tag:theconversation.com,2011:/au/topics/hydraulic-fracturing-21105/articlesHydraulic fracturing – The Conversation2023-09-04T02:09:22Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2124592023-09-04T02:09:22Z2023-09-04T02:09:22ZHealth evidence against gas and oil is piling up, as governments turn a blind eye<p>We are seeing <a href="https://public.wmo.int/en/our-mandate/climate/wmo-statement-state-of-global-climate">deadly heat and fires</a> circle the world. The <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/about/">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a> <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/syr/resources/spm-headline-statements/">warns</a> we are fast running out of time to secure a liveable and sustainable future. Without emergency action to stop mining and burning fossil fuels, the world faces an unthinkable 2.8°C temperature rise.</p>
<p>It’s incomprehensible, then, that many of our politicians support “<a href="https://www.industry.gov.au/sites/default/files/January%202021/document/beetaloo-strategic-basin-plan.pdf">unlocking the Beetaloo Basin</a>” in the Northern Territory and developing another <a href="https://www.industry.gov.au/sites/default/files/2022-12/resources-and-energy-major-projects-2022_0.pdf">48 oil and gas projects</a> across Australia. </p>
<p>“Unlocking” means starting large-scale shale gas extraction. After drilling through 3–4km of rock and aquifers, a cocktail of chemicals, sand and water is forced down the well. This process of hydraulic fracturing is commonly known as fracking. This brings to the surface, and then into the atmosphere, carbon that had been securely stored underground for <a href="https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/natural-gas/">300–400 million years</a>. </p>
<p>Today we have launched a <a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au/content/dam/corporate/documents/about-us/values-and-visions/aboriginal-and-torres-straight-islander-community/risks_of_og_development.pdf">report</a> that demonstrates the many risks of oil and gas development for human health and wellbeing in Australia. Based on a review of over 300 peer-reviewed studies, our report provides the public and decision-makers with a summary of the now-extensive evidence of these risks.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australias-116-new-coal-oil-and-gas-projects-equate-to-215-new-coal-power-stations-202135">Australia's 116 new coal, oil and gas projects equate to 215 new coal power stations</a>
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<h2>What is the evidence against oil and gas?</h2>
<p>There is a need to combat widely held misconceptions and repeated misinformation about the safety of the oil and gas industry. We undertook the review at the request of concerned paediatricians in the Northern Territory.</p>
<p><a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/ace3db">New research</a> clearly shows that “unlocking gas” is at least as harmful to the climate as mining and burning coal. This is largely due to methane leaks at many stages of production. Methane is <a href="https://www.csiro.au/en/news/all/articles/2020/july/emissions-of-methane-are-rising">86 times more powerful</a> than carbon dioxide at trapping heat in the atmosphere over 20 years.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/methane-must-fall-to-slow-global-heating-but-only-13-of-emissions-are-actually-regulated-205941">Methane must fall to slow global heating – but only 13% of emissions are actually regulated</a>
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<p>Doors opened for the 49 planned projects in Australia after state reviews of potential impacts. These reviews are flawed and outdated as the volume of published studies has grown rapidly in recent years. Reviews were undertaken, for example, in <a href="https://www.chiefscientist.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/314382/140930-CSG-Final-Report.pdf">New South Wales</a> in 2014, <a href="https://frackinginquiry.nt.gov.au/inquiry-reports/final-report">Northern Territory</a> in 2017, <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/DocumentStore.ashx?id=3d33f399-4990-41a4-9513-06612733f7f3&subId=410766">South Australia</a> in 2015 and <a href="https://frackinginquiry.wa.gov.au/sites/default/files/final_report.pdf">Western Australia</a> in 2018.</p>
<p>Our report synthesises recent scientific and public health research on five areas of concern about oil and gas operations: </p>
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<li><p>threats to biodiversity, water and food security arising from site preparation, drilling, fracking, wastewater handling, gas pipeline transport and processing</p></li>
<li><p>contributions to the climate emergency</p></li>
<li><p>a vast array of potentially harmful chemicals</p></li>
<li><p>contamination of water, soil and air </p></li>
<li><p>physical, social, emotional and spiritual health impacts near oil and gas fields and their sprawling infrastructure. </p></li>
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<p>Each fracking event to release shale gas uses <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/how-much-water-does-typical-hydraulically-fractured-well-require">6 million to 60 million litres</a> of fresh water. Fracking is often applied many times to each of hundreds to thousands of wells in a region. This puts <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.aar5982">water security at risk</a> in arid areas. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/mining-vs-rivers-a-single-line-on-a-map-could-determine-the-future-of-water-in-the-northern-territory-192626">Mining vs rivers: a single line on a map could determine the future of water in the Northern Territory</a>
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<p>Each step of gas production creates risks of contamination of surface and ground water. With vast quantities of wastewater, it can happen through spilling, leaking, flooding and overflows. Wastewater can even be <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.8b00716">deliberately spread</a> for so-called “beneficial uses”.</p>
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<p>This wastewater contains <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1235009">hundreds of chemicals</a>. Some are naturally occurring. Others are added during drilling and fracking. </p>
<p>These chemicals can include heavy metals, phenols, barium, volatile organic compounds including benzene, toluene, ethylene and xylene, radioactive materials, fluoride, polyaromatic hydrocarbons, salt and many chemicals of unknown toxicity.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-040218-043715">Air becomes contaminated</a> with volatile organic compounds, polyaromatic hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, radioactive materials, diesel fumes, hydrogen sulfide, acrolein and heavy metals. Formaldehyde, particulate matter and <a href="https://online.ucpress.edu/elementa/article/doi/10.1525/elementa.398/112753/Air-quality-impacts-from-oil-and-natural-gas">ground-level ozone</a> are formed and travel long distances, damaging health and agriculture.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/companies-that-frack-for-oil-and-gas-can-keep-a-lot-of-information-secret-but-what-they-disclose-shows-widespread-use-of-hazardous-chemicals-193915">Companies that frack for oil and gas can keep a lot of information secret – but what they disclose shows widespread use of hazardous chemicals</a>
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<h2>What are the health impacts?</h2>
<p>People exposed to oil and gas operations experience a long list of harms. These include:</p>
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<li><p>more severe <a href="https://academic.oup.com/ije/article/49/6/1883/5900868">asthma in children</a> requiring more medical treatment, emergency department visits and hospitalisations </p></li>
<li><p>higher hospitalisation and death rates due to <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33581094/">heart attacks</a>, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33303076/">heart failure</a>, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0047272722000032">respiratory diseases</a> and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140988321001286?via%3Dihub">some cancers</a></p></li>
<li><p>higher injury and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0095069620300267">fatality rates</a> due to increased heavy vehicle traffic</p></li>
<li><p>increases in depression, anxiety and social withdrawal, especially among <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35341757/">young</a> and <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35325816/">pregnant</a> women</p></li>
<li><p>increases in <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0194203">sexually transmitted infections</a> associated with the industry’s mobile workforces</p></li>
<li><p><a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33039138/">reproductive harms</a> and <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34413223/">interference with development</a> of unborn babies, including higher risks of low birth weight, pre-term delivery and spontaneous abortion </p></li>
<li><p>higher risk of <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37076028/">severe birth defects</a> </p></li>
<li><p>higher risk of <a href="https://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/doi/10.1289/EHP11092">acute lymphoblastic leukemia</a>. </p></li>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/land-clearing-and-fracking-in-australias-northern-territory-threatens-the-worlds-largest-intact-tropical-savanna-208028">Land clearing and fracking in Australia's Northern Territory threatens the world's largest intact tropical savanna</a>
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<h2>Putting Indigenous people and others in harm’s way</h2>
<p>Many of the 49 planned projects affect Aboriginal land. Some companies have allegedly violated the rights of Traditional Owners to <a href="https://www.accr.org.au/downloads/Jumbunna-FPIC-review-final.pdf">free, prior and informed consent</a>. The <a href="https://nit.com.au/25-06-2021/2087/fracking-inquiry-for-beetaloo-basin">massive disruption</a> of Aboriginal Country and life puts people at great risk of physical, <a href="https://anthrosource.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.2153-9561.2012.01066.x">social, emotional</a>, <a href="https://soe.dcceew.gov.au/indigenous/outlook-and-impact">cultural</a> and <a href="https://nit.com.au/25-06-2021/2087/fracking-inquiry-for-beetaloo-basin">spiritual</a> harm.</p>
<p>The report also issues a loud warning about sexual violence against First Nations <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/program/fpw/2019/03/14/new-report-finds-increase-violence-coincides-oil-boom">Americans</a> and <a href="https://www.mmiwg-ffada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Final_Report_Vol_1a-1.pdf">Canadians</a> associated with oil and gas activities. The WA <a href="https://www.parliament.wa.gov.au/Parliament/commit.nsf/(Report+Lookup+by+Com+ID)/EF1DF1A3F5DF74A848258869000E6B32/$file/20220621%20-Report%20No%202.pdf">parliamentary inquiry</a> into women’s experiences of sexual harassment and sexual violence in “fly in, fly out” (FIFO) mines suggests these risks apply equally in Australia. Yet all <a href="https://territorystories.nt.gov.au/10070/898896/0/37">government assessments</a> of oil and gas development in Australia completely ignore these risks. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-beetaloo-drilling-program-brings-potential-health-and-social-issues-for-aboriginal-communities-in-remote-nt-165392">The Beetaloo drilling program brings potential health and social issues for Aboriginal communities in remote NT</a>
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<p>In the United States, the industry has grown so vast within two decades that over <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5783652/">17.6 million people</a> live within a mile (1.6km) of oil or gas wells. By 2016, the estimated <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/2752-5309/acc886">cost to the community</a> was US$77 billion. This was the cost of illness, extra health care and premature deaths (7,500) from asthma, respiratory and cardiovascular disease due to air pollution alone. </p>
<p>Our report makes clear any further gas development will have serious impacts on the climate, the people living in or near gas fields and the overburdened health services that serve them.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/two-trillion-tonnes-of-greenhouse-gases-25-billion-nukes-of-heat-are-we-pushing-earth-out-of-the-goldilocks-zone-202619">Two trillion tonnes of greenhouse gases, 25 billion nukes of heat: are we pushing Earth out of the Goldilocks zone?</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/212459/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Melissa Haswell has previously received funding from the National Health and Medical Research Council, the National Suicide Prevention Strategy, the Cooperative Research Centre for Aboriginal Health, Queensland Department of Environment and Science, Department of Families, Housing, Community Services and Indigenous Affairs, Australian Red Cross, The Healing Foundation, Queensland Health and Australian Health Ministers Advisory Council. She is affiliated with the Climate and Health Alliance, Australian Public Health Association and the International Society for Environmental Epidemiology. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jacob Hegedus is member of NSW Young Labor Party</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Shearman and Lisa Jackson Pulver do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A new report spans more than 300 peer-reviewed studies to present a comprehensive summary of the risks the industry creates for people’s health and wellbeing, as well as for the planet.Melissa Haswell, Professor of Health, Safety and Environment, Queensland University of Technology and Professor of Practice in Environmental Wellbeing, Office of the Deputy Vice Chancellor (Indigenous Strategy and Services) and Honorary Professor (School of Geosciences), University of SydneyDavid Shearman, Emeritus Professor of Medicine, University of AdelaideJacob Hegedus, Research Assistant, University of SydneyLisa Jackson Pulver, Deputy Vice-Chancellor, Professor of Public Health and Epidemiology, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1910782022-10-03T22:20:49Z2022-10-03T22:20:49ZThe magnificent Lake Eyre Basin is threatened by 831 oil and gas wells – and more are planned. Is that what Australians really want?<p>The heart-shaped Lake Eyre Basin covers about one-sixth of Australia. It contains one of the few remaining pristine river systems in the world.</p>
<p>But new research shows oil and gas activity is extending its tentacles into these fragile environments. Its wells, pads, roads and dams threaten to change water flows and pollute this magnificent ecosystem. </p>
<p>The <a href="http://www.publish.csiro.au/MF/MF22063">study</a>, by myself and colleague Amy Walburn, investigated current and future oil and gas production and exploration on the floodplains of the Lake Eyre Basin. We found 831 oil and gas wells across the basin – and this number is set to grow. What’s more, state and Commonwealth legislation has largely failed to control this development.</p>
<p>State and national governments are promoting massive gas development to kickstart Australia’s economy. But as we show, this risks significant damage to the Lake Eyre Basin and its rivers. </p>
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<img alt="mining infrastructure on flooded ground" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/487704/original/file-20221003-22-tidi6m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/487704/original/file-20221003-22-tidi6m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=319&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487704/original/file-20221003-22-tidi6m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=319&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487704/original/file-20221003-22-tidi6m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=319&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487704/original/file-20221003-22-tidi6m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487704/original/file-20221003-22-tidi6m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487704/original/file-20221003-22-tidi6m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Mining infrastructure in the Lake Eyre Basin, here recently flooded, threatens the pristine natural wonder.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Doug Gimesy</span></span>
