tag:theconversation.com,2011:/au/topics/food-sustainability-7399/articlesFood sustainability – The Conversation2024-02-25T19:09:48Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2239602024-02-25T19:09:48Z2024-02-25T19:09:48ZA ‘war on red meat’? No, changes to Australian dietary guidelines are just a sensible response to Earth’s environmental woes<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577506/original/file-20240223-24-czbzv0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=8%2C0%2C5599%2C3732&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Official dietary advice in Australia <a href="https://www.theaustralian.com.au/nation/politics/eating-green-ideology-official-diet-advice-to-warn-of-climate-impact/news-story/7deeaf36dea21fcc8a443e006312e42d">is set to warn</a> of the climate impact of certain foods. The move has raised the ire of farmers, meat producers and others who branded it “green ideology” and a “war on meat”.</p>
<p>Critics say the The National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC), which is behind the change, is overreaching and should not expand its remit beyond providing nutritional advice. We strongly disagree. </p>
<p>Having <a href="https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-981-16-7707-6">explored</a> the scientific evidence about the harm food can cause to both the planet and human health, we firmly believe environmental information about food choices should be prominent in dietary guidelines. </p>
<p>Human health depends on having a safe, liveable planet and the state of our planet is inextricably linked to food systems. It’s entirely sensible that consumers are informed about whether their food choices are sustainable.</p>
<h2>‘A thorough review of the evidence’</h2>
<p>Australia’s <a href="https://www.eatforhealth.gov.au/sites/default/files/files/the_guidelines/n55_australian_dietary_guidelines.pdf">dietary guidelines</a> were released in 2013. The document provides general information about the environmental sustainability of food, but it’s buried in an appendix and the recommendations are fairly inconclusive.</p>
<p>The guidelines are currently under review and will be updated in 2026. The NHMRC says feedback from the public suggested sustainability information should be more accessible and explicit in the new guidelines. In fact, it said one in three people surveyed nominated the change as a priority. </p>
<p>The NHMRC says developing or updating its guidelines involves:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>a thorough review of the evidence, methodological advice on the quality of these reviews, drafting of the guidelines, public consultation and independent expert review of the final guidelines. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>It said the dietary recommendations would first consider Australia-specific health impacts, followed by sustainability and other factors – an approach in line with guidelines overseas.</p>
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<img alt="assortment of fruit and vegetables" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577508/original/file-20240223-28-raav9k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577508/original/file-20240223-28-raav9k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577508/original/file-20240223-28-raav9k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577508/original/file-20240223-28-raav9k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577508/original/file-20240223-28-raav9k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577508/original/file-20240223-28-raav9k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577508/original/file-20240223-28-raav9k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Australia’s dietary guidelines are under review.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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<h2>Critics come out swinging</h2>
<p>Australians are among the <a href="https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/per-capita-meat-type?country=CHN%7EUSA%7EIND%7EARG%7EPRT%7EETH%7EJPN%7EBRA%7EOWID_WRL%7EESP%7EDEU%7EAUS">world’s biggest</a> meat eaters. However, recent trends indicate Australians’ beef consumption is <a href="https://www.ibisworld.com/au/bed/meat-consumption/43/">in decline</a>. </p>
<p>Meat creates <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43016-021-00358-x">almost 60%</a> of greenhouse gas emissions from food production, and <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aaq0216">red meat has the highest</a> environmental footprint out of all food choices. </p>
<p>Perhaps unsurprisingly, the change to dietary guidelines has prompted opposition from some quarters. In a report in The Australian, for example, Red Meat Advisory Council chair John McKillop <a href="https://www.theaustralian.com.au/nation/politics/eating-green-ideology-official-diet-advice-to-warn-of-climate-impact/news-story/7deeaf36dea21fcc8a443e006312e42d">said</a> the moves:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>go well beyond the policy intent of the Australian Dietary Guidelines to provide recommendations on healthy foods and dietary patterns […] [the] review process must not be allowed to be used as a vehicle to drive ideological agendas at the expense of the latest nutritional science.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>He said the industry’s concerns were not related to its progress on sustainability, about which it had “a strong story” to tell.</p>
<p>The newspaper also quoted a Central Queensland cattle farmer, who said perceived misinformation about the health impacts and sustainability of red meat production were rife in the media, public policy and nutritional advice.</p>
<p>Conservative media outlets also weighed in on the changes. Sydney radio station 2GB <a href="https://www.2gb.com/war-on-meat-diet-advice-to-include-impacts-on-emissions/">declared</a> the move a “war on meat” and host Ben Fordham <a href="https://www.skynews.com.au/australia-news/war-on-meat-aussie-farmers-screwed-over-again-as-ben-fordham-slams-new-dietary-guidelines-which-could-soon-promote-an-ideological-climate-agenda/news-story/6f06f2101304ea898d124284d79da506">claimed</a> farmers were being “screwed over again”.</p>
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<img alt="pieces of steak" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577510/original/file-20240223-24-prqgez.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577510/original/file-20240223-24-prqgez.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=367&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577510/original/file-20240223-24-prqgez.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=367&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577510/original/file-20240223-24-prqgez.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=367&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577510/original/file-20240223-24-prqgez.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577510/original/file-20240223-24-prqgez.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577510/original/file-20240223-24-prqgez.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Australians are among the world’s biggest meat eaters.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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</figure>
<h2>The global picture</h2>
<p>The upcoming changes are not unprecedented globally. Environmental sustainability is highlighted in the official dietary guidelines of at least <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanplh/article/PIIS2542-5196(22)00246-7/fulltext">ten other countries</a>. They include Sweden which introduced <a href="https://www.fao.org/nutrition/education/food-dietary-guidelines/regions/countries/sweden/en/">climate-friendly food advice</a> in 2015. </p>
<p>The title of the <a href="https://www.livsmedelsverket.se/matvanor-halsa--miljo/kostrad/rad-om-bra-mat-hitta-ditt-satt">Swedish guidelines</a> translates to “Find your way to eat greener, not too much and be active!” Among the recommendations are to: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>Eat less red and processed meat, no more than 500 grams a week. Only a small amount of this should be processed meat.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>But other nations have struggled to include sustainability advice in official dietary guidelines. In the United States, for example, lobby groups <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/aug/26/usda-diet-guide-myplate-climate-crisis">prevented the change</a>, despite the recommendations of government-appointed nutritionists.</p>
<h2>Dietary officials have not overreached</h2>
<p>The Australian dietary guidelines already suggest limiting red meat consumption on health grounds. </p>
<p>Research has shown <a href="https://www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/cutting-red-meat-for-a-longer-life">regular consumption of red meat</a>, especially if it’s processed, contributes substantially to the risk of premature death. A high intake of red meat has been <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(18)31788-4/fulltext">associated with</a> cardiovascular disease, coronary heart disease, cancers and type 2 diabetes. </p>
<p>Adding information about the environmental effects of red meat health simply reinforces the benefits of eating less of it.</p>
<p>The link between food, the natural environment and health is <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4985113/">well-established</a>. Even before food is produced, vegetation is cleared to create space for crops and livestock. This leads to both the release of carbon dioxide and biodiversity loss, among other harms. </p>
<p>When it comes to meat, the digestive systems of sheep and cattle <a href="https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/dpi/climate/climate-science-and-policy/climate-policy-environment/values-of-mixed-farming-systems#:%7E:text=The%20farming%20of%20beef%20and,trapping%20heat%20in%20the%20atmosphere.">produce a lot of methane</a>, a potent greenhouse gas. Greenhouse gas emissions are also created when food is processed, transported, stored and disposed of. Food packaging contributes to pressure on landfill and creates pollution.</p>
<p>All these processes threaten human health. Researchers have <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(18)31788-4/fulltext">called for</a> a global transformation of food systems, to ensure they operate within Earth’s limits.</p>
<p>The role of NHMRC is to protect public health in Australia. It makes sense, then, that it provides consumers with information about which foods cause the least environmental damage – and by extension, are also good for their personal health. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/442869/original/file-20220127-18-167q53l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Excavator on forest cleared for livestock" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/442869/original/file-20220127-18-167q53l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/442869/original/file-20220127-18-167q53l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/442869/original/file-20220127-18-167q53l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/442869/original/file-20220127-18-167q53l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/442869/original/file-20220127-18-167q53l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/442869/original/file-20220127-18-167q53l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/442869/original/file-20220127-18-167q53l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Clearing land for food production is a major source of biodiversity and vegetation loss.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A rightful part of the public health agenda</h2>
<p>Dietary guidelines are a government tool to influence food consumption towards good choices. They are based on the best available evidence, and evolve along with our understanding of food and its impacts. </p>
<p>Of course, even if Australia’s guidelines are changed to incorporate environmental advice, this does not guarantee everyone will make healthy and sustainable food choices. Such a shift requires major behaviour changes, of which dietary guidelines are only one component. </p>
<p>Arming consumers with the right information about food sustainability however should be part of the federal government’s public health agenda.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/223960/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dora Marinova receives funding from the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Diana Bogueva does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Human health depends on having a liveable planet and this is inextricably linked to food systems.Dora Marinova, Professor of Sustainability, Curtin UniversityDiana Bogueva, Research Fellow, Curtin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2066772023-09-18T11:30:06Z2023-09-18T11:30:06ZWell behind at halftime: here’s how to get the UN Sustainable Development Goals back on track<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/548712/original/file-20230918-17-6icb2n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=21%2C3%2C1176%2C794&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://dam.media.un.org/CS.aspx?VP3=DamView&VBID=2AM94SCXBEN&FR_=1&W=1333&H=1245#/DamView&VBID=2AM94S66DGUNP&PN=1&WS=SearchResults">United Nations</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>This week <a href="https://www.un.org/en/conferences/SDGSummit2023">world leaders are gathering</a> at the United Nations (UN) headquarters in New York to review progress against the Sustainable Development Goals. We’re halfway between when the goals were set in 2015 and when they need to be met in 2030.</p>
<p>As authors of a <a href="https://sdgs.un.org/gsdr/gsdr2023">global UN report</a> on the goals, we have a message to share. Currently, the world is not on track to achieve any of the 17 goals. </p>
<p>There is much at stake. Failing to achieve the goals would mean <a href="https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2023/">by the end of the decade</a>, 600 million people will be living in extreme poverty. More than 80 million children and young people will not be in school. Humanity will overshoot the Paris climate agreement’s 1.5°C “safe” guardrail on average global temperature rise. And, at the current rate, <a href="https://www.unwomen.org/en/digital-library/publications/2022/09/progress-on-the-sustainable-development-goals-the-gender-snapshot-2022">it will take 300 years</a> to attain gender equality.</p>
<p>But there is hope. With decisive action, we can shift the dial towards a fairer, more sustainable and prosperous world by 2030. </p>
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Read more:
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<h2>What does the research say?</h2>
<p>The set of <a href="https://sdgs.un.org/goals">17 universal goals</a> agreed in 2015 to aim to end poverty, improve health and education, and reduce inequality – while tackling climate change and preserving our oceans and forests. Each of the goals are broken down into targets. </p>
<p>Every four years, the UN Secretary-General appoints an independent group of 15 international scientists to assess progress against these goals and recommend how to move forwards. We were among the authors of the latest <a href="https://sdgs.un.org/gsdr/gsdr2023">Global Sustainable Development Report</a> published late last week.</p>
<p>To provide a snapshot of progress, we reviewed 36 targets. We found only two were on track (on access to mobile networks and internet usage) and 14 showed fair progress. Twelve showed limited or no progress – including around poverty, safe drinking water and ecosystem conservation. </p>
<p>Worryingly, eight targets were assessed as still going backwards. These included reducing greenhouse-gas emissions and fossil fuel subsidies, preventing species extinction and ensuring sustainable fish stocks.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/nk8qwnIf6Ds?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Hear from some of the scientists behind the Global Sustainable Development Report 2023.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>What is holding us back?</h2>
<p>Recent studies have identified feasible and cost-effective <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-021-01098-3">global</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-019-0409-9">national</a> pathways to accelerate progress on the goals. </p>
<p>Unfortunately, in many developing countries, insufficient financial resources and weak governance hinder progress. In other cases, existing investments in fossil fuels have generated strong resistance from powerful vested interests. Achieving some goals, such as responsible consumption and production, will also require big, unpopular changes in habits and lifestyles, which are very ingrained.</p>
<p>To accelerate progress on the goals, targets must be fully integrated by government and business at all levels into core decision making, budgeting and planning processes. We need to identify and prioritise those areas that lag furthest behind. To be effective, we also need to uncover and address the root causes of inadequate outcomes, which lie in our institutions and governance systems.</p>
<p>Accountability also remains weak. The goals are not legally binding and even though countries have expressed their support, this has often failed to translate into policy and investments. In practice, the targets are often “painted on” to existing strategies without redesigning norms and structures to deliver improved outcomes.</p>
<p>If the world is to accelerate progress on the goals, governments need to play a more active part, by setting targets, stimulating innovation, shaping markets, and regulating business. </p>
<p>We call on policymakers to develop tailored action plans to accelerate progress on the goals in the remaining years to 2030, including measures to improve accountability. </p>
<p>Scientists have a major role to play too. <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-023-02808-x#:%7E:text=It's%20crucial%20that%20scientists%20support,transformation%20pathways%3B%20and%20improving%20governance.">As we argued in Nature</a>, scientists can help us redesign institutions, systems and practices. By studying ways to strengthen governance and build momentum for tough but transformative reforms, research can overcome resistance to change, and manage negative side-effects. </p>
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<h2>What does it mean for Australia?</h2>
<p>Australia tends to perform poorly on the goals when compared to our peers in the OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development), <a href="https://dashboards.sdgindex.org/rankings">ranking 40th in the world in 2023</a>. Our best-performing goals include health and education, while <a href="https://www.sdgtransformingaustralia.com/">progress lags</a> on environmental goals, economic inequality and cost-of-living pressures. </p>
<p>While some <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/protection/waste/publications/national-food-waste-strategy">environment agencies</a>, <a href="https://acsi.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/1ACSI-ESG-Reporting-Trends-in-the-ASX200-JUN22-.pdf">businesses</a> and <a href="https://www.melbourne.vic.gov.au/SiteCollectionDocuments/un-sustainable-goals-voluntary-local-review.pdf">local groups</a> have embraced the goals, Australia’s poor performance is symptomatic of limited traction and commitment at the centre of government. </p>
<p>Here, the goals are often seen as an international development issue rather than central to domestic <a href="https://dashboards.sdgindex.org/profiles/australia/policy-efforts">policy efforts</a>. We lack a high-level statement or any strategy or action plan for the goals. There is no lead unit or coordination mechanism in place and no reference to the goals in the federal budget. One promising development, <a href="https://www.sdgdata.gov.au/">a national Sustainable Development Goal monitoring portal</a>, hasn’t been updated in five years. </p>
<p>The best performing countries have taken concrete steps to mainstream the targets and ensure accountability:</p>
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<li><p><a href="https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/IDAN/2022/734766/IPOL_IDA(2022)734766_EN.pdf">Denmark</a> requires new government bills to be screened and assessed for their impacts on the goals </p></li>
<li><p><a href="https://stm.fi/en/-/action-plan-to-integrate-the-economy-of-wellbeing-into-decision-making-and-sustainability-assessment">Finland</a> has taken steps to place sustainable development and people’s wellbeing at the heart of policy and decision making. A sustainable development commission, annual citizens’ panel on sustainable development and national audits provide <a href="https://www.environmental-auditing.org/media/auzf4emi/wgea-wp5_sustainabledevelopementgoals_2022.pdf">increased accountability</a> </p></li>
<li><p><a href="https://www.futuregenerations.wales/about-us/future-generations-act/">Wales</a> requires public bodies to use sustainable development as a guiding principle reflecting the values and aspirations of the Welsh people.</p></li>
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<p>Australia’s first <a href="https://treasury.gov.au/sites/default/files/2023-07/measuring-what-matters-statement020230721_0.pdf">wellbeing framework</a> is an important step forward. The framework of 50 indicators has considerable overlap with the goals, despite notable exceptions such as the lack of a poverty indicator or any specific targets or benchmarks. </p>
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<h2>Start lifting our game</h2>
<p>As we’ve learned through our own research, little will change if such promising initiatives remain box-ticking exercises that fail to reorient our societies and economies towards sustainable development. </p>
<p>To achieve real change, indicator frameworks need to be translated into timebound targets that clearly set the agreed direction and level of ambition. These targets must be embedded in the core decision-making processes of government and business.</p>
<p>Remember the goals are not a set of technical targets and indicators. They are the outcomes each of us want for our society and the world we live in. </p>
<p>While we are behind at halftime, the game is not over. It is up to us to lift our performance and turn the score around. </p>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/206677/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Cameron Allen receives funding from the Australian Government. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Shirin Malekpour receives funding from the Australian Government.</span></em></p>Our research shows the world is not on track to achieve any of the Sustainable Development Goals. But with decisive action, we can still achieve a fairer, more sustainable and prosperous future.Cameron Allen, Research Fellow, Monash UniversityShirin Malekpour, Associate Professor in Sustainable Development Governance, Monash UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2044522023-04-30T13:12:17Z2023-04-30T13:12:17ZBasic income could help create a more just and sustainable food system<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523025/original/file-20230426-1071-apkuk4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=398%2C0%2C3627%2C2275&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A farmer at the Roots Community Food Centre urban farm in northwestern Ontario harvests Gete-Okosomin squash in summer 2021.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(C. Levkoe)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Canada’s food system is <a href="https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/62f0014m/62f0014m2022014-eng.htm">experiencing ongoing stresses</a> from supply chain disruptions, price inflation and extreme weather events. Canadians are feeling the effects of these stresses: in 2021, nearly 16 per cent of provincial households <a href="https://proof.utoronto.ca/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/Household-Food-Insecurity-in-Canada-2021-PROOF.pdf">experienced some degree of food insecurity</a>.</p>
<p>Federal programs such as the <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/services/benefits/ei/cerb-application.html#h2.03">Canada Emergency Response Benefit</a> and the recent <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/news/2023/04/minister-fraser-highlights-budget-2023-commitments-to-provide-a-new-grocery-rebate-for-canadians.html">grocery store rebate</a> point to the impact direct government income interventions can have on ensuring equity in times of emergency, including access to food. </p>
<p>Some have discussed <a href="https://theconversation.com/does-ottawas-grocery-rebate-signal-a-shift-to-a-broader-guaranteed-basic-income-203132">the new grocery store rebate</a>, which is to be delivered through the GST/HST tax credit system, as closely aligned with proposals for a basic income guarantee. But a basic income guarantee would involve regular payments, not just a one-time rebate.</p>
<p>A basic income guarantee could play a key role in <a href="https://www.northernpolicy.ca/bigandfoodinsecurity">reducing individual and household food insecurity</a> among society’s most vulnerable and ensure everyone can meet their basic needs with dignity. </p>
<h2>What the research says</h2>
<p>There is general support among basic income advocates in Canada for implementing <a href="https://basicincomecoalition.ca/en/what-is-basic-income/basic-income-we-want-for-canada/">income-tested basic income</a>, which would involve delivering cash transfers to individuals whose incomes fall below a certain threshold.</p>
<p>As sustainable food systems experts, we suggest that a basic income guarantee could not only be an important tool for addressing economic access to food, but also in supporting sustainability across the food system. </p>
<p>We draw on our research with <a href="https://basicincomecoalition.ca/en/about-coalition/">Coalition Canada</a>, a network of basic income advocacy groups. Our research brought interdisciplinary teams of scholars and practitioners together to <a href="https://basicincomecoalition.ca/en/actions/case-for-basic-income/">develop a series of case studies</a> examining basic income through the lens of different sectors. These sectors include the arts, finance, health, municipalities and the criminal justice system. </p>
<p>Our work focused on the <a href="https://basicincomecoalition.ca/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/1.-Case-for-agriculture-March-3-2023.pdf">agriculture</a> and <a href="https://basicincomecoalition.ca/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/Fisheries-basic-income-case-formatted-July-2022.pdf">fisheries</a> sectors and involved members of the National Farmers Union, Union Paysanne, Ecotrust Canada and the Native Fishing Alliance.</p>
<p>Overall, our research suggests that a basic income guarantee could have a significant impact on the <a href="https://www.nfu.ca/policy/towards-a-national-agricultural-labour-strategy-that-works-for-farmers-and-farm-workers/">economic uncertainties faced by farmers</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10393-005-6333-7">and fishing communities</a> in Canada. It could also contribute to a <a href="https://theconversation.com/local-food-is-not-enough-we-need-a-sustainable-transition-in-the-food-system-201991">more just sustainable transition in the food system</a>.</p>
<h2>Reducing economic uncertainty</h2>
<p>One potential impact of a basic income guarantee would be reducing economic uncertainty for the most vulnerable agriculture and fisheries workers.</p>
<p>People employed in food and fish processing and as farm labourers are especially vulnerable to seasonal unemployment, low wages, uneven employee benefits and unsafe working conditions, including <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2021.736680">high rates of occupational injury and illness</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A combine harvesting a wheat crop in a field." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523316/original/file-20230427-20-qzpm6j.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523316/original/file-20230427-20-qzpm6j.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523316/original/file-20230427-20-qzpm6j.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523316/original/file-20230427-20-qzpm6j.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523316/original/file-20230427-20-qzpm6j.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523316/original/file-20230427-20-qzpm6j.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523316/original/file-20230427-20-qzpm6j.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A guaranteed basic income could have a significant impact on the economic uncertainties faced by those working in the agriculture and fishing industries in Canada.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Jeff McIntosh</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A basic income guarantee could offer individuals more financial security and control over their employment choices, and thus address the racialized, classed and gendered <a href="https://doi.org/10.15353/cfs-rcea.v9i2.521">disparities prominent in food systems labour</a>. </p>
<h2>Supporting new fishers and farmers</h2>
<p>A second potential impact of a basic income guarantee could be supporting new entrants in agriculture and fisheries. Across Canada, <a href="https://atlanticfisherman.com/the-greying-of-the-fleet/">the commercial fishing</a> and <a href="https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/220511/dq220511a-eng.htm">farming workforces</a> are aging. </p>
<p>Supporting new farmers and fishers, especially those using more socially and ecologically sustainable practices, is an essential part of building a more resilient food system. </p>
<p><a href="https://foodsecurecanada.org/community-networks/new-farmers-fishers">New entrants face substantial barriers</a> related to high entry costs, such as access to land and equipment or purchasing a boat and fishing license, combined with uncertain and fluctuating prices for their goods. </p>
<p>While a basic income guarantee alone can’t address these challenges, it could provide greater <a href="https://www.nfu.ca/policy/an-income-stability-supplement-for-new-farmers/">economic stability for new farmers</a> and fishers when they invest in infrastructure and training.</p>
<h2>Preparing for future stressors</h2>
<p>A basic income guarantee could also be a step towards building resilience against ongoing stressors, like the climate crisis and extreme weather events, along with preparing for future emergencies. </p>
<p>The COVID-19 pandemic demonstrated that those with more stable incomes and flexible work arrangements are <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2021.614368">better able to adapt to unexpected shocks</a>. For example, during the pandemic, boat-to-fork seafood businesses better weathered seafood chain disruptions because of their adaptable supply chain configurations and proximity to consumers. </p>
<p>At present, small-scale farmers and fishers tend to receive the least support, because most <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2020.539214">subsidies go to larger industrial enterprises</a>. However, these small-scale producers play a crucial role in <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-future-of-food-is-ready-for-harvest-103050">supplying food for regional and local markets</a>, which can serve as important buffers during times of crisis and reduce the stress of long-distance supply chains.</p>
<p>Establishing a basic income guarantee would be a proactive step in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/19320248.2015.1004220">supporting equitable livelihoods</a> for small-scale farmers and fishers.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="People stand on the deck of a small fishing boat that is floating in the harbour of a body of water." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523094/original/file-20230426-20-ukmpko.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523094/original/file-20230426-20-ukmpko.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523094/original/file-20230426-20-ukmpko.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523094/original/file-20230426-20-ukmpko.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523094/original/file-20230426-20-ukmpko.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=551&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523094/original/file-20230426-20-ukmpko.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=551&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523094/original/file-20230426-20-ukmpko.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=551&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Indigenous fishermen leave the harbour in Saulnierville, N.S. in October 2020.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Andrew Vaughan</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Next steps for the food system</h2>
<p>Although a basic income guarantee has the potential to bring about many positive impacts, it shouldn’t be a substitute for existing government-funded agricultural and fisheries programs such as grants, public research, and training and skills development programs.</p>
<p>A basic income guarantee also shouldn’t replace contributory programs, like the <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/services/benefits/ei/ei-fishing.html">Employment Insurance fishing benefits</a>. A basic income guarantee would offer support to fishers whose earnings are too low to qualify for employment insurance, or who are unable to go out on the water.</p>
<p>Further research and policy efforts will be crucial for gaining a fuller understanding of how a basic income guarantee might intersect with other financial supports like insurance, loans and climate funding.</p>
