188-7">regions like Britain where they are now rooted out of or extirpated</a>, for example, demonstrates the impact of human-induced changes to fire regimes.</p>
<p>Changes in land-use, fire suppression and the development of large industries like forestry and agriculture have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1890/ES11-00345.1">reduced wildfires in many regions</a>. At the same time, the current fire season as well as future projections of <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/aa5835">fire behaviour</a> under climate-warming suggests that available habitat for pyrophilic insects is likely to increase. </p>
<p>If the spring fire season in Canada is any indication, pyrophilic insects will continue to thrive well into summer.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/191311/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Aaron Bell receives funding from the Government of Canada and Weston Family Foundation. </span></em></p>If the spring fire season in Canada is any indication, fire-loving pyrophilic insects will continue to thrive well into summer.Aaron Bell, Researcher, PhD Candidate, Biology, University of SaskatchewanLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2070322023-06-07T20:08:16Z2023-06-07T20:08:16ZMore than 60 billion leaf litter invertebrates died in the Black Summer fires. Here’s what that did to ecosystems<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530506/original/file-20230607-22-vp1de5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=5%2C2%2C992%2C663&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The predatory beetle Eurylychnus blagravei</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Nick Porch</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The Black Summer megafires engulfing south-eastern Australia in 2019–2020 were so intense they burned habitats rarely exposed to fire, such as southern warm temperate rainforest.</p>
<p>These rainforests range from East Gippsland in Victoria up to just south of Sydney. Usually, they stay moist enough to prevent major fires. But in that unprecedented summer of fire, 80,000 hectares burned. Our <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/aec.13375">new research</a> estimates more than 60 billion invertebrates in the soil and leaf litter died too. </p>
<p>While our hearts went out to the burned koalas and kangaroos, this was a silent tragedy. These tiny creatures are enormously important in ecosystems. They eat dead leaves, create rich soil, and provide a key food source for bandicoots and lyrebirds. Many species have very small ranges, putting them at real risk of decline or even extinction from fire. </p>
<p>As renowned naturalist E. O. Wilson once said, invertebrates are the “the little things that run the world”. But because they are small and out of sight, we still underestimate their significance in ecosystems and their contribution to Australia’s biodiversity. They’re all but forgotten when ecological disasters strike. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530516/original/file-20230607-27-zjfgrl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="The aftermath of high severity burn" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530516/original/file-20230607-27-zjfgrl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530516/original/file-20230607-27-zjfgrl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=190&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530516/original/file-20230607-27-zjfgrl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=190&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530516/original/file-20230607-27-zjfgrl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=190&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530516/original/file-20230607-27-zjfgrl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=239&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530516/original/file-20230607-27-zjfgrl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=239&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530516/original/file-20230607-27-zjfgrl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=239&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Temperate rainforests such as those in East Gippsland are not used to intense fire.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Joshua Grubb</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>How did we find out how many invertebrates died?</h2>
<p>In warm temperate rainforests, there’s a layer of moist leaf litter which is home to an abundance of <a href="https://theconversation.com/photos-from-the-field-zooming-in-on-australias-hidden-world-of-exquisite-mites-snails-and-beetles-147576">ancient lifeforms</a>. These include the macroinvertebrates big enough to see with the naked eye, such as velvet worms, snails, land hoppers, millipedes, slaters and beetles. </p>
<p>Many of these groups include species with very small ranges, putting them at particular risk from bushfire and other changes to their environments. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530482/original/file-20230607-15-2nlkye.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="macroinvertebrates of Australia" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530482/original/file-20230607-15-2nlkye.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530482/original/file-20230607-15-2nlkye.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=602&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530482/original/file-20230607-15-2nlkye.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=602&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530482/original/file-20230607-15-2nlkye.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=602&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530482/original/file-20230607-15-2nlkye.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=756&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530482/original/file-20230607-15-2nlkye.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=756&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530482/original/file-20230607-15-2nlkye.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=756&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Common macroinvertebrates of these rainforests include velvet worms, snails, slaters, beetles, millipedes and land hoppers (clockwise from left)</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Nick Porch</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The fires incinerated much of the leaf litter and its inhabitants. To find out the toll on these creatures, a year after the fires we set out to collect leaf litter samples from 52 temperate rainforest sites ranging from Buchan in East Gippsland, Victoria, to Nowra in New South Wales, across the lands of the Kurnai, Bidawal and Yuin people. Then we compared sites subject to medium and high severity fires with those that had escaped the fire.</p>
<p>Back in the lab, we ran the samples through Tullgren funnels, which sort leaves from creatures, then counted the macroinvertebrates. We excluded the tiny springtails and mites, which are hugely abundant mesoinvertebrates. We found every hectare of unburnt rainforest had 2.5 million litter macroinvertebrates, while severely burnt forests had a quarter as many. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530503/original/file-20230607-23-ankbf7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="tullgren funnels" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530503/original/file-20230607-23-ankbf7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530503/original/file-20230607-23-ankbf7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=200&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530503/original/file-20230607-23-ankbf7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=200&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530503/original/file-20230607-23-ankbf7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=200&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530503/original/file-20230607-23-ankbf7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=251&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530503/original/file-20230607-23-ankbf7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=251&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530503/original/file-20230607-23-ankbf7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=251&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">We used Tullgren funnels to sort leaf litter fron its inhabitants.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Heloise Gibb</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>If we look at all temperate rainforest burned at different severities across the south-east that means 60 billion tiny deaths. But of all the forest that burned during that summer, rainforests made up only about 1%. The total loss might be closer to 6 trillion individuals. Then to get to truly extraordinary numbers, we can include mites and springtails which account for around 95% of individual invertebrates. That would give us an estimate of 120 trillion. </p>
<h2>Why are these tiny creatures so important?</h2>
<p>Invertebrates account for fully 99% of all animal species and most of the weight of animals on the planet. Renowned Australian scientist Baron Robert May is famously quoted as saying “to a good approximation, all species are insects”. Even now, an estimated 70% of all Australian invertebrate species <a href="https://www.taxonomyaustralia.org.au/about-taxonomy-australia">remain undescribed</a>. Many will go extinct before we have time to document them.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/surprisingly-few-animals-die-in-wildfires-and-that-means-we-can-help-more-in-the-aftermath-174392">Surprisingly few animals die in wildfires – and that means we can help more in the aftermath</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Although we know little of the ecology of most invertebrate species, collectively we know they play crucial roles in ecosystems. Losing this rich food source is likely to slow the recovery of key ecosystem engineers such as lyrebirds and bandicoots, which turn over large volumes of dirt in search of them. </p>
<p>When we try to replant forests without invertebrates, many plants and trees struggle. That’s why conservationists are using <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-12-08/land-revegetation-habitat-renewal-strathbogie-ranges-la-trobe/101742752">leaf litter transplants</a> to move vital invertebrates from healthy forests to new ones. </p>
<p>These critters are a vital way nutrients cycle through our forests by breaking down leaves and other organic matter. Globally, they’re directly responsible for converting about 40% of all leaf litter into soil. By turning over leaves or shredding them into pieces, they make it possible for microbes to help decompose organic matter. Without this work, leaf litter would begin to pile up, setting the scene for more fires. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530504/original/file-20230607-23-gmoxtg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="mite eating springtail" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530504/original/file-20230607-23-gmoxtg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530504/original/file-20230607-23-gmoxtg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530504/original/file-20230607-23-gmoxtg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530504/original/file-20230607-23-gmoxtg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530504/original/file-20230607-23-gmoxtg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530504/original/file-20230607-23-gmoxtg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530504/original/file-20230607-23-gmoxtg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Springtails and mites are by far the most abundant invertebrates in leaf litter, with thousands in an average square metre. On the right is a predatory snout mite (Bdellidae) feeding on a purple springtail (Collembola).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Nick Porch</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>When we lose billions or trillions of invertebrates, we may see the area become more susceptible to <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/wf/WF21112">future fires</a>. </p>
<p>More frequent fires means <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2009.02011.x">slower decomposition</a>, which means leaf litter builds up more rapidly. This might be a direct effect of the loss of invertebrates due to fire.</p>
<p>We found the most damaging fires were those where almost all of the canopy was burned. These intense treetop fires killed off three to four times as many invertebrates as fires where only half of the canopy burned. </p>
<p>That’s good news, as it suggests species can tolerate fires, as long as some litter habitat is left. Recovery efforts should focus on the sites where the most canopy burned. </p>