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<h2>A precious natural wonder</h2>
<p>The Lake Eyre Basin is probably the last major free-flowing river system on Earth – meaning no major dams or irrigation diversions stem the rivers’ flow. </p>
<p>This country has been looked after for tens of thousands of year by First Nations people, including the Arrernte, Dieri, Mithaka and Wangkangurru. This care continues today.</p>
<p>The biggest rivers feeding the basin – the Diamantina, Georgina and Cooper – originate in western Queensland and flow to South Australia where they pour into Kathi Thanda-Lake Eyre.</p>
<p>As they wind south, the rivers dissect deserts and inundate floodplains, lakes and wetlands – including 33 wetlands of national importance. </p>
<p>This natural phenomenon has happened for millennia. It supports incredible natural booms of plants, fish and birds, as well as tourism and livestock grazing. But our new research shows oil and gas development threatens this precious natural wonder.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/unknown-wonders-kati-thanda-lake-eyre-13523">Unknown wonders: Kati Thanda-Lake Eyre</a>
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<h2>Massive industrial creep</h2>
<p>Our <a href="http://www.publish.csiro.au/MF/MF22063">analysis</a> used satellite imagery to map the locations of oil and gas development in the Lake Eyre Basin since the first oil wells were established in late 1950s. </p>
<p>We found 831 oil and gas production and exploration wells exist on the floodplains of the Lake Eyre Basin – almost 99% of them on the Cooper Creek floodplains. The wells go under the river and its floodplains into the geological Cooper Basin, considered to have the most important onshore petroleum and natural gas deposits in Australia. </p>
<p>Our research also shows how quickly oil and gas mining in the Lake Eyre Basin is set to grow. We identified licensing approvals or applications covering 4.5 million hectares of floodplains in the Lake Eyre Basin, across South Australia and Queensland.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.bioregionalassessments.gov.au/assessments/geological-and-bioregional-assessment-program/cooper-basin/cooper-gba-region-stage-two-report">CSIRO</a> recently examined likely scenarios of 1,000 to 1,500 additional unconventional gas wells in the Cooper Basin in the next 50 years. It predicted these wells would built be on “pads” – areas occupied by mining equipment or facilities – about 4 kilometres apart. They would typically access gas using horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing, or fracking.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/protecting-australias-lake-eyre-basin-means-getting-our-priorities-right-44836">Protecting Australia's Lake Eyre basin means getting our priorities right</a>
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<p>Fracking is the process of extracting so-called “unconventional gas”. It involves using water and chemicals to fracture deep rocks to extract the gas. This polluted water, known to be <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/srep46582">toxic to fish</a>, is brought back to the surface and stored in dams. </p>
<p>Two locations we focused on were in South Australia at the protected, <a href="https://www.environment.sa.gov.au/topics/water/wetlands/coongie-lakes">Ramsar-listed Coongie Lakes site</a>, which was recognised as internationally significant in 1987. The other site was in Queensland’s channel country, also on the Cooper floodplain.</p>
<p>In total across the Coongie Lakes sites, we found a three-fold increase in wells: from 95 in 1987 to 296 last year. We also identified 869 kilometres of roads and 316 hectares of storage pits, such as those that hold water.</p>
<p>Some of these dams could potentially hold polluted fracking water and become submerged by flooding, particularly at Coongie Lakes.</p>
<h2>A disaster waiting to happen?</h2>
<p>Examples from around the world already show oil and gas exploration and development can reduce water quality by interrupting sediments and leading to elevated <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/12/4/941">chemical</a> <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1213871110">concentrations</a>. Production waste can also degrade floodplain <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1742-6596/1515/3/032037">vegetation</a>.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.bioregionalassessments.gov.au/assessments/geological-and-bioregional-assessment-program/cooper-basin/cooper-gba-region-stage-two-report">CSIRO says</a> risks associated with oil and gas development in the Cooper Basin include:</p>
<ul>
<li>dust and emissions from machinery that may cause habitat loss, including changes to air quality, noise and light pollution</li>
<li>disposal and storage of site materials that may contaminate soil, surface water and/or groundwater through accidental spills, leaks and leaching</li>
<li>unplanned fracking and drilling into underground faults, unintended geological layers or abandoned wells</li>
<li>gas and fluids contaminating soil, surface water, groundwater and air</li>
<li>changes to groundwater pressures could potentially reactivate underground faults and induce earthquakes.</li>
</ul>
<p>Fracking for unconventional gas also requires drawing <a href="https://www.bioregionalassessments.gov.au/assessments/geological-and-bioregional-assessment-program/cooper-basin/cooper-gba-region-stage-two-report">large amounts of water</a> from rivers and groundwater.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/1-in-5-fossil-fuel-projects-overshoot-their-original-estimations-for-emissions-why-are-there-such-significant-errors-177714">1 in 5 fossil fuel projects overshoot their original estimations for emissions. Why are there such significant errors?</a>
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<h2>The laws have failed</h2>
<p>Our findings raise significant questions for Australian governments and the community.</p>
<p>Are we prepared to accept industrialisation of the Lake Eyre Basin, and the associated risk of pollution and other environmental damage? Have the companies involved earned a social licence for these activities? Where do the profits end up, and who will bear the social, environmental and financial costs of such intense development? </p>
<p>Clearly, state and federal environmental protections have failed to stop unfettered development of the basin.</p>
<p>These policies include the Lake Eyre Basin <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/water/policy/national/lake-eyre-basin/agreement">Agreement</a>, signed by the states, the Commonwealth and the Northern Territory, which has been in place since 2000.</p>
<p>Australia’s federal environment law – the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act – is supposed to protect nationally important areas such as Ramsar wetlands. Yet our research identified that just eight developments in the basin were referred to the Commonwealth government for approval and with only one deemed significant enough for assessment. This legislation does not deal adequately with the cumulative impacts of development. </p>
<p>And finally, gas extraction and production is <a href="https://theconversation.com/1-in-5-fossil-fuel-projects-overshoot-their-original-estimations-for-emissions-why-are-there-such-significant-errors-177714">associated with</a> substantial “fugitive” emissions - greenhouse gases which escape into the atmosphere. This undermines Australia’s emissions reduction efforts under the Paris Agreement.</p>
<p>The governments of South Australia and Queensland should restrict mining development in the Lake Eyre Basin. And stronger federal oversight of this nationally significant natural treasure is urgently needed.</p>
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<p>In response to this article, Chief executive of the Australian Petroleum Production & Exploration Association, Samantha McCulloch, said in a statement:</p>
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<p>The oil and gas industry takes its responsibilities to the environment and to local communities seriously and it is one of the most heavily regulated sectors in Australia. The industry has been operating in Queensland for more than a decade and the gas produced in Queensland plays an important role in Australia’s energy security.</p>
</blockquote><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/191078/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Richard Kingsford received part funding for this work from The Pew Charitable Trusts as well as the Centre for Ecosystem Science, UNSW Sydney. It was also written as part of an Australian Research Council Linkage Grant on Ramsar Sites. He also receives funding from state and Commonwealth governments, non-government organisations, including Bush Heritage Australia, the Ian Potter Foundation and Nari Nari Tribal Council. He is affiliated with the Society for Conservation Biology Oceania, Ecological Society of Australia and Birdlife Australia. </span></em></p>Lake Eyre Basin contains one of the few pristine river systems left in the world. But new research shows oil and gas activity is extending its tentacles into these fragile environments.Richard Kingsford, Professor, School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1881122022-08-16T14:41:41Z2022-08-16T14:41:41ZSouth Africa’s proposed fracking regulations should do more to protect groundwater<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/479402/original/file-20220816-9763-z7u5be.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The Karoo landscape, a water-scarce area near potential shale gas sites.
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Photo courtesy Surina Esterhuyse</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>South Africa is extremely water scarce, and water supply will become more challenging in the future. The <a href="https://www.africaportal.org/publications/delicate-balance-water-scarcity-south-africa/">population and economy are growing</a>, increasing demand. Rainfall is variable and more extreme and prolonged droughts are expected because of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128183397000059">climate change</a>. More than 80% of South Africa’s available surface water resources are already <a href="https://www.dws.gov.za/Groundwater/Documents/NGS_Draft-Final_04012017.pdf">allocated for use</a>. Groundwater resources will therefore become more important in South Africa.</p>
<p>There is, however, a potential threat to those groundwater resources. South Africa depends heavily on <a href="https://cdn.sei.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/planning-a-just-transition-in-south-africa.pdf">coal for energy</a> but its coal resources are being <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/265445/proved-coal-reserves-in-south-africa/">depleted</a>. The country may turn to unconventional oil and gas resources to augment energy supply. And methods to extract oil and gas can <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301479716307289">contaminate and deplete groundwater</a>. </p>
<p>Hydraulic fracturing, also known as fracking, is used to extract trapped oil and gas from underground geological formations. A mixture of water, chemicals and sand is injected into these formations under high pressure. This opens up micro-fractures in the rock to release the trapped oil and gas, but it can also disturb the deep geological formations and aquifers. Groundwater can be contaminated if deep saline groundwater migrates to potable groundwater resources via hydraulic connections.</p>
<p>In addition to migration of saline groundwater, the chemicals used during fracking can contaminate groundwater. Wastewater may also get into groundwater via spills and leaks. And the hydraulic fracturing process requires large volumes of water. </p>
<p>Regulations that are properly developed and enforced are therefore vital to protect groundwater resources in South Africa when <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41545-021-00145-y">extracting unconventional oil and gas</a>.</p>
<h2>Regulations to protect groundwater</h2>
<p>On 7 May 2021, the Department of Water and Sanitation published <a href="https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/202105/44545gon406.pdf">regulations on the use of water in oil and gas extraction</a>. And on 11 July 2022, the Department of Forestry, Fisheries and the Environment published <a href="https://cer.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/Proposed-Regulations-pertaining-to-the-Exploration-and-Production-of-Onshore-Oil-and-Gas-Requiring-Hydraulic-Fracturing.pdf">proposed regulations for the exploration and production of onshore oil and gas</a> for public comment. These regulations aim to protect the environment during oil and gas development. </p>
<p>The environment department also published a document for comment specifying what <a href="https://cer.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/NEMA-Intention-to-prescribe-minimum-conditions-for-onshore-exploration-of-oil-and-gas-intending-to-frack-8-July-2022.pdf">information must be supplied</a> when applying for a licence to produce oil and gas. The two departments’ regulations should be read together since both protect groundwater resources. </p>
<p>Based on a <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41545-021-00145-y">survey</a> of South African groundwater experts that my colleagues and I conducted, I’ve reviewed the proposed regulations and identified aspects that need attention.</p>
<p>A strength of the regulations is that they list penalties for contraventions, which will help with enforcement. However, there are gaps in the regulations. Some extraction methods and related processes are not regulated. </p>
<h2>Gaps in fracking regulations</h2>
<p>The environment department’s regulations only address unconventional oil and gas development that requires hydraulic fracturing. Other techniques are also used to free those resources. For example, depressurisation can be used to liberate coalbed methane. All the extraction methods should be included in the regulations.</p>
<p>The regulations say that water sources and fracking wells at the extraction site should be at least 2km apart. This is not far enough. Based on what the survey of experts found, fracking wells should be at least 10km away from municipal wellfields, aquifers and water supply boreholes. They should be at least 5km away from seismically active springs. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/479226/original/file-20220815-16003-8q5rsz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Karoo landscape with windpumps" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/479226/original/file-20220815-16003-8q5rsz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/479226/original/file-20220815-16003-8q5rsz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479226/original/file-20220815-16003-8q5rsz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479226/original/file-20220815-16003-8q5rsz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479226/original/file-20220815-16003-8q5rsz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479226/original/file-20220815-16003-8q5rsz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479226/original/file-20220815-16003-8q5rsz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Putsonderwater, meaning ‘well without water’ in the extremely water-scarce area between Marydale and Groblershoop.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Photo courtesy Danita Hohne</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These minimum distances, known as setbacks, are also needed where there are <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41545-021-00145-y">other geological and groundwater features</a> that increase the risk of groundwater contamination. </p>
<p>The regulations do not address specific measures to contain fractures to the production zone, or to prevent fluids from migrating beyond this area. Operators should have to monitor these risks and report to the regulator. If monitoring shows that fluid is moving outside the production zone, operations must stop until the situation is corrected. </p>
<p>The proposed regulations don’t address fracturing fluid management. The water department regulations require that a list of chemicals planned for use in the fracturing fluids be submitted to the department for approval, but this alone is insufficient to protect groundwater. A risk management plan for each well that is to be fractured must be submitted to the regulator. It must identify the chemical ingredients and the volume and concentration of the fluid additives. The plan must assess the potential environmental and health risks of the fracturing fluids and additives – and show how operations will minimise risk. </p>