<p>Additional research will also be crucial for understanding how a basic income guarantee could support migrant workers brought in through the <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/employment-social-development/programs/temporary-foreign-worker.html">Temporary Foreign Worker program</a>. Migrant workers are an essential part of fisheries processing and meat and horticulture production.</p>
<p>There is also a need to think systematically and holistically about the role of basic income across the food system. The only way to accomplish this is with further input from farming and fishing communities and Indigenous communities in collaboration with anti-poverty, food sovereignty and food justice organizations.</p>
<p>We believe a basic income guarantee is a promising tool for contributing to sustainability and justice across agriculture and fishing sectors, while encouraging the development of cross-sectoral networks, research and policy agendas.</p>
<p><em>The authors would like to acknowledge the author teams of Coalition Canada’s Case for Basic Income Series for their contributions to this article.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/204452/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kristen Lowitt receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Charles Z. Levkoe receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada and the Government of Ontario.</span></em></p>A guaranteed basic income is a promising tool for contributing to sustainability and justice across agriculture and fishing sectors.Kristen Lowitt, Assistant Professor, Environmental Studies, Queen's University, OntarioCharles Z. Levkoe, Canada Research Chair in Equitable and Sustainable Food Systems, Lakehead UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1977332023-01-13T13:42:43Z2023-01-13T13:42:43ZNoma to close: why it’s so hard to run a sustainable innovation-focused restaurant<p>For over a decade, <a href="https://noma.dk/">Noma in Copenhagen</a> has been one of the standard bearers of the high-end culinary world. This “<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Nordic_Cuisine">New Nordic</a>” restaurant made its reputation (and obtained its <a href="https://guide.michelin.com/en/capital-region/copenhagen/restaurant/noma">three Michelin stars</a> and position in <a href="https://www.theworlds50best.com/awards/noma">the World’s 50 Best Restaurants ranking</a>) by focusing on culinary innovation, with a frequently changing menu driven by continual work by its in-house culinary research and development (R&D) team. </p>
<p>On January 9 2023, Noma’s Danish chef and co-owner René Redzepi <a href="https://www.instagram.com/p/CnMN9eNPUwI/">announced an imminent and significant transition</a>: Noma would close as a restaurant in 2025 to focus on pop-ups and culinary innovation. Over a decade ago, El Bulli in Spain, one of the first innovation and R&D-led restaurants, <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704094304575029580782188308">made a similar transition</a>.</p>
<p>Exploring the reasons behind the decision, <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/01/09/dining/noma-closing-rene-redzepi.html">an article about the upcoming changes at Noma</a> in the New York Times explained: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>The style of fine dining that Noma helped create and promote around the globe — wildly innovative, labour-intensive and vastly expensive — may be undergoing a sustainability crisis.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>“Sustainability” here means something broader than economics and profitability. It now also includes a business’s environmental impact and whether its people (staff, management and owners) work in physiologically and psychologically healthy environments. A sustainable business model in this sense is one which could persist indefinitely without losing money or depleting either the environment or its people. </p>
<p>In my book <a href="https://uncertaintymindset.org/">The Uncertainty Mindset: Innovation Insights From the Frontiers of Food</a>, I explore why it is hard for innovation-centric restaurants like Noma to have sustainable business models. The answer boils down to how continual innovation requires engaging with “not knowing”, which is inherently at odds with consistency and efficiency – this is true not only in high-end cuisine but in any industry.</p>
<h2>The high-end restaurant conundrum</h2>
<p>Guests usually see a restaurant as somewhere to go for a great experience because other people are cooking and taking care of hospitality. For a restaurant to do this and still be a viable business, it must function much like a factory. </p>
<p>A restaurant has to be consistent, which means it must reliably produce what guests want to buy because they would otherwise go elsewhere. It also has to be efficient, producing with a minimum of wasted resources. This is because <a href="https://restaurant.org/research-and-media/research/economists-notebook/analysis-commentary/bottom-line-impact-of-rising-costs-for-restaurants/">margins in the restaurant industry are thin</a>. </p>
<p>In high-end cuisine, the problem is compounded because overheads are high and the food is complex. Every dish usually has many components, and each component’s recipe often features multiple ingredients and techniques. Refining a complex dish so it becomes well-understood, well-described and reliable can take many cycles of cooking and troubleshooting.</p>
<p>Cooking also draws on deep stores of tacit knowledge. Tacit knowledge is often the difference between cooking a recipe acceptably and cooking it transcendently. Anyone knows this who has tried to cook a perfect French omelette (creamy and on the cusp of being set inside but not liquid, yet completely uncoloured outside) for the first time. </p>
<p>Cooks only acquire such knowledge through extended training, and high-end cuisine is particularly demanding in terms of tacit knowledge. </p>
<h2>Innovation is the enemy of consistency and efficiency</h2>
<p>For high-end restaurants to become both efficient and consistent at producing complex dishes, the people who work in these institutions have to practise cooking the same dishes a lot. This is both to work out the kinks in recipes and to develop the tacit knowledge needed to cook them well. An efficient and consistent restaurant not only works better economically, it is also an easier place in which to work. The people who work there know what to do and how to do it fast and well.</p>
<p>This is why innovation is antithetical to consistency and efficiency. </p>
<p>Every new dish introduced means the restaurant has to figure out again how to be consistent and efficient. In many cases, even the kitchen’s organisation of roles and its network of suppliers may need to change to accommodate new dishes.</p>
<p>Innovation introduces uncertainty into how people work (and work together), the timings of processes, tacit knowledge and supply chains. This inevitably creates waste, failure, inconsistency and stress.</p>
<p>Innovating is even harder when consumers expect near perfection, as they do in high-end cuisine. For a high-end restaurant, this means even more resources (time, effort, money, product) must be spent refining new dishes before they can be allowed to go on to the menu. In practice, this often means there is a significant expense in creating, equipping and staffing a culinary R&D lab to support a relatively low-margin restaurant business.</p>
<p>Innovation makes the already tough business of high-end cuisine even tougher. Continual innovation may make a restaurant nearly impossible to sustain.</p>
<h2>Sustainable business models around innovation</h2>
<p>To be clear, it’s almost uniquely hard to build a sustainable restaurant business model based on continual innovation. </p>
<p>In cuisine, innovation is generally only protected by secrecy, tacit knowledge is of disproportionate importance, and innovations have a short lifespan. Whereas in other industries, innovation is protected by patents, explicit knowledge is more important for production, and innovations can be exploited for much longer. </p>
<p>In these sectors, business models built around innovation are more likely to make sense. This is the case in some parts of the pharmaceuticals, consumer hardware and entertainment (film, music, publishing) industries. </p>
<p>Back in the culinary world, Noma’s plan to focus entirely on innovation work and monetise without an attached full-time restaurant seems to have worked for other culinary R&D labs. <a href="https://modernistcuisine.com/">The Cooking Lab</a> (publisher of <a href="https://modernistcuisine.com/books/modernist-cuisine/">Modernist Cuisine</a> and other books and media) and <a href="https://www.chewinnovation.com/">Chew Innovation</a> (a consulting food product development company) are two examples.</p>
<p>High-end restaurants like Noma must be both consistent and efficient at producing high-quality food in order to be broadly sustainable. Unfortunately, innovation is unavoidably harmful to consistency and efficiency. While most business models built on innovation may work, a restaurant business model built on continual innovation will always be at odds with itself.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/197733/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Vaughn Tan does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Continually innovating disrupts processes that make it difficult for restaurants that champion it to be consistent and efficient.Vaughn Tan, Assistant professor of strategy and entrepreneurship, UCLLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1828322022-08-04T19:31:41Z2022-08-04T19:31:41ZCommunity and school gardens don’t magically sprout bountiful benefits<p>While it is widely understood that <a href="https://www.perlego.com/book/1620745/learning-gardens-and-sustainability-education-bringing-life-to-schools-and-schools-to-life-pdf?">community and</a> and school <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/2047-2382-3-20">gardening have innumerable health, well-being and educational benefits</a>, it’s important to realize these benefits don’t <a href="https://www.hepg.org/her-home/issues/harvard-educational-review-volume-88-number-4/herarticle/beyond-magic-carrots">magically </a>appear when gardens take root.</p>
<p>Over the past six years, I’ve worked closely with educators, community workers, activists and community members in <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/indigenous/land-and-peoples/learn-about-land-and-peoples-tiohtiake-montreal">Tio’tia:ke/Montréal</a> as we created, funded and sustained gardens and garden teams at schools and community organizations. </p>
<p>We set up adult education internships to provide practical gardening and teaching support to explore the extent to which gardens act as forums where people address social and environmental justice. Some participants experienced barriers to employment, food insecurity and homelessness.</p>
<p>This research and community work demonstrated how critical it is to advocate for broader social, urban and educational structural changes to support community garden work — and to understand the importance of having realistic expectations about what people can accomplish in and through gardens. </p>
<h2>Who do benefits reach?</h2>
<p>In Tio’tia:ke/Montréal, community gardening unfolds in many different ways that might include gardening efforts at community-based organizations and city-run gardens. </p>
<p>There are <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/montreal/montreal-community-gardens-1.5351635">significant wait lists</a> to access a garden plot in the city, exacerbated by community gardens being historically <a href="https://escholarship.mcgill.ca/concern/theses/9880vx03d">more accessible to property-owning individuals</a>. </p>
<p>According to the mayor of Montréal, “<a href="http://ville.montreal.qc.ca/portal/page?_pageid=5977,43117560&_dad=portal&_schema=PORTAL&id=32606">for many people, community gardens are more than just a hobby. They allow them to feed their families and to obtain fresh produce at a low cost</a>.” </p>
<p>Such statements obscure more complex issues <a href="https://www.homelesshub.ca/blog/impacts-green-gentrification-homelessness-urban-greening-and-displacement-parc-extension">around who controls and accesses community gardens and deeper entrenched social inequities relating to land rights</a> in a capitalist <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/2514848619868110">settler-colonial society</a> that privileges ownership, whiteness and hierarchical modes of relating.</p>
<h2>Relationship to food insecurity</h2>
<p>My findings contest claims that suggest community gardening <a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/life/video-how-community-gardens-can-increase-food-security/">is inherently an activity</a> that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10900-011-9522-z">reduces under-served communities’ food insecurity</a>. </p>
<p>Reflecting on my efforts to grow food for organizations that work with people experiencing food insecurity, as part of a project called “Gardening for Food Security,” I cannot claim gardening helped to alleviate the concerns of people experiencing food insecurity in any quantifiable way. </p>
<p>This is despite producing an immense amount of food harvested on a weekly/bi-weekly basis from late June to early November in 2018 and 2019. </p>
<p>Although the gardens were thriving, the organization never reduced their food order to Montréal’s largest food bank. This may be because while participants ate from the garden harvest, their reliance upon it did not reduce their need for other food. The Gardening for Food Security project did, however, modestly support a food bank and a once-a-week meal service.</p>
<h2>Mixed effects for communities, individuals</h2>
<p>As we gardened and invested in gardens for different social, educational and environmental reasons in rapidly gentrifying neighbourhoods, we contributed to increasing land values in a process described as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2427.2009.00860.x">green gentrification</a>. </p>
<p>Despite these critical observations, some benefits of the project included: </p>
<ul>
<li><p>offering relevant paid employment for young adults experiencing barriers to employment, food insecurity and homelessness; </p></li>
<li><p>providing mentorship and opportunities for under-served young adults and students to express themselves (through art, photography, <a href="https://internationalcellphilmfestival.com/2018/11/13/congratulations-to-this-years-winners/">music, film</a>, gardening); </p></li>
<li><p>facilitating partnerships between schools and organizations with mandates of social and environmental justice for mutual benefit; </p></li>
<li><p>acquiring prolonged financial, learning and human resource support to educators, learners, community workers and community members, while developing ethical relationships and collaborating to accomplish shared objectives. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>The latter three types of benefits are difficult to quantify to funders. </p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/TeaipZkaWrc?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Video created in collaboration with some ‘Gardening for Food Security’ team members with music by one team member, Sven ‘7ven’ Creese.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Problems with schools gardens</h2>
<p>Gardening as part of environmental education is not <a href="https://doi.org/10.2304/pfie.2005.3.3.5">mandatory core curriculum in Québec</a>. School gardening often occurs outside of formal class time, during lunch hour or after school. Taken together, organizing gardening experiences for students within most public schools adds additional labour to already overworked and under-supported educators. </p>
<p>For gardening to be relevant and add educational value for both teachers and learners, gardens need to be incorporated into each core curricular area (French, English, Math and so on) and not only used before or after school hours and during lunchtime. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/school-community-gardens-plant-the-seeds-of-change-to-address-global-warming-134776">School-community gardens plant the seeds of change to address global warming</a>
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<p>Many of my teacher collaborators stated that they are fully committed and interested in creating garden-based learning experiences for their students. But securing permissions translates to administrative labour. This can detract from arranging other important aspects of garden creation like establishing funding, building relationships with collaborators or drawing curricular connections and so on. </p>
<h2>Small community change</h2>
<p>Tio’tia:ke/Montréal, like many Canadian cities, has a long winter and a short intense summer. For school gardens to work, the planning and administrative labour and permissions for a spring garden need to happen early in the school year to account for inevitable delays. </p>
<p>If educators or outside parties wish to support school gardens with funding and labour, I strongly recommend that students lead the creation, development and importantly the evaluation of the garden as a project.</p>
<p>When gardens are prematurely <a href="https://doi.org/10.17763/1943-5045-88.4.516">celebrated for producing anticipated outcomes</a> such as health and well-being and food security, without a larger acknowledgement of how these complex issues are affected by systemic barriers, much can be lost. </p>
<p>This includes the well-being of teachers who invest immense labour in something they believe in with limited institutional support, and affordable spaces for people to live who get dispossessed of their homes, communities and networks through green gentrification.</p>
<h2>No easy solutions</h2>
<p>There are no easy solutions to the social and environmental problems of school, community gardening or greening.</p>
<p>Often, teachers and community members want and need a garden, but they are more in need of: financial support, teaching support, human resource support, more time, fewer students, curricular freedom, relevant professional development and land that isn’t part of a bigger capitalist system of private ownership or tied up in red tape. </p>
<p>Even small community change takes time and needs ongoing collective effort. </p>
<p><em>This is an updated version of a story originally published Aug. 4, 2022. The earlier story said gardens were reserved for property-owning individuals instead of more accessible to them.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/182832/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mitchell McLarnon receives funding from Employment and Social Development Canada</span></em></p>Gardens require huge labour, and outcomes like health, well-being or food security are affected by systemic barriers people face in cities and schools.Mitchell McLarnon, Assistant Professor, Adult Education, Concordia UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1705222022-02-16T02:06:34Z2022-02-16T02:06:34ZHow to make your diet more sustainable, healthy or cheap – without giving up nutrients<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/436875/original/file-20211210-159504-17ybn6p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=33%2C8%2C5519%2C2497&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>People choose certain foods or change their diets for a range of reasons: to improve their health, lose weight, save money or due to concerns about sustainability or the way food is produced. </p>
<p>Consider the trend towards low-fat products in the 1980s and low-carb diets in the 1990s, and now, the rise in plant-based protein products and ready-to-eat meals.</p>
<p>But before you abandon your traditional food choices, it’s important to consider the nutritional trade-offs. If you’re replacing one food with another, are you still getting the vitamins, minerals and other nutrition you need?</p>
<p>In a <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2304-8158/10/12/3156">recent paper</a>, I sought to raise awareness of nutritional differences between foods by producing a new index specific to Australia. It aims to help Australians make better informed dietary choices and get the nutrients recommended for good health.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A variety of milks and their ingredients" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/436880/original/file-20211210-149721-q3c9xi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/436880/original/file-20211210-149721-q3c9xi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=371&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436880/original/file-20211210-149721-q3c9xi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=371&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436880/original/file-20211210-149721-q3c9xi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=371&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436880/original/file-20211210-149721-q3c9xi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=466&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436880/original/file-20211210-149721-q3c9xi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=466&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436880/original/file-20211210-149721-q3c9xi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=466&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Before you abandon your traditional food choices, it’s important to consider the nutritional tradeoffs.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Nutrients: are we getting enough?</h2>
<p>The Australian Bureau of Statistics publishes tables showing the usual intake of selected nutrients across the population. The tables also show the proportion of Australians whose usual nutrient intake is below what’s known as the “estimated average requirement”.</p>
<p>While Australian adults eat in diverse ways, they generally get enough of some nutrients regardless of their diets. </p>
<p>For example, most people seem to obtain adequate niacin (Vitamin B3) and phosphorus. And the tables suggest 97% of Australians get enough vitamin C.</p>
<p>However, inadequate intake of calcium, magnesium, vitamin B6 and zinc is common.</p>
<p>Around two-thirds of Australian adults consume less calcium than what’s recommended (which ranges from 840 to 1100 mg/day depending upon age). Worryingly, 90% of women aged over 50 don’t get enough calcium.</p>
<p>Inadequate zinc intake is most prevalent among Australian men – more than half aged over 50 consume below recommended levels.</p>
<p>So what about free sugars? These include added sugars and the sugar component of honey and fruit juices, but exclude natural sugars in intact fruit, vegetables and milk.</p>
<p>It’s recommended Australians limit free sugars to less than 10% of dietary energy intake. However, almost 50% of Australian adults exceed this recommended limit.</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/dont-drink-milk-heres-how-to-get-enough-calcium-and-other-nutrients-165466">Don't drink milk? Here's how to get enough calcium and other nutrients</a>
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<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="older women painting at table" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/436879/original/file-20211210-68670-cl6oim.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/436879/original/file-20211210-68670-cl6oim.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436879/original/file-20211210-68670-cl6oim.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436879/original/file-20211210-68670-cl6oim.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436879/original/file-20211210-68670-cl6oim.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436879/original/file-20211210-68670-cl6oim.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436879/original/file-20211210-68670-cl6oim.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Worryingly, 90% of women aged over 50 have calcium intake beklow what is recommended.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Paying attention to under-consumed nutrients</h2>
<p>Every food has a different nutrient composition. And as the <a href="https://www.eatforhealth.gov.au/guidelines">Australian Dietary Guidelines</a> show, we should eat a variety of foods to stay healthy.</p>
<p>We should pay particular attention to foods that are important sources of nutrients for which large numbers of Australians are not getting enough. If possible, Australians should seek to include more of these foods in their diet. </p>
<p>At the same time, foods with free sugars should be eaten only in moderation.</p>
<p>The new food index <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2304-8158/10/12/3156">I produced</a> seeks to help Australians achieve this. It provides an overall nutrient composition score tailored to the Australian dietary context. </p>
<p>The index includes eight vitamins (B1, B2, B3, B6, B12, Folate, A and C), eight minerals (calcium, phosphorus, zinc, iron, magnesium, iodine, selenium and molybdenum), along with protein and free sugars.</p>
<p>These 18 elements are weighted in proportion to the extent of inadequate or excessive intake in Australia. A higher score is better than a lower score. </p>
<p>So, the index scores foods highly if they are low in free sugars, and rich in the elements many Australians need more of – calcium, magnesium, vitamin B6, zinc and vitamin A. </p>
<p>Foods containing few nutrients but added sugar score very low. For example, a chocolate chip cookie weighing 35 grams scored 0.004 and a sugar-sweetened cola-flavoured beverage scored below zero.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="woman eats chocolate bar" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/436878/original/file-20211210-25-kknfxq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/436878/original/file-20211210-25-kknfxq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436878/original/file-20211210-25-kknfxq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436878/original/file-20211210-25-kknfxq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436878/original/file-20211210-25-kknfxq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436878/original/file-20211210-25-kknfxq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436878/original/file-20211210-25-kknfxq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Foods containing few nutrients but added sugar score very low in the index.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Matt Dunham/AP</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Swapping foods may not achieve like-for-like</h2>
<p>The index can be used to compare foods that might be considered substitutes in pursuit of a diet that’s healthier, more affordable or better for the environment.</p>
<p>In the case of dairy foods, 250ml of full cream milk scored 0.160, and reduced-fat milk almost as high at 0.157.</p>
<p>The index shows the potential nutritional trade-offs when choosing dairy alternatives. A 250ml serving of calcium-fortified oat beverage scored 0.093. Without calcium fortification, the score fell to 0.034.</p>
<p>Looking at meat, 100g of raw lean diced beef scored 0.142. An equivalent serving of plant-based burger made from pea protein, with many added vitamins and minerals, scored almost the same at 0.139. This shows plant-based alternatives are not necessarily less nutrient dense.</p>
<p>The index also shows the different nutritional needs of women and men. For example, the scores for two large eggs were higher for women (0.143) than men (0.094). This reflects, in part, the greater prevalence of inadequate iron intake among younger women.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-australia-can-boost-the-production-of-grains-while-lowering-its-carbon-footprint-176366">How Australia can boost the production of grains, while lowering its carbon footprint</a>
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<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Shoppers peruse food market" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/436877/original/file-20211210-140267-1je42uz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/436877/original/file-20211210-140267-1je42uz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=362&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436877/original/file-20211210-140267-1je42uz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=362&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436877/original/file-20211210-140267-1je42uz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=362&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436877/original/file-20211210-140267-1je42uz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=455&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436877/original/file-20211210-140267-1je42uz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=455&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436877/original/file-20211210-140267-1je42uz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=455&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Packaging on unprocessed foods doesn’t usually include nutrition information.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Understanding trade-offs</h2>
<p>To date, comprehensive nutritional information about foods eaten in Australia has been found only in databases used by scientists and nutrition professionals. </p>
<p>For the average consumer, packaging on unprocessed foods – such as fruits and vegetables, fresh meats and some cheese – doesn’t usually include nutrition information.</p>
<p>Consumers can consult the nutrition information panel when buying processed foods, but only some nutrients are shown.</p>
<p>I hope my research may prompt manufacturers produce more nutrient-dense foods or those formulated to meet the nutrient needs of a particular subgroup. </p>
<p>In future, I hope the index will also be translated into a user-friendly format or app that everyday Australians can consult, to ensure their changing food preferences result in a healthier choice.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/meat-and-masculinity-why-some-men-just-cant-stomach-plant-based-food-174785">Meat and masculinity: why some men just can't stomach plant-based food</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/170522/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Brad Ridoutt is a Principal Research Scientist with CSIRO, Australia's national science agency. He has previously undertaken food system and nutritional research for a variety of private sector organizations and Australian government agencies. The research underpinning this article was partly funded by CSIRO and partly funded by Dairy Australia. Dairy Australia had no role in undertaking the study and the decision to publish research findings was made prior to funding and before the results were known. Dairy Australia had no role in the preparation of this article.</span></em></p>Substituting one food for another – no matter the reason – may not result in a healthier choice.Brad Ridoutt, Principal Research Scientist, CSIRO Agriculture, CSIROLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1770712022-02-15T14:13:16Z2022-02-15T14:13:16ZThe trouble with drought as an explanation for famine in the Horn and Sahel of Africa<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446455/original/file-20220215-23-1e06t0g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The Djenne market in Mali. Affordable food and safe markets are important for food security. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Anthony Pappone/ Contributor</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>In early February 2022, the World Food Programme announced that 13 million people in the <a href="https://www.wfp.org/news/13-million-people-facing-severe-hunger-drought-grips-horn-africa">Horn of Africa</a> were facing severe hunger as drought gripped the region. Similar concerns have been raised for several countries in the <a href="https://news.un.org/en/story/2022/01/1110742">West African Sahel</a> this year. </p>
<p>Make no mistake about it, drought is creating hardship for farmers and herders in these areas. For instance, there have been <a href="https://www.wfp.org/news/13-million-people-facing-severe-hunger-drought-grips-horn-africa">three consecutive failed</a> rainy seasons in the Horn of Africa. However, blaming nature for hunger is partial at best, and disingenuous at worst, because it obfuscates deeper structural problems and more complex explanations, not to mention solutions.</p>
<p>The attractiveness of drought as an explanation for hunger is that it removes culpability, allowing policymakers to attribute a humanitarian crisis to random climatic variation or an act of God. It’s also appealing for its simplicity and directness. The rains stop, crops wither, livestock perish and people go hungry. But drought is no more the cause of hunger than a cold snap is the full explanation for a wintertime death from exposure in my home state of Minnesota in the US.</p>
<p>I am a human-environment and development geographer <a href="https://www.macalester.edu/geography/facultystaff/billmoseley/">who studies</a> the drivers of food insecurity in these regions. We know that famine is largely a colonial and post-colonial phenomenon in the Horn of Africa and the Sahel. Drought is not. Rainfall has long been highly variable across the Horn and Sahelian regions of Africa and farmers and herders had developed <a href="https://www.biovision.ch/fileadmin/pdf/e/services/Media_Visit/Moseley_2012.pdf">systems to deal with this variability</a>. </p>
<h2>Drought strategies</h2>
<p>Historically, farmers stored surplus grain in good years to get them through difficult ones and planted a diverse set of crops, with different moisture requirements, to ensure that at least some harvest was produced each year. Herders were also highly mobile across broad areas, a strategy that responded to the patchy rainfall patterns of Africa’s drylands. Beyond the household level, communities and kingdoms had contingency stores of grains and kin networks that provided mutual aid in times of scarcity.</p>
<p>Many of these strategies began to be unwound in the <a href="https://www.academia.edu/42161571/Strengthening_Livelihoods_in_Sahelian_West_Africa_The_Geography_of_Development_and_Underdevelopment_in_a_Peripheral_Region">colonial period</a>. British and French colonial regimes employed head taxes (which had to be paid in cash) as a tool for forcing local farmers to grow more cash crops and store less surplus grain. Some herders were also encouraged to abandon their animals in favour of farming, or to develop fenced-off ranches. </p>