<p>In the wake of fires, rainforest species risk getting pushed out by surrounding eucalyptus trees, which are better at tolerating fire – and encourage more fires by dropping large volumes of litter. </p>
<p>You might think bugs can easily bounce back as the rainforest regrows. But recolonisation doesn’t always happen. Land hoppers, millipedes and isopods (slaters) can be extremely abundant in leaf litter, but none of them can fly to a new location. The dry forest between two sheltered rainforest gullies is so hostile to invertebrates like land hoppers that they can die in minutes when removed from their moist homes. </p>
<h2>What can we do?</h2>
<p>The future holds <a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-change-wildfire-risk-has-grown-nearly-everywhere-but-we-can-still-influence-where-and-how-fires-strike-185465">more fire</a>, as the world heats up. How can we protect these vital invertebrates? One method is to make their habitats better connected wherever possible. Another is to <a href="https://theconversation.com/they-might-not-have-a-spine-but-invertebrates-are-the-backbone-of-our-ecosystems-lets-help-them-out-193447">rewild with minibeasts</a>, seeding severely burnt sites with healthy litter invertebrates from nearby unburnt rainforests. </p>
<p>While we can calculate the numbers of individuals lost to fire, we don’t know much about whether the fires caused extinctions because many species are still unknown to science. </p>
<p>We can no longer overlook these minibeasts and the vital roles they play in ecosystems. We would miss them if they were gone. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/photos-from-the-field-zooming-in-on-australias-hidden-world-of-exquisite-mites-snails-and-beetles-147576">Photos from the field: zooming in on Australia's hidden world of exquisite mites, snails and beetles</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/207032/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Heloise Gibb receives funding from the Australian Research Council, the Bushfire Wildlife and Habitat Recovery Scheme (Federal Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment), the NSW Environment Trust and the Hermon Slade Foundation. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nick Porch receives funding from the Australian Research Council, the Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation, the Plomley Foundation, the Marsden Fund, National Geographic, The Hermon Slade Foundation and the Wildlife and Habitat Bushfire Recovery Program (Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment).</span></em></p>When the rainforests burned, the leaf litter did too – and with it, billions of invertebrates vital to healthy ecosystems.Heloise Gibb, Professor, La Trobe UniversityNick Porch, Senior Lecturer in Environmental Earth Science, Deakin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2063792023-06-01T12:31:10Z2023-06-01T12:31:10ZI study migrants traveling through Mexico to the US, and saw how they follow news of dangers – but are not deterred<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528414/original/file-20230525-19-azqzru.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Haitian migrants wait in a line to receive food in Coahuila state, Mexico, in 2021. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://media.gettyimages.com/id/1235448842/photo/topshot-mexico-us-haiti-migration.jpg?s=1024x1024&w=gi&k=20&c=P6gsYIeQD167feJkAerRN8rPN78Nry3greIZN6tLRDM=">Pedro Pardo/AFP via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The world awoke one morning in late March 2023 to the news that at least 38 Central and South American <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/03/28/world/americas/mexico-fire-ciudad-juarez.html">migrants had died</a> in a fire in a migrant detention center in Ciudad Juárez, Mexico.</p>
<p>A <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/video/world/americas/100000008837794/i-heard-them-screaming-witness-says-migrants-were-left-to-die-in-mexico-fire.html">widely circulated video</a> from the closed-circuit cameras inside the detention center showed the building burning, with migrants trapped inside trying to break the metal bars of their cells – and detention center officers allegedly leaving them there. </p>
<p>The Mexican government has said the <a href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/world/39-dead-in-fire-at-mexico-immigration-detention-center">migrants themselves started the fire</a> after learning they would be deported from Mexico – which is increasingly a destination for migrants and <a href="https://apnews.com/article/politics-mexico-united-states-government-albert-rivera-asylum-7f4f722c152438ead32a8ae4b61dffa1">asylum seekers</a> – back to their home countries.</p>
<p>The video spread quickly across social media, and many Mexican <a href="https://cmdpdh.org/2023/03/28/lamentar-ya-no-es-suficiente-urgimos-a-las-autoridades-correspondientes-responder-por-los-hechos-en-la-estacion-provisional-de-cd-juarez/">migrant advocacy groups</a> and <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M6EwOoBou_I">activists decried</a> the event. </p>
<p>Another group also paid close attention to this tragedy – migrants who are in transit through Mexico. </p>
<p>As <a href="https://sociology.yale.edu/people/angel-escamilla-garcia">a sociologist</a>, I have studied the impacts of violence against Central American migrants in Mexico for nearly a decade. I have considered questions like how migrants who are on their way to the U.S. react to news of violence against other migrants, and whether such news alters their plans. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.angelescamillagarcia.com/experience">My research</a> has shown that migrants pay close attention to any information that can give them clues about the dangers that lie between them and the U.S. </p>
<p>Migrants have shared with me that they highly value information about any dangers ahead as they move north, whether it relates to criminal groups or U.S. immigration policy changes. Migrants use this knowledge to implement a variety of strategies to avoid, or at least prepare for, any suffering – and it can lead them to take different routes to the U.S. border. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528419/original/file-20230525-27-456h99.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="People crouch near a series of candles and photos outside of a large fence." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528419/original/file-20230525-27-456h99.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528419/original/file-20230525-27-456h99.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528419/original/file-20230525-27-456h99.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528419/original/file-20230525-27-456h99.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528419/original/file-20230525-27-456h99.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528419/original/file-20230525-27-456h99.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528419/original/file-20230525-27-456h99.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Migrants attend a vigil outside the Mexican immigration detention center where migrants died in a fire in Ciudad Juárez in March 2023.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://media.gettyimages.com/id/1249839438/photo/topshot-mexico-us-migrants-vigil-migration-fire.jpg?s=1024x1024&w=gi&k=20&c=YCuJhz8LHEaePkzoc-p8ssSl5MLbpKKgHKk3gNec3sc=">Guillermo Arias/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Understanding migrants in Mexico</h2>
<p>Hundreds of thousands of migrants from around the world transit through Mexico every year on their way to the U.S.-Mexico border. In <a href="https://www.cbp.gov/newsroom/stats/southwest-land-border-encounters">April 2023</a> alone, the U.S. detained more than 211,000 migrants along that border. That statistic coincides with an overall rise in <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2022/12/16/key-facts-about-recent-trends-in-global-migration">global migration</a> and rise in <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2023/01/13/monthly-encounters-with-migrants-at-u-s-mexico-border-remain-near-record-highs/">migrants trying to reach the U.S.</a></p>
<p>The majority of migrants crossing the U.S. border come from Latin American <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2023/01/13/monthly-encounters-with-migrants-at-u-s-mexico-border-remain-near-record-highs/">countries other than Mexico</a>, including Central American countries, but also Peru, Colombia, Venezuela and Cuba.</p>
<p>Most of these migrants are <a href="https://www.cbp.gov/newsroom/stats/southwest-land-border-encounters">single adults</a>, though a number of them are also families and children. People <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/05/10/us/politics/title-42-border-history-immigration.html">migrate through Mexico</a> for many reasons, including political instability, lack of work opportunities and violence in their own countries. </p>
<p>My interviews with migrants moving through Mexico show that they tend to widely circulate tragic news, such as news of the June 2022 news of <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/06/28/us/migrants-san-antonio-tractor-killed.html">migrants found dead</a> locked in a tractor trailer in San Antonio. Videos and photos of this and other tragic instances, like the Ciudad Juárez fire, provide real, vivid images of what can happen if migrants decide to pursue the same pathway. </p>
<p>And for these migrants, the images and news stories aren’t secondhand information that they can <a href="https://arch.library.northwestern.edu/concern/parent/c247ds452/file_sets/8623hz116">question or doubt</a> – images can be interpreted as unchangeable truths.</p>
<h2>How migrants get their news</h2>
<p>Migrants don’t receive news from New York Times alerts or nightly news. </p>
<p>Their information-sharing largely occurs in an <a href="https://arch.library.northwestern.edu/concern/generic_works/c247ds452">underground informal information exchange</a> that circulates news and stories among migrants heading toward the U.S. through Mexico. </p>
<p>That information is shared, discussed, interpreted and commented on through social media platforms, chat groups and word of mouth. Within 24 hours of the Ciudad Juárez fire, every single social media outlet and migrant chat that I follow as part of my research, comprised of thousands of transit migrants moving throughout Mexico and Guatemala in real time, had posted and reposted the video and news of the incident.</p>
<p>Some comments and replies in social media and chat groups about the incident prayed for mercy and peace for the dead and their loved ones. </p>
<p>Others asked for a list of names of the dead, or about their places of origin, as people desperately sought to find out whether their family members and friends were among the dead and injured. Still others asked for tips and discussed ways to avoid suffering the same fate, such as asking about alternate routes to the border, or sharing ways to avoid ending up in Mexican migrant detention centers. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528416/original/file-20230525-29-4ifrwd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A person, seen from below the neck, holds a large framed photo of a young man, smiling, wearing a blue shirt and hat." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528416/original/file-20230525-29-4ifrwd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528416/original/file-20230525-29-4ifrwd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528416/original/file-20230525-29-4ifrwd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528416/original/file-20230525-29-4ifrwd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528416/original/file-20230525-29-4ifrwd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528416/original/file-20230525-29-4ifrwd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528416/original/file-20230525-29-4ifrwd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The father of Francisco Rojche, a Guatemalan migrant who died in a Mexican immigration detention center in March 2023, holds a photo of his son.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://media.gettyimages.com/id/1250755394/photo/topshot-guatemala-mexico-migration-fire.jpg?s=1024x1024&w=gi&k=20&c=4Zm4IU_D1fbAF642u-CuXsGeWUZmvNNkiFxHIgTA9qU=">Johan Ordonez/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A shared response</h2>
<p>Common among migrants’ reactions to the March 2023 fire was a deep sense of grief. Migrants recognized how close they are to those who lost their lives and expressed a sense of “that could have been me.”</p>
<p>And yet, in my field work, I have found that these horrific events do not deter migrants’ desire to reach the U.S. What they do is reset migrants’ expectations going forward. </p>