<p>The regulations require a waste management plan. It should be more comprehensive, by considering both solid waste and wastewater. The plan should include transport, storage and management of wastewater and other substances used, and procedures for preventing and addressing spills. It should monitor and report on the actual volume of recovered fluids, the chemical composition of these fluids, and any radioactive fluids that were identified. </p>
<p>The information disclosure regulations are inadequate. They require that various information sources be uploaded onto the website of the holder. They do not require public access to this information. It would be better to load the data onto a centralised website run by an independent institution, where it is available and in a usable form.</p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-fracking-plans-could-affect-shared-water-resources-in-southern-africa-147684">How fracking plans could affect shared water resources in southern Africa</a>
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</em>
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<p>The well decommissioning regulations do not specify how long decommissioned wells should be monitored. The risk of well leakage <a href="https://gisera.csiro.au/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/Final-Report-GISERA-W20-Monitoring-of-Decommissioned-Wells.pdf">over the long term</a> means that a monitoring timeframe of <a href="https://seasgd.csir.co.za/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/Ch-5_Water_13Nov2016_LR.pdf">50 years or more may be necessary</a>. The regulations should consider who will be responsible and carry the associated costs. </p>
<p>Ancillary activities are not regulated. For example, there’s no mention of pipeline management or monitoring. Pipelines could leak and contaminate groundwater resources, especially if they are buried. </p>
<p>The minimum information requirements document also needs revision. Information about where wells will be located should be publicly available. For the groundwater baseline (the groundwater quality and quantity before fracking), both shallow and deep aquifers should be assessed, and possible fluid migration pathways should be identified.</p>
<p>If these aspects are addressed and the regulations properly enforced, the regulations will do a better job of protecting groundwater resources.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/188112/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Surina Esterhuyse does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>New regulations for protecting water resources during oil exploration are inadequate and should be reviewed.Surina Esterhuyse, Senior Lecturer Centre for Environmental Management, University of the Free StateLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1807482022-05-05T15:19:21Z2022-05-05T15:19:21ZFracking review suggests UK has softened precautionary principle since leaving EU – here’s why it matters<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/461596/original/file-20220505-1456-bvw8pi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C6154%2C3000&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/fracking-well-head-connected-pumps-1138852370">LHBLLC/Shutterstock </a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The UK government recently <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1066525/BGS_Letter.pdf">conceded</a> that the reasons for its <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk-governments-fracking-ban-has-a-convenient-loophole-126475">2019 ban</a> on hydraulic fracturing “have not gone away,” and there is “no compelling evidence” to support rethinking it. Better known as fracking, this industrial process injects millions of gallons of water underground at high pressure to release fossil gas from rocky pores.</p>
<p>The moratorium was prompted by a series of <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-lancashire-49471321">tremors</a> at the UK’s lone fracking rig in Lancashire. Cuadrilla, the operator, was scheduled to seal off its wells in March 2022.</p>
<p>Yet, a month later, the government <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1066525/BGS_Letter.pdf">permitted</a> a scientific review of the safety of fracking in the UK. Cuadrilla obtained a <a href="https://www.nstauthority.co.uk/news-publications/news/2022/nsta-withdraws-requirement-to-decommission-three-cuadrilla-wells/">one-year extension</a> to prove that its operations are safe for the environment and public health. The company hopes to eventually resume its operations pending a positive outcome from the review.</p>
<p>The government <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/urgent-question-response-on-fracking">defends</a> its decision by <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1066525/BGS_Letter.pdf">saying</a> that it wants to keep “all possible energy generation and production methods on the table” since Russia’s invasion of Ukraine has caused a <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-60642786">rise</a> in global oil and gas prices. It <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1066525/BGS_Letter.pdf">admits</a>, however, that fracking would not provide a “solution to near-term (gas) pricing difficulties”. Fracking is <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-fracking-is-not-the-answer-to-soaring-uk-gas-prices-177957">unlikely</a> to ever produce enough gas in the UK to ease soaring energy bills.</p>
<p>The decision to reopen the possibility of fracking in the UK marks a departure from European Union regulations now that it is no longer a member of the bloc. The UK appears poised to emulate environmental regulation in the US, where fracking has <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0167629622000157">caused significant harm</a>.</p>
<h2>Brexit and the precautionary principle</h2>
<p>The precautionary principle is a legal approach that allows regulators to restrict or prohibit the use of a technology even if the environment and health risks related to the technology are uncertain.</p>
<p>After leaving the EU, the UK adopted its own <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2021/30/contents/enacted">environmental legislation in 2021</a>. It later released a <a href="https://consult.defra.gov.uk/environmental-principles/draft-policy-statement/supporting_documents/draftenvironmentalprinciplespolicystatement.pdf">draft environmental principles policy statement</a> proposing that, while applying the precautionary principle, UK regulators “should only prevent or defer an innovative development where that risk outweighs the benefits”. </p>
<p>This proposed interpretation of the precautionary principle echoes the <a href="https://ashford.mit.edu/sites/default/files/documents/C28.%20LegacyOfPrecaution_19.pdf">American understanding</a>, that takes into account the financial impact of restricting or banning a technology before regulating it.</p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/brexit-could-kill-the-precautionary-principle-heres-why-it-matters-so-much-for-our-environment-86577">Before Brexit</a>, the UK implemented the precautionary principle through EU law. <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=LEGISSUM:precautionary_principle#:%7E:text=The%20precautionary%20principle%20is%20an,should%20not%20be%20carried%20out.">The EU version</a> regulates an environmental risk even if the likelihood of it happening is slim. Or, it puts the burden on the operator to show that the activity is safe.</p>
<p>Critics <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160791X2030751X">argue</a> that this approach stifles innovation, as operators will baulk at the cost of scientifically demonstrating the safety of their technology. On the other hand, the American approach may allow lucrative technologies to permanently damage the environment and public health before the inherent risks <a href="http://law.syr.edu/uploads/docs/deans-faculty/cost-benefit-analysis-and-precautionary-principle.pdf">are clear</a>. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167629622000157">Despite mounting evidence</a> of <a href="https://www.unco.edu/nhs/biology/about-us/franklin-scott/lab/images/Meng2017.pdf">environmental harm</a>, including drinking water contamination and greenhouse gas emissions, fracking is still exempt from <a href="https://www.psr.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/compendium-8.pdf">several precautionary regulations</a> in the US. For instance, fracking waste is still not regulated as hazardous waste and corporations are <a href="https://www.watershedcouncil.org/hydraulic-fracturing---regulations-and-exemptions.html">not required to apply</a> for permits disclosing waste disposals under US federal law.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A metal column in a green field." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/461594/original/file-20220505-24-3bqe8s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5287%2C3324&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/461594/original/file-20220505-24-3bqe8s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=378&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461594/original/file-20220505-24-3bqe8s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=378&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461594/original/file-20220505-24-3bqe8s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=378&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461594/original/file-20220505-24-3bqe8s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=475&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461594/original/file-20220505-24-3bqe8s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=475&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461594/original/file-20220505-24-3bqe8s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=475&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A shale gas well in the US, where fracking has proceeded at breakneck speed.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/fracking-american-shale-well-1449364412">FreezeFrames/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The UK’s proposed version of the precautionary principle drifts from the European “better safe than sorry” approach and towards the cost-centric American one. <a href="https://www.theoep.org.uk/what-we-do">The Office for Environmental Protection</a>, a UK public body established under the 2021 environment legislation, <a href="https://www.theoep.org.uk/node/112">criticised</a> the government’s draft version of the precautionary principle for its “unusual emphasis on innovation, which may detract from the principle’s core aim of managing risk in the face of scientific uncertainty”. </p>
<p>On April 20 2022 Jacob Rees-Mogg, minister for Brexit opportunities and government efficiency, <a href="https://www.endsreport.com/article/1753852/rees-mogg-mocks-precautionary-principle">scoffed</a> at the stricter application of the precautionary principle, <a href="https://committees.parliament.uk/oralevidence/10126/html/">saying</a> that “if we followed the precautionary principle to its logical extent, we would never go into either our kitchens or our bathrooms”.</p>
<h2>Mounting evidence of risks</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02646811.2019.1693114">Fracking</a> continues to pose risks. <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00167487.2016.12093986">Particularly so in the UK</a>, where dense rocks make tremors likely during water injection. Up to <a href="https://www.epa.gov/uog/process-unconventional-natural-gas-production">3.5 million gallons</a> can be injected at each well, generating huge amounts of <a href="https://anguil.com/case-studies/frac-water-reuse-technologies-2/">wastewater</a>, which typically contains a highly combustible greenhouse gas called methane and radioactive material. The UK simply <a href="https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlehtml/2018/ew/c7ew00474e">does not have the capacity</a> to handle the radioactive waste if several fracking wells are operating at once. </p>
<p>Since late 2019, when the UK last conducted its scientific review of fracking, several studies have found an increase in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-020-18226-w">airborne radioactivity</a> within a 20-kilometre radius of fracking sites, a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167629622000157">direct</a> effect of fracking on infant health, pregnant people and children, and <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11356-021-18022-z">pulverising</a> of the Earth’s bedrock which releases uranium. The UK government, while permitting the recent scientific review of fracking, did not mention these developments.</p>
<p>The UK has yet to finalise its post-Brexit interpretation of the precautionary principle, but its decision to soften the fracking moratorium aligns with its draft version of the cost-centric definition. This could pave the way for regulatory decisions which prioritise potential financial benefits over the risks to the environment and public health.</p>
<p>The UK’s shifting stance on fracking is not just a reaction to the energy crisis, but rather, a strong indication of its post-Brexit march towards a riskier society.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/180748/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Shashi Kant Yadav receives funding from the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences at University of Surrey</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rosalind Malcolm does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Despite banning fracking in 2019, the UK government recently decided to review its safety.Shashi Kant Yadav, Doctoral Researcher in Environmental Regulations, University of SurreyRosalind Malcolm, Professor of Law, Director of Environmental Regulatory Research Group (ERRG), University of SurreyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1779572022-03-02T11:13:09Z2022-03-02T11:13:09ZWhy fracking is not the answer to soaring UK gas prices<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/449485/original/file-20220302-19-12n0u1c.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The public have never been enthusiastic about this industry. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/balcombe-united-kingdom-august-18-woman-150896867">Randi Sokoloff</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Even before Russia invaded Ukraine, the wholesale price of gas <a href="https://www.ofgem.gov.uk/publications/price-cap-increase-ps693-april">had quadrupled</a> over the preceding six months. This was <a href="https://ukerc.ac.uk/news/cost-of-gas-by-default/">largely driven</a> by too much demand chasing too little supply as gas producers struggled to cope with the economic bounce-back from the pandemic lockdowns, plus the tensions between Russia and Europe. This has seen nearly 30 UK energy retailers going bust, with many consumers facing ever-increasing energy bills, sparking a debate about UK natural-gas security that is only likely to intensify in the coming weeks and months. </p>
<p>By chance, the shale gas company Cuadrilla <a href="https://cuadrillaresources.uk/government-orders-plugging-and-abandonment-of-britains-shale-wells-in-midst-of-energy-crisis/">recently announced</a> that it will permanently seal its two shale gas exploration wells in Lancashire in north-west England, following a government order. This has once again led to shale gas being in the headlines in the UK and <a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/world/article-gas-fracking-nuclear-three-energy-sectors-on-europes-rethink-list-as/">abroad</a>. </p>
<p>In a flurry of opinion pieces and letters, MPs and political commentators <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/feb/13/david-frost-joins-tory-mps-in-calls-for-return-of-fracking-in-uk">have called</a> for Boris Johnson to rethink the UK government’s current moratorium on shale exploration, arguing that when gas is at a premium, the UK must maximise its own resources. A group of Tory backbenchers sent a letter to Downing Street pointing out that UK shale was the key to “50 years of cheap gas”. </p>
<p>But these arguments do not hold up. There may be estimates of how much shale gas the UK has as a resource – the amount that may be recoverable – but that’s not the same as proven reserves, which refers to the amount that can be produced commercially at any given time. The size of the proven reserves is unknowable without significant exploratory drilling, and this is unlikely to happen. </p>