<p>Unlike the precolonial era, when taxes were often used – in part – by <a href="https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=vMyxDwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA231&dq=Watts,+M.+1983.+%E2%80%9COn+the+poverty+of+theory:+natural+hazards+research+in+context.+In+K.+Hewitt+(ed.)+Interpretations+of+Calamity.+Boston:+Allen+and+Unwin.+(p.+231-262)&ots=bNJ34poXrp&sig=juMc8eah4kUVUAAuS7s0f1Ugl4M#v=onepage&q&f=false">African empires to build social safety nets</a>, the cash crops and surplus value extracted via taxation in the colonial period were sent off to distant European power centres. Over time, this crippled local people’s risk management strategies, making them increasingly vulnerable to the ravages of drought, a situation that had once been treated as manageable climate variation.</p>
<p>This situation, described by many scholars as <a href="https://ugapress.org/book/9780820344454/silent-violence/">structural violence</a>, has been perpetuated in the post-colonial period. Under the banner of the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/19376812.2014.1003308">New Green Revolution for Africa</a>. Development organisations have pushed for an increasingly commercial, high external input agriculture which involves the use of improved seeds, inorganic fertilisers and pesticides. </p>
<p>While this approach boosts yields for a narrow range of crops under ideal conditions, it often <a href="https://rgs-ibg.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/geoj.12233">marginalises the poor and women</a>. It creates a system that is more vulnerable to drought. These new systems imperil farmers as they often purchase inputs on credit, become indebted when harvests are less than ideal, or must sell their crops to settle bills, a practice that undermines any effort to hang on to surplus production for a future year.</p>
<h2>Drought-famine model</h2>
<p>The drought-famine causal model represents an extremely narrow view of malnutrition. Food security is a concept which is increasingly understood to have not one, but <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306919221001445">six dimensions</a>: availability, access, stability, utilisation, agency and sustainability. </p>
<p>Food production, when crippled by drought, represents a failure of food availability for a particular type of household that produces most of its own food. What this obfuscates is a much more complex food system. </p>
<p>In the Horn of Africa and Sahel, many households increasingly purchase food or live in urban areas. This makes food access – the ability to buy food – just as important as food availability. This is a factor that has been greatly exacerbated in recent months by <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/02/03/business/economy/food-prices-inflation-world.html">rising global food prices</a>.</p>
<p>These are also regions where several countries – for example, Somalia, Ethiopia, Mali and Burkina Faso – are racked by <a href="https://www.csis.org/analysis/what-watch-sub-saharan-africa-2022">political instability and conflict</a>. This affects the <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/african-studies-review/article/abs/minimalist-state-and-donor-landscapes-livelihood-security-in-mali-during-and-after-the-20122013-coup-and-rebellion/54800B8FF4F338F809B32065D6B95C7B">stability of markets that farmers and herders use</a> for food purchases, input needs and sales. They are just as critical as rainfall. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446454/original/file-20220215-23-1iazdcl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446454/original/file-20220215-23-1iazdcl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446454/original/file-20220215-23-1iazdcl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446454/original/file-20220215-23-1iazdcl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446454/original/file-20220215-23-1iazdcl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446454/original/file-20220215-23-1iazdcl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446454/original/file-20220215-23-1iazdcl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A French soldier, from an anti-terrorist operation in the Sahel, speaks with a man at his market garden in northern Mali.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">AFP PHOTO / PHILIPPE DESMAZES</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Some semblance of a state, reasonable governance and basic security are needed to support the more commercial agricultural systems that have been built up since the colonial period, something that has been <a href="https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/in-depth-research-reports/report/sahel-moving-beyond-military-containment-policy-report/">severely lacking</a> in many areas of the aforementioned African countries.</p>
<p>Export markets also crashed for many farmers in these regions during <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03066150.2020.1823838">COVID-19 lockdowns</a> abroad. This led, for example, to cut flowers and vegetables rotting on farms in Kenya when they could not be flown out in the cargo holds of commercial planes that had all but stopped going to Europe for a certain time. </p>
<p>Then there are constraints on food utilisation, with <a href="https://www.businessdailyafrica.com/bd/economy/return-of-dirty-fuels-cooking-gas-prices-soar-3692670">rising cooking fuel prices</a> or lack of access to clean water. This makes it challenging for households to prepare a healthy meal. </p>
<p>And last but not least is people’s limited power or agency to shape their own food systems. From the colonial period forward, this has led to an unsustainable mix of livelihood practices that are constantly threatened by drought. </p>
<h2>Vulnerable food systems</h2>
<p>As a short-term emergency relief organisation, the World Food Programme is right to draw attention to the drought and hunger in the Horn and Sahelian regions of Africa. But pinning the responsibility for the crisis on drought is like blaming the dog for eating your homework. </p>
<p>Colonialism, globalisation and modern development initiatives have produced more vulnerable food systems. It is only by moving away from simplistic explanations for hunger, and embracing a more nuanced conception of food security, that local communities, governments and international organisations can work collaboratively to build more resilient food systems.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/177071/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>William G. Moseley received funding from the US National Science Foundation for a study of a New Green Revolution for Africa rice project, value chain approach, and women farmers in Burkina Faso (2016-2020). </span></em></p>Food security has six dimensions: availability, access, stability, utilisation, agency and sustainability.William G. Moseley, DeWitt Wallace Professor of Geography, Director of Food, Agriculture & Society Program, Macalester CollegeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1644102021-07-21T14:26:32Z2021-07-21T14:26:32ZWhat is the National Food Strategy and how could it change the way England eats?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412420/original/file-20210721-17-2yjygx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4025%2C2717&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/plastic-greenhouse-vegetable-cultivation-192230612">Bibiphoto/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Reforming England’s food system could save the country £126 billion, according to a recent government-commissioned report. The National Food Strategy, led by British businessman Henry Dimbleby, proposes a raft of measures to shake up how food is produced and the kinds of diets most people eat.</p>
<p>The need for action is laid out in <a href="https://www.nationalfoodstrategy.org/">stark terms</a>. Poor diets contribute to around 64,000 deaths every year in England, and the government spends £18 billion a year treating obesity-related conditions. How we grow food accounts for a quarter of greenhouse gas emissions and is the leading cause of biodiversity destruction. </p>
<p>To meet these challenges, the report calls for “escaping the junk food cycle” to improve general health and reduce the strain on the NHS, reducing the gap in good diets between high- and low-income areas, using space more efficiently to grow food so that more land can return to nature, and creating a long-term shift in food culture.</p>
<p>The strategy is, in parts, highly ambitious, particularly in its framing of the challenge as a systemic issue, and in some of the more innovative measures it proposes.</p>
<p>These include the world’s first sugar and salt reformulation tax, aimed at forcing manufacturers to make the foods they sell healthier – by reformulating recipes to remove sugar and salt – and raising around £3 billion for the Treasury in the process. Companies would also have to report how healthy and sustainable their food sales are. Cannily, the strategy team persuaded some companies to come out <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/business/supermarkets-pledge-support-for-dimbleby-food-report-over-transparency-b1885375.html?utm_content=Echobox&utm_medium=Social&utm_source=Twitter#Echobox=1626438978">in favour of the proposals</a>, which suggests they’re serious about seeing their ideas implemented and attuned to the government’s nervousness around upsetting the food industry. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A selection of sugar-rich processed foods." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412421/original/file-20210721-21-6uzax0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412421/original/file-20210721-21-6uzax0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412421/original/file-20210721-21-6uzax0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412421/original/file-20210721-21-6uzax0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412421/original/file-20210721-21-6uzax0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412421/original/file-20210721-21-6uzax0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412421/original/file-20210721-21-6uzax0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The tax is designed to reduce the salt and sugar content of processed foods.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/selection-food-high-sugar-412320808">Oleksandra Naumenko/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/live-well/eat-well/the-eatwell-guide/">Eatwell Guide</a>, which shows what proportion of our diet should come from each food group, would be based not only on the healthiness of certain foods, but their environmental sustainability too. This reference diet would underpin government decisions, and help ensure food policies are consistent with what is good for people and the planet.</p>
<p>The strategy takes a commendably bold stance on the government’s approach to trade policy, making clear that not honouring a manifesto commitment to protect food standards could bankrupt Britain’s farming sector. </p>
<h2>Missed opportunities</h2>
<p>At the same time, the strategy is politically pragmatic, clearly crafted with an eye on what what is likely to be winnable within the current government. As such, some politically-contentious issues are sidestepped.</p>
<p>The strategy sets a goal of reducing meat consumption by 30% over ten years, but <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2021/jul/16/britains-meat-consumption-national-food-strategy-diet-climate">shies away from interventions</a> to tackle this head on, with a meat tax discounted as “politically impossible”. </p>
<p>The report notably fails to address the poorly paid, precarious and often dangerous jobs of food workers, in <a href="https://www.labourexploitation.org/publications/assessment-risks-human-trafficking-forced-labour-uk-seasonal-workers-pilot">agriculture</a> and <a href="https://www.labourexploitation.org/publications/-help-workers-i-would-tell-government-participatory-research-workers-uk-hospitality">hospitality</a>. The report details how the problems with food are systemic, but misses the chance to make the link between poor working conditions in the sector and food insecurity and health. The terrible irony of “critical workers” like <a href="https://www.fginsight.com/news/news/i-am-producing-food-i-cannot-afford---british-farmer-highlights-rural-poverty-84198">farmers</a>, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/apr/10/scottish-fishermen-turn-to-food-banks-as-covid-19-devastates-industry">fishers</a> and <a href="http://camdennewjournal.com/article/furloughed-school-dinner-staff-now-surviving-on-food-vouchers-themselves">catering staff</a> that feed many of us is that they’re unable to afford to eat well themselves. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A row of stacked lobster pots on a harbour." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412423/original/file-20210721-15-1dzjs5m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412423/original/file-20210721-15-1dzjs5m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412423/original/file-20210721-15-1dzjs5m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412423/original/file-20210721-15-1dzjs5m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412423/original/file-20210721-15-1dzjs5m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412423/original/file-20210721-15-1dzjs5m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412423/original/file-20210721-15-1dzjs5m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The strategy neglected the precarious conditions for many food workers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/lobster-pots-on-wooden-dock-fishing-1898045836">Emnaylor23/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The scale of the challenge has led to calls for a new <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/society/2019/jan/10/appoint-minister-for-hunger-to-tackle-uk-food-insecurity-mps-urge">minister for hunger</a>, a cabinet sub-committee on food, or an independent food body. The strategy opts instead for a Good Food Bill with statutory targets around diet-related health and reporting. It also favours expanding the remit of the Food Standards Agency (FSA) to encompass health and sustainability and calls for improved monitoring and measurement of the food system and the policies linked to it.</p>
<p>If enacted, <a href="https://uhra.herts.ac.uk/handle/2299/24812">these proposals could benefit food policymaking</a>, but they’d leave the difficult question of how different government departments can coordinate on the issue untouched. Expanding an existing body may be politically expedient, but does the non-ministerial FSA have the clout and capacity to drive reform in the many other departments with <a href="https://foodresearch.org.uk/publications/who-makes-food-policy-in-england-map-government-actors/">a hand in food policy</a>? </p>
<p>An ambitious and innovate strategy in parts, and wise for its political astuteness. Whether it has achieved the right balance will become clearer in the next phase, when the Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs delivers its response. The recommendations will need to survive the political jungle and overcome obstacles both bureaucratic and ideological.</p>
<p>Should they make it through in one piece, these policies could tackle some of the biggest challenges related to food. But more importantly, the strategy could disrupt the politics and ideas about what people should want from their food system, and give licence to additional policy interventions in trade, meat and jobs.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/164410/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Barling receives research grant funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 programme under their Sustainable Food Security theme, and from the Cadogan Charity. He leads the Food Systems and Policy Research Group that is a member of Sustain: the Alliance for better food and farming. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kelly Parsons does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A new report calls for a greener and fairer food system in England.Kelly Parsons, Food Systems Policy & Governance Research Fellow, University of HertfordshireDavid Barling, Professor of Food Policy and Security, Director of the Centre for Agriculture, Food and Environmental Management, University of HertfordshireLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1619532021-07-04T11:28:20Z2021-07-04T11:28:20ZChocolate fix: How the cocoa industry could end deforestation in West Africa<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/408742/original/file-20210628-25-ehsl12.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=75%2C69%2C4118%2C2722&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A farmer walks past cocoa pods growing on a tree on a cocoa farm in Ivory Coast. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Rebecca Blackwell) </span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Despite a significant uptick in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/1523908X.2021.1910020">corporate sustainability efforts</a> in the cocoa sector, it is nearly impossible for most chocolate consumers to know the amount of tropical deforestation associated with their sweet luxury.</p>
<p>The cocoa bean is the fundamental and irreplaceable ingredient in chocolate. Cocoa beans come from trees that require specific climates and pollination systems. These conditions are found in and around tropical forest ecosystems.</p>
<p>As <a href="https://www.fortunebusinessinsights.com/industry-reports/cocoa-and-chocolate-market-100075">global demand for chocolate increases</a> due to increasing awareness of the <a href="https://theconversation.com/a-brief-history-of-chocolate-and-some-of-its-surprising-health-benefits-142692">potential health benefits</a> of dark chocolate and rising disposable incomes in emerging economies, cocoa farms are replacing the last <a href="https://www.mightyearth.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/chocolates_dark_secret_english_web.pdf">remaining biodiversity hotspots</a>. </p>
<p>Cocoa production is highly concentrated in a few countries in West Africa. Côte d’Ivoire and Ghana together <a href="https://www.icco.org/statistics/#production">produce around 62 per cent</a> of cocoa globally.</p>
<p>Despite recent <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2019/national/climate-environment/mars-chocolate-deforestation-climate-change-west-africa/">media attention</a> exposing illegal deforestation from cocoa farming in critically protected ecosystems, these countries recently experienced the <a href="https://www.mightyearth.org/wp-content/uploads/Problems-and-solutions-concerning-the-CFI-in-Ghana-and-Co%CC%82te.-final.pdf">world’s highest rates of increase in deforestation in the world</a>. </p>
<p>In 2018, Ghana saw a 60 per cent increase in forest loss compared to 2017, the largest annual increase in the world. Côte d’Ivoire was second at 26 per cent. Deforestation has irreversible negative impacts on biodiversity, soil health and the adaptive capacity of ecosystems in the face of climate change. </p>
<p>With my team at the University of Victoria, my research project <a href="https://www.sophiacarodenuto.com/research/current-research-projects">Follow the Bean: Tracing Zero Deforestation Cocoa</a> identified three of the main challenges to halting the deforestation embedded in global cocoa supply chains. </p>
<h2>The “first mile” of supply chain traceability</h2>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/eet.1841">The first challenge</a> lies in the need to know the precise origins of cocoa beans in order to determine whether the farm where they were grown replaced primary forest. Tracing cocoa beans to the farm level is uniquely difficult in the West African cocoa sector because production is spread among millions of <a href="https://www.kit.nl/project/demystifying-cocoa-sector/">smallholder farms of roughly three to five hectares</a>. </p>
<p>Cocoa is generally produced on small farms because it’s difficult to introduce machines to do the work. Cocoa trees require regular pruning and chemical treatments to combat <a href="https://upf.com/book.asp?id=9781683401674">pest and disease</a>. In addition, the fruit that produces cocoa beans ripens intermittently, so farmers harvest by hand. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A man moving cocoa beans across a tarp with a rake" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/408747/original/file-20210628-15-c4o9i4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/408747/original/file-20210628-15-c4o9i4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=483&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408747/original/file-20210628-15-c4o9i4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=483&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408747/original/file-20210628-15-c4o9i4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=483&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408747/original/file-20210628-15-c4o9i4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=606&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408747/original/file-20210628-15-c4o9i4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=606&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408747/original/file-20210628-15-c4o9i4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=606&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A farmer dries recently harvested cocoa beans under the sun.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Sophia Carodenuto)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Nobody knows precisely how many cocoa farmers are operating in the West African region. Past estimates suggest <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.03.024">two million</a> farmers depend on cocoa in the region, which is likely underestimated considering a recent study found <a href="https://www.norc.org/PDFs/Cocoa%20Report/NORC%202020%20Cocoa%20Report_English.pdf">1.5 million children</a> working on cocoa farms. </p>
<p>Due to the complexities of local land tenure, farm boundaries are generally not publicly registered. The lack of a public map of smallholder cocoa farmers makes it difficult to know precisely where cocoa originates. </p>
<p>Some <a href="https://www.mightyearth.org/cocoa-accountability/">open-source maps</a> are now tracing cocoa to the cooperative level. A major challenge moving forward will be to trace cocoa from farm to the first point of aggregation in the supply chain, also known as <a href="https://www.cargill.com/story/cargill-on-envoye-special-sustainable-cocoa-report">“first mile” traceability</a>. This is important because not all cocoa goes through co-operatives.</p>
<h2>The indirect supply chain</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20201207005451/en/Global-Chocolate-Market-Report-2020-Market-to-Reach-US182.090-Billion-by-2025-Increasing-from-US137.599-Billion-in-2019---ResearchAndMarkets.com">US$140 billion chocolate industry’s</a> most recent response to the deforestation challenge has been the creation of sustainability programs for their direct supply chains. However, estimates suggest that <a href="https://www.voicenetwork.eu/cocoa-barometer/">at least half of the cocoa supply</a> in Côte d’Ivoire is sourced indirectly. </p>
<p>Indirect sourcing means that cocoa is bought through local traders, many of whom operate informally with limited public oversight. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/bse.2686">Very little is known about these local traders</a>, although they generally often have a bad reputation for taking advantage of vulnerable farmers in need of immediate cash. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/ghanas-cocoa-production-relies-on-the-environment-which-needs-better-protection-134557">Ghana's cocoa production relies on the environment, which needs better protection</a>
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<p>Sustainability programs <a href="https://www.lindt-spruengli.com/press-releases-and-news/english/lindt-spruengli-achieves-sustainability-milestone-100-percent-traceable-and-verified-cocoa-beans">often aim to eliminate these intermediaries</a>. However, given the prevalence of the indirect supply chain, this solution might result in significant unemployment and related socio-economic implications in areas where the rural economy depends entirely on cocoa production and trade. </p>
<p>Together with <a href="https://janinagrabs.com/">Janina Grabs</a>, our <a href="https://tradersandsustainability.com/">collaborative research</a> aims to explore whether and how traders, including informal traders, might help to roll out sustainability programs. Because traders are often the farmer’s only point of contact with the supply chain, their role in relaying information and providing incentives for improved production practices may prove critical.</p>
<h2>Power and accountability</h2>
<p>Cocoa is one of the most consolidated sectors in the world, with three companies <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-019-0978-z">controlling 60 per cent of the cocoa traded globally</a>. These companies are not consumer-facing with known brands and for many people they might be “<a href="https://www.innovationforum.co.uk/articles/how-traders-can-be-the-facilitators-for-brand-sustainability-goals">the largest company you’ve never heard of</a>,” according to Ian Welsh from Innovation Forum.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A long aisle with shelves of chocolate bars." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/408746/original/file-20210628-17-yvjkmi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/408746/original/file-20210628-17-yvjkmi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408746/original/file-20210628-17-yvjkmi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408746/original/file-20210628-17-yvjkmi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408746/original/file-20210628-17-yvjkmi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408746/original/file-20210628-17-yvjkmi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408746/original/file-20210628-17-yvjkmi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Chocolate bars line the shelves at a supermarket in Russia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>This situation carries opportunities but also risks. On the one hand, companies are increasingly partnering with governments, think tanks and civil society organizations to meet sustainability targets. On the other hand, there is a growing tendency for the big players in the cocoa industry to abandon third-party sustainability standards such as Fair Trade, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/1523908X.2021.1910020">instead opting for designing and implementing their own sustainable sourcing programs</a>. </p>
<p>In this situation, companies choose for themselves which information to disclose to their customers. <a href="https://www.thehersheycompany.com/content/dam/corporate-us/images/responsibility/cocoaforgood/CocoaForGoodDownloadShareInfographic.pdf">Corporate sustainability reporting</a> often portrays happy cocoa farmers who have benefited from their sustainability programs, but customers are not informed about the complexity of issues such as indirect sourcing. </p>
<h2>What to do?</h2>
<p>Although there are <a href="https://damecacao.com/interview-gillian-goddard-sun-eaters/">artisan chocolatiers making small batches of bean-to-bar chocolate products</a>, the vast majority of chocolate consumers will remain in the dark and unable to determine the impacts of their purchases until governments, industry and consumers demand more accountability. </p>
<p>For most conventional chocolate products, it remains impossible to trace cocoa origins to the extent required to determine deforestation. However, independent reviews such as the <a href="https://www.mightyearth.org/wp-content/uploads/Easter-Scorecard-2020-USA_FINAL.pdf">Chocolate Scorecard</a> are making great strides in providing transparency to consumers interested in buying “ethical” chocolate.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/161953/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sophia Carodenuto receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC). </span></em></p>Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana produce almost two-thirds of the world’s cocoa, and face high rates of deforestation. But the cocoa industry could make changes to become more sustainable.Sophia Carodenuto, Assistant Professor of Geography, University of VictoriaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1559342021-03-30T11:36:15Z2021-03-30T11:36:15ZHow school lunch could improve when classrooms are full again<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/389649/original/file-20210315-17-16klgq0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C16%2C5439%2C3587&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">School lunch is a lot less fun during a pandemic.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/school-children-are-spaced-apart-in-one-of-the-rooms-used-news-photo/1228514555?adppopup=true">Suzanne Kreiter/The Boston Globe via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>The COVID-19 pandemic has completely upended school lunches, like just about everything else for students. Once schools turned into virtual learning platforms, they found <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-connecticuts-schools-have-managed-to-maintain-lunch-distribution-for-kids-who-need-it-most-during-the-covid-19-pandemic-154308">creative ways to feed students</a>, including distributing meals at outdoor <a href="https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/full/10.2105/AJPH.2020.305875">pickup locations</a>.</em></p>
<p><em>Meanwhile, the <a href="https://frac.org/wp-content/uploads/12.22.20-Universal-School-Meals-Sign-On-Letter.pdf">pandemic has renewed and strengthened national</a> and <a href="https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billNavClient.xhtml?bill_id=202120220SB364">state-level calls to make school meals free</a> for all students.</em></p>
<p><em>The Conversation U.S. asked four school nutrition experts what the break from daily in-person learning may change about school lunch.</em></p>
<h2>1. Cafeterias with more space, less noise</h2>
<p><strong><a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=hsGKoXYAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">Christine Caruso</a>, Assistant Professor of Public Health, University of Saint Joseph</strong>: Even prior to the pandemic, staff and students were concerned about <a href="https://doi.org/10.7721/chilyoutenvi.30.1.0101">crowding and noise levels</a> in cafeterias, according to research my colleague and I conducted on <a href="https://foodcorps.org/case-studies/">school meal programs</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html">Now it’s clear that crowding</a> and <a href="https://www.technologyreview.com/2020/05/13/1001696/loud-talking-could-leave-coronavirus-in-the-air-for-up-to-14-minutes/">loud talking</a> are also serious COVID-19 risk factors.</p>
<p>As more children return to in-person learning, many school districts are <a href="https://spectrumlocalnews.com/nys/central-ny/news/2020/10/23/how-are-cafeteria-s-operating-in-covid-19-">letting students eat in their classrooms</a>. Schools are also relying on <a href="https://www.nbcconnecticut.com/news/local/back-to-school/schools-reveal-plans-for-lunchtime-protocols-amid-covid-19-pandemic/2323699/">courtyards or outdoor tents</a> to create safer eating environments. </p>
<p>These measures are critical because the coronavirus spreads <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-2600(20)30514-2">through airborne droplets and aerosols</a>. </p>
<p>As a public health precaution, I believe that most schools need to redesign their cafeterias to provide more and varied spaces for students to spread out, rather than being tightly packed together, and muffle noise. In addition to using outdoor spaces and classrooms, students can also eat in hallways and other spaces as needed. </p>
<h2>2. Fewer families paying for meals</h2>
<p><strong>Michael Long, Assistant Professor of Prevention and Community Health, George Washington University:</strong> <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/nslp/nslp-fact-sheet">Serving the 30 million</a> students who rely on school meals has required radical rule waivers and program changes during the COVID-19 pandemic. These changes include adjusting meal requirements and allowing schools to provide free meals <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/news-item/usda-040120">to all students</a>. </p>
<p>In <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13020670">my research team’s analysis</a> of government <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/school-nutrition-and-meal-cost-study">data</a> collected during the 2014-2015 school year regarding costs and nutrition, medium and large schools that offered everyone free lunch and other meals spent US$0.67 less per meal than similar-sized schools that certified students for free and reduced price lunch eligibility based on <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/cn/income-eligibility-guidelines">household income</a>. Despite the lower costs – likely due to administrative savings – nutritional quality remained the same. </p>
<p>The pandemic has renewed and strengthened <a href="https://frac.org/wp-content/uploads/12.22.20-Universal-School-Meals-Sign-On-Letter.pdf">national</a> and <a href="https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billNavClient.xhtml?bill_id=202120220SB364">state-level calls to make school meals free across the board</a>. </p>
<p>However, this shift will not be possible without new rules and increased federal funding. Without it, when the COVID-19 waivers expire – currently scheduled for the fall of 2021 – many schools will return to the familiar experience of <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13020670">inadequate funding</a>, big administrative burdens and <a href="https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2017.304102">lower participation</a> rates.</p>