<p>Through my field work, I have heard migrants repeatedly tell stories about the dire conditions in detention <a href="https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/S1537-466120220000029002/full/html">centers in Mexico</a>. </p>
<p>They report that these poor <a href="https://sinfronteras.org.mx/docs/inf/inf-derechos-cautivos.pdf">conditions</a> – <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2021/7/22/siglo-xxi-my-24-hours-in-mexicos-21st-century-migrant-prison">rotten food, fleas,</a> lack of clothing or blankets for the cold weather – <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/mexico-migrant-detention-centers-inhumane-conditions-fire-rcna77068">have triggered</a> hunger strikes and protests.</p>
<h2>Broader effects</h2>
<p>Another of my main findings is that violent and tragic incidents tend to prompt migrants to avoid any interactions with police or any other officials, even under the guise of help or support. </p>
<p>For example, my research suggests that stories and images of violence like the Ciudad Juárez tragedy will generate a further lack of trust in the Mexican government. I believe that the incident will create certain expectations about the perils of spending time near the border. If they can, I think that migrants will likely avoid Ciudad Juárez and other areas where they feel they may be detained. </p>
<p>I believe the fire will also leave a symbolic scar on migrants in Mexico, who will collectively remember this event and construct their journeys around it.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/206379/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Angel Alfonso Escamilla García does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A fire killed 38 migrants in a Mexico detention facility in March 2023. A sociologist’s conversations with migrants show that they had a common response to this news – a deep sense of grief.Angel Alfonso Escamilla García, Postdoctoral Fellow, Cornell UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2065022023-05-30T05:32:54Z2023-05-30T05:32:54ZRevenge, excitement, or profit: why do people commit arson?<p>The huge blaze that struck Randle Street in central Sydney last week is now the subject of an <a href="https://www.canberratimes.com.au/story/8210175/teens-sought-by-police-over-massive-sydney-cbd-blaze/">arson investigation</a>, authorities have confirmed.</p>
<p>Many details remain unclear, including the safety and whereabouts of some of the people who were <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-05-27/wall-in-sydney-building-moves-after-major-fire/102401470">reportedly sleeping rough in the building</a>, as well as the nature of any criminal charges that may arise.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1663334039540097025"}"></div></p>
<p>Right now there’s also a fire burning on a southern Great Barrier Reef island, threatening a sensitive marine site, which local rangers are <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-05-30/rangers-battle-suspicious-fire-on-great-barrier-reef-island/102408970">treating as suspicious</a>.</p>
<p>While arson is yet to be confirmed in either of these specific cases, it’s timely to look at the issue of arson more generally.</p>
<p>Aside from the personal and environmental implications, the financial burden of arson is huge. Recent data are difficult to obtain, although it was estimated that the total cost of arson in Australia was <a href="https://www.aic.gov.au/sites/default/files/2020-05/rpp129.pdf">A$2.3 billion in 2011</a>, and the annual figure is likely to have increased since then.</p>
<p>There’s a lack of scientific research attempting to understand the arsonist, perhaps because the “typical arsonist” doesn’t exist. Or maybe it’s because so few arsons are solved, and the rate of successful convictions remains low.</p>
<p>However, the research that has been done suggests there are <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B012369397700203X">six main</a> <a href="https://www.firehouse.com/community-risk/investigation-equipment/article/10464930/arson-investigation-the-six-motives-for-firesetting">types of</a> <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Shelby-Miller-8/publication/342276745_Applications_of_Criminology_to_the_Multidimensional_Crime_of_Arson/links/5eeb748092851ce9e7ecad80/Applications-of-Criminology-to-the-Multidimensional-Crime-of-Arson.pdf">arsonist</a>.</p>
<h2>6 types of arsonist</h2>
<p>Arson, as <a href="https://www.aic.gov.au/publications/bfab/bfab1#:%7E:text=Arson%20is%20the%20act%20of,through%20the%20use%20of%20fire">defined</a> by the Australian Institute of Criminology, is the act of “intentionally and maliciously destroying or damaging property through the use of fire”.</p>
<p>For a fire to be classified as arson there must be intent – the intention to cause harm or damage.</p>
<p>Arson can also be the primary or secondary motive – is setting the fire the main purpose, or is the fire being used to disguise another activity?</p>
<p>Here are the main six underlying reasons why someone might commit arson:</p>
<p><strong>1. The ‘for profit’ arsonist</strong></p>
<p>There are many ways someone can profit from arson. This includes extortion, or destroying a property to clear a piece of land. But most commonly these crimes are attempts at insurance fraud.</p>
<p>There are different types of property insurance fraud, including residential, commercial and vehicular. Residential fraud is committed by the homeowner or tenant; commercial fraud is committed by an owner to destroy company statements or claim on insurance; and vehicular fraud may occur when someone can’t afford their repayments.</p>
<p>These are largely one-off crimes and are very focused, and the offender is easier to catch than with other types of arson because they have a direct link with the damaged property or its owner.</p>
<p><strong>2. Pyromaniacs</strong></p>
<p>These perpetrators light fires for thrills and attention. Their fires range from bins to occupied buildings, and the size and risk associated with the fires may increase over time as the arsonist needs more excitement with each event.</p>
<p>This type of offender is often voyeuristic, and may wait for emergency services to attend, sometimes even calling them themselves, as they want to be present at the scene. They may video or photograph the fire and the first responders.</p>
<p>As a result, for investigators it’s important to capture images of the crowd to see who was watching.</p>
<p>This category includes first responders who set fires in order to be a “hero” in attendance, seeking praise and recognition for their bravery.</p>
<p>For example, a New South Wales volunteer firefighter was charged in January 2021 for allegedly <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/rfs-member-charged-with-lighting-30-fires-in-nsw-20210124-p56wei.html">starting more than 30 fires</a> during that summer.</p>
<p><strong>3. Crime concealment</strong></p>
<p>For these offenders, the arson is secondary to the concealment of another serious crime, such as murder or theft.</p>
<p>Fire is a very successful means of destroying many forms of evidence, such as fingerprints that may have been left at a scene or clothing worn during the crime.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1512347816739360769"}"></div></p>
<p><strong>4. The revenge arsonist</strong></p>
<p>These offenders are emotionally driven, and set fires out of anger or hatred, or for revenge for a real or perceived wrong. The need for retaliation could be based in a personal slight – such as an affair, or having been dismissed from a job.</p>
<p>Targets vary from individuals to institutions. And because of the emotional state of the offender, these crimes are usually disorganised and use unsophisticated methods of starting the fire, meaning they leave more evidence behind than some other types.</p>
<p><strong>5. Extremist motivations</strong></p>
<p>Extremist arsonists are driven by religious, political or social agendas.</p>
<p>There are two types of extremist arsonist, the first being those reacting to a civil disturbance, such as the death of a person in custody. Activities may include vandalism and looting, and the purpose may be to draw attention to a perceived injustice. </p>
<p>For example, 36-year-old Jose A. Felan Jr was sentenced to 6.5 years in prison in the United States after he <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/minnesota/news/jose-felan-36-gets-6-12-years-in-prison-for-multiple-arsons-during-george-floyd-unrest/">set fires</a> at a school and two shops, during the riots that followed the police killing of George Floyd during an arrest in May 2020.</p>
<p>The second type are terrorist arsonists, known as pyro-terrorism, which is <a href="https://www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/pyro-terrorism-threat-arson-induced-forest-fires-future-terrorist">defined</a> as “the use of incendiary attacks to intimidate or coerce a government or civilian population”. These offenders may use arson as one of a range of measures, and work alone or in cells.</p>
<p>Because their crimes are premeditated with targets selected carefully to have the most social, economic or political impact, these offenders are often highly organised, and may use advanced incendiary devices. The purpose is to cause mass fear, beyond the actual target itself.</p>
<p><strong>6. Vandalism</strong></p>
<p>Vandal arsonists are typically juveniles, who set fire to bins, abandoned vehicles or empty buildings, and may do so to cover up other crimes such as theft. Often an additional factor in the starting of the fire is peer pressure or gang initiation, as these arsonists often act in groups.</p>
<p>For these offenders, arson can be what criminologists call a “gateway crime” – a crime that may lead to more severe criminal activity.</p>
<p>But if such offenders are given suitable support, rehabilitation can be highly successful to prevent them becoming serious, repeat offenders.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-rehabilitation-not-harsher-prison-sentences-makes-economic-sense-132213">Why rehabilitation – not harsher prison sentences – makes economic sense</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Although these are the main motives for arson, each does not act in a vacuum, and more than one may jointly contribute to the arsonist’s motivations. For example, someone may be murdered out of revenge, and then the offender sets a fire to conceal that crime or destroy evidence. </p>
<p>Arson is highly complex crime, with a wide range of social, psychological and environmental influences. More work needs to be done to understand the arsonist and their motivations, and how they can be identified, caught, convicted and hopefully rehabilitated.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/206502/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Research highlights at least six different motivations for perpetrators that commit arson.Xanthe Mallett, Forensic Criminologist, University of NewcastleJoel Robert McGregor, Lecturer in Criminology, Swinburne University of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2060572023-05-22T12:26:52Z2023-05-22T12:26:52ZWildfire smoke can harm human health, even when the fire is burning hundreds of miles away – a toxicologist explains why<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534623/original/file-20230628-27-qecwmv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=24%2C66%2C4001%2C2728&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Wildfire smoke filled the air at Chicago's Wrigley Field on June 27, 2023.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/CanadaWildfiresAirQualityGreatLakesBaseball/e86f2c376cb040da87a614b0abdb8861/photo">AP Photo/Kim Johnson</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>Smoke from <a href="https://www.ciffc.ca/">more than 100 wildfires</a> burning across Canada has been rolling into North American cities far from the flames. New York City, Denver, Chicago, Minneapolis and Detroit each made the list of the <a href="https://www.iqair.com/us/world-air-quality-ranking">most polluted cities in the world</a> at times in May and June 2023 because of the fires. The smoke has triggered air quality alerts in several states.</em></p>
<p><em>We asked <a href="https://www.umt.edu/biomedical-pharmaceutical-sciences/people/faculty.php?ID=1345">Chris Migliaccio</a>, a toxicologist at the University of Montana who studies the impact of wildfire smoke on human health, about the health risks people can face when smoke blows in from distant wildfires.</em></p>
<h2>What’s in wildfire smoke that’s a problem?</h2>
<p>When we talk about air quality, we often talk about PM2.5. That’s particulate matter 2.5 microns or smaller – small enough that it can travel deep into the lungs.</p>
<p>Exposure to PM2.5 from smoke or other air pollution, such as vehicle emissions, can exacerbate health conditions like asthma and reduce lung function in ways that can worsen existing respiratory problems and even heart disease.</p>