<h2>Resources vs reserves</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://www.ogauthority.co.uk/media/2782/bgs_decc_bowlandshalegasreport_main_report.pdf">British Geological Survey’s (BGS)</a> estimate of the UK shale resource, published in 2013, was between 822 and 2,281 trillion cubic feet of gas, with a central figure of 1,329 trillion cubic feet. By comparison, the <a href="https://www.worldometers.info/gas/uk-natural-gas/#:%7E:text=Gas%20Consumption%20in%20the%20United%20Kingdom&text=The%20United%20Kingdom%20consumes%202%2C795%2C569,total%20consumption%20of%20132%2C290%2C211%20MMcf.">UK consumes</a> about 2.8 trillion cubic feet of gas per year. </p>
<p>Since that estimate was published, only 11 dedicated shale gas exploration wells have been drilled, and only two have had flow tests carried out to determine their technical and economic viability. Both were carried out by Cuadrilla in Lancashire. By contrast, during the exploration of the Marcellus shale in Pennsylvania in the US, around <a href="https://www.geoexpro.com/articles/2008/06/the-marcellus-shale">375 wells</a> were drilled. <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/business/2022/02/12/fracking-would-have-saved-britain-energy-crisis/">Statements that</a> the UK has vast shale gas reserves are thus inaccurate.</p>
<p>Cuadrilla’s two wells also <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/aug/22/cuadrilla-halts-fracking-after-biggest-tremor-yet-at-lancashire-site-preston-new-road">triggered small tremors</a> that prompted the government to impose a moratorium until <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/news/government-ends-support-for-fracking">such time as</a>, “the science shows that it is safe, sustainable and of minimal disturbance to those living and working nearby”. <a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/ssa/srl/article-abstract/92/1/151/592210/High-Resolution-Imaging-of-the-ML-2-9-August-2019">Our research</a> shows it will be difficult for the industry to meet this requirement. This is because the orientation of <a href="https://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/glossary/?term=fault#:%7E:text=A%20fault%20is%20a%20fracture,another%20parallel%20to%20the%20fracture.&text=A%20reverse%20fault%20with%20a,is%20called%20a%20thrust%20fault%5D(https://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/glossary/?term=fault#:%7E:text=A%20fault%20is%20a%20fracture,another%20parallel%20to%20the%20fracture.&text=A%20reverse%20fault%20with%20a,is%20called%20a%20thrust%20fault">existing geological faults</a> means they may be more likely to be reactivated during the hydraulic fracturing operations required to extract shale gas from the rocks. </p>
<p>Even if the moratorium on fracking were to be lifted, it would take years of drilling before production could begin – far from the quick fix that some are calling for. By that time, the UK may not even need the gas: to meet the targets of a totally green power system by 2035 and a net zero economy by 2050, the nation’s gas consumption will have to <a href="https://www.theccc.org.uk/publication/sixth-carbon-budget/">fall dramatically</a>. </p>
<p>Finally, the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.petrol.2019.01.097">geological complexity</a> of the area also now <a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/pg/article-abstract/26/2/303/583394/Structural-constraints-on-Lower-Carboniferous?redirectedFrom=fulltext">appears to be</a> greater than many operators originally interpreted. <a href="https://eartharxiv.org/repository/view/3063/">Recent research suggests</a> that the BGS’s estimates were overly optimistic, although there is insufficient data to reliably come up with better estimates. At any rate, many interested companies have recognised the reality and <a href="https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/energy-firm-in-quest-for-cornish-heat-7076vssz8">moved on</a>. Exploration for shale gas in the UK is effectively over. </p>
<p>The public has largely either been uninterested or against shale gas all along. Given the 2050 net zero target, it is even less likely to support developing a new fossil fuel resource onshore now. In the UK government’s latest <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1040725/BEIS_PAT_Autumn_2021_Energy_Infrastructure_and_Energy_Sources.pdf">public attitudes tracker</a>, 45% opposed shale gas development, 30% neither supported nor opposed, and only 17% supported it. </p>
<p>The UK’s devolved governments all oppose shale gas exploration too, following the <a href="https://www.belfastlive.co.uk/news/northern-ireland/dup-supports-moratorium-fracking-oil-23042881">recent statement</a> from the Northern Ireland assembly – as do the major opposition parties. A coalition of residents and environmental activists successfully slowed shale gas exploration by challenging decisions in the courts and <a href="http://www.ukuh.org/media/sites/researchwebsites/2ukuh/89490%20Unconventional%20Hydrocarbons.pdf">staging protests</a> at potential sites, and would likely do so again. </p>
<p>Equally, the government <a href="https://twitter.com/KwasiKwarteng/status/1498197281144725505">is unlikely</a> to sign off on such work when the north of England is home to the former <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/20419058211045127">“red wall” seats</a> that swept Boris Johnson’s Conservatives to victory in 2019. So despite current gas prices, “going all out for shale”, as then Prime Minister <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/jan/13/shale-gas-fracking-cameron-all-out#:%7E:text=David%20Cameron%20is%20to%20declarethat,of%20pounds%20for%20local%20authorities.">David Cameron once proclaimed</a>, is not going to happen. </p>
<h2>The UK gas outlook</h2>
<p>The inconvenient truth is that there are no easy ways to increase domestic gas supply in the UK. The North Sea <a href="http://www.ukuh.org/media/sites/researchwebsites/2ukuh/89490%20SGUK%20Energy%20Security.pdf">is mature</a>, and the emphasis is on maximising recovery of remaining reserves as production continues to decline. The UK’s dependence on gas imports is set to <a href="https://www.ogauthority.co.uk/data-centre/data-downloads-and-publications/production-projections/">keep increasing</a>, reaching 70% by the end of this decade.</p>
<p>The government is currently consulting on a <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/consultations/designing-a-climate-compatibility-checkpoint-for-future-oil-and-gas-licensing-in-the-uk-continental-shelf">system for</a> awarding new North Sea exploration licences for oil and gas based on a climate compatibility test, but there is concern over whether this <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/bartlett/sustainable/sites/bartlett_sustainable/files/uk_oil_and_gas_in_a_1.5_degree_world_final_0.pdf">can align</a> with the UK’s <a href="https://www.theccc.org.uk/publication/letter-climate-compatibility-of-new-oil-and-gas-fields/">net zero commitment</a>. Environmental groups and academics also point to the International Energy Agency’s <a href="https://www.iea.org/reports/net-zero-by-2050">assertion that</a> no new oil and gas exploration is required, while <a href="https://www.theccc.org.uk/publication/letter-climate-compatibility-of-new-oil-and-gas-fields/">arguing that</a> allowing new exploration undermines the UK’s credibility as a climate leader. </p>
<p>The message should be clear: the answer is not more gas supply, it’s <a href="http://www.ukuh.org/media/sites/researchwebsites/2ukuh/89490%20Brexit%20Net-Zero%20and%20Future.pdf">less gas demand</a>. While taking the UK’s foot off the gas will take time and cost money, in the long term it will free the country from fossil fuel price volatility and reliance on importing a large share of its energy.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/177957/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael Bradshaw receives funding from NERC-ESRC in relation to its Unconventional Hydrocarbons in the UK Energy System Research Programme and EPSRC in relation to his role as Co-Director for the UK Energy Research Centre (UKERC).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mark Ireland receives funding from NERC-ESRC in relation to its Unconventional Hydrocarbons in the UK Energy System Research Programme and from ReFINE (Researching Fracking)</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rachel Brown receives funding from NERC-ESRC in relation to its Unconventional Hydrocarbons in the UK Energy System Research Programme and from ReFINE (Researching Fracking). </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Richard Davies receives funding from NERC-ESRC in relation to its Unconventional Hydrocarbons in the UK Energy System Research Programme and from ReFINE (Researching Fracking).</span></em></p>Why recent calls for the UK to resuscitate shale gas exploration are for the birds.Michael Bradshaw, Professor of Global Energy, Warwick Business School, University of WarwickMark Ireland, Lecturer in Energy Geoscience, Newcastle UniversityRachel Brown, Project Manager, Energy Geosciences, Newcastle UniversityRichard Davies, Pro-Vice Chancellor: Global, Newcastle UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1666922021-08-27T15:29:07Z2021-08-27T15:29:07ZFracking and poorer surface water quality link established – new research<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/417821/original/file-20210825-19-ye63wr.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3072%2C2304&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">During fracking, water is mixed with fluids and injected into the ground.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Process_of_mixing_water_with_fracking_fluids_to_be_injected_into_the_ground.JPG">Wikimedia Commons</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Fracking – <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/ucenergy/2018/02/20/fracking-has-its-costs-and-benefits-the-trick-is-balancing-them/?sh=73011d4b19b4">hailed</a> by some as the greatest recent advance in energy production, <a href="https://www.aeaweb.org/research/fracking-shale-local-impact-net">criticised</a> by others for the threat it poses to local life – continues to divide opinion.</p>
<p>The term <a href="https://theconversation.com/fracking-takes-a-toll-on-mental-health-as-drilling-and-truck-traffic-rattle-neighborhoods-146528">fracking</a> refers to the high-pressure injection of water mixed with fluid chemical additives – including friction reducers, gels and acids – and “propping agents” such as sand to create fractures in deep rock formations such as shale, allowing oil or gas to flow out.</p>
<p><a href="https://epic.uchicago.edu/events/event/the-fracking-debate-the-pros-cons-and-lessons-learned-from-the-u-s-energy-boom/">Tens of thousands</a> of hydraulic fracturing wells have been drilled across the US, generating <a href="https://www.fool.com/investing/general/2014/03/30/how-fracking-has-helped-the-us-economy.aspx">huge benefits</a> for its energy industry and economy: yet the practice remains globally controversial. It is <a href="https://sgkplanet.com/en/in-which-countries-is-fracking-prohibited/">not permitted</a> in numerous other countries, such as France, Germany, Ireland and, since 2019, <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/climate-change/news/fracking-ban-uk-kwasi-kwarteng-climate-change-methane-shale-gas-a9575906.html">the UK</a>.</p>
<p>While some see fracking as the most important change in the energy sector since the introduction of <a href="https://www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/what-is-nuclear-energy-the-science-of-nuclear-power">nuclear energy</a> more than 50 years ago, others raise <a href="https://epic.uchicago.edu/news/hydraulic-fracturing-decreases-infant-health-study-finds/">health</a> and <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/what-environmental-issues-are-associated-hydraulic-fracturing?qt-news_science_products=0#">environmental</a> concerns: in particular, the threat fracking could pose to our <a href="https://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/hfstudy/recordisplay.cfm?deid=332990">water</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A fracking diagram" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/417822/original/file-20210825-27-eet2bs.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/417822/original/file-20210825-27-eet2bs.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=351&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417822/original/file-20210825-27-eet2bs.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=351&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417822/original/file-20210825-27-eet2bs.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=351&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417822/original/file-20210825-27-eet2bs.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=441&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417822/original/file-20210825-27-eet2bs.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=441&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417822/original/file-20210825-27-eet2bs.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=441&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Fracking works by injecting fluid into cracks in the earth to extract oil or gas.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:HydroFrac.png">Wikimedia</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Starting in 2010, many US states began to <a href="https://environmentamerica.org/sites/environment/files/reports/Fracking%20by%20the%20Numbers%20vUS.pdf">regulate fracking</a>, obliging operators to <a href="https://www.nrdc.org/sites/default/files/Fracking-Disclosure-IB.pdf">disclose</a> the substances used in their fluid mix. As economists, we were curious to see whether mandatory disclosures of what’s in fracturing fluids made the practice cleaner, or reduced potential water contamination. </p>
<p>To do that, we needed to compare the environmental impact from fracking before and after the new disclosure rules. We assembled a database that put together existing measurements of surface water quality with the location of fracking wells, and analysed changes in surface water quality around new wells over an 11-year period. </p>
<p>We noticed some strong associations, but also discovered that these associations had not been previously documented. Deciding to study the link between new hydraulic fracturing wells and surface water quality, we were able to provide evidence for a relationship between the two. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Equipment used for fracking" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/417824/original/file-20210825-25-1qyb5h3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/417824/original/file-20210825-25-1qyb5h3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417824/original/file-20210825-25-1qyb5h3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417824/original/file-20210825-25-1qyb5h3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417824/original/file-20210825-25-1qyb5h3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417824/original/file-20210825-25-1qyb5h3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417824/original/file-20210825-25-1qyb5h3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A fracking platform designed to extract oil.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://pixabay.com/photos/fracking-oil-drilling-699657/">Jwigley/Pixabay</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The link</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2021/08/210819142722.htm">Our study</a>, published in Science, uses a statistical approach to identify changes in the concentration of certain salts associated with new wells. We discovered a very small but consistent increase in barium, chloride and strontium – for bromide, our results were more mixed and not as robust.</p>