<h2>3. Healthier, tastier meals</h2>
<p><strong><a href="https://www.fcs.uga.edu/people/bio/caree-cotwright">Caree Cotwright</a>, Assistant Professor of Foods and Nutrition, University of Georgia</strong>: Since the pandemic began, schools have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneb.2020.09.018">modified their lunches</a> in numerous ways, introducing new delivery methods and meal packages to deter the spread of the coronavirus. </p>
<p>Schools need more federal funding and support to continue providing healthy meals to students to reduce <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db288.pdf">health disparities</a>. School lunch is more widely consumed by kids from <a href="https://www.doi.org/10.1017/S136898002000259">low-income families and communities of color</a> than their counterparts.</p>
<p>When students return to school, many are eating lunch in their classroom or outside rather than in the cafeteria. In my assessment, eating in a learning atmosphere offers a unique opportunity to bolster nutrition education programs and encourage students to taste new entrees that may be packaged in unfamiliar ways. </p>
<p>For example, one school nutrition director in the Atlanta area described to me a program using online taste tests to make school lunches more appealing to students. To start, parents pick up a week’s worth of school meals, which can be quickly heated and served. Then, a group of students participate in a live Zoom session with a school chef who guides them through warming and assembling a simple school lunch meal, such as cheesy chicken tacos with salsa. Students taste and rate the recipe with the chef. Finally, the video, student comments and taste-test results are posted for other students to view before the recipe is added to the menu.</p>
<p>My research has shown that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1089/heq.2019.0113">making school meals more nutritious and delicious</a> requires engaging school nutrition directors, teachers, parents and students. These partnerships can encourage students to try new recipes and better understand how food and the environment are linked – which may result in <a href="https://www.doi.org/10.1017/S1368980014002948">less food waste</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/389647/original/file-20210315-15-1lrbknf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=4%2C2%2C1563%2C1041&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Child carries lunch in plastic bag" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/389647/original/file-20210315-15-1lrbknf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=4%2C2%2C1563%2C1041&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/389647/original/file-20210315-15-1lrbknf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/389647/original/file-20210315-15-1lrbknf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/389647/original/file-20210315-15-1lrbknf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/389647/original/file-20210315-15-1lrbknf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/389647/original/file-20210315-15-1lrbknf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/389647/original/file-20210315-15-1lrbknf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cafeteria workers have distributed breakfasts and lunches during the pandemic, even when school buildings are closed.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/myah-abeloff-holds-a-packed-lunch-and-breakfast-as-the-news-photo/1213017507?adppopup=true">Lauren A. Little/MediaNews Group/Reading Eagle via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>4. More food justice efforts</h2>
<p><strong><a href="http://www.jenniferelainegaddis.com/">Jennifer Gaddis</a>, Assistant Professor of Civil Society & Community Studies, University of Wisconsin-Madison:</strong> <a href="https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R46681">Congress provided limited funding</a> in March 2020 to help reimburse school food providers for the <a href="https://schoolnutrition.org/news-publications/press-releases/2020/sna-survey-finds-school-meal-programs-financial-losses-mount/">financial losses</a> they experienced during school closures. But it wasn’t enough. </p>
<p>More than a quarter of districts <a href="https://schoolnutrition.org/news-publications/press-releases/2020/sna-survey-finds-school-meal-programs-financial-losses-mount/">surveyed</a> by the <a href="https://schoolnutrition.org/">School Nutrition Association</a>, a nonprofit trade group, said they had cut hours for school cafeteria workers during the pandemic in order to cut costs.</p>
<p>These workers – mostly <a href="https://www.doi.org/10.15779/Z38M341">women and people of color</a> – are far more likely to be in <a href="https://www.doi.org/10.15779/Z38M341">part-time, low-wage jobs</a> and far <a href="https://schoolnutrition.org/news/research/2020-Compensation-and-Benefits-Report/">less likely to belong to unions</a> than the teachers they work alongside. </p>
<p>Before the pandemic, a growing number of schools were employing cafeteria staff to cook nutritious <a href="https://wearescratchworks.org/">meals from scratch</a>, and implementing <a href="https://www.farmtoschool.org/about/what-is-farm-to-school">farm-to-school programs</a> and <a href="https://goodfoodpurchasing.org/program-overview/#_values">other practices</a> to improve jobs, local economies and the environment.</p>
<p>Due to <a href="https://schoolnutrition.org/news-publications/press-releases/2021/new-usda-data-fewer-meals-served-2B-loss-for-school-meal-programs/">fewer kids eating school meals during the pandemic</a> and the increased costs associated with COVID-19 safety protocols, these positive changes may stall, or even be reversed. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.ucpress.edu/book/9780520300033/the-labor-of-lunch">My research suggests</a> these reforms are needed to <a href="https://foodcorps.org/cms/assets/uploads/2019/09/Reimagining-School-Cafeterias-Report.pdf">transform the school lunch experience</a> and maximize the <a href="https://www.rockefellerfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/RF-FoodPolicyPaper_Final2.pdf">ability of school meals</a> to improve public health and contribute to a post-pandemic economic recovery.</p>
<p>[<em>Deep knowledge, daily.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=deepknowledge">Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/155934/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jennifer Gaddis is affiliated with the National Farm to School Network as an advisory board member.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Christine C. Caruso is affiliated with the Hartford Food System and Hartford Decide$ as a board member. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael Long received funding from the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation to conduct research on school meal costs.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Caree J. Cotwright does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Students are spreading out when they eat and using more single-serve packaging. Future changes to school meals could be less visible.Jennifer Gaddis, Assistant Professor of Civil Society & Community Studies, University of Wisconsin-MadisonCaree J. Cotwright, Assistant Professor of Food and Nutrition, University of GeorgiaChristine C. Caruso, Assistant Professor of Public Health, University of Saint JosephMichael Long, Assistant Professor of Prevention and Community Health, George Washington UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1524912021-01-21T17:02:59Z2021-01-21T17:02:59ZWhy the EU’s global fishing activities can’t be called sustainable yet<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/379981/original/file-20210121-15-idtmm5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C1%2C998%2C657&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">All at sea.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/commercial-fishing-89814223">Photomatz/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The EU has a large fleet that fishes outside European waters. Nearly a third of its catch comes from non-EU waters, most of which belong to developing countries. Where and how much the EU’s “external fleet” can fish is set out in a number of agreements between member states and partner countries, and while these agreements are built on the idea of fairness and sustainability, in <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/faf.12533">our new study</a> we found that this is difficult to truly assess because of a lack of transparency.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/unclos_e.pdf">UN law</a> recognises the rights of coastal nations to control fish harvests within their national waters, a 200 nautical-mile limit from their coastline. These “exclusive economic zones” cover around 35% of the ocean, bringing about 90% of global fisheries under the control of coastal states. <a href="https://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/unclos_e.pdf">Since 1982</a>, the only way a foreign nation can legally fish in the waters of a coastal nation is through specific fishery agreements between both parties.</p>
<p>The EU’s external fishing activities are also governed by the <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/fisheries/cfp_en#:%7E:text=What%20is%20the%20Common%20Fisheries,allows%20fishermen%20to%20compete%20fairly.">Common Fisheries Policy</a>, structured around bilateral agreements known as sustainable fisheries partnership agreements – which countries use to give access to EU vessels – and <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/fisheries/cfp/international/rfmo_en">multilateral agreements</a> that control fishing on the high seas. </p>
<p>Alongside ensuring access to global fishing zones and resources, the aims of the Common Fisheries Policy include: contributing to the sustainable development of world fisheries; tackling destructive fishing practices; improving research and data; combating illegal, unregulated and unreported fishing; and strengthening control and inspections. </p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/369797/original/file-20201117-13-180ibt9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/369797/original/file-20201117-13-180ibt9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/369797/original/file-20201117-13-180ibt9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/369797/original/file-20201117-13-180ibt9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/369797/original/file-20201117-13-180ibt9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/369797/original/file-20201117-13-180ibt9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/369797/original/file-20201117-13-180ibt9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><strong><em>This story is part of <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/oceans-21-96784">Oceans 21</a></em></strong>
<br><em>Our series on the global ocean opened with <a href="https://oceans21.netlify.app/">five in depth profiles</a>. Look out for new articles on the state of our oceans in the lead up to the UN’s next climate conference, COP26. The series is brought to you by The Conversation’s international network.</em></p>
<p>To do this, the EU provides financial contributions and technical support to partner countries. The EU now regulates numerous such agreements with countries in east and west Africa, the Caribbean, the Pacific and the North Atlantic. In 2009, 14 non-EU countries were collectively paid nearly <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/fisheries/cfp/international/agreements_en">€150 million</a> (£133 million), making the EU’s financial contributions substantial – and often the main source of revenue for the fisheries ministries of these countries. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/378396/original/file-20210112-19-2azias.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Graphic of countries that have fishing partnership agreements with the EU and their value" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/378396/original/file-20210112-19-2azias.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/378396/original/file-20210112-19-2azias.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=545&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/378396/original/file-20210112-19-2azias.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=545&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/378396/original/file-20210112-19-2azias.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=545&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/378396/original/file-20210112-19-2azias.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=685&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/378396/original/file-20210112-19-2azias.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=685&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/378396/original/file-20210112-19-2azias.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=685&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://ec.europa.eu/fisheries/sites/fisheries/files/docs/body/2015-sfpa_en.pdf">SFPA handout/EU</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>And by keeping fishing within the resource limits of partner countries, involving all stakeholders, and contributing to the social and economic development of often less-developed partner countries, these agreements – in theory – are a major step in ensuring the sustainability of the EU’s fishing activities.</p>
<h2>The flipside</h2>
<p>Agreements have the potential to contribute to food security, economic growth and environmental and social resilience in partner countries. However, insufficient, inaccurate and non-public data makes it difficult to properly evaluate these contributions. </p>
<p>For example, partner countries may not be able to fish far offshore from a lack of local vessels that can reach distant fishing grounds. Although EU states paying for access to these otherwise inaccessible waters would appear to make good sense, it <a href="https://theconversation.com/eu-targets-fragile-west-african-fish-stocks-despite-protection-laws-125679">isn’t always fair and sustainable</a>. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/eu-targets-fragile-west-african-fish-stocks-despite-protection-laws-125679">EU targets fragile West African fish stocks, despite protection laws</a>
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</em>
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<p>Take Senegal. Under EU fisheries agreements, the amount of fish caught between 1994 and 2005 <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0964569119301620">fell from 95,000 to 45,000 tonnes</a> due to the overexploitation of stocks. Locally-owned vessels also dropped by 48% between 1998 and 2008. </p>
<p>The EU’s agreement with Senegal was cancelled in 2006 after Senegal demanded additional compensation. But in 2014, another agreement (for tuna and hake) was concluded worth US$1.9 million (£1.4 million) annually, <a href="https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20201111IPR91303/parliament-backs-the-renewed-fisheries-partnership-with-senegal">to be renewed every five years</a>, with US$1 million <a href="http://europeanmemoranda.cabinetoffice.gov.uk/files/2019/07/st10881.en19_.pdf">earmarked</a> to promote the sustainable management of Senegal’s fisheries.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/379509/original/file-20210119-17-17s2dxt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Local fishing boats sit off the shore with man running past" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/379509/original/file-20210119-17-17s2dxt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/379509/original/file-20210119-17-17s2dxt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379509/original/file-20210119-17-17s2dxt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379509/original/file-20210119-17-17s2dxt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379509/original/file-20210119-17-17s2dxt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379509/original/file-20210119-17-17s2dxt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379509/original/file-20210119-17-17s2dxt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Local fishing boats in Senegal.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/palmarin-senegal-october-30-2013-unidentified-1109457518">Fabian Plock/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Improved access to knowledge, markets, services and opportunities is also a potential benefit for partner countries. But although fish caught in other nations’s waters should be fished according to EU law, <a href="https://globalfishingwatch.org/research/partner/oceana-eu-countries-illegal-fishing-africa/">there have been numerous cases</a> of illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing by EU vessels in non-EU waters.</p>
<h2>Building in sustainable goals</h2>
<p>Our new paper, published in Fish and Fisheries, is an attempt to evaluate the true sustainability of the EU’s external fleet by comparing it with the <a href="https://sdgs.un.org/goals">UN’s Sustainable Development Goals</a> (SDGs), which include aims to end poverty, protect the planet and ensure <a href="https://pureportal.strath.ac.uk/en/publications/connecting-sdg-14-with-the-other-sustainable-development-goals-th">that all people enjoy peace and prosperity</a> by 2030.</p>
<p>While fishing and fisheries most directly relate to <a href="https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/oceans/">SDG 14</a>, to “conserve and sustainably use the oceans”, we found many more goals where the EU external fleet implicitly interacts. Creating jobs from investments in production and helping to reduce poverty in partner countries, for example, aligns the goal to <a href="https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/poverty/">eliminate poverty</a> (SDG 1), and the goal to <a href="https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/economic-growth/">provide decent work and economic growth</a> (SGD 8). Other areas that relate to SDGs include health and safety regulations and social security <a href="https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/health/">(SDG 3)</a> and the employment of millions of women in the fishing sector <a href="https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/gender-equality/">(SDG 5)</a>, though many are found in the informal economy or in marginalised roles in the supply chain</p>
<h2>Improving the data</h2>
<p>Our thinking was that EU fishing policy should explicitly engage with sustainable goals other than SDG 14, especially if the EU is to honour its commitment to achieving sustainability across the board by 2030. And we hoped that our research would help to better understand the relationship between EU policy and wider sustainable goals. </p>
<p>But what we discovered was a lack of open-access data and transparency from EU members states and partner countries, reducing their accountability and making it difficult to properly evaluate the true economic, social and environmental sustainability of these fishing activities.</p>
<p>Vessel operators and partner countries <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:52016IP0110&from=EN">must better report data</a> on catch, bycatch, vessel registrations, and labour conditions – and how EU funds are used within partner countries. Clearer, standardised systems for data collection, verification of third parties, and better technologies for monitoring and reporting is also certainly needed. If such improvements are not made, progress towards sustainable, accountable, transparent and fair external fishing practices will remain slow. </p>
<p>Although the external fleet is only a small part of the EU’s drive towards sustainability, equity and global leadership in fisheries, it has an important role to play in people’s lives and marine ecosystems around the world. Policy should be better integrated with efforts directly targeting SDGs on ocean health, social resilience and economic improvement. If the EU prioritises reporting on how its external fisheries specifically support these outcomes, as well as poverty reduction, gender equality, inclusion and human rights, it will go a long way to making sure that its commercial agreements are not just sustainable in name only.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/152491/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrew Frederick Johnson owns shares in MarFishEco Fisheries Consultants Ltd. He has received funding from WWF UK to research the subject covered in this article. The work in this paper was in collaboration with colleagues from WWF, the New Economics Foundation and the KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ingrid Kelling does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Agreements between the EU and its partner countries for fishing rights could be a great vehicle to push sustainability but more must be done before we can say they are doing that.Andrew Frederick Johnson, Assistant Professor, School of Energy, Geoscience, Infrastructure and Society, Heriot-Watt UniversityIngrid Kelling, Assistant Professor of Seafood Sustainability and Ethics, Heriot-Watt UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1397082020-06-05T12:06:57Z2020-06-05T12:06:57ZIt’s time to rethink the disrupted US food system from the ground up<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/339263/original/file-20200602-133933-1rgoup8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=6%2C6%2C2038%2C1355&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Corn stover (stalks, leaves and cobs) left behind after harvesting becomes a mulch and cover crop for soybeans on a Tennessee farm.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/2hHcKGS">Lance Cheung, USDA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The COVID-19 pandemic and resulting economic shutdowns have <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-farmers-are-dumping-milk-down-the-drain-and-letting-produce-rot-in-fields-136567">severely disrupted</a> and spotlighted weaknesses in the U.S. food system. Farmers, food distributors and government agencies are working to <a href="https://www.eater.com/2020/4/16/21222176/america-food-supply-coronavirus-impact-shortage-distribution-covid-19">reconfigure supply chains</a> so that food can get to where it’s needed. But there is a hidden, long-neglected dimension that should also be addressed as the nation rebuilds from the current crisis.</p>
<p>As scholars who study different aspects of <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/72177101_David_R_Montgomery">soil</a>, <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=ZqigafkAAAAJ&hl=en">nutrition</a> and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=CahLHSgAAAAJ&hl=en">food systems</a>, we’re concerned about a key vulnerability at the very foundation of the food system: soil. On farms and ranches across the U.S., the health of soil is <a href="https://food.berkeley.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/GSPPCarbon_03052016_FINAL.pdf">seriously compromised today</a>. Conventional farming practices have degraded it, and erosion has shorn away much of it. </p>
<p>Iowa has lost about <a href="http://www.bbc.com/future/bespoke/follow-the-food/why-soil-is-disappearing-from-farms/">half the topsoil</a> it had in 1850. Since they were first plowed, America’s farmland soils have lost about <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/7/3/2936">half of their organic matter</a> – the dark, spongy decomposed plant and animal tissue that helps make them fertile. </p>
<p>The soil that produces our nation’s food supply is a weakened link slowly failing under ongoing strain. This breakdown isn’t as dramatic as what happened in the 1930s during the <a href="http://www.pbs.org/kenburns/dustbowl/legacy/">Dust Bowl</a>, but it is just as worrying. Human history holds many examples of once-thriving agricultural regions around the world where <a href="https://www.ucpress.edu/book/9780520272903/dirt">failure to maintain soil health</a> degraded entire regions far below their potential agricultural productivity, impoverishing the descendants of those who wrecked their land.</p>
<p>We believe there is an urgent need to <a href="https://wwnorton.com/books/9780393356090">rebuild soil health</a> across the U.S. This can help maintain harvests over the long run and lay a solid foundation for a more resilient food system. Investing in soil health will benefit environmental and human health in ways that are <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ejss.12451">becoming increasingly apparent and important</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/339265/original/file-20200602-133924-dfy3gj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/339265/original/file-20200602-133924-dfy3gj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/339265/original/file-20200602-133924-dfy3gj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339265/original/file-20200602-133924-dfy3gj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339265/original/file-20200602-133924-dfy3gj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339265/original/file-20200602-133924-dfy3gj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=517&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339265/original/file-20200602-133924-dfy3gj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=517&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/339265/original/file-20200602-133924-dfy3gj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=517&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Wind erosion carries topsoil from farmland during the Dust Bowl, circa 1930s.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/aAVUcr">USDA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Food production starts with soil</h2>
<p>Soil is the foundation of the U.S. food system. Fruits, vegetables, nuts and oils come directly from plants grown in soil. Meat, poultry, dairy products and many farmed fish come from animals that feed on plants. Wild-caught fish and shellfish, which provide a tiny fraction of the typical American diet, are virtually the only exception. </p>
<p>As populations around the globe ballooned over recent centuries, so did pressure to force more productivity out of every available acre. In many parts of the world, this led to farming practices that degraded soil <a href="http://www.bbc.com/future/bespoke/follow-the-food/why-soil-is-disappearing-from-farms/">far beyond its natural fertility</a>. </p>
<p>In the Southeastern U.S., for example, agricultural erosion stripped soil from hillsides <a href="https://doi.org/10.1130/G36272.1">a hundred times faster</a> than the natural rate of soil formation. Today farmers in the Piedmont, from Virginia to Alabama between the Atlantic coast and the Appalachian mountains, coax crops from poor subsoil rather than the <a href="https://www.ucpress.edu/book/9780520272903/dirt">rich topsoil that early European settlers praised</a>. </p>
<p>Researchers, government agencies and nonprofit groups recognize soil degradation as a national problem and have started to focus on rebuilding soil health. The U.S. Department of Agriculture’s <a href="https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/main/national/soils/health/">Natural Resource Conservation Service</a> helps farmers improve the <a href="https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/national/soils/health/?cid=stelprdb1250888">health and function</a> of their soils. Nongovernment organizations are recognizing the need to <a href="https://foundationfar.org/challenge-areas/soil-health/">restore soil health on agricultural lands</a>. And the 2018 farm bill directed <a href="https://sustainableagriculture.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/FINAL-DIGITAL-Impact-of-2018-Farm-Bill-Provisions-on-Soil-Health.pdf">new attention and funding to soil health programs</a>. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/A6sc4zDsWY4?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The societal and environmental costs of degraded soil add up to as much as US$85 billion yearly just in the U.S.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Public health</h2>
<p>Beyond growing food, soils support human, public and planetary health. Well before the current pandemic, experts in public health and nutrition recognized that modern agriculture was <a href="https://theconversation.com/us-agriculture-needs-a-21st-century-new-deal-112757">failing to sustain</a> consumers, the land and rural communities. This insight helped spur the emergence of a new multidisciplinary field, known as <a href="https://www.nap.edu/catalog/18846/a-framework-for-assessing-effects-of-the-food-system">food systems</a>, that analyzes how food is produced and distributed.</p>
<p>But work in this field tends to focus on the environmental impacts of food production, with less attention to economic and social implications, or to links between farming practices, soil health and the nutritional quality of food. Many studies narrowly focus on <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-018-5132-3">greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture</a> when addressing soils and sustainability, without including the many <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2016.00041">ecological benefits that healthy soils provide</a>. </p>
<p>To be sure, man-made climate change is a major long-term threat to human and planetary health. But soil health is just as critical in its own right. Human actions have <a href="https://knowledge.unccd.int/glo/part-one-big-picture">already harmed agricultural productivity</a> in areas around the world. And when soil is degraded, food production systems are <a href="https://www.stat.berkeley.edu/%7Ealdous/157/Papers/extreme_weather_resilience.pdf">less able to weather future challenges</a> that we can expect in a changing climate.</p>
<p>The study of soil health can also have its own blind spots. Often agricultural research focuses solely on crop yields or the impact of individual conservation practices, such as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-47861-7">adopting no-till planting</a> or <a href="https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/national/climatechange/?cid=stelprdb1077238">planting cover crops</a> to protect soil from erosion. Such analyses rarely consider linkages driven by dietary demand for specific foods and crops, or the effects of farming practices on the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/ejss.12451">nutrient content of forage and crops</a> that sustain livestock and humans. </p>
<p>Food systems experts have called for transforming food production to improve human health and make agriculture more sustainable. Some researchers have proposed <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/commissions/EAT">specific diets</a> that they argue would accomplish both goals. But fully understanding connections between soil health and public health will require greater collaboration between those studying food systems, nutrition and how we treat the soil. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1266856146054402051"}"></div></p>
<h2>Growing our values</h2>
<p>Now that COVID-19 has deconstructed much of the national food supply network, it would be a mistake to pour efforts into simply rebuilding a flawed system. Instead, we believe it is time to redesign the U.S. food system from the ground up, so that it can deliver both soil health and human health and be more resilient to future challenges. </p>
<p>What would it take to do this? The foundation of a revised system would be adopting <a href="https://wwnorton.com/books/9780393356090">regenerative farming methods</a> that integrate multiple soil-building practices, such as no-till, cover crops and diverse crop rotations to restore health to land. It would also take creating and expanding markets for more diverse crops, as well as expanding <a href="https://theconversation.com/regenerative-agriculture-can-make-farmers-stewards-of-the-land-again-110570">regenerative grazing</a> and promoting reintegration of animal husbandry and crop production. And it would require investing in research into the linkages between farming practices, soil health and the nutritional quality of foods — and what that all could mean for human health. </p>
<p>In sum, we think it’s time to rethink the food system, based on a recognition that providing healthy diets based on healthy soils is critical to achieving a healthier, more just, resilient and truly sustainable world.</p>
<p><em><a href="https://foodsystems.wsu.edu/food-systems-program-staff/">Laura Lewis</a>, Associate Professor of Community and Economic Development at Washington State University, and <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/dave-gustafson-30903726/">Dave Gustafson</a>, project director at the Agriculture & Food Systems Institute, contributed to this article.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/139708/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>There’s growing interest in making the US food system more resilient and flexible, but soil – the origin of nearly everything we eat – is often left out of the picture.David R. Montgomery, Professor of Earth and Space Sciences, University of WashingtonJennifer J. Otten, Associate Professor, Center for Public Health Nutrition, University of WashingtonSarah M. Collier, Assistant Professor of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of WashingtonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1174592019-07-10T21:23:23Z2019-07-10T21:23:23ZAt a New York City garden, students grow their community roots and critical consciousness<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282946/original/file-20190707-51292-1lk8u1.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=34%2C24%2C3224%2C2418&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Sunflowers and luffa vines — related to cucumber, gourd and squash — are tended by a Community Roots participant and mentor in a Brooklyn school community garden with their instructor (right).