<p>But the term PM2.5 only tells you about size, not composition – what is burning can make a significant difference in the chemistry.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534612/original/file-20230628-19-5wd03e.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A map of North America shows wildfire smoke from fires in Alberta and Ontario, Canada, detected strongly with poor air quality in the Great Lakes region, Northeast and Midwestern U.S." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534612/original/file-20230628-19-5wd03e.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534612/original/file-20230628-19-5wd03e.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534612/original/file-20230628-19-5wd03e.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534612/original/file-20230628-19-5wd03e.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534612/original/file-20230628-19-5wd03e.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534612/original/file-20230628-19-5wd03e.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534612/original/file-20230628-19-5wd03e.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Smoke from wildfires in Canada was detected across a large part of the U.S. on June 28, 2023. Dark purple dots indicate hazardous air quality. Light purple indicates very unhealthy air; red is unhealthy; orange is unhealthy for sensitive groups; and yellow indicates moderate risk. AirNow.gov.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://fire.airnow.gov/">AirNow.gov</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In the northern Rockies, where I live, most fires are fueled by vegetation, but <a href="https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP3450">not all vegetation is the same</a>. If the fire is in the wildland urban interface, manufactured fuels from homes and vehicles may also be burning, and that’s going to <a href="https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/26460/the-chemistry-of-fires-at-the-wildland-urban-interface">create its own toxic chemistry</a>, as well. Chemists often talk about <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/climateandhealth/effects/wildfires.htm">volatile organic compounds</a>, (VOCs), carbon monoxide and PAHs, or <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/biomonitoring/PAHs_FactSheet.html">polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons</a> produced when biomass and other matter burns having the potential to harm human health.</p>
<h2>How does inhaling wildfire smoke harm human health?</h2>
<p>If you have ever been around a campfire and got a blast of smoke in your face, you probably had some irritation. With exposure to wildfire smoke, you might get some irritation in the nose and throat and maybe <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2021GH000578">some inflammation</a>. If you’re healthy, your body for the most part will be able to handle it. </p>
<p>As with a lot of things, the dose makes the poison – almost anything can be harmful at a certain dose.</p>
<p>Generally, cells in the lungs called <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK513313/">alveolar macrophages</a> will pick up the particulates and clear them out – at reasonable doses. It’s when the system gets overwhelmed that you can have a problem.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Illustration of a small section of lungs showing the alveoli and, within the alveoli, a close up of a microphage" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527320/original/file-20230519-27-a7wgjx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527320/original/file-20230519-27-a7wgjx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=914&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527320/original/file-20230519-27-a7wgjx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=914&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527320/original/file-20230519-27-a7wgjx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=914&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527320/original/file-20230519-27-a7wgjx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1148&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527320/original/file-20230519-27-a7wgjx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1148&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527320/original/file-20230519-27-a7wgjx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1148&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Where macrophages are found in alveoli, the tiny air sacs in the lungs.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>One concern is that smoke can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-31459-6">suppress macrophage function</a>, altering it enough that you become more susceptible to respiratory infection. A colleague who looked at lag time in the effect of wildfire smoke exposure found an <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2020.105668">increase in influenza cases after a bad fire season</a>. Studies in developing countries have also found increases in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2022.119055">respiratory infections</a> with people who are <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/thx.2010.147884">cooking on open fires</a> in homes.</p>
<p>The stress of an inflammatory response can also exacerbate existing health problems. Being exposed to wood smoke won’t independently cause someone to have a heart attack, but if they have underlying risk factors, such as significant plaque buildup, the added stress can increase the risk.</p>
<p>Researchers are also studying potential <a href="https://theconversation.com/breathing-wildfire-smoke-can-affect-the-brain-and-sperm-as-well-as-the-lungs-166548">effects on the brain</a> and <a href="https://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/doi/full/10.1289/EHP10498">nervous system</a> from <a href="https://www.epa.gov/isa/integrated-science-assessment-isa-particulate-matter">inhaled particulate matter</a>.</p>
<h2>When smoke blows over long distances, does its toxicity change?</h2>
<p>We know that the chemistry of wildfire smoke changes. The longer it’s in the atmosphere, the more the <a href="https://theconversation.com/wildfire-smoke-changes-dramatically-as-it-ages-and-that-matters-for-downwind-air-quality-heres-what-we-learned-flying-through-smoke-plumes-151671">chemistry will be altered</a> by ultraviolet light, but we still have <a href="http://doi.org/10.1016/j.etap.2017.08.022">a lot to learn</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A woman walks past the New York Stock Exchange building in the Wall Street district of New York. The sky is yellow-orange with wildfire smoke, a sky color common in apocalyptic films." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534624/original/file-20230628-17-7l230z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534624/original/file-20230628-17-7l230z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534624/original/file-20230628-17-7l230z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534624/original/file-20230628-17-7l230z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534624/original/file-20230628-17-7l230z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534624/original/file-20230628-17-7l230z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534624/original/file-20230628-17-7l230z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Wildfire smoke from Canada turned the skies in New York City an apocalyptic shade of orange on June 7, 2023.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/CanadaWIldfiresPhotoGallery/1601ea44e9bb4515ba755b4f6a7d5fa9/photo">AP Photo/J. David Ake</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Researchers have found that there seems to be a higher level of oxidation, so oxidants and free radicals are being generated the longer smoke is in the air. The specific health effects aren’t yet clear, but there’s some indication that more exposure leads to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/8416763">greater health effects</a>.</p>
<p>The supposition is that more <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/research-and-innovation/en/horizon-magazine/four-times-more-toxic-how-wildfire-smoke-ages-over-time">free radicals are generated</a> the longer smoke is exposed to UV light, so there’s a greater potential for health harm. A lot of that, again, comes down to dose.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="The city skyline disappears as the viewer looks farther into the haze, which is coming from wildfire smoke." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534619/original/file-20230628-17-fz8urj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534619/original/file-20230628-17-fz8urj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534619/original/file-20230628-17-fz8urj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534619/original/file-20230628-17-fz8urj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534619/original/file-20230628-17-fz8urj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534619/original/file-20230628-17-fz8urj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534619/original/file-20230628-17-fz8urj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Haze from wildfire smoke envelopes the Minneapolis skyline on June 14, 2023.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/CanadianWildfiresAirQuality/4dedf9a42ab04009a3f199e415fb66b1/photo">AP Photo/Abbie Parr</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Chances are, if you’re a healthy individual, going for a bike ride or a hike in light haze won’t be a big deal, and your body will be able to recover. </p>
<p>If you’re doing that every day for a month in wildfire smoke, however, that raises more concerns. I’ve worked on studies with residents at Seeley Lake in Montana who were exposed to hazardous levels of PM2.5 from wildfire smoke for 49 days in 2017. We found a <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics8030053">decrease in lung function a year later</a>. No one was on oxygen, but there was a significant drop.</p>
<p>This is a relatively new area of research, and there’s still a lot we’re learning, especially with the increase in wildfire activity as the planet warms.</p>
<h2>What precautions can people take to reduce their risk from wildfire smoke?</h2>
<p>If there is smoke in the air, you want to decrease your exposure. </p>
<p>Can you completely avoid the smoke? Not unless you’re in a hermetically sealed home. The PM levels aren’t much different indoors and out unless you have a really good HVAC system, such as those with <a href="https://www.epa.gov/indoor-air-quality-iaq/what-merv-rating">MERV 15 or better filters</a>. But going inside decreases your activity, so your breathing rate is slower and the amount of smoke you’re inhaling is likely lower.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A satellite animation shows smoke moving from fires in Alberta across Canada and into New England." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527359/original/file-20230521-119053-ul9mif.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527359/original/file-20230521-119053-ul9mif.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527359/original/file-20230521-119053-ul9mif.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527359/original/file-20230521-119053-ul9mif.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527359/original/file-20230521-119053-ul9mif.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527359/original/file-20230521-119053-ul9mif.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527359/original/file-20230521-119053-ul9mif.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A satellite captures wildfire smoke on May 16, 2023.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.earthdata.nasa.gov/worldview/worldview-image-archive/canada-fires-16-may-2023">NASA EarthData</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We also tend to advise people that if you’re in a susceptible group, such as those with asthma, create a safe space at home and in the office with a high-level stand-alone air filtration system to create a space with cleaner air.</p>
<p>Some <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41370-020-00267-4">masks can help</a>. It doesn’t hurt to have a high-quality N95 mask. Just wearing a cloth mask won’t do much, though.</p>
<p>Most <a href="https://www.airnow.gov/">states have air quality monitors</a> that can give you a sense of how bad the air quality is, so check those sites and act accordingly.</p>
<p><em>This article was updated June 28, 2023, with smoke in Chicago, Minneapolis and Detroit and the latest map of smoke conditions.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/206057/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Christopher T. Migliaccio has received funding from the NIH and HRSA for his work in wood smoke health effects.