<p>Salt concentrations were most increased at monitoring stations that were located within 15 km and downstream from a well, and in measurements taken within a year of fracking activity.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A figure showing the association between salt concentrations and new fracking wells" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/417619/original/file-20210824-11516-13olgst.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/417619/original/file-20210824-11516-13olgst.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=464&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417619/original/file-20210824-11516-13olgst.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=464&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417619/original/file-20210824-11516-13olgst.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=464&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417619/original/file-20210824-11516-13olgst.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=583&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417619/original/file-20210824-11516-13olgst.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=583&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417619/original/file-20210824-11516-13olgst.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=583&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This figure plots the associations between salt concentrations and a new fracking well located within 15km and likely upstream of the water monitor.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The increases in salt we discovered were small and within the bounds of what the US Environmental Protection Agency <a href="https://www.epa.gov/dwreginfo/drinking-water-regulations">considers safe</a> for drinking water. However, since our water measurements were mostly taken from rivers, not all of the public surface water monitors we used are close to wells, or are in locations where they can detect the effects of fracking: for example, they may be located upstream of new wells. That means the salt concentrations in water flowing downstream from new wells could be even higher.</p>
<p>Our study was also limited by the public data available. We were not able to investigate potentially more toxic substances found in the fracturing fluids or in the produced water, such as radium or arsenic. Public databases do not widely include measurements of these other substances, making it hard for researchers to carry out the statistical analysis needed to detect anomalous concentrations related to new wells.</p>
<p>That said, the salts we analysed are not exactly innocuous. High concentrations of <a href="https://www.wqa.org/Portals/0/Technical/Technical%20Fact%20Sheets/2014_Barium.pdf">barium</a> in drinking water may lead to increases in blood pressure, while <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/mission-areas/water-resources/science/chloride-salinity-and-dissolved-solids?qt-science_center_objects=0#">chloride</a> can potentially threaten aquatic life. Elevated <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11904356/">strontium</a> levels can even have adverse impacts on human bone development, especially in the young. </p>
<h2>Next steps</h2>
<p>It is undeniable that fracking has played a <a href="https://www.vox.com/energy-and-environment/2019/9/12/20857196/kamala-fracking-ban-biden-climate-change">big role</a> in replacing the fossil fuel <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2013/03/14/opinion/global/the-facts-on-fracking.html">coal</a> as a source of energy. Some <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33915394/">studies</a> show that, relative to periods of massive coal-burning, the overall quality of surface water has improved. Fracking has also brought an <a href="https://epic.uchicago.edu/news/study-shows-hydraulic-fracturing-boosts-local-economies-2/">economic boost</a> to underdeveloped areas. Still, the question remains as to whether it is safe for local communities.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A heavy fracking area, with wells connected by roads" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/417823/original/file-20210825-21-aqxvri.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/417823/original/file-20210825-21-aqxvri.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=433&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417823/original/file-20210825-21-aqxvri.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=433&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417823/original/file-20210825-21-aqxvri.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=433&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417823/original/file-20210825-21-aqxvri.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=545&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417823/original/file-20210825-21-aqxvri.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=545&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417823/original/file-20210825-21-aqxvri.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=545&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Where fracking is heavy, roads and pipelines make a web across the landscape.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/sfupamr/14601885300">Simon Fraser University/Flickr</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>While our study is an important step towards understanding the environmental impact of fracking, more data are needed to truly answer these safety concerns. The good news is, with new disclosure rules, we have a better awareness of exactly which chemicals are being used. </p>
<p>The next step is for policymakers to make sure that government agencies systematically track these chemical in fracking fluids and produced waters, place monitoring stations in locations where they can better track surface water impacts, and increase the frequency of water quality measurement around the time new wells are drilled. </p>
<p>A more targeted approach could go a long way in enabling research and helping to protect the public health of communities for whom fracking could yet be a blessing or a curse.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/166692/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>New research shows how fracking could pose a threat to surface water quality, with consequences for human and environmental health.Giovanna Michelon, Professor of Accounting, University of BristolChristian Leuz, Professor of International Economics, Finance and Accounting, University of ChicagoPietro Bonetti, Assistant Professor of Accounting and Control, IESE Business School (Universidad de Navarra) Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1465282020-10-22T12:24:54Z2020-10-22T12:24:54ZFracking takes a toll on mental health as drilling and truck traffic rattle neighborhoods<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/364850/original/file-20201021-17-16hi0zt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=142%2C33%2C4590%2C2808&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Noise, pollution and other stressors from trucks and drilling can harm residents' health. In Colorado, an upcoming vote on new setback rules is expected to widen the buffer zone.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/homes-and-natural-gas-drill-rig-frederick-colorado-royalty-free-image/181097775">Milehightraveler/iistock via Getty</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Hydraulic fracturing has boomed in the U.S. over the past decade, but unless you live near it, you may not realize just how close fracking wells can be to homes and schools. In Colorado, the wellbore – the hole drilled to extract oil or gas – can be 500 feet from someone’s house under current state rules. In some states, like <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0301421513007507">Texas</a>, drilling can be even closer.</p>
<p>For people living in these areas, that means <a href="https://news.berkeley.edu/story_jump/noise-pollution-from-fracking-may-harm-human-health/">noise</a>, pollution and other stressors that can harm physical and mental health.</p>
<p>People with homes near fracking operations describe vibrations that can make sleep difficult and disturb their pets. <a href="https://www.fractracker.org/2014/09/truck-counts/">Truck traffic</a> around wellpads adds to the noise, dust and other airborne pollutants, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31136715/">creating another layer of industrial disruption</a>.</p>
<p>One woman I spoke with had a 30-foot-high sound wall put up around her property, but the parade of semitrucks at all hours still rattled her home, and the sound wall couldn’t keep out the noise. When she opened her bedroom curtains, all she saw was a brown wall where she used to have mountain views. </p>
<p>As a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=9cA_KYAAAAAJ&hl=en">social scientist</a> who studies extractive industries and their environmental justice and health impacts, I have spent years in communities with unconventional oil and gas activity, visiting homes and well sites.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2020.101720">My research shows</a> that living near fracking sites can lead to chronic stress and self-reported depression. These effects often relate to systemic problems associated with the industry.</p>
<h2>Consequences of the fracking boom</h2>
<p>The boom in hydraulic fracturing started around 2010 and made the U.S. the <a href="https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=36292">No. 1 producer of hydrocarbons</a> globally. In Colorado, fracking has since helped quadruple oil production and increased natural gas production.</p>
<p>But that growth has come with consequences. By 2017, researchers estimated <a href="https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP1535">4.7 million people</a> lived within 1 mile of an unconventional oil or gas well in the U.S.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="An illustration of how fracking operates." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/364848/original/file-20201021-15-ewk7p4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/364848/original/file-20201021-15-ewk7p4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=598&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364848/original/file-20201021-15-ewk7p4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=598&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364848/original/file-20201021-15-ewk7p4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=598&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364848/original/file-20201021-15-ewk7p4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=752&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364848/original/file-20201021-15-ewk7p4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=752&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364848/original/file-20201021-15-ewk7p4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=752&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Hydraulic fracturing uses water, sand and chemicals to fracture rock deep underground and release oil and gas inside.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/illustration/hydraulic-fracturing-flat-schematic-vector-royalty-free-illustration/948054748">Vectormine via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Health studies have found <a href="https://www.ceh.org/latest/press-releases/fracking-chemicals-linked-to-respiratory-health-risks/">respiratory difficulties</a> like coughing and wheezing in people living and working near fracking sites. Other studies have found <a href="https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/campaigns/fracking/pdfs/Colborn_2011_Natural_Gas_from_a_public_health_perspective.pdf">increases in endocrine-disrupting chemicals</a> that can affect <a href="https://www.cpr.org/2019/07/19/cu-anschutz-study-suggests-link-between-oil-and-gas-developments-and-child-heart-defects/">pregnant women and children</a>, including raising the risks of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1306722">birth defects</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0170423">childhood cancers</a>.</p>
<p>Emissions of <a href="https://bg.copernicus.org/articles/16/3033/2019/">methane</a>, a potent greenhouse gas that contributes to climate change, have also spiked around <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/2019/08/fracking-boom-tied-to-methane-spike-in-earths-atmosphere/">oil and gas activity</a>.</p>
<p>Less well understood have been the effects on mental health.</p>
<p>In a new <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2020.101720">study on the mental health effects</a>, I examined multiple communities across northern Colorado, surveyed hundreds of households and visited people’s homes, schools and wellpads.</p>
<p>Two drivers of stress and mental health harm stood out:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>First, people report chronic stress and depression related to their uncertainty about environmental and public health risks – and inadequate access to useful information about it. </p></li>
<li><p>Second, stress and depression relate to people’s experiences of political powerlessness – particularly their inability to control the activity, where it occurs, and how it is regulated. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>Previous studies have suggested links to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-29747-2">depression</a> and lower <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exis.2017.10.009">quality of life</a>, as well as <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17041186">social psychological</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/grow.12204">impacts</a>, such as increased tensions within communities, but these studies typically used surveys or government data. This new research looked closer at people’s experiences.</p>
<p>[<em>Deep knowledge, daily.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=deepknowledge">Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter</a>.]</p>
<h2>Fearing the unknown</h2>
<p>Imagine you <a href="https://www.coloradoindependent.com/2016/11/02/fractured-triple-creek-extraction-oil-and-gas/">live in northern Colorado</a>. A company notifies you that it will start drilling in the open space in your subdivision that you can see from your backyard or deck. You try to find information about the health or environmental risks, but that information is locked behind a publisher’s paywall or it is buried in hundreds of pages full of technical language.</p>
<p>One of the people I interviewed, a 45-year-old teacher who has lived in his community his entire life, talked about stress from the uncertainties of living near fracking: “What’s stressful is the unknowns and how this industry is operating behind a curtain all the time. … When you <a href="https://news.yale.edu/2016/01/06/toxins-found-fracking-fluids-and-wastewater-study-shows">don’t know the chemicals</a> they’re pumping down. You don’t know <a href="http://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aar5982">where they’re getting the water</a>. You don’t know how much these tanks are leaking. … To me, that is stressful, the not knowing.”</p>
<p>Other people reported feeling stress over uncertainties about long-term impacts. A retired former city worker said: “We’re lab rats right now. They’re learning about it as they’re going. … We don’t know what the impacts are going to be 20 years down the line.”</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A drilling rig goes up near a bank building in Fort Worth, Texas." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/364831/original/file-20201021-15-1fc513y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/364831/original/file-20201021-15-1fc513y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364831/original/file-20201021-15-1fc513y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364831/original/file-20201021-15-1fc513y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364831/original/file-20201021-15-1fc513y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364831/original/file-20201021-15-1fc513y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364831/original/file-20201021-15-1fc513y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Urban business areas have also had drilling next door.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/62459458@N08/7603258544">Jeremy Buckingham</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Many people feel powerless to do anything about it. In Colorado, people typically have only three minutes to talk during public meetings, while the companies have more time to present their cases.</p>
<p>A middle-aged woman living with a wellpad about 1,000 feet from her deck explained why public meetings felt so exclusive: “This was a public hearing … and they turned it over to [an oil company] to give their slideshow. … [The oil company] proceeded to do about a two-hour presentation, so there was no time for public input. So four or five people out of a hundred people who wanted to protest got a chance to talk. It’s very hard to be heard.”</p>
<p>These patterns emerged across my data. </p>
<p>About 90% of the people I interviewed reported increased, chronic stress related to nearby fracking operations, and 75% reported feeling long-term depression – particularly because of the uncertainty about the impacts and feeling powerless to stop it.</p>
<h2>What can be done about it?</h2>
<p>Governments could help address some of these systemic problems fairly quickly.</p>