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Pieranna Pieroni)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Iris, a high school student in New York City, took a course aimed at preparing public school students for college. As part of the course, she visited the <a href="http://www.grubstreet.com/2018/04/history-of-the-park-slope-food-coop.html">Park Slope Food Coop</a>, among the oldest member-owned businesses in the United States. Members work monthly shifts in return for access to affordable, ethically sourced food and goods. Students enrolled in the course — called Community Roots — investigated the larger <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00958964.2017.1336976">social, political and historical issues of food and place</a> while gardening and learning about food-related activities. </p>
<p>When Iris told her family of her experience, “They said, ‘<a href="https://www.huffingtonpost.ca/entry/white-people-food_n_5b75c270e4b0df9b093dadbb">That’s white people’s food!</a>’” she recalled. Iris’s family had emigrated from the Caribbean island of St. Vincent and had not yet heard of the food co-op. They also understood, through their lived experiences, <a href="https://foodispower.org/access-health/food-deserts/">that racism and white privilege shape what foods are available to people</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282969/original/file-20190707-51268-1w1zco2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282969/original/file-20190707-51268-1w1zco2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282969/original/file-20190707-51268-1w1zco2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282969/original/file-20190707-51268-1w1zco2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282969/original/file-20190707-51268-1w1zco2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282969/original/file-20190707-51268-1w1zco2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282969/original/file-20190707-51268-1w1zco2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Callaloo, a kind of amaranth used in Caribbean cuisine, is among the greens Community Roots students have grown.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Iris joined the co-op, attracted by its alternative consumer model. Through her membership, Iris and her family had access to reasonably priced staples and familiar and healthy foods. Joining the co-op was one of a series of actions Iris took towards becoming an outspoken advocate for women’s and immigrants’ issues. </p>
<p>Iris later completed an undergraduate degree in critical Black feminist studies, and a law degree focused on environmental and immigrant rights.</p>
<h2>A course grows in Brooklyn</h2>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/283168/original/file-20190708-51273-i6ptn1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/283168/original/file-20190708-51273-i6ptn1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283168/original/file-20190708-51273-i6ptn1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283168/original/file-20190708-51273-i6ptn1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283168/original/file-20190708-51273-i6ptn1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283168/original/file-20190708-51273-i6ptn1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283168/original/file-20190708-51273-i6ptn1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Community Roots students planting seeds in a Brooklyn public school garden.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Pieranna Pieroni)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Iris’s course, Community Roots, is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/13504620120109628">about connecting ecology and justice</a>. The course is part of College Now, a free college transition program that is a partnership between the City University of New York and the New York City Department of Education. Jennifer, one of this story’s authors, mentors Pieranna, the other author and the director of <a href="https://k16.cuny.edu/collegenow/colleges/">College Now at Brooklyn College</a>.</p>
<p>Community Roots uses the entire city as a classroom. It sees <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-9041-7_77">place-based learning</a> as essential to teaching and learning. Urban gardening serves as a departure point for learning about land and relationships, as well as food, consumer culture and social activism. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-teach-kids-where-food-comes-from-get-them-gardening-103277">How to teach kids where food comes from – get them gardening</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/anti.12165">food justice</a>
emphasis of Community Roots emerged from an actual experience of conflict between a university and a community garden. Pieranna was a member of the thriving community garden that was located on the periphery of the campus where she was working. She invited local high school students who were enrolled in College Now courses during the year to participate in unstructured gardening in the summer. </p>
<p>As student interest grew, Pieranna formalized the activity as a service-learning course, and thus the number of gardening students grew. A turning point in the evolution of the course came when the college’s decision to raze the garden to expand a parking lot was met by resistance from gardeners and community greening advocates. As issues of <a href="https://www1.nyc.gov/site/sustainability/index.page">sustainability were becoming more prominent in public dialogues</a> around the city, the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/22/nyregion/22garden.html">irony of a city college destroying a community garden</a> to expand a parking lot captured attention. </p>
<p>Ultimately, the garden was razed and reinstituted as a smaller college garden on a strip of land bordering the enlarged parking lot. For several years,
Community Roots had no access to the new garden. However, lessons learned about <a href="https://rowman.com/ISBN/9780739146262/Power-at-the-Roots-Gentrification-Community-Gardens-and-the-Puerto-Ricans-of-the-Lower-East-Side">power and displacement</a> related to histories of colonization and gentrification helped re-direct the course.</p>
<p>Luckily, <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/07/30/nyregion/food-from-around-the-world-homegrown-in-new-york.html">New York City has a thriving network of community gardens</a> and school gardens. The course accessed other urban gardens and grassroots food-related organizations such as the Park Slope Food Coop, where both Pieranna and Jennifer are members. </p>
<h2>Sowing seeds of change</h2>
<p>Raven, a student who grew up in Coney Island, recalls a reading in Community Roots class from Brazilian educator and theorist <a href="https://www.iep.utm.edu/freire/">Paulo Freire</a>’s book <em>Pedagogy of the Oppressed</em>. Freire introduced an approach called problem-posing: teachers and students teach and learn together. Their major subjects of inquiry include themselves, each other and the ideas and issues that shape their realities and relationships. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282942/original/file-20190706-51262-xg912a.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282942/original/file-20190706-51262-xg912a.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282942/original/file-20190706-51262-xg912a.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282942/original/file-20190706-51262-xg912a.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282942/original/file-20190706-51262-xg912a.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282942/original/file-20190706-51262-xg912a.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282942/original/file-20190706-51262-xg912a.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Harvesting tomatoes and chard in one of the gardens.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Pieranna Pieroni)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><em>Pedgagogy of the Oppressed</em> led Raven to reflect on what she experienced in high school — what Freire calls the banking model of education, a one-way learning style whereby the teacher deposits knowledge in the student’s mind. Raven captioned a cartoon she created about her earlier high school learning: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“It’s like we open our skulls up and the teacher puts something in there…” </p>
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<p>Community Roots digs into theorists like Freire and other traditions of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10749039.2016.1202982">liberatory pedagogy</a>. Thus the course centres on students’ lived experiences and allows for the development of <a href="http://newarkccb.org/framework/critical-consciousness-theory/">critical consciousness</a>. </p>
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<em>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/acting-out-theatre-class-where-students-rehearse-for-change-108396">Acting out: theatre class where students rehearse for change</a>
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</p>
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<p>Raven contrasted her high-school experience to the newer critically engaged style of learning. She returned to Community Roots as an undergraduate program mentor where she adeptly engaged her near-peers in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/13504622.2013.877708">land-based</a> education. </p>
<p>Raven took the class on walking tours of her neighbourhood to explore how it was rebuilt in the Coney Island area in the aftermath of the 2012 Hurricane Sandy: the boardwalk and tourist attractions were renovated and developers who already had their sights on the area redoubled their efforts in a neighbourhood long in need of investment. In contrast, <a href="https://ncrc.org/gentrification/">small businesses, community gardens and other amenities frequented by locals were lost</a>. New luxury towers, higher rents and upscale businesses are pressing out long-term residents like Raven’s family. </p>
<p>Raven is now majoring in sustainability, working as a school hydroponics farm manager and is committed to helping communities like hers build resilience that works for everyone. </p>
<h2>Teaching for transformation</h2>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282948/original/file-20190707-51292-fcu6h9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282948/original/file-20190707-51292-fcu6h9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=674&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282948/original/file-20190707-51292-fcu6h9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=674&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282948/original/file-20190707-51292-fcu6h9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=674&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282948/original/file-20190707-51292-fcu6h9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=847&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282948/original/file-20190707-51292-fcu6h9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=847&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282948/original/file-20190707-51292-fcu6h9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=847&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Sunflower, one of many flowers grown in Community Roots gardens.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>Community Roots attracts many students like Iris and Raven: immigrants, children of immigrants and first-generation college students. Each student <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/13504622.2018.1469731">brings to the class deep, rich experiences of food, of places that are important to them and their own relationships to these things</a>. Learning starts in the garden and branches out into related themes and different parts of the city. When students make connections through critical thinking and relationships, their capacities to lead in their families and communities is strengthened.</p>
<p><em>The names Iris and Raven are pseudonyms chosen by the students for confidentiality.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/117459/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jennifer D. Adams receives funding from the National Science Foundation. She is a member of the Park Slope Food Coop. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Pieranna Pieroni is a member-owner of the Park Slope Food Coop.</span></em></p>Urban gardening is a departure point for learning about land and relationships, as well as food, consumer culture and social activism.Jennifer D. Adams, Canada Research Chair of Creativity and STEM and Associate Professor, University of CalgaryPieranna Pieroni, PhD student. The Graduate Center, City University of New YorkLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1084242018-12-17T19:06:03Z2018-12-17T19:06:03ZWhat’s your beef? How ‘carbon labels’ can steer us towards environmentally friendly food choices<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/250880/original/file-20181217-185255-cd0ise.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C8%2C5607%2C3724&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Delicious, nutritious... and emissions-intensive.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>What did you have for dinner last night? Might you have made a different choice if you had a simple way to compare the environmental impacts of different foods?</p>
<p>Most people do not recognise the environmental impact of their food choices. Our research, <a href="https://rdcu.be/bdHbo">published in Nature Climate Change</a>, shows that even when consumers do stop to think about the greenhouse gas emissions associated with their food, they tend to underestimate it.</p>
<p>Fortunately, our study also points to a potential solution. We found that a simple “carbon label” can nudge consumers in the right direction, just as nutrition information helps to highlight healthier options.</p>
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<p>
<em>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-reduce-your-kitchens-impact-on-global-warming-68484">How to reduce your kitchen's impact on global warming</a>
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<p>Most food production is highly industrialised, and has <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652616307570">environmental impacts</a> that most people do not consider. In many parts of the world, conversion of land for beef and agricultural production is a major cause of <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/es103240z">deforestation</a>. Natural gas is a key input in the manufacture of fertiliser. Refrigeration and <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/es702969f">transportation</a> also depend heavily on fossil fuels.</p>
<p>Overall, food production contributes <a href="https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-020411-130608">19-29% of global greenhouse emissions</a>. The biggest contributor is meat, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2011.12.054">particularly red meat</a>. Cattle raised for beef and dairy products are major sources of methane, a <a href="https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/understanding-global-warming-potentials">potent greenhouse gas</a>. </p>
<p>Meat production is inherently inefficient: fertiliser is used to grow feedstock, but only a small portion of this feed becomes animal protein. It takes about <a href="http://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/11/10/105002/meta">38 kilograms of plant-based protein to produce 1kg of beef</a> – an efficiency of just 3%. For comparison, pork has 9% efficiency and poultry has 13%.</p>
<p>We could therefore cut greenhouse emissions from food significantly by opting for <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-014-1169-1">more vegetarian or vegan meals</a>.</p>
<h2>Food for thought</h2>
<p>To find out whether consumers appreciate the environmental impact of their food choices, we asked 512 US volunteers to estimate the greenhouse emissions of 19 common foods and 18 typical household appliances. </p>
<p>We told the respondents that a 100-watt incandescent light bulb turned on for 1 hour produces 100 “greenhouse gas emission units”, and asked them to make estimates about the other items using this reference unit. In these terms, a serving of beef produces 2,481 emission units.</p>
<p>As shown below, participants underestimated the true greenhouse gas emissions of foods and appliances in almost every case. For example, the average estimate for a serving of beef was around 130 emission units – more than an order of magnitude less than the true amount. Crucially, foods were much more underestimated than appliances. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/250881/original/file-20181217-185268-1vjxxeb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/250881/original/file-20181217-185268-1vjxxeb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/250881/original/file-20181217-185268-1vjxxeb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/250881/original/file-20181217-185268-1vjxxeb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/250881/original/file-20181217-185268-1vjxxeb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/250881/original/file-20181217-185268-1vjxxeb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=491&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/250881/original/file-20181217-185268-1vjxxeb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=491&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/250881/original/file-20181217-185268-1vjxxeb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=491&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Consumers consistently underestimate the greenhouse emissions of food.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Camilleri et al. Nature Climate Change 2018</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Improving consumers’ knowledge</h2>
<p>People often <a href="https://doi.org/10.1207/s15516709cog2605_1">overestimate their understanding</a> of common everyday objects and processes. You might think you have a pretty solid idea of how a toilet works, until you are asked to describe it in exact detail.</p>
<p>Food is a similarly familiar but complex phenomenon. We eat it every day, but its production and distribution processes are largely hidden. Unlike appliances, which have energy labels, are plugged into an electrical outlet, emit heat, and generally have clear indications of when they are using electricity, the release of greenhouse gases in the production and transportation of food is invisible.</p>
<p>One way to influence food choice is through <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2012.08.032">labelling</a>. We designed a new carbon label to communicate information about the total amount of greenhouse emissions involved in the production and transport of food.</p>
<p>Drawing on knowledge from the design of existing labels for nutrition, fuel economy and energy efficiency, we came up with the label shown below. It has two key features. </p>
<p>First, it <a href="https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.2016.2703">translates</a> greenhouse emissions into a concrete, familiar unit: equivalent number of light bulb minutes. A serving of beef and vegetable soup, for example, is roughly equivalent to a light bulb turned on for 2,127 minutes – or almost 36 hours.</p>
<p>Second, it displays the food’s relative environmental impact compared with other food, on an 11-point scale from green (low impact) to red (high impact). Our serving of beef and vegetable soup rates at 10 on the scale – deep into the red zone – because beef production is so emissions-intensive.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249396/original/file-20181207-128193-1ftrxrs.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249396/original/file-20181207-128193-1ftrxrs.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249396/original/file-20181207-128193-1ftrxrs.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=557&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249396/original/file-20181207-128193-1ftrxrs.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=557&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249396/original/file-20181207-128193-1ftrxrs.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=557&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249396/original/file-20181207-128193-1ftrxrs.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=700&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249396/original/file-20181207-128193-1ftrxrs.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=700&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249396/original/file-20181207-128193-1ftrxrs.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=700&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In the can - a carbon label for beef and vegetable soup reveals its high environmental impact.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>To test the label, we asked 120 US volunteers to buy cans of soup from a selection of six. Half of the soups contained beef and the other half were vegetarian. Everyone was presented with price and standard nutritional information. Half of the group was also presented with our new carbon labels.</p>
<p>Volunteers who were shown the carbon labels chose significantly fewer beef soup options. Importantly, they also had more accurate perceptions of the relative carbon footprints of the different soups on offer.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/youve-heard-of-a-carbon-footprint-now-its-time-to-take-steps-to-cut-your-nitrogen-footprint-98762">You've heard of a carbon footprint – now it's time to take steps to cut your nitrogen footprint</a>
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<p>Figuring out the carbon footprint of every food item is difficult, expensive, and fraught with uncertainty. But we believe a simplified carbon label – perhaps using a traffic light system or showing <a href="http://www.eatlowcarbon.org/food-scores/">relative scores for different foods</a> – can help inform and empower consumers to reduce the environmental impact of their food choices.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/108424/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Adrian R. Camilleri received support from the American Australian Association.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dalia Patino-Echeverri received financial support from the Center for Climate and Energy Decision Making funded by the U.S. National Science Foundation (SES-0949710). </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rick Larrick has been a faculty affiliate at the Center for Research on Environmental Decisions (CRED), which was supported by the National Science Foundation.</span></em></p>Most consumers underestimate the greenhouse emissions associated with different foods. But environmental labels, similar to existing nutrition information, can help us make lower-impact choices.Adrian R. Camilleri, Senior Lecturer in Marketing, University of Technology SydneyDalia Patino-Echeverri, Associate professor, Duke UniversityRick Larrick, Professor of Management and Organizations, Duke UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1080492018-12-05T04:45:42Z2018-12-05T04:45:42ZIn 100 years’ time, maybe our food won’t be grown in soil<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/248905/original/file-20181204-133120-kl2dc9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Soil is a non-renewable part of the environment. Can it sustain food production for our growing population?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/natural-vegetable-fresh-agriculture-food-raw-552015133?src=7eozuMSt3_z-7BFY7vC7YQ-4-57">www.shutterstock.com</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>It takes a lot to make a room of soil scientists gasp.</p>
<p>Last month, I presented at the <a href="http://soilscienceconference.org.au/">National Soils Conference</a> in Canberra, and asked 400 colleagues a simple question: do you think soil will play as significant a role in food production in 100 years as it does today? </p>
<p>A sea of hands went up: the consensus was clearly “yes”. I demurred, saying I’m not so sure.</p>
<p>Gasps rippled across the room. Why say that? You’re a soil scientist! Are you crazy?</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/eyes-down-how-setting-our-sights-on-soil-could-help-save-the-climate-51514">Eyes down: how setting our sights on soil could help save the climate</a>
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<p>A century is a long time. Most of our scientific horizons seem no more than a decade or two away. But how we manage food and our environments needs very long-term, inspired thinking.</p>
<p>Within my concern about whether the future of food production is on <em>terra firma</em>, there is also a hope.</p>
<p>That hope rests in the desire that there will be adequate, quality food for all of the 10 billion, 15 billion or 20 billion people in the future. To achieve that, perhaps we don’t need to rely on the our planet’s thin skin of soil after all.</p>
<h2>Future farming</h2>
<p>We already see the advance of vertical and hydroponic farming, and the potential for growing meat-like protein in the lab. Synthetic biology is one way forward.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/248907/original/file-20181205-133120-8tu1e5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/248907/original/file-20181205-133120-8tu1e5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/248907/original/file-20181205-133120-8tu1e5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/248907/original/file-20181205-133120-8tu1e5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/248907/original/file-20181205-133120-8tu1e5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/248907/original/file-20181205-133120-8tu1e5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/248907/original/file-20181205-133120-8tu1e5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/248907/original/file-20181205-133120-8tu1e5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">We have seen the advances of hydroponic farming.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/hydroponic-farm-153790559?src=LJEAtFK80lQ9mtfEm-Fw-Q-1-9">www.shutterstock.com</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
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<p>So will we have the technological know-how, and will we be able to afford the infrastructural investment to produce all our food away from natural soil within a century?</p>
<p>Technologically we would like to think this is possible. But will we have the need? Do we have the will?</p>
<p>There are two predominant modern movements in relation to food. The first is the ethical and environmental movement, which holds that food should be produced without harm to the environment or perhaps even to animals. Soil is an important – and non-renewable – part of the environment. This raises the crucial question of whether it can continue to sustain the world’s growing population.</p>
<p>Alongside this is the slow food movement, with its concern for the production of high-quality food of known provenance. It’s sometimes called “paddock to plate” or “field to fork”.</p>
<p>Already, modern food production techniques to manage energy and water use can potentially give 10 times the yield per unit area that normal field conditions provide. This could be transferred to vertical growing spaces, 100 units high.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/feeding-cities-in-the-21st-century-why-urban-fringe-farming-is-vital-for-food-resilience-106162">Feeding cities in the 21st century: why urban-fringe farming is vital for food resilience</a>
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<hr>
<p>That alone means we would need just 0.1% of the land area we use now for food production. This could free up huge tracts of land to allow soil to recover from degradation, restoring ecosystems across the planet. It would represent a high-tech answer to the question of environmental ethics.</p>
<p>Returning areas of soil currently used for food production back to native vegetation could help us conserve wildlife, defend against floods, and provide natural buffer areas that can filter water and cycle nutrients. Locations may include soils in rainforests with copious biodiversity and voluminous water-cycling capability, or wetlands upstream of cities prone to flooding. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/248906/original/file-20181205-133120-1pt2k3y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/248906/original/file-20181205-133120-1pt2k3y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/248906/original/file-20181205-133120-1pt2k3y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/248906/original/file-20181205-133120-1pt2k3y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/248906/original/file-20181205-133120-1pt2k3y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/248906/original/file-20181205-133120-1pt2k3y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/248906/original/file-20181205-133120-1pt2k3y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/248906/original/file-20181205-133120-1pt2k3y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In Australia, the decline of carbon in cropping lands, soil erosion and nutrient imbalances continue largely unchecked and unabated.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/red-dry-earth-during-australias-droughts-1232746396?src=BNtPi54CLTUIsZ3wFSEzAw-1-38">www.shutterstock.com</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This approach is not necessarily incompatible with the slow food movement. Indeed, it could actually help the movement achieve its goals, because it would take the pressure off the world’s soils, thus ensuring there is enough high-quality soil left to pursue high-quality ethical production. </p>
<h2>More food for more people</h2>
<p>The United Nations Food & Agricultural Organisation predicts a need to double agricultural production by 2050 to meet the demand of an estimated population of 9.5 billion. This must be done while simultaneously maintaining functioning ecosystems; therefore securing soils and their life-supporting functions have never been more crucial.</p>
<p>In Australia, while soil care has improved, it is not yet sustainable. Widespread soil acidification and the decline of carbon in cropping lands, soil erosion and nutrient imbalances continue largely unchecked and unabated. With the new approach the appropriate soil and terroir could be dedicated to high-quality sustainable bespoke food and wine production. </p>
<p>The great loessial soils of North America, Russia and Ukraine are often regarded as the best in the world – they could be managed sustainably for the production of cereals for centuries to come. Even some of these most food-productive soils could be returned to their former pre-agricultural state. In Australia our famous red-brown earths might be more useful for forestry than being pressed into service for cereal production.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-change-is-making-soils-saltier-forcing-many-farmers-to-find-new-livelihoods-106048">Climate change is making soils saltier, forcing many farmers to find new livelihoods</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>That said, the infrastructural costs of producing food entirely without soil will be enormous. It’s more likely we will land on a blended solution that combines highly engineered growing spaces and “under the sky” soil-based agriculture. </p>
<p>Over the coming century, our challenge will be to move away from our almost total reliance on soil – that mutable and vital thin skin of the earth – to allow large tracts of our most vulnerable soils to repair. Healing our wounded soils will be an important step on the road to global sustainability.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/108049/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alex McBratney receives funding from Australian Research Council, Grains Research & Development Corporation, Australian Depertment of Agriculture & Water Resouces.I am a member of Soil Science Australia and the International Union of Soil Sciences. </span></em></p>The thin layer of soil on our planet’s surface ultimately sustains us all, but it’s a finite resource. With a growing global population, perhaps it is time to start looking for alternatives.Alex McBratney, Professor of Digital Agriculture & Soil Science; Director, Sydney Institute of Agriculture, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1006422018-08-14T23:45:58Z2018-08-14T23:45:58ZHow to conserve half the planet without going hungry<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/231369/original/file-20180809-30467-ifmx1b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Terraced rice fields in northwest Vietnam.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Every day there are <a href="https://www.unicef.org/media/media_102362.html">roughly 386,000</a> new mouths to feed, and in that same 24 hours, scientists estimate between <a href="https://www.nature.com/polopoly_fs/1.16523!/menu/main/topColumns/topLeftColumn/pdf/516158a.pdf">one and 100</a> species will go extinct. That’s it. Lost forever. </p>
<p>To deal with the biodiversity crisis we need to find a way to give nature more space — habitat loss is a key factor driving these extinctions. But how would this affect our food supplies?</p>
<p>New research, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-018-0119-8">published in <em>Nature Sustainability</em></a>, found it could mean we lose a lot of food — but exactly how much really depends on how we choose to give nature that space. Doing it right could mean rethinking how we do agriculture and conservation altogether.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/231003/original/file-20180808-191019-1t6ykyn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/231003/original/file-20180808-191019-1t6ykyn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/231003/original/file-20180808-191019-1t6ykyn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/231003/original/file-20180808-191019-1t6ykyn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/231003/original/file-20180808-191019-1t6ykyn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/231003/original/file-20180808-191019-1t6ykyn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/231003/original/file-20180808-191019-1t6ykyn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Rice terraces, Ubud, Indonesia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Unsplash</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A fair deal</h2>
<p>OK, but how much space are we talking about here?</p>
<p>There have been numbers flying around since the early 1990s. Some researchers say a quarter of all the space on earth, while others say three-quarters of all land and sea. Those in the middle ground, however, seem to suggest <a href="https://theconversation.com/setting-aside-half-the-earth-for-rewilding-the-ethical-dimension-46121">one half</a>. </p>
<p>Leading scientists are increasingly endorsing the figure, including natural scientist E.O. Wilson, who <a href="http://www.half-earthproject.org/book/">wrote a book</a> on it, and the former chief scientist at the World Wildlife Fund, Eric Dinerstein. These individuals are mobilizing funds, researchers, computing power and social capital to see what it takes to achieve this vision — through their organizations, <a href="http://www.half-earthproject.org/">The Half-Earth Project</a> and <a href="https://natureneedshalf.org/">Nature Needs Half</a>.</p>
<p>The idea might seem crazy, but then again, maybe we need crazy ideas to get us to think about the better world we might be able to create. </p>
<p>And there is something about handing over half of the planet to nature that has an air of fairness to it — well, on the side of nature at least.</p>
<h2>The global agricultural footprint</h2>
<p>The reality is, most people would likely want to help save other species too (aside maybe <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/genetically-engineered-mosquitos-fight-malaria">from mosquitoes</a> and some other pesky creatures). The upside seems massive and obvious — not in the least that our children will be able to enjoy these beautiful beings for generations to come.</p>