. </span></em></p>Fires in Canada have sent smoke across several US states, leaving cities including New York, Chicago and Denver with some of the worst air quality in the world – even far from the flames.Christopher T. Migliaccio, Research Associate Professor in Toxicology, University of MontanaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2051132023-05-21T20:00:24Z2023-05-21T20:00:24Z‘Painting with fire’: how northern Australia developed one of the world’s best bushfire management programs<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526716/original/file-20230517-28-mjxdxc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C1824%2C1643&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Satellite imagery shows how burnt areas in central Arnhem Land are lines carefully 'painted' across the landscape.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://apps.sentinel-hub.com/eo-browser/">Sentinel Hub EO Browser</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Right now, hundreds of bushfires are burning across northern Australia. But this is not a wildfire catastrophe – in fact, these burns are making things safer in one of the most fire-prone landscapes in the world.</p>
<p>From April to June each year, fire managers – such as Traditional Owners, park rangers and pastoralists – aim to create small, “cool” fires with care and precision to reduce fuel loads before conditions get severe later in the dry season. This work, “painting” landscapes with fire, is constantly informed by satellite data.</p>
<p>The combination of space technology with Indigenous knowledge and the know-how of pastoralists and park rangers has been everyday practice across northern Australia for the past 20 years. Not only does this work produce some of the best fire management outcomes in the world, it also demonstrates how cutting-edge technology can inform local and traditional knowledge for environmental management.</p>
<h2>The satellite view</h2>
<p>In the early 2000s, researchers and land managers brought together by the <a href="https://www.eoas.info/biogs/A001949b.htm">Cooperative Research Centre for the Sustainable Development of Tropical Savannahs</a> realised satellite imagery could be of great help for fire management across Australia’s vast tropical savannas. </p>
<p>These landscapes have always been prone to fire. After First Nations people moved away (or were forced) from these areas over the course of the 20th century, savanna fires <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1890/120251">became more frequent and intense</a>.</p>
<p>Satellite imagery had long been used to understand the extent and severity of fires and other landscape-altering events. But researchers realised it could also be used to manage those fires – if up-to-date imagery could be provided to the public on a daily basis. </p>
<p>The result was regularly updated maps of recently burnt areas distributed via a website launched in 2003, hosted by Charles Darwin University – <a href="https://firenorth.org.au/">North Australian Fire Information</a> (NAFI).</p>
<p>Twenty years on, NAFI’s maps of active fires and burnt areas underpin fire management across northern Australia. The maps are used for planning, response, implementation, and reporting. </p>
<h2>Carbon credits and international attention</h2>
<p>NAFI’s fire information also informs the federal government’s calculations for <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/rural/2012-11-02/indigenous-fire-project-to-earn-carbon-credits/6123622">carbon credits related to reduced savanna burning</a>, which many people across Australia’s north are using to generate income. Some of this income is then put back into work to reduce the extent and severity of fires. </p>
<p>NAFI fire data also inform the national <a href="https://afdrs.com.au/">Australian Fire Danger Rating System</a> so it can be more effectively applied by bushfire agencies in remote areas.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-worlds-best-fire-management-system-is-in-northern-australia-and-its-led-by-indigenous-land-managers-133071">The world's best fire management system is in northern Australia, and it's led by Indigenous land managers</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The same data have provided evidence showing north Australia has had <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-worlds-best-fire-management-system-is-in-northern-australia-and-its-led-by-indigenous-land-managers-133071">one of the most significant declines in fire</a> across any large landscape globally. </p>
<p>The successes of the NAFI service are drawing <a href="https://theconversation.com/fighting-fire-with-fire-botswana-adopts-indigenous-australians-ancient-burning-tradition-135363">international interest</a> as a model for fire information in other fire-susceptible regions around the world.</p>
<h2>Painting with fire</h2>
<p>Most Australians have a poor understanding of the history of fire on this continent. Fire has been a key human–ecological force that shaped landscapes over tens of thousands of years. </p>
<p>Over the past 20 years, <a href="https://theconversation.com/we-are-professional-fire-watchers-and-were-astounded-by-the-scale-of-fires-in-remote-australia-right-now-172773">proactive use of fire for landscape management</a> has been revived in northern Australia. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-are-professional-fire-watchers-and-were-astounded-by-the-scale-of-fires-in-remote-australia-right-now-172773">We are professional fire watchers, and we're astounded by the scale of fires in remote Australia right now</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The scale of the work undertaken by Northern fire managers, particularly at this time of year when fuel load reduction burns are underway, is easy to see on NAFI. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526703/original/file-20230517-21-qpi2sc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526703/original/file-20230517-21-qpi2sc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=320&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526703/original/file-20230517-21-qpi2sc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=320&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526703/original/file-20230517-21-qpi2sc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=320&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526703/original/file-20230517-21-qpi2sc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526703/original/file-20230517-21-qpi2sc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526703/original/file-20230517-21-qpi2sc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A snapshot from NAFI from 15 May 2023. Each coloured dot represents an active fire.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://firenorth.org.au">NAFI</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Landscape-scale fire management, as applied in Northern Australia, is a sophisticated endeavour where science, technology and engineering support local knowledge. </p>
<h2>Beyond science and technology</h2>
<p>In a world rapidly being <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-11-04/east-kimberley-fire-forum-climate-change-impacts/101609248">transformed by climate change</a>, the skills required to make our societies sustainable and resilient involve more than just science and technology. Good environmental management will also require diverse, locally based skills and capacity to act.</p>
<p>Good fire management, as a case in point, requires an ability to blend skills and ways of thinking across multiple knowledge systems as well as a huge amount of hard work on the land.</p>
<p>Enabling easy, appropriately curated <a href="https://savannafiremapping.com/">access</a> to satellite-derived land information – and training to understand it – is critical. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526707/original/file-20230517-28-1bru81.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526707/original/file-20230517-28-1bru81.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526707/original/file-20230517-28-1bru81.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526707/original/file-20230517-28-1bru81.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526707/original/file-20230517-28-1bru81.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526707/original/file-20230517-28-1bru81.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=591&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526707/original/file-20230517-28-1bru81.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=591&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526707/original/file-20230517-28-1bru81.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=591&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Tiwi Rangers at a training session on using satellite data and digital mapping for fire management.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Rohan Fisher</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>NAFI also develops and delivers training for land managers. Through workshops delivered across regional Australia, from remote Indigenous communities in the Kimberley and the top end to pastoralists in northern Queensland and central Australia, we are building high-tech capacity among those with the vital on-ground knowledge.</p>
<p>The journey of NAFI and fire management in northern Australia over the past 20 years illustrates how innovation is not just about technology, no matter how advanced. Innovation produces results when it is combined with other knowledge and put into the hands of the right people in the right way.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/205113/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rohan Fisher works for Charles Darwin University and has received federal funding to support the NAFI service. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Peter Jacklyn works for Charles Darwin University and has received federal funding to support the NAFI service.</span></em></p>Satellite data and traditional know-how combined have drastically reduced fires across northern Australia over the past 20 years.Rohan Fisher, Information Technology for Development Researcher, Charles Darwin UniversityPeter Jacklyn, NAFI Service Manager and Knowledge and Adoption Coordinator, Charles Darwin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2058072023-05-19T09:16:22Z2023-05-19T09:16:22ZHumans were using fire in Europe 50,000 years earlier than we thought – new research<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526868/original/file-20230517-17-lmjl05.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=33%2C0%2C5493%2C3692&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The control of fire by humans probably developed gradually over thousands of years.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/burning-red-hot-sparks-fly-big-1454468750">matsiukpavel / Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Human history is intimately entwined with the use and control of fire. However, working out when our relationship with fire began and how it subsequently evolved has been notoriously difficult.</p>
<p>This is partly due to the incomplete nature of archaeological records, and also because fire use was fleeting, making burnt remains difficult to detect.</p>
<p>But our team has found evidence of the controlled use of fire by direct human ancestors – or hominins – at a site in Spain dating to 250,000 years ago. This pushes the earliest evidence of fire control in Europe back by 50,000 years. The findings have been published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-32673-7">Nature Scientific Reports</a>. It is truly special to find the remains of human ancestors and fire at the same location. </p>
<p>There is much earlier evidence of hominins exploiting fire, but this could have taken the form of hominins taking advantage of the burning embers from a natural wildfire to cook their food. The controlled use of fire is where humans intentionally start it and then manage, say, its extent or temperature. This is what we have evidence for at the site in Spain.</p>