<p>The first step is to provide easy-to-understand, accurate information about the environmental and public health risks, as well as the <a href="http://doi.org/10.1111/ruso.12198">economic risks and benefits</a>. </p>
<p>Governments can also give people more meaningful opportunities to participate in zoning and other decisions about how, when and where hydraulic fracturing takes place. </p>
<p>Fixing the health and environment risks that underlie the stress is more challenging. The Colorado Oil and Gas Conservation Commission is expected in early November to finalize new drilling rules that include a <a href="https://coloradosun.com/2020/09/24/2000-foot-oil-and-gas-setback-colorado/">2,000-foot setback from homes</a>, the widest statewide rule in the country, but wells could still be built closer. </p>
<p>People I’ve interviewed have reported feeling a sense of empowerment by organizing with others to fight for more local control. But solutions aren’t only the responsibility of governments or the public; companies must be accountable, too.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/146528/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stephanie Malin receives funding from the National Science Foundation, the Colorado Water Center, the National Institute for Environmental Health Sciences (a branch of NIH), the Rural Sociological Society, and CSU School of Global Environmental Sustainability.</span></em></p>Living near oil and gas production can affect mental health, driving stress and feelings of depression.Stephanie Malin, Associate Professor of Sociology; Co-Founder and Steering Committee Member, Center for Environmental Justice at CSU, Colorado State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1279212020-03-02T20:34:46Z2020-03-02T20:34:46ZA tenth of active and abandoned oil and gas wells in northeastern B.C. are leaking<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/318107/original/file-20200302-18291-pbwvqt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=144%2C122%2C4677%2C2942&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A fracking boom for natural gas has taken hold of northeastern B.C. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS Jonathan Hayward</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Northeastern British Columbia has been a major centre of conventional oil and gas production since the 1960s. More recently, the shale gas sector has also targeted the region.</p>
<p>One of the issues the oil and gas industry faces is the leakage of gases from wellbores — the holes drilled into the ground to look for or recover oil and natural gas. Methane leakage from wellbores has become an important issue because this greenhouse gas is far more potent than carbon dioxide. </p>
<p>My colleagues and I recently examined a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1817929116">database containing information about 21,525 active and abandoned wells</a> located in the four main shale gas formations of northeastern British Columbia: the Montney, Horn River, Liard and Cordova basins. This represents almost all of the conventional and shale gas wells existing in the region.</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/318094/original/file-20200302-18303-cc3hur.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/318094/original/file-20200302-18303-cc3hur.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/318094/original/file-20200302-18303-cc3hur.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=573&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/318094/original/file-20200302-18303-cc3hur.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=573&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/318094/original/file-20200302-18303-cc3hur.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=573&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/318094/original/file-20200302-18303-cc3hur.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=720&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/318094/original/file-20200302-18303-cc3hur.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=720&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/318094/original/file-20200302-18303-cc3hur.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=720&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Oil and gas wells in British Columbia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1817929116">(Romain Chesnaux)</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Our study was the first to examine the data contained in the British Columbia Oil & Gas Commission Wellbore (OCG) Leakage Database. We found that almost 11 per cent of all oil and gas wells had a reported leak, together releasing 14,000 cubic metres of methane per day. This is more than double the leakage rate of <a href="https://doi.org/10.2118/106817-PA">4.6 per cent in Alberta</a>, which may have less stringent testing and reporting requirements. </p>
<p>Our research in northeastern B.C. also found weak regulations on mandatory reporting, continued monitoring and the use of protective measures — oversights that represent risks for the environment.</p>
<h2>Fail-safe?</h2>
<p>Shale gas, principally methane, is exploited through the combined techniques of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.05.138">horizontal drilling and multi-stage hydraulic fracturing (fracking)</a>. Shale gas fracking has increased as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-019-8740-z">conventional gas reserves have declined after decades of exploitation</a>. Northeastern B.C.’s shale gas reserves are estimated to hold 10,000 billion cubic metres of methane, enough to supply worldwide consumption for almost three years.</p>
<p>All modern oil and gas wells are constructed in a wellbore, which typically traverses many geologic layers containing brines and hydrocarbons. Fracking involves the deep underground high-pressure injection of large volumes of water, sand and chemicals into the wellbore, to fracture the rock and release the natural gas, petroleum and brines. Pipes and sealants (usually cement) placed in the wellbore protect it against collapse and squeezing, and prevent fluids from moving between geologic layers.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/318092/original/file-20200302-18279-154epf9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/318092/original/file-20200302-18279-154epf9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/318092/original/file-20200302-18279-154epf9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=598&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/318092/original/file-20200302-18279-154epf9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=598&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/318092/original/file-20200302-18279-154epf9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=598&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/318092/original/file-20200302-18279-154epf9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=752&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/318092/original/file-20200302-18279-154epf9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=752&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/318092/original/file-20200302-18279-154epf9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=752&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Water, sand and chemicals are injected into the rock at high pressure, fracturing the rock and allowing the gas to flow out of the well.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But these structures are not always fail-safe. Deficiencies in the design or construction of the wellbore, or weakening of the pipe or sealant over time, can connect layers that would naturally remain geologically isolated. In a deficient well, the buoyancy of the underground gas causes the fluids to be pushed towards the surface through these connections.</p>
<p>Wellbore leakage can occur along actively producing wells or wells that have been permanently abandoned after their productive life is over. </p>
<p>The possibility of leakage from these wells has raised environmental concerns, especially since leaky wells are likely under-reported. In addition to the release of greenhouse gases, which contribute to global warming and climate change, these leaking wells could contaminate groundwater and surface water with hydrocarbons, chemicals contained in fracking fluids and brines.</p>
<h2>Environmental consequences</h2>
<p>There are three main consequences to public health and the environment from wellbore leakage:</p>
<ol>
<li>The <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1213871110">contamination of aquifers and surface waters from gases, brines, liquid hydrocarbons and hydraulic fracturing fluids</a>. </li>
<li>The contribution to greenhouse gas emissions, especially from venting methane.</li>
<li>The <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1711472115">explosion of methane accumulated in poorly ventilated areas</a>. </li>
</ol>
<p>According to the B.C. OGC database, leakage had occurred in 2,329 of 21,525 tested wells. Altogether, these leaking wellbores are releasing greenhouse gases equivalent to 75,000 tonnes of carbon dioxide annually. This is roughly equivalent to the emissions from 17,000 passenger vehicles.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/understanding-the-risks-to-canadas-drinking-water-93770">Understanding the risks to Canada’s drinking water</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Unfortunately, there is no record of the frequency of testing for wellbore leakage in B.C., nor are there requirements to monitor deep aquifers near oil and gas wells for contamination. Although current regulations stipulate that all incidences of leakage must be repaired prior to well abandonment, there is <a href="https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/6969/20c798c6eb59601d95511ac050d0763a5c4c.pdf?_ga=2.163024186.766024652.1582818953-987867751.1582818953">no monitoring program in place for leakage after wells have been permanently plugged, buried and abandoned</a>.</p>
<p>There is also the possibility that the venting gases will contain hydrogen sulphide gas, which is poisonous and deadly at high concentrations.</p>
<h2>Under-reported leaks</h2>
<p>Only wells that show wellbore leakage must be reported to the B.C. OGC and included in the database. According to regulations, all wells drilled after 2010 should be tested after initial completion and all wells drilled after 1995 tested upon abandonment. </p>
<p>There is no monitoring program in place for the inspection of wells that have already been abandoned. These abandoned wells could leak for a long time before the leakage is detected and repaired. Recent studies have also documented <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1605913113">methane emissions from abandoned oil and gas wells in Pennsylvania</a>. </p>
<p>Shale gas exploitation can have environmental impacts long after a well has been abandoned. Provinces should implement regulations that require monitoring wells after abandonment, reporting the results and applying corrective measures to stop leaks from abandoned wells.</p>
<p>To this day, very few field investigations have been carried out in B.C. to directly monitor the leakage from abandoned wells. One showed that <a href="https://davidsuzuki.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/investigating-fugitive-emissions-abandoned-suspended-active-oil-gas-wells-montney-basin-northeastern-british-columbia.pdf">35 per cent of investigated abandoned wells exhibit emissions of methane and hydrogen sulphide gas or a combination of both</a>.</p>
<p>The discrepancy between the database reports and the field study — as well as recent observations that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-1991-8">human-made methane emissions are underestimated by 25 per cent to 40 per cent</a> — suggests that wellbore leakages in B.C. may go unreported. To improve health and environmental safety, active surveillance and monitoring are necessary.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/127921/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Romain Chesnaux receives funding from: MITACS Accelerate Program, David Suzuki Foundation (DSF), GW Solutions inc. , the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC), and the Fonds de Recherche du Québec - Nature et technologies (FRQNT)
</span></em></p>Fracking in northeastern British Columbia has left behind tens of thousands of wells. Some of these are leaking — and could threaten the environment and the public’s health.Romain Chesnaux, Professor in environmental engineering (specializing in water resources), Université du Québec à Chicoutimi (UQAC)Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1286102020-01-31T13:51:35Z2020-01-31T13:51:35ZFracking has led to a ‘bust’ for Pennsylvania school district finances<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/308863/original/file-20200107-123399-1spp39n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A shale gas well pad in Pennsylvania contains storage tanks.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Election-2020-Trump-Fracking/bf14c25605634764ab7a9d7a4141388b/16/0">AP Photo/Keith Srakocic</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Unconventional natural gas development has transformed American energy <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/when-did-hydraulic-fracturing-become-such-a-popular-approach-oil-and-gas-production?qt-news_science_products=0#qt-news_science_products">over the past decade</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/what-hydraulic-fracturing?qt-news_science_products=0#qt-news_science_products">Hydraulic fracturing</a>, often popularly referred to as “fracking,” <a href="https://www.fractracker.org/resources/oil-and-gas-101/explore/">is a process used in extracting oil or gas resources from underground formations</a> such as shale or sandstone. In Pennsylvania and elsewhere, this has been an industrially intensive method, and wells are often drilled a mile or more beneath the ground and a mile or more horizontally along the shale or sandstone.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.politico.com/2020-election/candidates-views-on-the-issues/energy-environment/fossil-fuels/">Several Democratic presidential candidates</a> have called for new limitations on the practice because of environmental and other concerns. <a href="https://www.commondreams.org/news/2019/09/04/ahead-climate-forum-bernie-sanders-urges-all-2020-democrats-back-federal-fracking">Two of the leading candidates</a>, Elizabeth Warren and Bernie Sanders, have promised to ban fracking if elected.</p>
<p>Opponents of these restrictions insist these bans would devastate the economies <a href="https://stateimpact.npr.org/pennsylvania/2019/12/20/some-democrats-want-to-ban-fracking-but-business-group-study-says-that-would-devastate-economy/">of states like Pennsylvania</a>. These debates have also raised <a href="http://nymag.com/intelligencer/2020/01/will-a-fracking-ban-doom-democrats-in-pennsylvania.html">serious questions about swing state support</a> for democratic candidates in the 2020 U.S. Presidential election. </p>
<p>As <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=X9eY-M8AAAAJ&hl=en">educational</a> <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Kai_Schafft">researchers</a> in <a href="https://statesymbolsusa.org/symbol-official-item/pennsylvania/state-nickname/keystone-state">the Keystone state</a>, we recently conducted <a href="https://documentcloud.adobe.com/link/track?uri=urn%3Aaaid%3Ascds%3AUS%3Ac837ebe5-cf8d-4964-9dd6-00aeb0eae350">a study on the impact of unconventional gas development</a> on the financial resources of the Pennsylvania’s school districts.</p>
<p>We found that fracking had largely negative impacts on affected school districts. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/309288/original/file-20200109-80116-c3y7u3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/309288/original/file-20200109-80116-c3y7u3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/309288/original/file-20200109-80116-c3y7u3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/309288/original/file-20200109-80116-c3y7u3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/309288/original/file-20200109-80116-c3y7u3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/309288/original/file-20200109-80116-c3y7u3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/309288/original/file-20200109-80116-c3y7u3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A pipeline carries natural gas in Exton, Pa.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Election-2020-Trump-Fracking/f10d9dbdb06644d6b07c1420fa09b4b7/10/0">AP Photo/Matt Rourke</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Fracking history</h2>