<p>But is it possible to conserve so much land and still feed everyone?</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/230997/original/file-20180807-7141-103fq7n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/230997/original/file-20180807-7141-103fq7n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230997/original/file-20180807-7141-103fq7n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230997/original/file-20180807-7141-103fq7n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230997/original/file-20180807-7141-103fq7n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=522&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230997/original/file-20180807-7141-103fq7n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=522&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230997/original/file-20180807-7141-103fq7n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=522&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Mosaic of irrigated crops, Ohrigstad, South Africa.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Unsplash</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Agriculture and settlements already cover <a href="https://www.earth-syst-sci-data.net/9/927/2017/essd-9-927-2017.html">37 per cent</a> of the Earth’s ice-free land, so it’s difficult to see how we could set aside half the planet in a way that honours the needs of other species, without losing some of our agricultural lands. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/biosci/bix014">Dinerstein and his colleagues found</a> that some locations, such as the Midwest United States produce so much food that it would be <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/radical-conservation/2018/jun/28/scientists-call-for-a-paris-style-agreement-to-save-life-on-earth">“delusional” to even suggest returning them to nature</a>. </p>
<p>But previous research didn’t quantify or map the scale of these trade-offs at a fine enough resolution to identify what’s really at stake.</p>
<h2>Feeding people and conserving species</h2>
<p>Our new research did just that.</p>
<p>It found that conserving habitats for other species could cost up to 29 per cent of the calories we currently produce from our food crops. But it also found that these food losses can be minimized to as little as three per cent depending on how that land is allocated to conservation. </p>
<p>If people manage landscapes so they are shared between agriculture and nature conservation — and make agricultural landscapes more kind to other species — it may bring effective results while avoiding large losses in food availability. </p>
<p>The trick here is making our agricultural landscapes less hostile to other life. This is no small ask.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/231976/original/file-20180814-2891-jm8ee2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/231976/original/file-20180814-2891-jm8ee2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/231976/original/file-20180814-2891-jm8ee2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/231976/original/file-20180814-2891-jm8ee2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/231976/original/file-20180814-2891-jm8ee2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/231976/original/file-20180814-2891-jm8ee2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/231976/original/file-20180814-2891-jm8ee2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/231976/original/file-20180814-2891-jm8ee2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Calorie losses under different Half-Earth scenarios. Land allocations were made by minimizing calorie losses to show the lowest possible caloric costs to Half-Earth under current production.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Mehrabi, Ellis, and Ramankutty 2018</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>At the country scale, the study identified places where food losses would be large, including India (22 per cent) and China (12 per cent). These two countries have the greatest number of undernourished people on the planet, 195 million and 134 million respectively. It also identified other areas, such as in Indonesia, that may be less available for conservation than previously thought.</p>
<p>Clearly, conflicts between nature and agriculture need to be navigated carefully. Protecting the world’s most vulnerable, malnourished and food insecure populations must remain a priority. And synergies between conservation and poverty reduction need to be the primary focus.</p>
<h2>Large potential co-benefits</h2>
<p>But it isn’t all bad news. </p>
<p>The study also showed that giving half the planet to nature could increase temperate and tropical forest cover by <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-018-0119-8">30 to 40 per cent</a>, which would help tackle climate change and so likely reduce the agricultural losses from <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature16467">extreme weather</a>. </p>
<p>What’s more, giving nature space might increase <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature20588">aspects of biodiversity important for crop yields like bees</a> — boosting the amount of food we can produce in a given area — and help to offset some of the losses that might come from conservation.</p>
<p>Paula Ehrlich, the president and CEO of the E.O. Wilson Biodiversity Foundation and head of the Half-Earth Project, shared her thoughts on the scientific study:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“Identifying where conservation areas can protect the most species is key to reversing the species extinction crisis and ensuring a healthy planet for all of life, including people. Once identified, conservation protections must integrate into their planning and management systems the cultures and economies of Indigenous peoples, who are de facto the original conservationists.”</p>
</blockquote>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/231004/original/file-20180808-138709-tpsq8h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/231004/original/file-20180808-138709-tpsq8h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=347&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/231004/original/file-20180808-138709-tpsq8h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=347&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/231004/original/file-20180808-138709-tpsq8h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=347&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/231004/original/file-20180808-138709-tpsq8h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/231004/original/file-20180808-138709-tpsq8h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/231004/original/file-20180808-138709-tpsq8h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A bee pollinates a flower.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Unsplash</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There can be little doubt that the idea of giving half the planet back to nature is visionary and aspirational. We think these new findings have important implications for how humans see their needs against those of other species.</p>
<p><em>The authors gratefully acknowledge the contributions of Carly Vynne Baker and Eric Dinerstein to the writing of this article, and Paula Ehrlich for her comments.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/100642/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Zia Mehrabi is affiliated with The Global Land Programme, and the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research's Platform for Big Data in Agriculture. He receives funding from: The University of British Columbia, Genome Canada, Genome BC, George Weston Limited, and Loblaw Companies Limited. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Erle C. Ellis is affiliated with The Global Land Programme and The Breakthrough Institute. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Navin Ramankutty receives funding from the Natural Science and Engineering Research Council (NSERC) of Canada, the Social Science and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) of Canada, Genome Canada/Genome BC. He is affiliated with the Global Land Programme. </span></em></p>A new analysis explores what making space for nature means for our global food production systems.Zia Mehrabi, Research Associate, University of British ColumbiaErle C. Ellis, Professor of Geography and Environmental Systems, University of Maryland, Baltimore CountyNavin Ramankutty, Professor, University of British ColumbiaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/996812018-07-11T20:08:58Z2018-07-11T20:08:58ZWhat we can learn from China’s fight against environmental ruin<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/226893/original/file-20180710-70057-18q9etm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Hukou Waterfall of Yellow River, China</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow_River#/media/File:Hukou_Waterfall.jpg">Leruswing /Wikimedia </a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>A good news story about China’s environment is something you don’t hear every day. But a major review published today in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-018-0280-2">Nature</a> has found that China has made significant progress in battling the environmental catastrophes of the past century. </p>
<p>Our team, which included 19 scientists from 16 Australian, Chinese and US institutions, reviewed China’s 16 major programs designed to improve the sustainability of its rural environment and people.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/chinas-green-planning-for-the-world-starts-with-infrastructure-85438">China's green planning for the world starts with infrastructure</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>We wanted to tell the story of China’s progress, so that other nations may learn from its experience as they strive towards the United Nations’ <a href="http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals.html">Sustainable Development Goals</a>.</p>
<h2>A monumental effort</h2>
<p>From 1998, China dramatically escalated its investment in rural sustainability. Through to 2015, more than US$350 billion was invested in 16 sustainability programs, addressing more than 620 million hectares (65% of China’s land area).</p>
<p>This effort, while imperfect, is globally unrivalled. Its environmental objectives included:</p>
<ul>
<li>reducing erosion, sedimentation, and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/jul/21/china-flooding-worst-decade">flooding</a> in the Yangtze and Yellow rivers</li>
<li>conserving forests in the north-east </li>
<li>mitigating <a href="https://theconversation.com/chinas-desertification-is-causing-trouble-across-asia-59417">desertification</a> in the dry north and rocky south</li>
<li>reducing the impact of <a href="http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-39801555">dust storms on the capital Beijing</a></li>
<li>increasing <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture_in_China">agricultural productivity</a> in China’s centre and east.</li>
</ul>
<p>Just as important were the socio-economic objectives of poverty reduction and economic development, particularly in western China. </p>
<p>Programs improved livelihoods by paying farmers to implement sustainability measures on their land. Providing housing and off-farm work in China’s booming cities also boosted household incomes and reduced pressure on land.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/226892/original/file-20180710-70039-p0sm5f.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/226892/original/file-20180710-70039-p0sm5f.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/226892/original/file-20180710-70039-p0sm5f.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=538&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/226892/original/file-20180710-70039-p0sm5f.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=538&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/226892/original/file-20180710-70039-p0sm5f.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=538&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/226892/original/file-20180710-70039-p0sm5f.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=676&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/226892/original/file-20180710-70039-p0sm5f.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=676&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/226892/original/file-20180710-70039-p0sm5f.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=676&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Click to enlarge: Investment under the 16 sustainability programs across China’s provinces from 1978 to 2015.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>An environmental emergency</h2>
<p>China’s pivot towards sustainability in the late 1990s came as a type of emergency response to the heinous condition of its rural people and environment. </p>
<p>China has been <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture_in_China">farmed for more than 8,000 years</a>, but by the mid-1900s the cumulative impacts of inefficient and unsustainable agricultural practices and the over-exploitation of natural resources caused widespread poverty and environmental degradation. </p>
<p>Floods, droughts, and other catastrophes ensued, including the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Chinese_Famine">Great Chinese Famine</a> from 1959-61, which caused between 20 million and 45 million deaths.</p>
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<p>Following the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_economic_reform">1978 economic reforms</a>, six sustainability programs were established, but with only modest investment conditions continued to deteriorate. By the 1990s natural forest cover was below 10% and around 5 billion tonnes of soil eroded annually, causing major <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/nov/21/china-soil-erosion-population">water quality and sedimentation problems</a>. </p>
<p>In the Loess Plateau, the worst-affected parts were losing 100 tonnes of soil per hectare each year to erosion, and the Yellow River that flowed through it had the dubious honour of being the <a href="https://www.google.com.au/imgres?imgurl=https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/Hukou_Waterfall.jpg&imgrefurl=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow_River&h=2465&w=3758&tbnid=MF2lOkGHKtn_OM:&tbnh=160&tbnw=243&usg=__AkoZoewQeTMEe5cywagAheCm2T4%3D&vet=10ahUKEwigo_KLrPzaAhVEfLwKHQm4AaoQ_B0IgQIwFw..i&docid=CzZmZY0zug9bbM&itg=1&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwigo_KLrPzaAhVEfLwKHQm4AaoQ_B0IgQIwFw">world’s muddiest waterway</a>. </p>
<p>Agricultural soils were exhausted and productivity was down, <a href="http://www.conservationmagazine.org/2008/07/restoration-as-weed-control-2/">grasslands were overgrazed</a>, and more than a quarter of China was <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/danielrechtschaffen/2017/09/18/how-chinas-growing-deserts-are-choking-the-country/#15b1f5995d1b">desertified</a>.</p>
<p>In the late 1990s, China experienced a series of natural disasters widely believed to have been caused by unsustainable land management, including the <a href="http://www.eco-business.com/news/keeping-the-yellow-river-flowing/">Yellow River drought in 1997</a>, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yangtze#Periodic_floods">Yangtze River floods in 1998</a>, and the severe dust storms that repeatedly afflicted Beijing in 2000.</p>
<p>This sustainability emergency triggered a great acceleration in investment after 1998, including the launch of 11 new programs. The portfolio included iconic programs such as the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grain_for_Green">Grain for Green Program</a>, the <a href="https://www.csmonitor.com/Science/2016/0319/China-s-forest-conservation-program-shows-proof-of-success">Natural Forest Conservation Program</a>, and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three-North_Shelter_Forest_Program">Three North Shelterbelt Program</a> which aimed to slow and reverse desertification by planting a 4,500km <a href="http://theplaidzebra.com/china-is-building-a-great-green-wall-of-trees-to-stop-desertification/">Great Green Wall</a>.</p>
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<h2>The result</h2>
<p>After 20 years the results of these programs have been overwhelmingly positive. <a href="https://www.gizmodo.com.au/2016/03/after-years-of-deforestation-chinas-forests-are-starting-to-return/">Deforestation has declined</a> and <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2018/01/05/china-plant-forest-size-ireland-bid-become-world-leader-conservation/">forest cover</a> has exceeded 22%. Grasslands have expanded and regenerated. Desertification trends have reversed in many areas, and while mostly driven by climatic change, <a href="http://time.com/4851013/china-greening-kubuqi-desert-land-restoration/">restoration efforts have helped</a>. </p>
<p>Soil erosion has waned substantially and water quality and river sedimentation have improved dramatically. Yellow River sediment loads have fallen by 90% and the Yangtze is not far behind. Agricultural productivity has increased through efficiency gains and technological advances. Rural households are generally better off and hunger has largely disappeared.</p>
<p>That said, there have also been significant unintended consequences. Afforestation – or planting trees where trees never grew – has <a href="http://theconversation.com/chinas-fight-against-desertification-should-not-be-done-at-the-cost-of-water-security-83678">dried up water resources</a> and led to high rates of <a href="https://www.economist.com/news/international/21613334-vast-tree-planting-arid-regions-failing-halt-deserts-march-great-green-wall">plantation failure</a>. </p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/chinas-fight-against-desertification-should-not-be-done-at-the-cost-of-water-security-83678">China's fight against desertification should not be done at the cost of water security</a>
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<p>In the most degraded areas, significant <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2016/10/25/world/asia/china-climate-change-resettlement.html">cultural disruption</a> has occurred through the <a href="http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2017-01/23/content_28030111.htm">migration</a> of entire communities to less sensitive environments. More could be done to conserve biodiversity, particularly by <a href="https://e360.yale.edu/features/chinas_reforestation_programs_big_success_or_just_an_illusion">prioritising diverse natural forest restoration and regeneration</a> over single-species plantations.</p>
<p>The precise impacts of China’s sustainability programs are clouded by other influences such as the <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-02-03/the-struggles-and-benefits-of-chinas-little-emperor-generation/9323300">One Child Policy</a> and <a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com.au/2014/08/household-responsibility-system.html">Household Responsibility System</a>, urbanisation and development, and environmental change. Detailed and comprehensive evaluations are now needed to disentangle these factors.</p>
<h2>Lessons from China’s experience</h2>
<p>While the context of China’s path to sustainability is unique, other countries can learn from its experience. Nations must commit to sustainability as a <a href="https://theconversation.com/government-needs-to-front-up-billions-not-millions-to-save-australias-threatened-species-74250">long-term, large-scale public investment</a> like education, health, defence, and infrastructure. </p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/government-needs-to-front-up-billions-not-millions-to-save-australias-threatened-species-74250">Government needs to front up billions, not millions, to save Australia's threatened species</a>
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<p>We do not wish to <a href="https://theconversation.com/chinas-growing-footprint-on-the-globe-threatens-to-trample-the-natural-world-88312">pretend</a> that China is a global poster child of sustainability. Very serious <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/global-development-professionals-network/2017/jun/02/china-water-dangerous-pollution-greenpeace">pollution of its air, water, and soils</a>, <a href="https://www.economist.com/news/china/21640396-how-fix-chinese-cities-great-sprawl-china">urban expansion</a>, vanishing <a href="http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2015/10/china-s-vanishing-coastal-wetlands-are-nearing-critical-red-line">coastal wetlands</a> and the <a href="https://unchronicle.un.org/article/will-china-say-no-wildlife-trade">illegal wildlife trade</a> still dog the world’s most populous nation. </p>
<p>As China cleans up its domestic environment, great care needs to be taken not to simply <a href="https://e360.yale.edu/features/chinas_appetite_for_wood_takes_a_heavy_toll_on_forests">shift problems offshore</a>.</p>
<p>But to give credit where credit is due, China’s vast investment has made great strides towards improving the sustainability of rural people and nature. </p>
<p>China’s path towards sustainability is clearly charted in the <a href="http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/photo/2015-11/04/c_134783513.htm">13th Five Year Plan</a> where President Xi’s Chinese dream for an <a href="https://www.ecowatch.com/china-ecological-civilization-2532760301.html">ecological civilization</a> and a “beautiful China” is laid out.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/99681/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Brett Bryan is a Visiting Scientist at CSIRO and holds Adjunct Professorships at Beijing Normal University and The University of Tasmania.
This research was part-funded by the Australian Government through the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade Climate Change Engagement Program.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lei Gao does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>After cascading ecological catastrophes in the 90s, China spent 20 years seriously investing in sustainability. Now that effort is paying off.Brett Bryan, Professor of Global Change, Environment, and Society, Deakin UniversityLei Gao, Senior Research Scientist, CSIROLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/952652018-04-19T18:02:32Z2018-04-19T18:02:32ZWill rising carbon dioxide levels really boost plant growth?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/215614/original/file-20180419-134691-1yocsup.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/summer-day-highlights-agricultural-field-which-569076901?src=jwQ-RWG3JK9sYcKy3hx0yQ-1-1">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Plants have become an unlikely subject of political debate. <a href="http://www.nature.com/nclimate/journal/v6/n12/pdf/nclimate3115.pdf">Many projections</a> suggest that burning fossil fuels and the resulting climate change will make it harder to grow enough food for everyone in the coming decades. But some groups opposed to limiting our emissions <a href="https://www.thegwpf.org/content/uploads/2015/10/benefits.pdf">claim that</a> higher levels of carbon dioxide (CO₂) will boost plants’ photosynthesis and so increase food production. </p>
<p>New research <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/cgi/doi/10.1126/science.aas9313">published in Science</a> suggests that predicting the effects of increasing CO₂ levels on plant growth may actually be more complicated than anyone had expected.</p>
<p>To understand what the researchers have found out requires a bit of background information about photosynthesis. This is the process that uses light energy to power the conversion of CO₂ into the sugars that fuel plant growth and ultimately provide the food we depend on. Unfortunately, photosynthesis is flawed.</p>
<p>Molecules of CO₂ and oxygen are similar shapes and the key mechanism that harvests CO₂, an enzyme with the catchy name of RuBisCO, sometimes <a href="https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/nph.14307">mistakes an oxygen molecule for one of CO₂</a>. This wasn’t a problem <a href="https://ac.els-cdn.com/S095816691730099X/1-s2.0-S095816691730099X-main.pdf?_tid=510a1363-472a-43c4-8db7-89473ceefbad&acdnat=1523966298_b389596955cd31f1385fd21e53c240bc">when RuBisCO first evolved</a>. But about 30m years ago CO₂ levels in the atmosphere dropped to less than <a href="http://rsta.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/371/2001/20130096">one-third of what they had been</a>. With less CO₂ around, plants began mistakenly trying to harvest oxygen molecules more often. Today this is often a substantial drain upon a plant’s energy and resources.</p>
<p>As it gets hotter, RuBisCO becomes even more prone to errors. Water also evaporates faster, forcing plants to take measures to avoid drying out. Unfortunately, stopping water getting out of their leaves also stops CO₂ getting in and, as RuBisCO becomes starved of CO₂, it wastes more and more of the plant’s resources by using oxygen instead. At 25°C, this can consume one-quarter of what the plant produces – and the problem becomes more extreme <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3244903">as temperatures rise further</a>.</p>
<p>However, some <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982213005071">plants developed a way to avoid the problem</a> by pumping CO₂ to the cells where the RuBisCO is located to turbocharge photosynthesis. These are known as C4 plants, as opposed to normal C3 plants which can’t do this. C4 plants can be much more productive, especially under hot and dry conditions. They came to dominate Earth’s tropical grasslands from <a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev-arplant-042811-105511">5m to 10m years ago</a>, probably because the world became drier at this time and their <a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev-arplant-042811-105511">water use is more efficient</a>.</p>
<p>Maize (corn) and sugar cane are C4 plants but most crops are not, although a project initially funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation has been seeking to improve yields in rice by <a href="http://c4rice.irri.org/index.php/19-about/56-what-is-c4-rice">adding C4 machinery to it</a>.</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/215617/original/file-20180419-163978-riqsx4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/215617/original/file-20180419-163978-riqsx4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/215617/original/file-20180419-163978-riqsx4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/215617/original/file-20180419-163978-riqsx4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/215617/original/file-20180419-163978-riqsx4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=507&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/215617/original/file-20180419-163978-riqsx4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=507&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/215617/original/file-20180419-163978-riqsx4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=507&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Corn is more productive in hot, dry conditions.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/close-corn-crop-475104994?src=xAFTan8afr6tVp7yah-khg-1-7">Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>Most models of how plant growth and crop yields <a href="http://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/8/1/014054/pdf">will be affected by the CO₂</a> released by burning fossil fuels have assumed that regular C3 plants may perform better. Meanwhile, the RuBisCO in C4 plants already gets enough CO₂ and so increases should have little effect on them. This has been supported by <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15720649">previous short-term studies</a>.</p>
<p>The new Science paper reports data from a project that has been comparing C3 and C4 plants for the <a href="http://www.biocon.umn.edu">past 20 years</a>. Their findings are surprising. As was expected, for the first ten years, C3 grasses grown under extra CO₂ did better – but their C4 equivalents did not. However, in the second decade of the experiment the situation reversed, with the C3 plants producing less biomass under higher levels of CO₂ and the C4 plants producing more.</p>
<p>It seems that this perplexing result may be because as time went by, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nclimate1694">less nitrogen was available</a> to fertilise growth of plants in the C3 plots and more in the C4 plots. So the effect was not just due to the plants themselves but also to their interactions with the chemistry of the soil and its microbes.</p>
<p>These results suggest that the way that changes in CO₂ affect established ecosystems are likely to be complex and hard to predict. They may hint that, as CO₂ in the atmosphere increases, C4 tropical grasslands could perhaps <a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2001/01/010111073831.htm">absorb more carbon</a> than expected, and forests, which are predominantly C3, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nclimate1694">might absorb less</a>. But the exact picture is likely to depend on local conditions.</p>
<h2>Impact on food</h2>
<p>What this means for food production may be more straightforward and less comforting than at first glance. These results are from grasses that survive and continue to grow year on year. But current cereal crops are “annual plants” that die after one season and have to be replanted.</p>
<p>As a result, they don’t have the opportunity to build up the soil interactions that seem to have boosted growth of the C4 plants in the experiment. We can’t expect that our food security problems will be solved by C4 crop yields increasing in response to CO₂ as they did in the experiment. Similarly, the eventual fall in biomass seen in the C3 plots shouldn’t happen in C3 annual crops.</p>
<p>But, as we know, C3 plants waste a lot more resources at higher temperatures, so any increase in photosynthesis from rising CO₂ levels seems likely to be <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/content/312/5782/1918">at least cancelled out</a> by the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3510102">effects of the global warming</a> it will cause. And that’s without factoring in changes to rainfall patterns such as <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nclimate2617">more frequent droughts</a>. Solutions that seem to be too good to be true generally are – and, for the moment, that still seems to be the case for the idea that CO₂ enhanced crop yields will feed the world.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/95265/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stuart Thompson has received funding from MAFF and the Nuffield Foundation. He consults to the University of Copenhagen. </span></em></p>New research finds more CO₂ can actually make most plants smaller in the long-term - but the story for crops isn’t so simple.Stuart Thompson, Senior Lecturer in Plant Biochemistry, University of WestminsterLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/923862018-03-01T14:21:31Z2018-03-01T14:21:31ZSustainable diets will remain a minefield until we change the way we approach food<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/208479/original/file-20180301-152564-f7ewfx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/beautiful-young-brunette-looking-product-label-376099492?src=91PPLlJitghe7IoKDk8mOQ-1-12">antoniodiaz/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>If you’re one of the millions of people concerned about the growing pressures that our food habits are placing on the environment, then you’ve probably felt confused, conflicted or downright overwhelmed by your own food choices on more than a few occasions.</p>
<p>Is quinoa <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/2016/jul/17/quinoa-threat-food-security-improving-peruvian-farmers-lives-superfood">good</a>, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/jan/16/vegans-stomach-unpalatable-truth-quinoa">evil</a>, or <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2013/jan/25/quinoa-good-evil-complicated">somewhere in between</a>? Were the coconuts in my coconut milk <a href="https://www.huffingtonpost.com/nathan-j-winograd/did-an-abused-monkey-pick_b_8341554.html">picked by a monkey</a>? Am I a bad person if I <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/food-and-drink/news/why-your-avocado-toast-could-be-destroying-mexican-forests/">eat an avocado</a>?</p>
<p>In the drive for change, it’s vital for consumers to use their purchasing power as discerningly as they can. But with profit-making still at the top of the food industry agenda – and the environmental costs of many food products hidden by complex supply chains – we need more than consumer power alone to achieve a truly sustainable food system.</p>
<p>The global population continues to grow in a world with limited resources, <a href="https://www.foodsecurity.ac.uk/challenge/">increasing the pressure on producers</a> to maximise the amount of food that can be grown on existing land. As the long tentacles of transnational corporations seek the most cost-effective and efficient supply chains to feed these extra mouths, the environment has often had to take the strain. A billion tonnes of top soil vital to crop quality <a href="http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Agri-environmental_indicator_-_soil_erosion">are lost every year through erosion</a> in the 28 EU states alone, while land use change has driven a <a href="http://awsassets.panda.org/downloads/lpr_living_planet_report_2016_summary.pdf">58% decline in vertebrate abundance</a> since 1970.</p>
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<p>Food supply chains are now often so complicated and opaque that consumers are rarely — if ever – presented with a comprehensive picture of the journey their food has been on. Instead, we have to rely on businesses and individuals at each stage to act ethically – and on supermarkets to provide the information necessary for us to make sustainable choices. </p>
<p>But our trust is tempered by the <a href="http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/full/10.1108/IJRDM-02-2014-0013">opposing pulls of supermarkets’ interests</a>. To satisfy customers, they need to make sure that their food is safe to eat and has been produced in a sustainable way – but their first responsibility is to turn a profit for shareholders.</p>
<h2>Hidden costs</h2>
<p>The pitfalls of this conflict are clear. Rarely a day seems to go by without a story pointing out the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/aug/31/consumers-betrayed-over-sustainability-of-worlds-biggest-tuna-fishery">flaws in certification schemes</a>, or the concealed <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/feb/01/slavery-warning-uk-scallop-fisheries">social</a> and <a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/01/180125085116.htm">environmental</a> costs of seemingly harmless supermarket food.</p>
<p>Often, the food labels and ingredients lists that consumers rely on to make purchasing decisions are wholly inadequate. Take meat production, where many of the true costs of production are hidden. We’ve been conditioned by the industry to look out for the “Red Tractor” or “organically certified” symbols as a <a href="https://www.redtractor.org.uk/what-we-do/what-does-the-logo-stand-for">sign of quality</a>. But where, for example, is the label indicating what the animal was fed on?</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/208487/original/file-20180301-152581-jesvcq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/208487/original/file-20180301-152581-jesvcq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208487/original/file-20180301-152581-jesvcq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208487/original/file-20180301-152581-jesvcq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208487/original/file-20180301-152581-jesvcq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208487/original/file-20180301-152581-jesvcq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208487/original/file-20180301-152581-jesvcq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Could the meat you eat be contributing to deforestation?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/deforestation-brazil-aerial-view-large-soy-19735894?src=xLKGlSQ85vNS7wdndMgCCg-1-0">Frontpage/Shutterstock</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>The chances are that soybeans were a large part of your former cow, pig, or chicken’s diet. Often, this soy will be <a href="http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/footprint/agriculture/soy/consumers/">linked to deforestation</a> of ecologically important landscapes. In some cases, the soybeans might have been sourced ethically, but a lack of information means that as consumers we simply don’t know.</p>