<p>Much older evidence from outside Europe, which could be from humans making use of natural blazes, comes from <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/336464a0">Swartkrans cave in South Africa</a>, where hominin remains were found with hundreds of burnt animal bones dating to between 1 and 1.5 million years ago. Burnt animal bone fragments were also identified at the 1.5 million-year-old site known as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0047248484710414">FxJj 20AB at Koobi Fora, Kenya</a>.</p>
<p>Yet finding hominin artefacts and burnt bones at the same site does not in itself indicate that they coincided in time, let alone that humans were controlling fire. The path to its controlled use, is likely to have been gradual.</p>
<h2>Intentional use?</h2>
<p>Fast forward almost a million years to the earliest-known clear evidence of fire made by humans: an open-air site called Gesher Benot Ya’aqov in Israel, <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1095443">dated to about 790,000 years ago</a>. The evidence found at this location includes charred plants and burnt stone tools lying alongside one another. </p>
<p>Other sites in Israel, such as Quesem Cave, with finds dating to between <a href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/691211#:%7E:text=Fire%20was%20used%20throughout%20the,intake%20of%20the%20cave%27s%20inhabitants.">420,000 and 200,000 years ago</a> and Tabun Cave, where the archaeological discoveries <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0047248414001778?via%3Dihub">are around 340,000 years old</a>, feature similar fire evidence. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="An Acheulean hand-axe from Africa held by the Regional Archaeological Museum of Madrid." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527048/original/file-20230518-21022-kiwno2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527048/original/file-20230518-21022-kiwno2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=926&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527048/original/file-20230518-21022-kiwno2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=926&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527048/original/file-20230518-21022-kiwno2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=926&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527048/original/file-20230518-21022-kiwno2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1164&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527048/original/file-20230518-21022-kiwno2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1164&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527048/original/file-20230518-21022-kiwno2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1164&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The spread of a stone tool technology called the Acheulean may be linked to the exploitation of fire in Europe.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/large-olivine-basalt-biface-early-african-1899031012">WH_Pics / Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>While early evidence such as this is suggestive of fire control, a direct link between resources such as wood fuel, activities, such as the preparation of fire, and intention –- arguably a prerequisite for controlled fire –- can be difficult to establish. In Europe, it is generally accepted that fire was routinely exploited by hominins at least 350,000 years ago, with some suggestion of fire control being linked to the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0003552116300309?via%3Dihub">expansion of a particular stone tool technology</a> known as <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2015.0245">the Acheulean</a>.</p>
<p>Indeed, there is a concurrent rise in apparent prehistoric “fireplaces”, or hearths, and burnt Acheulean artefacts, such as hand-axes made from flint and a sedimentary rock called chert, at lots of European sites dated between 450,000 and 250,000. Many of these also contain charred plant materials and bones. </p>
<p>Yet there is some reason to believe that these associations are of natural origin – for example, from wildfires or lightning strikes. Before the new evidence, the oldest clear evidence of fire control in Europe came from Menez-Dregan in France and Bolomor Cave in Spain, which are both dated to about 200,000 years ago. Another early site with clear evidence of domestic fire use is Abrigo de la Quebrada in Spain, dated to around 100,000 years ago.</p>
<h2>New benchmark</h2>
<p>The new evidence from the Valdocarros II site in Spain, dated to about 250,000 years ago, serves as a new benchmark for understanding our ancient relationship with fire. </p>
<p>Lipid biomarkers are the remains of molecules that have come from specific sources, such as particular types of wood, and have been left by processes such as fire. Recently published data on lipid biomarkers from various archaeological sites reveals details of the unique resources – for example, the types of wood – used to create isolated campfires associated with Acheulean artefacts.</p>
<p>Lipid biomarker evidence from Valdocarros shows diagnostic signatures indicating that decaying pine was used as fuel. Intriguingly, records of pollen and of the relationship between water and climate from the surrounding region suggest that decaying pine would have been an uncommon resource.</p>
<p>Corroborative evidence comes in the form of molecules called polyaromatic hydrocarbons, or PAHs, which are products of incomplete combustion. Analysis of these reveals that decaying pine at Valdocarros II was burned at low temperatures of around 350°C for relatively short periods. </p>
<p>Fires that are too hot tend to char and burn foods on the outside before the inside of the item has reached a useful temperature. Lower temperatures are needed to break down biological tissue, so that it’s easier to digest – <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1095643307015632?casa_token=MRKnhAdnhFIAAAAA:psRH29RagpJdMw4gQfHS5hOQmVgfo0LYFwtzhUT55Ij3xAu51CDK8oZsSHLEY73gHHdjxpe-NSg">one of the key reasons for cooking food</a>. Conversely, it’s unlikely that low-temperature fires would have been used purely for warmth, given much more commonplace wood burns at hotter temperatures. Another perk of using decaying pine is that it’s easy to ignite.</p>
<h2>Choice of fuel</h2>
<p>Thus the fires at Valdocarros II look to have been used for activities such as cooking. The intriguing record of fire use at this Spanish site begins to emerge upon combining all of the available evidence. For instance, there is a rich fossil record of mammals at Valdocarros II that includes abundant butchered <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_deer">red deer (<em>Cervus elaphus</em>)</a> and the wild ancestors of domestic cattle, known as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurochs">aurochs (<em>Bos primigenius</em>)</a>. The aurochs could each have weighed up to 1,500kg or more. </p>
<p>Therefore, hominins at this site show all the necessary prerequisites for controlling fire: the use of specific resources such as decaying pine wood; specific activities, such as the low-temperature fires used for cooking; and intention, which can be implied by the need to transport large carcasses to a single location where fire was being used.</p>
<p>By any standard, hominins at Valdocarros II were controlling fire. The site is not the oldest, nor the first instance of controlled fire. Rather, it is a significant benchmark in the course of human evolution because it sets a clear time limit on the emergence of a defining human characteristic. </p>
<p>The work at Valdocarros II also creates the opportunity for a wider discussion about how to establish intention and foresight from archaeological evidence, as well as from the wider breadth of human evolution and prehistory.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/205807/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Clayton Magill receives funding from UK Research & Innovation, the European Regional Development Fund, and Agencia Estatal de Investigacíon. </span></em></p>Signs of controlled fire use from Spain are at least 50,000 years older than previous evidence.Clayton Magill, Assistant Professor, School of Energy, Geoscience, Infrastructure and Society, The Lyell Centre, Heriot-Watt UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2046792023-05-03T03:40:33Z2023-05-03T03:40:33ZIn a bad fire year, Australia records over 450,000 hotspots. These maps show where the risks have increased over 20 years<p>The bushfire outlook for many parts of Australia has changed drastically over the past decade. Environmental conditions have transformed, producing <a href="https://theconversation.com/australias-black-summer-of-fire-was-not-normal-and-we-can-prove-it-172506">larger and more destructive bushfires</a>. </p>
<p>The frequency of bushfires that alter the atmospheric conditions around them has also increased. Nowhere was this more evident than during the <a href="https://theconversation.com/200-experts-dissected-the-black-summer-bushfires-in-unprecedented-detail-here-are-6-lessons-to-heed-198989">Black Summer bushfires</a> of 2019-2020. </p>
<p>As we continue to experience the effects of climate change, these environmental changes and destructive fire events will only become more prevalent.</p>
<p>Thanks to satellite imaging data collected over the past 20 years, we can map and quantify the region-by-region impact of climate change and how this has affected the prevalence of fire in different parts of Australia. With more accurate bushfire modelling, we can assist fire services and land managers to determine where they need to refocus their efforts as we adjust to the long haul of adaptation to climate change. </p>
<p>To this end, the maps in this article show where fires occurred in two consecutive decades, and show the changes between them. They also show regions where those changes exceed a threshold, indicating a significant increase in fire activity. This enables better-targeted fire risk management.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/200-experts-dissected-the-black-summer-bushfires-in-unprecedented-detail-here-are-6-lessons-to-heed-198989">200 experts dissected the Black Summer bushfires in unprecedented detail. Here are 6 lessons to heed</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Two decades of satellite fire monitoring</h2>
<p>More than 20 years ago NASA launched two satellites, (<a href="https://terra.nasa.gov/">Terra</a> in 1999 and on <a href="https://aqua.nasa.gov/">Aqua</a> in 2002), to monitor the Earth’s surface with specialised sensors. One sensor, MODIS (MODerate resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer), was able to see both smoke plumes and the infrared signature of fires. An algorithm was developed to classify image pixels containing fire, producing a set of “<a href="https://hotspots.dea.ga.gov.au/">hotspots</a>”. </p>
<p>Both satellites have lasted well beyond their planned mission durations. This is significant for fire managers, who now have two decades of continuous hotspot data.</p>
<h2>Mapping Australia’s fire hotspots</h2>