<p>In the mid-2000s fracking’s largely unanticipated gas development <a href="https://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2014/article/the-marcellus-shale-gas-boom-in-pennsylvania.htm">dramatically changed much of Pennsylvania</a>.</p>
<p>Fracking has made gas extraction technologically and economically possible from energy deposits that previously were <a href="https://www.npr.org/2016/09/27/495671385/how-an-engineers-desperate-experiment-created-fracking">previously too difficult and costly to develop</a>. </p>
<p>Since 2007, more than <a href="https://www.health.pa.gov/topics/envirohealth/Pages/OilGas.aspx">10,000 unconventional gas wells</a> have been drilled in Pennsylvania, mostly in the northern and southeastern parts of the state. <a href="https://ballotpedia.org/Fracking_in_Pennsylvania">Industry advocates and the state government have promoted</a> fracking, especially <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2014/04/how-many-jobs-does-fracking-really-create/445227/">under former Governor Tom Corbett</a>, who held office between 2011 and 2015.</p>
<p>Fracking <a href="https://www.livescience.com/34464-what-is-fracking.html">advocates argue that its economic benefits</a> can benefit communities. Some of the most productive areas for drilling <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/poor-communities-bear-greatest-burden-from-fracking/">overlap with some of the poorest and most rural areas</a> of the state.</p>
<p>This is where oil and gas companies focused their energies between 2007 – <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0143622815000776?via%3Dihub">the start of the boom</a> – and 2015. </p>
<h2>Negative impacts in mostly rural school districts</h2>
<p>We looked in particular at data between 2007 and 2015, from the beginning of fracking in Pennsylvania, through the boom and into the decline in drilling.</p>
<p>During this period, we found only about 10% of gas drilling occurred in Pennsylvania’s suburban school districts, even though they account for nearly half of all districts.</p>
<p>On the other hand, only slightly more than a third of the state’s school districts are rural. Yet nearly two-thirds of the unconventional drilling occurred in those places.</p>
<p><iframe id="rEltx" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/rEltx/2/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>We wanted to know, as well, how fracking was affecting Pennsylvania’s school districts.</p>
<p>Contrary to the <a href="https://sites.psu.edu/fracking1/2015/04/30/interview-with-pro-fracking-advocate/">predictions of gas industry advocates</a>, we found that it had largely negative impacts. Adjusting for a host of factors that can impact funding, districts where fracking occurred had lower per pupil incomes, real estate values and property tax revenues.</p>
<p>Although we found a modest increase in state and federal revenues wherever fracking was taking place, these increases were not large enough to counterbalance the average negative effects.</p>
<p>School districts that experienced unconventional drilling had US$1,550.50 less per pupil in 2015 dollars, relative to otherwise similar districts that did not have unconventional drilling.</p>
<p>For the typical school district, $1,550 fewer dollars per pupil can easily mean the loss of resources that can increase outcomes and opportunities for children.</p>
<p><iframe id="aaaQm" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/aaaQm/2/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<h2>Drilling decreases advantages</h2>
<p>Based on the evidence we reviewed, we found that unconventional drilling has had mixed outcomes within the mostly rural and economically disadvantaged communities <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/shale-gas">where fracking has taken place</a>. </p>
<p>Despite promises that unconventional gas production would be an <a href="https://marcelluscoalition.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/05/PA-Marcellus-Updated-Economic-Impacts-5.24.10.3.pdf">engine of economic opportunity</a>, many Pennsylvania school districts <a href="https://www.pottsmerc.com/news/haves-and-have-nots-of-pa-school-districts-headed-for/article_7ca19576-8bcd-11e9-b92f-778e1a1fa7d2.html">continue to struggle financially</a>, a struggle that appears to be worsened by gas development.</p>
<p>[ <em><a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=expertise">Expertise in your inbox. Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter and get a digest of academic takes on today’s news, every day.</a></em> ]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/128610/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Fracking in Pennsylvania has led to disadvantages in state school districts.Matthew Gardner Kelly, Assistant Professor of Education, Penn StateKai A. Schafft, Associate Professor of Educational Leadership and Rural Sociology, Penn StateLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1266392019-11-12T15:20:36Z2019-11-12T15:20:36ZFracking in the UK was doomed a decade ago – Tories have wasted precious time on a fossil fuel fantasy<p>It’s a truth universally acknowledged that a single man in the possession of a good fortune may well have worked in the US shale gas industry. In 2018 alone, about 21 trillion cubic feet of natural gas was produced, with commercial buyers paying around US$8 per thousand cubic feet.</p>
<p>Given how profitable the US industry has been, it’s no surprise that <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/2016/sep/29/fracking-shale-gas-europe-opposition-ban">governments and businesses in Europe were interested</a>. In Poland, shale was seen as an opportunity to reduce or even eliminate dependence on Russian gas and to export gas to the rest of Europe. For the UK, it was hoped that shale could offset declining production from the North Sea and the growth of expensive gas imports.</p>
<p>Natural gas and oil can be found in underground reservoirs between the rock grains. These conventional sources can be reached by drilling into such reservoirs, but unconventional natural gas is trickier to get to as it’s trapped between much finer-grained shale rock formations. To release gas or oil trapped in shale rocks, a reservoir needs to be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2017.05.028">artificially created</a> by fracturing the rock and pumping fluid down the well bore until the structure breaks. The gas or petroleum can then flow out. In other words, a shale gas reservoir isn’t discovered, but created by horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing – or “fracking”.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301276/original/file-20191112-178502-7iqlm1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301276/original/file-20191112-178502-7iqlm1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=594&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301276/original/file-20191112-178502-7iqlm1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=594&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301276/original/file-20191112-178502-7iqlm1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=594&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301276/original/file-20191112-178502-7iqlm1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=747&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301276/original/file-20191112-178502-7iqlm1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=747&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301276/original/file-20191112-178502-7iqlm1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=747&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Fracking uses a lot of energy and fresh water to break rock layers below ground and release natural gas.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/hydraulic-fracturing-flat-schematic-vector-illustration-1071089057?src=80750bde-1fd8-47d1-bf8d-bd428019db1e-1-0">VectorMine/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A report by the Polish Geological Survey announced Poland’s technically recoverable resources could be 346 to <a href="https://www.pgi.gov.pl/en/dokumenty-pig-pib-all/aktualnosci-2012/zasoby-gazu/769-raport-en/file.html">768 billion</a> cubic meters of natural gas in 2012, while the British Geological Survey estimated in 2013 that the Bowland Shale in the north of England alone could yield <a href="https://www.parliament.uk/documents/post/ShaleGas_POSTbox.pdf">1,800 to 13,000 billion</a> cubic meters. Other countries in Europe were less sanguine. <a href="https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/energy/ireland-becomes-the-fourth-eu-country-to-ban-fracking-61091">France</a> (2011), Bulgaria (2012), <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2019/oct/03/scottish-government-extends-ban-on-fracking">Scotland</a> (2015), <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/jun/24/germany-bans-fracking-after-years-of-dispute">Germany</a> and Ireland (2016) all banned fracking for shale gas, citing environmental concerns.</p>
<p>The fortunes of the would-be shale gas industry in Europe have tumbled ever since those heady days in the early 2010s. Drilling results in Poland turned out to be poor – of the <a href="https://infolupki.pgi.gov.pl/sites/default/files/czytelnia_pliki/shale-gas-in-poland-prospecting-and-exploration-2007-2016.pdf">72 exploration wells drilled there</a> between 2007 and 2016, 25 were hydraulically fracked. But most of them were declared dry and failed to draw gas to the surface. The major petroleum companies involved pulled out. The UK plodded on alone until November 2019, when the Conservative minority government announced it was <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-50267454">withdrawing support</a> for fracking. Many of the UK’s opposition parties had already taken an anti-fracking stance on environmental grounds long before.</p>
<h2>A wasted decade</h2>
<p>There have been a handful of shale gas tests in the UK, with most in Lancashire and a few elsewhere in England. While there is a lot of gas trapped within shale rock in the north and south of England, Midland Valley of Scotland and parts of Wales, it’s likely that little of it can be extracted by fracking.</p>
<p>Research from the independent <a href="http://www.refine.org.uk/">ReFINE</a> partnership jointly led by Durham and Newcastle Universities has shown that the estimated volume of technically recoverable shale gas in the UK was based upon a miscalculation. The total volume of shale was reasonably clear, though the quantity of gas within it wasn’t, as few samples of the rock were available for lab testing. Recent work on UK shale samples by <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-019-11653-4">Colin Snape</a> at Nottingham University has demonstrated <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-we-discovered-uk-shale-gas-reserves-are-at-least-80-smaller-than-thought-122076">very poor gas yields</a>. The gas may be there but it won’t come out. The situation in Poland is much the same.</p>
<p>UK geology is complex and areas that could be explored are much smaller than the uniform and simple geology of the US Midwest. You just can’t drill the numbers of wells required by a shale gas industry and this is exacerbated by the fact that the UK is a crowded island. The <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969717304096?via%253Dihub">accessible area</a> is only about one-quarter of the total shale-bearing area in the country.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301287/original/file-20191112-178498-r0zlkf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301287/original/file-20191112-178498-r0zlkf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301287/original/file-20191112-178498-r0zlkf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301287/original/file-20191112-178498-r0zlkf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301287/original/file-20191112-178498-r0zlkf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301287/original/file-20191112-178498-r0zlkf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301287/original/file-20191112-178498-r0zlkf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The then UK prime minister David Cameron visiting a fracking site in Gainsborough, January 13 2014.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/number10gov/11929558763/in/photolist-jbbZZs-jbc1e5-jb9FT2-jbb5nB-jbb7cD-jbc1ks-jbc1X9-jbe4Ly-jbe5fu-TzBguM-TvYG63-To9Uar-TzBgLP-To9Uq6-TvYHzA-Si4z65-TkNSn1/">Number 10/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The legal limit for induced seismicity in the UK is also so low that it effectively excludes any <a href="https://theconversation.com/fracking-causes-earthquakes-by-design-can-regulation-keep-up-106183">fracking which is designed to break</a> the rock and hence cause Earth tremors. As an inherently chaotic process, forecasting the maximum magnitude earthquake that might result isn’t possible.</p>
<p>The UK government announced <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/11/02/world/europe/uk-fracking.html">a pause in shale gas fracking</a> for <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk-governments-fracking-ban-has-a-convenient-loophole-126475">some areas of the UK</a> on the eve of a general election. It justified the decision on the basis that it’s impossible to accurately forecast the magnitude of induced earthquakes. This is certainly true today but it was also true ten years ago.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/uk-governments-fracking-ban-has-a-convenient-loophole-126475">UK government's fracking 'ban' has a convenient loophole</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>It’s easier to stop doing something on environmental grounds when it will save face than admit that the UK’s shale gas illusion was just that – an illusion. This decision may be welcomed by many, but the country has wasted a decade or more chasing a fossil fuel fantasy.</p>
<p>Distracted by shale, UK governments have let the potential of carbon capture and storage slip, while shying away from the steep emission reductions from heating and transport that are required to meet net-zero carbon targets. The UK’s shale gas unicorn may not yet be dead, as the government has <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk-governments-fracking-ban-has-a-convenient-loophole-126475">left open a pathway back for the industry</a>. Stopping fracking altogether would remove a major distraction to developing energy policy that reflects the urgency of the climate emergency.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/300097/original/file-20191104-88382-xr3pj3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/300097/original/file-20191104-88382-xr3pj3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300097/original/file-20191104-88382-xr3pj3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300097/original/file-20191104-88382-xr3pj3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300097/original/file-20191104-88382-xr3pj3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=176&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300097/original/file-20191104-88382-xr3pj3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=176&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300097/original/file-20191104-88382-xr3pj3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=176&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/newsletters/the-daily-newsletter-2?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKGE2019&utm_content=GEBannerC">Click here to subscribe to our newsletter if you believe this election should be all about the facts.</a></em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/126639/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jon Gluyas is named as a member of the ReFINE research consortium on fracking supported by UK research councils and at arms length by the petroleum industry. He has not received any direct or indirect funding from these sources.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Magdalena Kuchler receives funding from the Swedish Research Council Formas (project no. 2015-00455). </span></em></p>A permanent fracking ban is needed to end the farce and shift resources into carbon capture and storage.Jon Gluyas, Professor of Geoenergy, Carbon Capture and Storage, Durham UniversityMagdalena Kuchler, Associate Senior Lecturer in Natural Resources and Sustainable Development, Uppsala UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/661902017-10-31T02:15:48Z2017-10-31T02:15:48ZHow has the US fracking boom affected air pollution in shale areas?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192359/original/file-20171029-13378-7w18ow.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Fracking has led to an increase in truck traffic, one of the reasons for worsening trends on air quality in areas with oil and gas drilling.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">AP Photo/Charles Rex Arbogast</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Urban air pollution in the U.S. has been <a href="https://www.epa.gov/air-trends/air-quality-national-summary">decreasing</a> near continuously since the 1970s. </p>