<p>In the fresh fruit and vegetable aisles, consumers have become used to being able to purchase any food item that they desire throughout the year. Consumers are not provided with the information, though, to decide whether the benefits to overseas farmers who produce this food <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2008/mar/23/food.ethicalliving">outweigh the environmental costs</a> of eating foods out of season. Collectively, this fosters food habits that are fundamentally incompatible with sustainability.</p>
<h2>Systems change</h2>
<p>In many cases, retailers have little power to provide the information consumers deserve. Half of the food consumed in the UK today is classified as “<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2018/feb/02/ultra-processed-products-now-half-of-all-uk-family-food-purchases">ultra-processed</a>”, passing through multiple factories and using industrial ingredients a far cry from the fresh produce associated with home cooking. These complex supply chains are often impenetrable from the outside, meaning that often even retailers don’t know the source or even contents of their products – as was the case when UK supermarkets unknowingly stocked “beef” lasagne products <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-21375594">containing 60-100% horse meat</a>.</p>
<p>Because of this, we cannot depend on food retailers alone to promote genuinely sustainable consumption. They are, after all, just the visible endpoint of a food system with problems at every stage of the chain.</p>
<p>It’s time to bring more voices to the table and take a system-wide approach. The <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/649906/Transparency_in_Supply_Chains_A_Practical_Guide_2017.pdf">Modern Slavery Act</a>, <a href="https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals/">Sustainable Development Goals</a>, <a href="https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/climatechange/">Paris Climate Agreement</a>, and <a href="http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/ourwork/sustainable-development/natural-capital-and-the-environment/biodiversity-and-ecosystems-management/new-york-declaration-on-forests.html">New York Declaration on Forests</a> have all enshrined grand shared ambitions for society and development. New policy initiatives such as <a href="http://ec.europa.eu/research/bioeconomy/index.cfm?pg=policy&lib=food2030">FOOD 2030</a> are now drawing from these frameworks in an attempt to define the collective roles and responsibilities of producers, manufacturers, retailers and consumers in delivering sustainable food.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/208483/original/file-20180301-152584-1elrvmj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/208483/original/file-20180301-152584-1elrvmj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=473&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208483/original/file-20180301-152584-1elrvmj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=473&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208483/original/file-20180301-152584-1elrvmj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=473&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208483/original/file-20180301-152584-1elrvmj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=595&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208483/original/file-20180301-152584-1elrvmj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=595&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208483/original/file-20180301-152584-1elrvmj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=595&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Expect to see more of these popping up on Paris rooftops.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/urban-farm-growing-vegetables-on-roof-453003445?src=iXAUm4RwyYtLLQLmKMLzkA-1-14">Alison Hancock/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Food “pacts” are already helping to align international, national and local policy. For example, more than 100 cities have signed up to the <a href="http://www.milanurbanfoodpolicypact.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/MUFPP-15-October_press-release.pdf">Milan Urban Food Policy Pact</a>, while New York has adopted regulations to benefit local producers, and Paris has developed plans to develop 33 acres of urban farmland by 2020. <a href="https://www.foodsecurity.ac.uk/">Inter-disciplinary research activities</a> are also bringing producers, suppliers and consumers together to work out practical solutions to key problems such as <a href="http://www.farmingmonthly.co.uk/news/arable/10951-farming-and-scientific-leaders-discuss-challenges-facing-uks-crop-production/">maintaining soil health</a>.</p>
<p>In the past few years, social and environmental issues have even become among <a href="https://hbr.org/2016/07/the-fastest-growing-cause-for-shareholders-is-sustainability">the biggest concerns of shareholders</a>. This new-found conscience in investors could play a big role in bringing about meaningful change across the food supply chain – although we must remain vigilant to <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/greenwashing-green-energy-hoffman/">greenwashing</a>, a marketing strategy aimed at portraying a company as environmentally friendly when they are not.</p>
<p>Of course, consumers and retailers still have a role in driving change towards a more sustainable food system. Supply does follow demand – and we mustn’t shirk our own responsibilities. But we must also band together to ensure that there are structures in place that stop food choices from being such a minefield. Only then will consumers be given the choice that they – and the planet – deserve: one that is ethical and sustainable.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/92386/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Chris West receives funding from BBSRC, Formas, SIDA, Collaboration for Forests and Agriculture. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tony Heron receives funding from BBSRC, Nuffield Foundation. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bob Doherty does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Food chains are often so complex that it’s too hard to make the right choices.Chris West, Senior Research Fellow, Stockholm Environment Institute, University of YorkBob Doherty, Professor of Marketing, University of YorkTony Heron, Professor of International Political Economy, University of YorkLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/862292017-12-07T19:16:42Z2017-12-07T19:16:42ZSustainable shopping: how to buy tuna without biting a chunk out of the oceans<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/197711/original/file-20171205-23047-f6viwh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Canned tuna is an Australian pantry staple. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">NOAA</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>Shopping can be confusing at the best of times, and trying to find environmentally friendly options makes it even more difficult. Welcome to our <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/sustainable-shopping-38407">Sustainable Shopping</a> series, in which we ask experts to provide easy eco-friendly guides to purchases big and small.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>Tuna is the most popular canned fish eaten in <a href="http://www.agriculture.gov.au/fisheries/aus-seafood-trade/ast">Australia</a> and one of the most popular fish <a href="http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5555e.pdf">produced worldwide</a>. The total catch of tuna in 2013 was <a href="http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5555e.pdf">about 7.4 million tonnes</a>.</p>
<p>Tuna is a massive industry and most of this catch <a href="http://www.fao.org/in-action/globefish/fishery-information/resource-detail/en/c/880744/">ends up in cans</a>. But while each can of tuna might look similar, the environmental impacts of different brands vary. So, with a sea of “eco-friendly” labels and choices, how do you know which is the most sustainable?</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australian-endangered-species-southern-bluefin-tuna-11636">Australian endangered species: Southern Bluefin Tuna</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Almost all Australian canned tuna is imported</h2>
<p>Australia produces large amounts of high-end seafood such as rock lobster, abalone and fresh tuna, but most of this doesn’t end up in our supermarkets – it is exported to countries willing to pay more. Instead, <a href="http://www.agriculture.gov.au/fisheries/aus-seafood-trade/ast">roughly 70%</a> of all seafood eaten in Australia is imported. Most of this includes lower-value products such as frozen fish, frozen prawns and canned tuna. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198089/original/file-20171207-31532-fp14so.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198089/original/file-20171207-31532-fp14so.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198089/original/file-20171207-31532-fp14so.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198089/original/file-20171207-31532-fp14so.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198089/original/file-20171207-31532-fp14so.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198089/original/file-20171207-31532-fp14so.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198089/original/file-20171207-31532-fp14so.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198089/original/file-20171207-31532-fp14so.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cans of tuna line the supermarket shelves. Which one is the choice for the sustainable shopper?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://thumb1.shutterstock.com/display_pic_with_logo/1339522/591127079/stock-photo-auckland-new-zealand-february-cans-of-tuna-salmon-and-other-kinds-of-fish-displayed-591127079.jpg">www.shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Australia is a <a href="http://www.fao.org/in-action/globefish/fishery-information/resource-detail/en/c/880744/">major market</a> for canned tuna. Almost all of the canned tuna sold here comes from <a href="http://www.agriculture.gov.au/fisheries/aus-seafood-trade/ast">Thailand</a>, which processes about half of the world’s tuna supply. It is now <a href="http://www.littletuna.com.au/">almost</a> impossible to buy Australian-produced canned tuna since large-scale production in Australia ended in <a href="http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/nation/john-west-rejects-aussie-tuna-cannery-and-moves-to-asia/news-story/fe0e674cef7cb029da2a03a0c070d9c6">May 2010</a>.</p>
<p>While it is <a href="http://www.agriculture.gov.au/SiteCollectionDocuments/fisheries/aus-seafood-trade.pdf">not unusual</a> for a developed country to import large amounts of seafood, Australia is <a href="http://www.publish.csiro.au/book/7276/#contents">failing</a> to meet international standards for sustainable seafood trade. Australia has strict requirements for seafood exports, but seafood imports are <a href="http://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2976&context=lhapapers">largely unregulated</a>. This means it can be difficult to know if the imported seafood you buy was caught sustainably or even legally.</p>
<h2>Catching 7.4 million tonnes of tuna</h2>
<p>High global demand drives unsustainable fishing practices. These practices include overfishing, issues related to bycatch (which is the accidental catch of other marine animals like dolphins, turtles and seabirds), and “illegal, unregulated and unreported” (IUU) fishing. Now, 77% of the world’s fisheries are fished at their <a href="http://www.fao.org/newsroom/common/ecg/1000505/en/stocks.pdf">limit or beyond</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198078/original/file-20171207-31528-h585h4.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198078/original/file-20171207-31528-h585h4.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198078/original/file-20171207-31528-h585h4.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=926&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198078/original/file-20171207-31528-h585h4.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=926&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198078/original/file-20171207-31528-h585h4.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=926&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198078/original/file-20171207-31528-h585h4.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1164&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198078/original/file-20171207-31528-h585h4.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1164&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198078/original/file-20171207-31528-h585h4.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1164&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Of the many different types of tuna species, skipjack tuna is the most sustainable option.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.fao.org/fi/figis/speciesgroup/data/assets/images/sizes.gif">FAO</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Unsustainable fishing practices have devastating effects on the health of the marine ecosystem and the livelihoods of fishers. With this in mind, it is more important than ever to know about the origin of your fish.</p>
<p>Some species of tuna are fished at sustainable rates, whereas others are overfished. The most common species that end up in cans are skipjack and yellowfin tuna. Both of these species have <a href="http://www.agriculture.gov.au/abares/publications/display?url=http://143.188.17.20/anrdl/DAFFService/display.php?fid=pb_fsr17d9abm_20170929.xml">sustainable stocks</a> in the Western and Central Pacific Ocean (WCPO). Skipjack also has <a href="http://www.agriculture.gov.au/abares/publications/display?url=http://143.188.17.20/anrdl/DAFFService/display.php?fid=pb_fsr17d9abm_20170929.xml">sustainable stocks</a> in the Indian Ocean. Higher-value species such as bigeye and bluefin varieties are usually reserved for sushi and sashimi markets. Southern bluefin tuna is <a href="http://www.agriculture.gov.au/abares/publications/display?url=http://143.188.17.20/anrdl/DAFFService/display.php?fid=pb_fsr17d9abm_20170929.xml">overfished</a> and is listed as <a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/21858/0">critically endangered</a> by the IUCN.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australian-endangered-species-southern-bluefin-tuna-11636">Australian endangered species: Southern Bluefin Tuna</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>The type of catch matters</h2>
<p>The most sustainable fishing methods for tuna are “pole-and-line” and “FAD-free purse seine”. However, each method has a catch.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198085/original/file-20171207-31517-wkrojb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198085/original/file-20171207-31517-wkrojb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198085/original/file-20171207-31517-wkrojb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198085/original/file-20171207-31517-wkrojb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198085/original/file-20171207-31517-wkrojb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198085/original/file-20171207-31517-wkrojb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=495&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198085/original/file-20171207-31517-wkrojb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=495&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198085/original/file-20171207-31517-wkrojb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=495&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Pole-and-line fishing is used to catch tuna species one fish at a time.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/GP01PJT.jpg">Paul Hilton/Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="http://ipnlf.org/">Pole-and-line fishing</a> is the traditional method of using a pole, line and hook to catch fish. The rate of bycatch is small because fishers can catch and release non-tuna species. However, bait fish are used to attract the tuna, which can have a large impact if the bait fish is not caught in a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308597X10001533">sustainable way</a>. Due to the labour-intensive nature of pole-and-line fishing and dependence on bait fish, this method makes up only a small proportion of the total tuna caught and is unable to supply tuna in large amounts.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/194471/original/file-20171114-27616-1atofq3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/194471/original/file-20171114-27616-1atofq3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/194471/original/file-20171114-27616-1atofq3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/194471/original/file-20171114-27616-1atofq3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/194471/original/file-20171114-27616-1atofq3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/194471/original/file-20171114-27616-1atofq3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=538&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/194471/original/file-20171114-27616-1atofq3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=538&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/194471/original/file-20171114-27616-1atofq3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=538&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Purse seine catches tuna by surrounding them with a net and hauling the catch up to the ship. When a FAD device is used, bycatch can also be caught.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.fao.org/fishery/fishtech/40/en">FAO</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Purse seine fisheries use a large net to surround a school of fish. In recent years purse seiners have increasingly used fish aggregating devices (FAD) to attract tuna and increase their efficiency. However, FADs also attract bycatch and juvenile tuna and are poorly regulated. Therefore, only purse seine fisheries that set on <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tkUSkaeFu48">free-swimming schools of tuna</a> are considered sustainable.</p>
<h2>Quick guide to better tuna</h2>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198103/original/file-20171207-31532-1gg52bh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198103/original/file-20171207-31532-1gg52bh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198103/original/file-20171207-31532-1gg52bh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=1865&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198103/original/file-20171207-31532-1gg52bh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=1865&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198103/original/file-20171207-31532-1gg52bh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=1865&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198103/original/file-20171207-31532-1gg52bh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=2344&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198103/original/file-20171207-31532-1gg52bh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=2344&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198103/original/file-20171207-31532-1gg52bh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=2344&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Quick guide: The right can of tuna.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What can you do?</h2>
<p><strong>1. Read the label</strong></p>
<p>Examine the details on the back of the can for tuna species, fishing method and catch location. There are sustainable options for each of these categories.</p>
<p>The best approach is to opt for skipjack before yellowfin or other tuna varieties. Next, choose tuna caught using “pole-and-line” or “FAD-free purse seine” before “longline” or “purse seine”. Then, check for tuna caught in the Western Central Pacific Ocean – this may appear on the can as <a href="http://www.fao.org/fishery/area/search/en">FAO Nr. 71</a>. If the can doesn’t at least identify the species or fishing method, it’s probably not worth your time. </p>
<p><strong>2. Consider eco-labels over unverified self-claims</strong></p>
<p><a href="https://www.iso.org/files/live/sites/isoorg/files/archive/pdf/en/environmental-labelling.pdf">Eco-labels</a> and eco-claims often feature prominently on tuna cans. Eco-labels are market-based tools used to promote sustainable practices. Decoding them can seem challenging, but it doesn’t have to be.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198086/original/file-20171207-31560-1w81rlj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198086/original/file-20171207-31560-1w81rlj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198086/original/file-20171207-31560-1w81rlj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198086/original/file-20171207-31560-1w81rlj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198086/original/file-20171207-31560-1w81rlj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198086/original/file-20171207-31560-1w81rlj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198086/original/file-20171207-31560-1w81rlj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198086/original/file-20171207-31560-1w81rlj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Dolphin-safe labels only focus on the impacts of fishing on dolphins.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/Dolphin-safe-logo.jpg">NOAA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>First, it is important to recognise that a dolphin-safe label <a href="http://ro.uow.edu.au/lhapapers/853/">is not a sustainability label</a>. It focuses only on the impacts of fishing on dolphins. Dolphin-safe doesn’t consider tuna catch levels or other socio-environmental impacts. Most importantly, it doesn’t require independent third-party verification. </p>
<p>In contrast, some newer eco-labels consider a wider set of impacts including target species stock levels, impact on other species and even the social impact on fishers – such as fair pay and work conditions.</p>
<p>So far, <a href="https://www.msc.org/cook-eat-enjoy/fish-to-eat/tuna">MSC</a> is the only label to be <a href="https://www.msc.org/about-us/credibility/how-we-meet-best-practice#GSSI">recognised</a> by the Global Sustainable Seafood Initiative (GSSI), but keep in mind this label is not without criticism.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/194474/original/file-20171114-27622-p4unv6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/194474/original/file-20171114-27622-p4unv6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/194474/original/file-20171114-27622-p4unv6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/194474/original/file-20171114-27622-p4unv6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/194474/original/file-20171114-27622-p4unv6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/194474/original/file-20171114-27622-p4unv6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/194474/original/file-20171114-27622-p4unv6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/194474/original/file-20171114-27622-p4unv6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Look for MSC certification that is sustainable and eco-friendly.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/64712052@N00/4571218703/">deckhand/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In recent months, the MSC-certified <a href="http://pna-stories.msc.org/">Pasifical</a> brand has been criticised because its FAD-free purse seine sourced tuna are transported on vessels that can also catch FAD-caught purse seine tuna. Some <a href="https://theconversation.com/heres-why-your-sustainable-tuna-is-also-unsustainable-83560">commentators</a> argue that this enables unsustainable FAD-caught fisheries to continue operating. </p>
<p>On the other hand, MSC has the strongest chain of custody. It can trace every can of tuna from the supermarket shelf all the way back to the fishery. It’s not clear whether the original criticism was driven by competition for supermarket shelf space, as some industry insiders have claimed. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/heres-why-your-sustainable-tuna-is-also-unsustainable-83560">Here's why your sustainable tuna is also unsustainable</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p><strong>3. Download seafood guides</strong></p>
<p>Various online guides are also available to help consumers choose sustainable seafood options. These guides rank and recommend seafood using a stoplight system. The recommendations are based on available scientific research or a defined set of criteria.</p>
<p>In Australia, Greenpeace publishes a <a href="http://changeyourtuna.org.au/">Canned Tuna Guide</a> that ranks available brands. <a href="http://www.sustainableseafood.org.au/pages/about-the-guide.html">Australia’s Sustainable Seafood Guide</a> provides recommendations for seafood generally.</p>
<p>Guides are also produced by <a href="http://www.seafoodwatch.org/seafood-recommendations">Monterey Bay Aquarium Seafood Watch</a> for the US, <a href="http://seafood.ocean.org/seafood/">Ocean Wise</a> for Canada and <a href="http://wwf.panda.org/how_you_can_help/live_green/out_shopping/seafood_guides/">WWF’s Fish Forward Project</a> for South Africa and several countries in the EU and Asia.</p>
<p><strong>4. Future technologies, supply chains and transparency</strong></p>
<p>While the steps above assist with making sustainable seafood choices, it doesn’t help if the fish you’re buying has been mislabelled. There is still uncertainty related to transparency and traceability in the supply chain.</p>
<p>To help combat this problem, <a href="http://www.wwf.org.au/about-us/partners/coles#gs.zDQXpFU">Coles has partnered with WWF</a> to ensure the seafood it sells is sustainably sourced. Aldi has also introduced an initiative called “<a href="https://www.aldi.com.au/en/about-aldi/aldi-initiatives/trace-your-tuna/">Trace Your Tuna</a>” to link tuna to its catch location.</p>
<p>New applications that use tracking data are also developing. Apps are available that scan QR codes and barcodes to provide consumers with extra information about the origins of lots of different products including seafood. These include <a href="http://www.oziris.com.au/meet-oziris/">Oziris</a> in Australia, <a href="http://thisfish.info/about/what/">ThisFish</a> in Canada and the <a href="http://www.fishtrace.go.kr/home/homeEng/actionEngHome.do">Seafood Traceability System</a> offered by the Korean government. </p>
<p>Simultaneously, new initiatives such as <a href="http://globalfishingwatch.org/">Global Fishing Watch</a> are providing open access to vessel movement data, providing tremendous opportunities for transparency and traceability. </p>
<p>In short, the easiest way to make a sustainable choice when buying canned tuna is to check the contents label and look for a credible eco-label. If you have a little more time, it might be worthwhile to check out seafood recommendation guides or to download a product tracking app on your smartphone.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/86229/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Quentin Hanich receives funding from the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, Pew Charitable Trusts and the Nereus Program. Any views expressed in this work are solely the opinion of the author.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Candice Visser does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Australians love canned tuna. Here’s our handy guide to finding the most sustainable options for you (and your cat).Candice Visser, PhD Candidate, University of WollongongQuentin Hanich, Associate Professor, University of WollongongLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/850752017-10-29T19:10:27Z2017-10-29T19:10:27ZBuying fresh potatoes and carrots all year round is destroying Australia’s soil<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/188487/original/file-20171003-4693-zfuyxs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Producing fresh fruit and vegetables year-round has a hidden cost. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/deanhochman/14961829054/">Dean Hochman/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Have you thought about what it takes to get fresh carrots onto supermarket shelves during winter? </p>
<p>We all want fresh carrots rather than soft, old or bendy ones. That’s why many companies – such as supermarkets that tout their “fresh food” credentials – build their brand around providing crisp, fresh veggies all year round. </p>
<p>Unfortunately, consumers’ expectations that certain types of produce will always be available mean that farmers must engage in unsustainable and destructive practices. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-many-people-can-australia-feed-76460">How many people can Australia feed?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Carrots are collected using mechanised harvesters, heavy tractors and trucks. In winter, during seasonal rainfall peaks, the combination of wet earth and heavy machinery results in <a href="http://www.utas.edu.au/tia/news/upcoming-events-home/event-items/national-science-week-webinar-a-case-study-of-soils-and-water">severe soil compaction and soil structure degradation</a>. </p>
<p>Studies have shown that this degradation can last for decades. This reduces the soil’s fertility and ultimately reduces crop yields. </p>
<h2>Soil degradation</h2>
<p>Soil degradation has serious impacts on the sustainability and profitability of Australian farms. A 2004 Tasmanian study found that soil degradation reduced potato and poppy crop yields <a href="http://www.publish.csiro.au/an/EA03023">by up to two-thirds</a>. Carrots and potatoes are not alone in winter soil degradation; broccoli, cabbages and peas are often harvested when soils are too wet.</p>
<p>The other three main issues of degradation are declining soil organic matter levels, soil loss by erosion, and nutrient imbalances. </p>
<p>Soil organic matter plays a fundamental role in soil’s physical, chemical and biological processes, but its decline under Australian agriculture has been <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0016706109004170?via%3Dihub">well researched and widely reported</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/fertile-ground-what-you-need-to-know-about-soil-to-keep-your-garden-healthy-65332">Fertile ground: what you need to know about soil to keep your garden healthy</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The use of green manure cover crops (crops that aren’t harvested) and grass pastures in rotations that provide greater organic matter residues can help. But farmers may struggle to afford the ongoing investment required to improve long-term sustainability. </p>
<p>Whether caused by wind or water erosion, soil loss is permanent. Heavy losses occurred in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2009_Australian_dust_storm">Sydney, Brisbane and Canberra in 2009</a>, and <a href="http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/blogs/on-this-day/2013/02/on-this-day-melbourne%E2%80%99s-monster-dust-storm">Melbourne in 1983</a>. The fine particles and organic matter lost in dust storms are the most important for soil fertility. </p>
<p>As former Nebraskan governor <a href="http://www.regional.org.au/au/asssi/supersoil2004/keynote/lineskelly.htm">Bob Kerrey</a> once said: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>If you run out of water, you pray for rain. If you run out of soil, you pray for forgiveness.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The third element is soil nutrients. The main factors here are soil pH, plant-available phosphorus, potassium and sulphur. A study of <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00288233.2017.1295391">1,700 intensively grazed pasture paddocks</a> found that only 3.7% had the optimum balance for pasture production. More than 40% had too much phosphorus and potassium.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-healthy-soils-make-for-a-healthy-life-71790">How healthy soils make for a healthy life</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Intensive farming means increased amounts of nutrients and sediment end up polluting off-site surface water. Nutrient loss at catchment scales has been reported in southeastern Australia, with phosphorus losses of <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301479711000302?via%3Dihub">10–12kg per hectare per year and nitrogen losses of 20–30kg per hectare per year</a>, which are at the <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364815297000121">higher end of published values</a>. </p>
<p>However, these losses may be under-reported by as much as 50%, as the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23754144">sampling misses flood events</a>. Land management is important to reduce the total nutrient and sediment delivery to rivers. But even with the best management practices, nutrients and sediments will still be delivered at higher than natural rates.</p>
<h2>A better way</h2>
<p>Some solutions to this problem lie in better technology and education. For example, using the right fertilisers at the right time can help with nutrient imbalances.</p>
<p>GPS guidance on agricultural machinery can restrict damage to soil structure to strict lines in paddocks (known as tramlines). This technology is increasingly used across a range of cropping industries, but there are significant barriers to its universal uptake in the vegetable industry. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-future-of-food-growing-more-with-the-same-land-35559">The future of food: growing more with the same land</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>It is important to remember that simply making information available, especially via online portals, will <a href="https://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol11/iss1/art4/">not necessarily result in farmers adopting sustainable practices</a>. Farmers often need to trust those with new ideas before change happens.</p>
<p>But the other part of the solution is consumer demand. The pressure on our natural resources is mounting. Projected increases in global food demand over the next 50 years pose <a href="http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v418/n6898/full/nature01014.html">huge challenges for sustainable production</a>.</p>
<p>While many shoppers want their food to be sustainably grown, we also generally expect certain produce – carrots, potatoes and broccoli – to show up, gleaming fresh, in our supermarkets. Understanding the cost of off-season harvesting, and separating the “fresh food” marketing from reality, is the first step to more sustainable consumption.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/85075/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bill Cotching receives funding from National Landcare Program of the Australian Government and Dairy Australia. </span></em></p>Would you be shocked by a supermarket without carrots, potatoes or broccoli, at any time of year? But harvesting in the off-season does serious damage to our soil.Bill Cotching, Soil scientist, University of TasmaniaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/817612017-07-31T04:38:43Z2017-07-31T04:38:43ZHow farming giant seaweed can feed fish and fix the climate<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/180301/original/file-20170731-19115-wrfvv1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Giant kelp can grow up to 60cm a day, given the right conditions.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Joe Belanger/shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>This is an edited extract from <a href="https://www.textpublishing.com.au/books/sunlight-and-seaweed-an-argument-for-how-to-feed-power-and-clean-up-the-world">Sunlight and Seaweed: An Argument for How to Feed, Power and Clean Up the World</a> by Tim Flannery, published by Text Publishing.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>Bren Smith, an ex-industrial trawler man, operates a farm in Long Island Sound, near New Haven, Connecticut. Fish are not the focus of his new enterprise, but rather kelp and high-value shellfish. The seaweed and mussels grow on floating ropes, from which hang baskets filled with scallops and oysters. The technology allows for the production of about <a href="http://greenwave.org/3d-ocean-farming">40 tonnes of kelp and a million bivalves per hectare per year</a>.</p>
<p>The kelp draw in so much carbon dioxide that they help de-acidify the water, providing an ideal environment for shell growth. The CO₂ is taken out of the water in much the same way that a land plant takes CO₂ out of the air. But because CO₂ has an acidifying effect on seawater, as the kelp absorb the CO₂ the water becomes less acid. And the kelp itself has some value as a feedstock in agriculture and various industrial purposes.</p>
<p>After starting his farm in 2011, Smith lost 90% of his crop twice – when the region was hit by hurricanes Irene and Sandy – but he persisted, and