<p>For many years I have been analysing MODIS data from the perspective of <a href="https://www.mssanz.org.au/modsim2015/A4/mcrae.pdf">seasonality</a>. I have been looking at when fires occurred and whether that reflected expectations. The aim is to validate <a href="https://www.afac.com.au/auxiliary/publications/newsletter/article/seasonal-bushfire-outlook-autumn-2023">seasonal bushfire outlooks</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523732/original/file-20230502-1462-jmw3na.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Map showing peak seasons for fire activity around Australia" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523732/original/file-20230502-1462-jmw3na.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523732/original/file-20230502-1462-jmw3na.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=316&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523732/original/file-20230502-1462-jmw3na.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=316&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523732/original/file-20230502-1462-jmw3na.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=316&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523732/original/file-20230502-1462-jmw3na.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523732/original/file-20230502-1462-jmw3na.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523732/original/file-20230502-1462-jmw3na.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Peak fire activity seasons for zones around Australia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author analysis of NASA data</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The past 20 years of annual seasonality reviews are now available <a href="http://www.highfirerisk.com.au/hotspots/">online</a>. Each year the previous 12 months’ data were compared against those from a set time range or control period. This was a decade-long period covering a mix of El Niño and La Niña years, indicating “average” conditions. </p>
<p>Recently, we passed the end of the second decade of MODIS data. This opened the prospect of comparing two decades (starting in July 2002 and in July 2012) and looking for differences.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523735/original/file-20230502-14-lf4u5l.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Map showing ratio of hotspots in 2019-20 to the decade average for zones around Australia" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523735/original/file-20230502-14-lf4u5l.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523735/original/file-20230502-14-lf4u5l.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=343&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523735/original/file-20230502-14-lf4u5l.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=343&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523735/original/file-20230502-14-lf4u5l.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=343&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523735/original/file-20230502-14-lf4u5l.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=431&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523735/original/file-20230502-14-lf4u5l.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=431&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523735/original/file-20230502-14-lf4u5l.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=431&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The ratio of hotspots in 2019-20 to the first decade average for zones around Australia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author analysis of NASA data</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In a year with a lot of fire, Australia creates more than 450,000 hotspots. This makes the 20 years of MODIS data an irreplaceable tool for seamless, quantitative assessments of fire dynamics across Australia. The datasets are freely available <a href="https://firms.modaps.eosdis.nasa.gov/">online</a> and have been used to create useful products to assist fire managers. </p>
<p>Several caveats apply to hotspot datasets. Low-intensity fires (especially well-planned, hazard-reduction burns), fires under heavy cloud cover, and fire runs that burn out quickly may not produce a hotspot. The latter was the case for many of the worst fire events during the Black Summer fires. </p>
<p>There is also no way to separate wildfire from planned fire. This has to be a goal, as both contribute to the fire regime but the balance varies a lot between regions. Future burn planning may become a major challenge as big wildfire events like Black Summer put much of the landscape into a single fire age. This makes burning difficult until the forest recovers.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/fire-management-in-australia-has-reached-a-crossroads-and-business-as-usual-wont-cut-it-174696">Fire management in Australia has reached a crossroads and 'business as usual' won’t cut it</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>To determine how fire activity had changed between the first and second decades of data, hotspots were aggregated into grid-cells. Each spanned half a degree of both latitude and longitude.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523737/original/file-20230502-16-qw05ft.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Map showing hotspot counts for the first and second decade of the past 20 years" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523737/original/file-20230502-16-qw05ft.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523737/original/file-20230502-16-qw05ft.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=266&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523737/original/file-20230502-16-qw05ft.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=266&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523737/original/file-20230502-16-qw05ft.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=266&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523737/original/file-20230502-16-qw05ft.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=334&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523737/original/file-20230502-16-qw05ft.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=334&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523737/original/file-20230502-16-qw05ft.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=334&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Hotspot count maps for decade one (left) and decade two (right). Larger symbols indicate higher counts.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author analysis of NASA data</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>By comparing the number and ratio of hotspots in the grid-cell count from decade one to that from decade two, we could determine where fire frequency was changing the most.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523961/original/file-20230503-26-i6veb9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Map of hotspot count ratios based on first and second decade of satellite data" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523961/original/file-20230503-26-i6veb9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523961/original/file-20230503-26-i6veb9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=349&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523961/original/file-20230503-26-i6veb9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=349&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523961/original/file-20230503-26-i6veb9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=349&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523961/original/file-20230503-26-i6veb9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523961/original/file-20230503-26-i6veb9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523961/original/file-20230503-26-i6veb9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Hotspot count ratios from decade one to decade two, showing where fire activity has increased and decreased.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author analysis of NASA data</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Some areas, such as eastern New South Wales, have a very high ratio of change between the first and second decade, reflecting Black Summer. Some areas, such as Arnhem Land, have a very high hotspot count and a slight increase from the first decade to the second, which may produce a significant challenge in future. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-are-professional-fire-watchers-and-were-astounded-by-the-scale-of-fires-in-remote-australia-right-now-172773">We are professional fire watchers, and we're astounded by the scale of fires in remote Australia right now</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>To encompass the effects of both high counts and high ratios, a threshold was set and any region that exceeded this was an area that needed the most attention.</p>
<p>This produced a set of geographic regions with consistent patterns.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523746/original/file-20230502-18-b9wqpt.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Map combining decade two hotspot count and inter-decadal ratios (left) is used to create map showing regions of change (right)." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523746/original/file-20230502-18-b9wqpt.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523746/original/file-20230502-18-b9wqpt.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=267&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523746/original/file-20230502-18-b9wqpt.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=267&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523746/original/file-20230502-18-b9wqpt.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=267&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523746/original/file-20230502-18-b9wqpt.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523746/original/file-20230502-18-b9wqpt.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523746/original/file-20230502-18-b9wqpt.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Combinations of decade two hotspot counts and inter-decadal ratios (left) used to create regions of change, coloured separately (right).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author analysis of NASA data</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The impacts detailed in the interactive map below (click on the dots for details) must be considered as longer-term management issues for the highlighted regions. </p>
<hr>
<p><iframe id="tc-infographic-849" class="tc-infographic" height="400px" src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/infographics/849/90b3c6b62a414bf2881cb7663bd80f3bf25c813c/site/index.html" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<hr>
<p>Year-to-year fire patterns have been showing extreme swings in recent years, which may swamp the longer-term trends. However, these trends have picked up many of the key operational challenges, including <a href="http://www.highfirerisk.com.au/pyrocb/register.htm">fire thunderstorms</a>, of recent years. </p>
<p>These challenges are evident in forests in the south-east and south-west of Australia, south-east Queensland, central Tasmania and the tropics.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/firestorms-and-flaming-tornadoes-how-bushfires-create-their-own-ferocious-weather-systems-126832">Firestorms and flaming tornadoes: how bushfires create their own ferocious weather systems</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Hotspot mapping in the future</h2>
<p>Challenges as we move forward include developing ways to merge the MODIS data with data from the next generation of satellites, and to separate data for wildfire and prescribed burning.</p>
<p>This and other work will allow us to better anticipate what the next decade will bring.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/204679/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rick McRae was a senior emergency manager in the ACT for over three decades, and has now retired. He is now a Visiting Fellow at UNSW Canberra.</span></em></p>Two decades of satellite data have allowed us to map fires across the country and identify areas facing high fire risks. Fire activity has increased in several major regions over the past decade.Rick McRae, Adjunct Professor, School of Science at UNSW Canberra, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2030642023-04-20T12:55:46Z2023-04-20T12:55:46ZClimate change increases the risk of extreme wildfires around Cape Town – but it can be addressed<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519251/original/file-20230404-23-aqpufb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Fire at the University of Cape Town, South Africa.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Photo by Brenton Geach/Gallo Images via Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Across the globe, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969719355871">many recent severe wildfires</a> have moved from wildlands into the urban periphery (the <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/research-topics/22737/fires-in-the-wildland-urban-interface-wui-an-emerging-global-phenomenon-threatening-modern-society#overview">“wildland urban interface”</a>). In their wake, they’ve left <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2023.103618">death, destruction and disruption</a>. This has led to questions about the extent to which climate change is to blame.</p>
<p>A field of study called <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/2752-5295/ac6e7d?_hsmi=217900917&_hsenc=p2ANqtz--vIRNcML-N5eyhXNbUkFRofJMkOnQu1XYSZ1h_C1qgDnUdoOBCxFrsBkay1X6WZvEJ7egPLQ-Vog5y9mcE8Jm4WSnZZw">extreme event attribution</a> has developed to answer such questions. These studies quantify the links between global climate change, regional extreme weather events, and their effects on people, property and environment. </p>
<p>This branch of attribution science aims to <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10584-021-03071-7">inform climate change adaptation following extreme events</a>. It also highlights that long-term, global-scale climate change is having real impacts, now, at the scale of human experience. Attribution studies can make the public <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10584-021-03071-7">more acutely aware</a> of climate change effects and increase support for mitigation measures.</p>
<p>But the rapidly growing body of event attribution analyses shows a strong <a href="https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-19-0317.1">bias</a> towards extreme events in the global north. <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10584-015-1432-0">Few attribution studies have considered African events</a>. </p>
<p>One of us, Zhongwei, recently led and Stefaan was involved in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-22-0204.1">the first attribution study</a> to quantify the role of climate change in the risk of extreme fire weather conditions in southern Africa. </p>
<p>Wildfires are <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/fee.2359">complex phenomena</a>. They can only be understood fully by considering social, environmental and weather conditions together. We know, however, that extreme wildfire events occur almost exclusively under extreme fire weather conditions. Studying associations between global warming and fire weather can provide evidence for how <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41612-022-00248-4">wildfire potential</a> is changing and help to inform responses. </p>
<p>We analysed the destructive <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-vulnerable-is-the-university-of-cape-town-to-destructive-wildfires-182169">April 2021 wildfire</a> on the slopes of Devil’s Peak in Cape Town, South Africa under extreme fire weather conditions. We concluded that such extreme fire weather has become around 90% more likely in a warmer world.</p>
<h2>The April 2021 Cape Town wildfire</h2>
<p>The wildfire we studied started as a small grass burn. Within a few hours it had destroyed historical buildings and priceless materials in the <a href="https://theconversation.com/significant-archives-are-under-threat-in-cape-towns-fire-why-they-matter-so-much-159299">University of Cape Town African Studies collection</a>. </p>
<p>The event received <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-the-fire-on-cape-towns-iconic-table-mountain-was-particularly-devastating-159390">widespread coverage</a>, documenting the <a href="https://www.news.uct.ac.za/article/-2021-04-23-sad-moment-as-treasured-jagger-reading-room-remembered">resulting losses</a> and the <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-table-mountain-fire-what-we-can-learn-from-the-main-drivers-of-wildfires-159477">factors responsible</a> for its destructiveness. Questions were raised that required <a href="https://www.timeslive.co.za/sunday-times/opinion-and-analysis/2021-05-09-the-fire-at-uct-not-just-the-usual-suspects/">further research</a>. One issue was the role of climate change in the weather conditions during the event.</p>
<p>Shortly after 10 am on that day, 18 April 2021, <a href="https://www.csag.uct.ac.za/2022/04/18/devils-peak-fire-18-19-april-2021-one-year-later/">hot, extremely dry and windy conditions took hold</a>. These extreme conditions resulted in <a href="https://www.news.uct.ac.za/article/-2021-06-23-reflecting-on-the-devastating-uct-fire">highly unusual fire behaviour</a>, which made suppressing the fire exceptionally challenging. Burning embers transported by the wind set vegetation alight at least <a href="https://www.sanparks.org/assets/docs/parks_table_mountain/tmnp-fire-investigation-report.pdf#page=4">350 metres</a> ahead of the main fire. </p>
<p>We found that the observed fire weather conditions were the most extreme in the 1979–2021 autumn (March–May) record. These conditions have become almost twice as likely as a result of climate change. </p>
<h2>How we came to this conclusion</h2>
<p>We used multiple climate model simulations selected from those run for the <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a> assessments. These gave us many years of data to provide a robust risk estimate. This is important because our study area was the smallest over which a wildfire event attribution has been done. Over small domains, local variability makes climate change signals harder to detect. The more data you have, the better the chance of picking up signals.</p>
<p>Using temperature, wind, humidity and rainfall, we calculated the value of an <a href="https://www.nwcg.gov/publications/pms437/cffdrs/fire-weather-index-system">index of fire weather (FWI)</a> over Cape Town on 18 April 2021. Then we compared a past climate before human-driven warming with our current climate to see how often the models output Cape Town autumn FWI values that are at least as extreme.</p>
<p>Our results strongly suggest that the weather conditions under which extreme Cape Town wildfires can occur are happening ever more frequently in this area in a warming world. This adds to a <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-022-00344-6">broader body</a> of <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/acba33/meta">literature</a> <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2020RG000726">indicating</a> that climate change is increasing the potential for “megafires” in the world’s dry-summer climates. </p>
<p>Responding to this risk requires interpreting findings in context and engaging across disciplinary boundaries. </p>
<p>In addition to suitable weather conditions, <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-science-tells-us-about-fire-hazards-facing-cape-town-and-its-surrounds-125069">wildfires require</a> a source of ignition and fuel (vegetation that can burn). Cape Town’s mountain slopes are covered by fire-prone indigenous fynbos and alien vegetation that can burn very intensely. Given the <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-table-mountain-fire-what-we-can-learn-from-the-main-drivers-of-wildfires-159477">increasing numbers of people</a> around the mountain, some fires are bound to start. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-table-mountain-fire-what-we-can-learn-from-the-main-drivers-of-wildfires-159477">The Table Mountain fire: what we can learn from the main drivers of wildfires</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>We outline three avenues for risk mitigation. </p>
<h2>Steps to mitigate risk</h2>
<p><strong>Adopting more holistic <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/ab541e/meta">fire management</a> approaches</strong></p>
<p>Focusing exclusively on fire suppression (putting fires out as <a href="https://www.westerncape.gov.za/general-publication/wildfire-season">quickly as possible whenever they occur</a>) can allow very high fuel loads to build up. Experts have warned that this widely used strategy is “<a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/ab541e/meta">destined to fail</a>”. It can also <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/gcb.14861">threaten biodiversity</a> in fire-dependent ecosystems. In the fynbos biome of south-western South Africa, fast-growing <a href="https://theconversation.com/invasive-alien-plants-in-south-africa-pose-huge-risks-but-they-can-be-stopped-94186">alien invasive species</a> and low-density <a href="https://www.iol.co.za/capeargus/news/researchers-warn-the-cape-to-prepare-for-more-disastrous-fires-like-the-2017-knysna-fires-5efb43d9-20e1-4ee4-9ba3-05abc0f73d74">urban expansion</a> into surrounding wildlands enhance the risk of megafires. </p>
<p>Instead, <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/ffgc.2022.848254/full">researchers</a> suggest wildfire risk management should also involve limiting flammable plants and materials immediately around buildings (“defensible space”) in the urban periphery, developing evacuation plans and conducting fire-aware urban planning.</p>
<p><strong>Timely and accurate forecasting and communication of extreme fire weather risk</strong> </p>
<p>This must incorporate understanding of <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/gcb.14861">fire pathways that pose the greatest risk locally</a>.</p>
<p>Doing this can aid <a href="http://www.riskreductionafrica.org/assets/files/Knynsa%20Fires%20Report%202019.pdf">short-term preparedness</a> and risk reduction. The <a href="https://www.geonetcastamericas.noaa.gov/products/navigator/details/EO_EUM_DAT_INFO_LFDI.html">fire weather index</a> that’s used in South Africa was developed for the savannah and grasslands of the hot, summer-rain Lowveld in the country’s far north-east. The ecology, climate and fire risk factors in the Lowveld are <a href="https://pta-gis-2-web1.csir.co.za/portal/apps/GBCascade/index.html?appid=a726c58f435141ba80b57fe21d3ec744">very different</a> to those in the fynbos. Consequently, this fire weather index <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s42408-018-0001-0">appears</a> not to have been able to identify <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2023.103618">unprecedented fire weather risk</a> associated with recent <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/333682368_THE_KNYSNA_FIRES_OF_2017_LEARNING_FROM_THIS_DISASTER">extreme wildfires</a> in the fynbos biome.</p>
<p><strong>Further <a href="https://www.news.uct.ac.za/article/-2021-06-23-reflecting-on-the-devastating-uct-fire">research</a> to inform vegetation management</strong> </p>
<p>It’s crucial to understand which <a href="https://www.timeslive.co.za/news/south-africa/2021-04-24-born-to-burn-the-alien-trees-that-turned-cape-town-fire-into-a-disaster/">alien and possibly indigenous vegetation</a> can produce “ember showers”, such as those responsible for setting alight buildings and plants haphazardly on Devil’s Peak. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2023.103618">Case studies</a> to assess factors associated with building loss and survival can also inform locally relevant policy.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/203064/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stefaan Conradie received PhD funding from the South African National Research Foundation (NRF). </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Zhongwei Liu received funding from the Coventry University Trailblazer PhD studentship scheme.</span></em></p>Autumn extreme fire weather around Cape Town in South Africa has become 90% more likely in a warmer world.Stefaan Conradie, PhD student, University of Cape TownZhongwei Liu, PhD researcher, Coventry UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.