now <a href="http://climateheroes.org/portfolio-item/bren-smith-making-kelp-ocean-farming-our-new-hope">runs a profitable business</a>.</p>
<p>His team at 3D Ocean Farming believe so strongly in the environmental and economic benefits of their model that, in order to help others establish similar operations, they have established a not-for-profit called <a href="https://www.greenwave.org/">Green Wave</a>. Green Wave’s vision is to create clusters of kelp-and-shellfish farms utilising the entire water column, which are strategically located near seafood transporting or consumption hubs.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/seaweed-could-hold-the-key-to-cutting-methane-emissions-from-cow-burps-66498">Seaweed could hold the key to cutting methane emissions from cow burps</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The general concepts embodied by 3D Ocean Farming have long been practised in China, where over 500 square kilometres of seaweed farms exist in the Yellow Sea. The seaweed farms buffer the ocean’s growing acidity and provide ideal conditions for the cultivation of a variety of shellfish. Despite the huge expansion in aquaculture, and the experiences gained in the United States and China of integrating kelp into sustainable marine farms, this farming methodology is still at an early stage of development.</p>
<p>Yet it seems inevitable that a new generation of ocean farming will build on the experiences gained in these enterprises to develop a method of aquaculture with the potential not only to feed humanity, but to play a large role in solving one of our most dire issues – climate change.</p>
<p>Globally, around 12 million tonnes of seaweed is grown and harvested annually, about three-quarters of which comes from China. The current market value of the global crop is <a href="http://arpa-e.energy.gov/sites/default/files/Benemann%20Feb10%20FINAL.pdf">between US$5 billion and US$5.6 billion</a>, of which US$5 billion comes from sale for human consumption. Production, however, is expanding very rapidly.</p>
<p>Seaweeds can grow very fast – at rates more than 30 times those of land-based plants. Because they de-acidify seawater, making it easier for anything with a shell to grow, they are also the key to shellfish production. And by drawing CO₂
out of the ocean waters (thereby allowing the oceans to absorb more CO₂ from the atmosphere) they help fight climate change. </p>
<p>The stupendous potential of seaweed farming as a tool to combat climate change was <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259892834_Negative_Carbon_Via_Ocean_Afforestation">outlined in 2012</a> by the University of the South Pacific’s Dr Antoine De Ramon N’Yeurt and his team. Their analysis reveals that if 9% of the ocean were to be covered in seaweed farms, the farmed seaweed could produce 12 gigatonnes per year of biodigested methane which could be burned as a substitute for natural gas. The seaweed growth involved would capture 19 gigatonnes of CO₂. A further 34 gigatonnes per year of CO₂ could be taken from the atmosphere if the methane is burned to generate electricity and the CO₂ generated captured and stored. This, they say:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>…could produce sufficient biomethane to replace all of today’s needs in fossil-fuel energy, while removing 53 billion tonnes of CO₂ per year from
the atmosphere… This amount of biomass could also increase sustainable fish production to potentially provide 200 kilograms per year, per person, for 10 billion people. Additional benefits are reduction in ocean acidification and increased ocean primary productivity and biodiversity.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Nine per cent of the world’s oceans is not a small area. It is equivalent to about four and a half times the area of Australia. But even at smaller scales,
kelp farming has the potential to substantially lower atmospheric CO₂, and this realisation has had an energising impact on the research and commercial
development of sustainable aquaculture. But kelp farming is not solely about reducing CO₂. In fact, it is being driven, from a commercial perspective, by sustainable production of high-quality protein.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/180307/original/file-20170731-1689-38z9qo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/180307/original/file-20170731-1689-38z9qo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/180307/original/file-20170731-1689-38z9qo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/180307/original/file-20170731-1689-38z9qo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/180307/original/file-20170731-1689-38z9qo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/180307/original/file-20170731-1689-38z9qo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/180307/original/file-20170731-1689-38z9qo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/180307/original/file-20170731-1689-38z9qo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A haven for fish.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Daniel Poloha/shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>What might a kelp farming facility of the future look like? Dr Brian von Hertzen of the Climate Foundation has outlined one vision: a frame structure, most likely composed of a carbon polymer, up to a square kilometre in extent and sunk far enough below the surface (about 25 metres) to avoid being a shipping hazard. Planted with kelp, the frame would be interspersed with containers for shellfish and other kinds of fish as well. There would be no netting, but a kind of free-range aquaculture based on providing habitat to keep fish on location. Robotic removal of encrusting organisms would probably also be part of the facility. The marine permaculture would be designed to clip the bottom of the waves during heavy seas. Below it, a pipe reaching down to 200–500 metres would bring cool, nutrient-rich water to the frame, where it would be reticulated over the growing kelp. </p>
<p>Von Herzen’s objective is to create what he calls “permaculture arrays” – marine permaculture at a scale that will have an impact on the climate by growing kelp and bringing cooler ocean water to the surface. His vision also entails providing habitat for fish, generating food, feedstocks for animals, fertiliser and biofuels. He also hopes to help exploited fish populations rebound and to create jobs. “Given the transformative effect that marine permaculture can have on the ocean, there is much reason for hope that permaculture arrays can play a major part in globally balancing carbon,” he says.</p>
<p>The addition of a floating platform supporting solar panels, facilities such as accommodation (if the farms are not fully automated), refrigeration and processing equipment tethered to the floating framework would enhance the efficiency and viability of the permaculture arrays, as well as a dock for ships
carrying produce to market.</p>
<p>Given its phenomenal growth rate, the kelp could be cut on a 90-day rotation basis. It’s possible that the only processing required would be the cutting of the kelp from the buoyancy devices and the disposal of the fronds overboard to sink. Once in the ocean depths, the carbon the kelp contains is essentially out of circulation and cannot return to the atmosphere.</p>
<p>The deep waters of the central Pacific are exceptionally still. A friend who explores mid-ocean ridges in a submersible once told me about filleting a fish for dinner, then discovering the filleted remains the next morning, four kilometres down and directly below his ship. So it’s likely that the seaweed fronds would sink, at least initially, though gases from decomposition may later cause some to rise if they are not consumed quickly. Alternatively, the seaweed
could be converted to <a href="https://theconversation.com/can-biochar-save-the-planet-1099">biochar</a> to produce energy and the char pelletised and discarded overboard. Char, having a mineralised carbon structure, is likely to last well on the seafloor. Likewise, shells and any encrusting organisms could be sunk as a carbon store.</p>
<p>Once at the bottom of the sea three or more kilometres below, it’s likely that raw kelp, and possibly even to some extent biochar, would be utilised as a food source by bottom-dwelling bacteria and larger organisms such as sea cucumbers. Provided that the decomposing material did not float, this would not matter, because once sunk below about one kilometre from the surface, the carbon in these materials would effectively be removed from the atmosphere for at least 1,000 years. If present in large volumes, however, decomposing matter may reduce oxygen levels in the surrounding seawater.</p>
<p>Large volumes of kelp already reach the ocean floor. Storms in the North Atlantic may deliver enormous volumes of kelp – by some estimates as much as 7 gigatonnes at a time – to the 1.8km-deep ocean floor off the Bahamian Shelf.</p>
<p>Submarine canyons may also convey large volumes at a more regular rate to the deep ocean floor. The Carmel Canyon, off California, for example, exports large volumes of giant kelp to the ocean depths, and 660 major submarine canyons have been documented worldwide, suggesting that canyons <a href="http://www.nature.com/ngeo/journal/v9/n10/ngeo2790/metrics/news">play a significant role in marine carbon transport</a>.</p>
<p>These natural instances of large-scale sequestration of kelp in the deep ocean offer splendid opportunities to investigate the fate of kelp, and the carbon it contains, in the ocean. They should prepare us well in anticipating any negative or indeed positive impacts on the ocean deep of offshore kelp farming.</p>
<p>Only entrepreneurs with vision and deep pockets could make such mid-ocean kelp farming a reality. But of course where there are great rewards, there are also considerable risks. One obstacle potential entrepreneurs need not fear, however, is bureaucratic red tape, for much of the mid-oceans remain a global commons. If a global carbon price is ever introduced, the exercise of disposing of the carbon captured by the kelp would transform that part of the business from a small cost to a profit generator. Even without a carbon price, the opportunity to supply huge volumes of high-quality seafood at the same time as making a substantial impact on the climate crisis are considerable incentives for investment in seaweed farming.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/81761/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tim Flannery does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>In an extract from his new book, Tim Flannery explains how giant kelp farms could suck carbon dioxide from the air and store it in the ocean’s depths, while encouraging species like fish and oysters.Tim Flannery, Professorial fellow, Melbourne Sustainable Society Institute, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/764602017-07-12T20:05:07Z2017-07-12T20:05:07ZHow many people can Australia feed?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/176374/original/file-20170630-8242-orj89c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Australia might have been 'built on the sheep's back' but we can't eat off it.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/stanzim/34829913702/">Stanley Zimny/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>Population growth has profound impacts on Australian life, and sorting myths from facts can be difficult. This article is part of our series, <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/is-australia-full-39068">Is Australia Full?</a>, which aims to help inform a wide-ranging and often emotive debate.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>Australia feeds a lot of people. As a big country with a relatively small population, we have just over two arable hectares per person, one of the <a href="http://www.fao.org/3/a-i4691e.pdf">highest ratios in the world</a>. Our diverse soils and climate provide a wide variety of fresh food all year round. </p>
<p>Historically we produce far more than we consume domestically. We sell <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com.ezproxy.library.uq.edu.au/science/article/pii/S0308521X15300482">around 65% of farm production</a> overseas, making Australia a leading food-exporting nation. We therefore contribute to the food security not just of Australia, but of many other nations. </p>
<p>However, despite being a net food exporter, Australia also imports foods such as coffee, chocolate, processed fruit and vegetables, and key ingredients used in baking our daily bread. We are part of a global food system. </p>
<p>How will a swelling population, projected to reach <a href="http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Lookup/3222.0main+features32012%20(base)%20to%202101">between 36.8 million and 48.3 million</a> by 2061, affect our food security? Are we set up to weather the storm of climate change, the degradation of our natural resources, and competition for land and water use from mining and urban expansion? </p>
<h2>By the numbers</h2>
<p>Current Australian government policy is to increase agricultural production and food exports, with a specific focus on <a href="http://northernaustralia.gov.au/">developing Australia’s north</a>. </p>
<p>In addition to providing food and nutrition security, the Australian food sector is a key driver of public health, environment, the economy and employment. The <a href="http://data.daff.gov.au/data/warehouse/agcomd9abcc004/agcomd9abcc20170307_0S6mp/AgCommodities201703_v1.0.0.pdf">gross value of production</a> from Australia’s 135,000 farmers varies between A$55 billion and A$64 billion a year, with exports accounting for between A$45 billion and A$48 billion. </p>
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<p>Horticultural production (fruit, nuts and vegetables) will swell as Australian growers move to satisfy growing Asian demand. </p>
<p>Australian food processing companies add a further A$32 billion of value from 150 large food processors. We exported $A26 billion worth of processed food and beverages in 2015-16 and imported A$16.8 billion, resulting in a <a href="http://www.afgc.org.au/wp-content/uploads/AFGC_State-of-the-Industry-2016.pdf">trade surplus of A$9.1 billion</a> (rounded to one decimal place). </p>
<p>The food retail sector has an annual turnover around A$126 billion, with about <a href="https://theconversation.com/factcheck-is-our-grocery-market-one-of-the-most-concentrated-in-the-world-16520">70% of Australians</a> shopping at Woolworths or Coles. It’s also worth noting that considerable land and water resources are devoted to non-food commodities such as forestry, cotton and wool, and to environmental outcomes such as carbon sequestration or biodiversity plantings.</p>
<p>One in seven Australian jobs (1.6 million) are in the <a href="http://www.nff.org.au/farm-facts.html">farm-dependent economy</a>, and food and beverage processing employs around <a href="http://www.afgc.org.au/wp-content/uploads/AFGC_State-of-the-Industry-2016.pdf">one-third of all Australian manufacturing workers</a>, with promising growth prospects. </p>
<p>Many jobs are seasonal and based in the regions. Farm and food enterprises rely on foreign workers for many key tasks, resulting in the food sector being <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-migrant-workers-are-critical-to-the-future-of-australias-agricultural-industry-66422">particularly sensitive</a> to changes in temporary work visas. </p>
<h2>How to feed more people</h2>
<p>If Australia reaches its <a href="http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Lookup/3222.0main+features32012%20(base)%20to%202101">projected population of between 36.8 million and 48.3 million by 2061</a>, could we feed everyone?</p>
<p>For the sake of this exercise, let’s leave aside food we import, and assume that Australia will continue to export <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com.ezproxy.library.uq.edu.au/science/article/pii/S0308521X15300482">65% of the food we produce</a>. </p>
<p>Currently, our exports feed (at least in part) 36.6 million people outside Australia. If we add that to our domestic population, 61 million people will eat Australian food in 2017. </p>
<p>If we apply the same assumptions to projected high and low Australian populations for 2061, we arrive at a total (domestic plus export) population fed by Australian production of 92 million to 121 million, or an increase of 51-98%.</p>
<p>Could Australia double the number of people we feed by 2061? The answer is yes, but not simply by doubling the amount of food we produce. <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com.ezproxy.library.uq.edu.au/science/article/pii/S2211912414000327">Three broad strategies</a> will need to be integrated to reach this target:</p>
<ol>
<li><p><strong>Increase food productivity.</strong> We need to aim for 2% growth in annual food production by increasing investment research and development for food and agriculture. For comparison, between 1949 and 2012 we have averaged 2.1% annual growth, although from <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/roiw.12250/epdf">2000-12 that slumped to 0.6%</a>. Achieving this productivity target will be difficult, given the challenge of climate change and other constraining factors.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>Reduce food waste.</strong> We currently waste around <a href="http://www.foodwise.com.au/foodwaste/food-waste-fast-facts/">30% of the food we produce</a>. Reducing food waste benefits the environment and the economy. This strategy requires ongoing improvements in supply chain efficiency, changes in marketing, and consumer education.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>Change our eating patterns.</strong> Moving towards sustainable diets will improve public health and environment outcomes. Reducing overconsumption (a contributor to obesity) and eating more vegetables and less discretionary “junk” foods represent <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com.ezproxy.library.uq.edu.au/science/article/pii/S0921800916303615">initial steps</a> in this direction.</p></li>
</ol>
<p>The next few decades will present unprecedented challenges and opportunities for the Australian food sector. Placing the consumer at the centre of healthy, sustainable and ethical food systems will be increasingly important, whether that consumer lives in Brisbane or Beijing. New ways of connecting consumers to producers will become commonplace, creating more informed and empowered consumers, and rewarding innovation. </p>
<p>Research highlighting the <a href="http://gci.uq.edu.au/filething/get/13919/Discussion-Paper-food-systems-No1-V6-30JUNE2016-FINAL-LR.pdf">interconnections between food, health and environment</a> will be required to support Australia’s claims to being a clean, green provider of food. </p>
<p>It’s easy to conclude that Australia can feed many more people than we currently do, but the real issue is to do this while ensuring our food system is healthy, sustainable and fair. Ultimately, exporting the research, technology and education that underpin our future food system will benefit far more people than those directly consuming food produced in Australia.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>You can read other articles in the Is Australia Full? series <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/is-australia-full-39068">here</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/76460/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bill Bellotti does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Australia feeds tens of millions, at home and abroad. But if our population doubles by 2061, as some projections suggest, we’ll need some smart strategies to keep those people fed.Bill Bellotti, Professor and Director Food Systems Program, Global Change Institute, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/770452017-05-08T12:00:18Z2017-05-08T12:00:18ZScientists have mapped the DNA of tea – and it could stave off a pending crisis<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/168356/original/file-20170508-20732-jvnxuo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/@ravipinisetti?photo=ySQXoZLAsmc">Ravi Pinisetti/Unsplash</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The world’s <a href="http://www.fao.org/economic/est/est-commodities/tea/en/">most popular drink</a> (after water) is under threat. We already know much about the threat of climate change to staple crops such as wheat, maize and rice, but the impact on tea is just coming into focus. Early research indicates that tea grown in some parts of Asia could see <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/global-warming-changes-the-future-for-tea-leaves/">yields decline</a> by up to 55% thanks to drought or excessive heat, and the quality of the tea is also falling.</p>
<p>The intensive use of pesticides and chemical fertilisers in tea plantations has also led to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2984095/">soil degradation</a> at an average annual rate of 2.8%. This also causes chemical runoff into waterways, which can lead to serious problems for human health and the environment.</p>
<p>However, hope may be on the horizon now that scientists at the Kunming Institute of Botany at the Chinese Academy of Sciences have <a href="http://bit.ly/2q7zvyi">sequenced the entire tea genome</a>. Mapping the exact sequence of DNA in this way provides the foundation for extracting all the genetic information needed to help breed and speed up development of new varieties of the tea plant. And it could even help improve the drink’s flavour and nutritional value.</p>
<p>In particular, the whole tea tree genome reveals the genetic basis for tea’s tolerance to environmental stresses, pest and disease resistance, flavour, productivity and quality. So breeders could more precisely produce better tea varieties that produce higher crop yields and use water and nutrients more efficiently. And they could do this while widening the genetic diversity of tea plants, improving the overall health of the tea plant population.</p>
<p>This is also an important milestone for scientists because it provides a deeper understanding of the complex evolution and the functions of key genes associated with stress tolerance, tea flavour and adaptation. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/168363/original/file-20170508-20738-eu82um.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/168363/original/file-20170508-20738-eu82um.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/168363/original/file-20170508-20738-eu82um.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/168363/original/file-20170508-20738-eu82um.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/168363/original/file-20170508-20738-eu82um.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/168363/original/file-20170508-20738-eu82um.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/168363/original/file-20170508-20738-eu82um.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Mmm, you can really taste the flavonoids.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://stocksnap.io/photo/B6CJ1F4MSR">Matthew Henry/Stocksnap</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The new tea genome is very large, with nearly 37,000 genes – more than four times the size of the coffee plant genome. The process of evolution by natural selection has already helped the tea plant develop hundreds of genes related to resisting environmental stress from drought and disease.</p>
<p>These genes are like molecular markers that scientists can identify when selecting plants for use in breeding. This will allow them to be more certain that the next generation of plants they produce will have the genes and so the traits they want, speeding up <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10681-010-0169-0">the breeding process</a>. Sequencing the genome also raises the possibility of using <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-gm-crops-can-help-us-to-feed-a-fast-growing-world-71112">genetic modification</a> (GM) technologies to turn on or enhance desirable genes (or turn off undesirable ones). </p>
<p>The same principles could also be used to enhance the nutritional or medicinal value of certain tea varieties. The genome sequence includes genes associated with biosynthesis. This is the production of the proteins and enzymes involved in creating the compounds that make tea so drinkable, such as <a href="http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/jfr/article/viewFile/45729/24980">flavonoids, terpenes and caffeine</a>. These are closely related to the aroma, flavour and quality of tea and so using genetic breeding techniques could help improve the taste of tea and make it more flavourful or nutritional.</p>
<p>For example, we could also remove the caffeine biosynthetic genes from the tea plant to help breeding of low or non-caffeine varieties. By boosting certain compounds at the same time, we could make tea healthier and develop entirely new flavours to make caffeine tea more appealing.</p>
<p>An estimated 5.56m tons of tea is commercially grown on more than 3.8m hectares of land (<a href="http://www.top-news.top/news-12896789.html">as of 2014</a>). And its huge cultural importance, as well as its economic value, mean securing a sustainable future for tea is vitally important for millions of people. So the first successful sequencing of the tea genome is a crucial step to making tea plants more robust, productive and drinkable in the face of massive environmental challenges.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/77045/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Chungui Lu does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Sequencing the tea plant’s genome could help scientists breed new varieties that thrive in the degrading soil of tea farms.Chungui Lu, Professor of Sustainable Agriculture., Nottingham Trent UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/752842017-05-04T20:12:58Z2017-05-04T20:12:58ZSustainable shopping: here’s how to find coffee that doesn’t cost the Earth<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/165013/original/image-20170412-25865-z3i6vo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">With so many choices for coffee, it's hard to know which is the environmentally healthy option.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/image-world-map-perspective-made-coffee-87845245">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>Shopping can be confusing at the best of times, and trying to find environmentally friendly options makes it even more difficult. Welcome to the first instalment of our <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/sustainable-shopping-38407">Sustainable Shopping</a> series, in which we ask experts to provide easy, eco-friendly guides to purchases big and small.</em> </p>
<hr>
<p>The morning coffee ritual is serious business; Australians drink roughly <a href="http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Lookup/by%20Subject/4364.0.55.007%7E2011-12%7EMain%20Features%7ENon-alcoholic%20beverages%7E701">16.3 million coffees a day</a>. Plenty of news coverage has been devoted to its <a href="https://theconversation.com/health-check-four-reasons-to-have-another-cup-of-coffee-40390">health benefits</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-americans-are-so-obsessed-with-pumpkin-spice-everything-according-to-science-47342">cultural significance</a>, but how much do you know about the environmental cost of your daily latte?</p>
<p>Coffee is grown in some of the most biologically diverse regions of the world, sometimes causing significant damage. But there are choices you can make to reduce the ecological impact of your caffeine fix. </p>
<h2>The issue</h2>
<p>Coffee mostly affects tropical forests, as they are cleared to make way for coffee farms. But with certain cultivation practices, these coffee farms can support an <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320715000324">impressive range of forest biodiversity</a>. </p>
<p>The world’s most popular coffee type, <em>Coffea arabica</em>, grows under the rainforest canopies of <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167880916306053">Ethiopia</a>. A natural requirement for shade means coffee is often cultivated <a href="https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article-lookup/doi/10.2307/1312989">under shading plants</a>, from a single tree species to a diverse range of plant life. </p>
<p>However, to improve productivity, traditional coffee farms have been increasingly replaced with <a href="https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/64/5/416/2754235/Shade-Coffee-Update-on-a-Disappearing-Refuge-for">sun-tolerant coffee varieties</a> that produce higher yields. Compared with shaded coffee, these simplified plantations support <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2008.01029.x/abstract">fewer native species</a>, <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10457-009-9247-5">store less carbon</a>, experience <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0933363096001183">higher levels of erosion</a>, and <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167880912002927">leach more nutrients</a>. They also require more resources such as water and fertilisers. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/167807/original/file-20170504-27085-rem3bm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/167807/original/file-20170504-27085-rem3bm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/167807/original/file-20170504-27085-rem3bm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/167807/original/file-20170504-27085-rem3bm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/167807/original/file-20170504-27085-rem3bm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/167807/original/file-20170504-27085-rem3bm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/167807/original/file-20170504-27085-rem3bm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/167807/original/file-20170504-27085-rem3bm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Coffee grows in the shade on a farm in Jinotega, Nicaragua.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">REUTERS/Oswaldo Rivas</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>How can we increase sustainability?</h2>
<p>The most important choice when it comes to sustainable coffee is the actual coffee and its cultivation. Cultivation can contribute <a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/05/110510074440.htm">as little as 1% or as much as 70%</a> of the total environmental footprint of a cup of coffee. How the coffee is consumed (instant, fresh grounds or <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-our-love-affair-with-coffee-pods-reveals-about-our-values-30068">pods</a>, for instance) has less influence. </p>
<p>The lowest-impact coffee is grown using traditional cultivation methods with minimal mechanisation. At the other extreme are large farms that are highly mechanised and require more fertiliser and pesticides.</p>
<p>A combination of <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1523-1739.1999.97153.x/abstract">traditional cultivation methods</a>, maintaining shading plants, protecting local forests and <a href="http://www.jswconline.org/content/58/1/1.abstract">buffering waterways</a> (filtering farmland runoff with vegetation before it enters waterways), has the lowest environmental impact. </p>
<h2>What can you do?</h2>
<p>While searching for your daily dose of caffeine, you have probably come across several different sustainability certification logos. They are the easiest way to find out about how your coffee is cultivated, and have proved effective in <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195925513000954">protecting coffee landscapes</a> from degradation. </p>
<p>The two most prominent certification programs are <a href="http://www.rainforest-alliance.org/faqs/what-does-rainforest-alliance-certified-mean">The Rainforest Alliance</a> and <a href="https://aco.net.au/">Australian Certified Organic</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/165169/original/image-20170413-25859-6l1mfv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/165169/original/image-20170413-25859-6l1mfv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/165169/original/image-20170413-25859-6l1mfv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/165169/original/image-20170413-25859-6l1mfv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/165169/original/image-20170413-25859-6l1mfv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/165169/original/image-20170413-25859-6l1mfv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/165169/original/image-20170413-25859-6l1mfv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/165169/original/image-20170413-25859-6l1mfv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Coffee bean bag with Rainforest Alliance logo.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/karenchristinehibbard/4509043561/">Karen Christine Hibbard/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The Rainforest Alliance requires a level of native vegetation to be maintained within each coffee farm. There is <a href="http://www.coffeehabitat.com/2014/03/ra-shade-criteria-change/">some criticism</a> that the alliance has watered down its criteria in recent years, at least in terms of maintaining diverse shading vegetation. However, <a href="http://www.rainforest-alliance.org/find-certified?location=333&category=130&product=144&keyword=">their certification</a> leads to positive outcomes such as protection of waterways and native vegetation. </p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/165023/original/image-20170412-25878-9sq8na.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/165023/original/image-20170412-25878-9sq8na.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=328&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/165023/original/image-20170412-25878-9sq8na.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=328&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/165023/original/image-20170412-25878-9sq8na.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=328&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/165023/original/image-20170412-25878-9sq8na.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/165023/original/image-20170412-25878-9sq8na.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/165023/original/image-20170412-25878-9sq8na.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Australian Certified Organic certifies coffee roasters such as Coffex, Coffico and Rio Coffee.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://austorganic.com/the-cost-of-real-food/">Australian Certified Organic</a></span>
</figcaption>
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<p>Australian Certified Organic is focused on protecting natural habitats and biodiversity, efficient water use, and minimising the use of chemicals in fertilisers and pest and disease management. These practices are strongly aligned with traditional coffee cultivation. </p>
<p>While certification programs are <a href="http://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/social-anthropology/article/migratory-imaginations-the-commodification-and-contradictions-of-shade-grown-coffee/D5000CA5496A4C2ABCE1ED34BFB690A4">not perfect</a>, logos can certainly act as a guide to sustainable products. </p>
<p>That said, products without logos aren’t necessarily unsustainable. Some small landholders with highly sustainable, shade-grown coffee can’t afford the expense of certification. </p>
<p>In this situation you can talk to your local roaster (or a distant one via the internet). Roasters may have direct relationships with their coffee growers and can tell you about their cultivation practices. Good questions to ask are whether the cooperative has any certification, whether the cultivation is organic or shade-grown, and whether the cooperative has any associated environmental programs.</p>
<p>Ultimately, a little knowledge of coffee cultivation and its impacts can go a long way in making wise and environmentally sound purchases. There is a huge range of coffee choices available, and <a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/05/110510074440.htm">good evidence</a> that the choices you make can influence significant and positive environmental outcomes.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/75284/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Aaron is employed by Astron Environmental Services, an environmental consulting company based in Western Australia. </span></em></p>Your cup of coffee might cost the world more than you think, but a little knowledge goes a long way if you want to make an eco-friendly choice.Aaron Gove, Adjunct Lecturer, Environment and Agriculture, Curtin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.