<p>Federal regulations, notably the Clean Air Act passed by President Nixon, to reduce toxic air pollutants such as <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2016-09/documents/benzene.pdf">benzene</a>, a hydrocarbon, and <a href="https://www.epa.gov/ozone-pollution">ozone</a>, a strong oxidant, effectively lowered their abundance in ambient air with steady progress.</p>
<p>But about 10 years ago, the picture on air pollutants in the U.S. started to change. The “fracking boom” in several different parts of the nation led to a new source of hydrocarbons to the atmosphere, affecting abundances of both toxic benzene and ozone, including in areas that were not previously affected much by such air pollution.</p>
<p>As a result, in recent years there has been a spike of research to determine what the extent of emissions are from fracked oil and gas wells – called “unconventional” sources in the industry. While much discussion has <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-utilities-have-little-incentive-to-plug-leaking-natural-gas-63092">surrounded methane emissions</a>, a greenhouse gas, less attention has been paid to air toxics. </p>
<h2>Upstream emissions</h2>
<p>Fracking is a term that can stir strong emotions among its opponents and proponents. It is actually a combination of techniques, including hydraulic fracturing, that has allowed drillers to draw hydrocarbons from rock formations which were once not profitable to tap.</p>
<p>Drillers shatter layers of shale rock with high-pressure water, sand and chemicals to start the flow of hydrocarbons from a well. The hydraulic fracturing process itself, aside from its large demand for water, is possibly the least environmentally impactful step along the complete operational chain of drilling for hydrocarbons. Arguably, the more relevant environmental effects are wastewater handling and disposal, as well as the release of vapors from oil and gas storage and distribution.</p>
<p>The production, distribution and use of hydrocarbons have always led to some emissions into the air, either directly via (intended or accidental) leaks, or during incomplete combustion of fuels. However, through regulations and technological innovation, we have <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2012JD017899/abstract">reduced this source</a> dramatically in the last 30 years, approximately by a factor of 10. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/N7tLcPQk3PA?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Video taken with an infrared camera shows gases leaking from storage tanks, valves and other equipment used by the oil and gas industry.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Nevertheless, wherever hydrocarbons are produced, <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2010JD013931/abstract">refined or stored</a>, there will be some emissions of pollutants. In the age of fracking, the large operations at conventional well sites have been replaced by <a href="http://skytruth.org/2015/11/freaky-fracking-ohio-wellpads/">hundreds of well pads</a> dotting the landscape. Each requires the transportation of water, chemicals and equipment to and from these pads as well as the removal of wastewater, and none is regulated like any larger facility would be. </p>
<p>As a result, unconventional production has not only increased truck traffic and related emissions in shale areas, but also established a <a href="http://vibe.cira.colostate.edu/ogec/docs/meetings/2016-07-14/State%20Officials%20Presentation%20July%202016.pdf">renewed source of hydrocarbons</a>. They enter the atmosphere from leaks at valves, pipes, separators and compressors, or through exhaust vents on tanks. Together with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NOx">nitrogen oxides</a> emissions, largely from diesel engines in trucks, compressors and drilling rigs, these hydrocarbons can form significant amounts of harmful, <a href="https://www.epa.gov/ozone-pollution/ozone-basics#what%20where%20how">ground-level ozone</a> during daytime.</p>
<h2>Measurement challenges</h2>
<p>In 2011, a paper argued that <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10584-011-0061-5">methane emissions</a> from unconventional sources compared to conventional oil and gas exploration were being significantly underestimated. Researchers began to investigate hydrocarbon emissions from fracking operations in earnest. And thus a significant body of literature has developed since 2013, much of which focuses on methane emissions, the main component of natural gas and a potent greenhouse gas. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192361/original/file-20171029-13315-xa3sct.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192361/original/file-20171029-13315-xa3sct.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192361/original/file-20171029-13315-xa3sct.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=285&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192361/original/file-20171029-13315-xa3sct.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=285&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192361/original/file-20171029-13315-xa3sct.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=285&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192361/original/file-20171029-13315-xa3sct.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=358&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192361/original/file-20171029-13315-xa3sct.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=358&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192361/original/file-20171029-13315-xa3sct.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=358&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Scientists have turned to satellites and other ways to measure methane emissions which can be higher in areas of oil and gas production.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2014/09oct_methanehotspot/">NASA</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The EPA keeps track of methane emissions in its <a href="https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/us-greenhouse-gas-inventory-report-1990-2014">greenhouse gas inventory</a>, but the numbers are based upon estimates developed in the 1980s and 1990s and are compiled through calculations and self-reporting by the industry.</p>
<p>In fact, both <a href="http://www.climatecentral.org/news/us-60-percent-of-global-methane-growth-20037">satellite</a> and <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/2015JD023242/abstract">atmospheric measurements</a> suggest that the EPA estimates could be underestimating real-world methane emissions by up to a factor of two. And if this is true for methane, co-emitted hydrocarbon gases are likely underestimated as well. </p>
<h2>Ozone formation</h2>
<p>As in many such cases, nuances exist. </p>
<p><a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/2014JD022697/abstract">Airborne measurements by NOAA</a> suggest that the EPA methane estimates may be applicable to older, mature shale areas with mostly natural gas production. But that’s not the case in younger shale areas that also produce large amounts of oil alongside natural gas, such as the Bakken in North Dakota. Emissions from just the Bakken may be so large as to be responsible for roughly half of the renewed <a href="http://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/11/4/044010">increase of atmospheric ethane</a> in the Northern Hemisphere since the beginning of the fracking boom.</p>
<p>Similarly, our own studies for the <a href="https://www.atmos-chem-phys.net/17/11163/2017/">Eagle Ford shale</a> in south-central Texas suggest that hydrocarbon emissions are higher than currently estimated. This increases the potential for regional ozone formation as these hydrocarbons are oxidized in the atmosphere in the presence of nitrogen oxides. And as the ozone National Ambient Air Quality Standard was recently lowered to 70 parts per billion, with <a href="https://www.tceq.texas.gov/cgi-bin/compliance/monops/8hr_attainment.pl">ozone in San Antonio</a> downwind of the Eagle Ford trending close to the old threshold of 75 ppb, the impact of shale hydrocarbon emissions is not trivial.</p>
<p>San Antonio’s ozone woes are not unique. In <a href="http://www.scrimhub.org/opportunities/summer-scholars/pdf/slatten.pdf">some areas</a>, decades-long progress on ozone air quality has stalled; in others, particularly the <a href="http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/es405046r">Uintah basin in Utah</a>, a <a href="http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v514/n7522/full/nature13767.html">new ozone problem</a> has emerged due to the fracking industry’s emissions.</p>
<h2>Benzene</h2>
<p>Aside from effects on ozone trends, the increase of hydrocarbon emissions has also led to the resurgence of an air toxic thought to be a story of the past in the U.S.: benzene. Unlike ozone, which is widely monitored, benzene is not. However, since it is a known <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3053447">carcinogen</a>, it has long been on the radar of regulatory agencies. </p>
<p>Routinely measured above 1 part per billion in urban areas in the 1970s and ‘80s, urban ambient <a href="https://cfpub.epa.gov/roe/documents/BenzeneConcentrations.pdf">benzene concentrations have dropped</a> 5-10 percent per year, similar to other air pollutants, throughout the last 20 to 30 years. Annual average benzene levels are now below 1.5 parts per billion at over 90 percent of locations monitoring benzene regularly, but few such monitoring stations are in or near shale areas. </p>
<p><a href="http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/es405046r">High levels of benzene</a> in shale areas, such as <a href="http://www.dallasnews.com/news/texas/2010/01/28/High-benzene-levels-found-on-Barnett-3021">near well pads in the Barnett shale in Texas</a>, were recorded early into the fracking boom, but few continuous air monitoring data are available to this day, with virtually no data prior to the fracking boom for comparison. </p>
<p>While benzene is generally monitored below levels the Texas Commission on Environmental Quality (TCEQ) would be concerned about, it is becoming clear that levels must have increased at rural shale area locations.</p>
<p><a href="https://agu.confex.com/agu/fm16/meetingapp.cgi/Paper/158569">Our fingerprinting analysis</a> of 2015 data from the newest air monitor in Karnes City, Texas, at the center of the Eagle Ford shale, suggests that less than 40 percent of benzene is still related to tailpipe emissions, its formerly dominant emission source. Instead, over 60 percent is now linked to various oil and gas exploration activities, including gas flaring emissions.</p>
<p>Studies from <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/2016JD025327/abstract">Colorado</a> and <a href="http://www.elementascience.org/articles/96">Texas</a> show that elevated levels of benzene in shale areas are clearly correlated with other hydrocarbon gases emitted from oil and gas exploration. </p>
<h2>Health impacts</h2>
<p>While ozone is distributed relatively uniformly in a region, primary emissions of benzene and other <a href="http://www.atmos-chem-phys.net/14/10977/2014/">nonmethane hydrocarbons will be at higher concentrations in air next to sources</a>. Therefore, whereas most monitoring stations of ozone are quite representative for a larger area, monitoring benzene far from its dominant sources in shale areas does not provide a representative picture. </p>
<p>The risks for people living in shale areas are <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10934529.2015.992663">elevated by their nearness to well pads</a>. Ongoing health research has revealed that certain minor health effects such as <a href="https://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/ehp281/">sinusitis, migraines and fatigue</a>, but also <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0131093">hospitalization rates</a> and certain <a href="http://journals.lww.com/epidem/Abstract/2016/03000/Unconventional_Natural_Gas_Development_and_Birth.2.aspx">birth defects</a>, are identifiably connected to an area’s well density or a home’s distance to oil and gas wells as a proxy of exposure, warranting more detailed research.</p>
<p>In conclusion, the shale boom has created a new source of large-scale, diffuse hydrocarbon emissions that adversely affect air toxics levels. While the effects are subtle, they happened in areas generally without any air pollutant monitoring, making estimates of trends difficult.</p>
<p>In many cases, these pollutants can be reduced by common-sense emissions reduction measures, and some companies <a href="http://www.expressnews.com/business/eagleford/item/Up-in-flames-Day-4-While-the-gas-burns-32642.php">put</a> or <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/09/25/business/energy-environment/exxon-methane-leaks.html">plan to put</a> good practice in place. Nevertheless, continued growth of the fracking industry as well as plans to <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/10/05/climate/trump-environment-rules-reversed.html">remove regulations on methane emissions</a> will not alleviate high hydrocarbon emissions and associated regional ozone problems.</p>
<p><em>The title of this article has been updated on November 2 to reflect that it only addresses air pollutants in areas of shale drilling.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/66190/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gunnar W. Schade received funding for air quality research from a local ranch owner in Dimmit County, TX, in 2015.</span></em></p>The fracking boom has led to a large increase of hydrocarbon emissions in rural areas, reversing some regional air toxics trends.Gunnar W. Schade, Associate Professor of Atmospheric Sciences, Texas A&M UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/834592017-10-04T14:48:37Z2017-10-04T14:48:37ZShale gas in South Africa: game-changer or damp squib?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/188559/original/file-20171003-12163-ln22ev.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">There are indications shale gas may be present in South Africa's Karoo.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Reuters/Mike Hutchings</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing, otherwise known as fracking, has in the past few decades made available the gas in previously ‘tight’ shale geologies. This has shaken up the energy sector worldwide by contributing to <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2017/08/01/oil-survey-sheikhs-versus-shale-to-keep-prices-capped-at-50-in-q3-experts-say.html">relatively low</a> oil prices. Almost all the shale gas development has taken place in the US where production has increased from about 1 to nearly 16 trillion cubic feet (tcf) <a href="https://www.eia.gov/tools/faqs/faq.php?id=907&t=8">over the past 25 years</a>. </p>
<p>There are indications that shale gas may be present in a semi-desert region of South Africa known as the <a href="http://www.places.co.za/html/great_karoo.html">Karoo.</a> The core region alone has an area of 400 000 km². If a viable gas resource were to be developed in the Karoo, what impact would it have on the global shale gas market? And how would it affect the energy economy of South Africa?</p>
<p>A few preliminary studies have been done on the potential for shale gas in the country. These include a report on the technical readiness for a <a href="http://research.assaf.org.za/handle/20.500.11911/14">shale gas industry in South Africa</a>, a strategic environmental assessment on shale gas development commissioned by the Department of Environment <a href="http://seasgd.csir.co.za/">which I co-led</a>, and a <a href="https://juta.co.za/print/catalog/Product/2858">multi-author academic book</a> on hydraulic fracturing in the Karoo. </p>
<p>The research, presented <a href="https://www.assaf.org.za/index.php/news/387-the-shale-gas-industry-in-south-africa-toward-a-science-action-plan">at a recent conference</a>, has led to a clearer picture of both the potential, and the challenges facing shale gas extraction in South Africa. The purpose of the conference, organised by the Academy of Science of South Africa, was to map out a multidisciplinary research plan to fill the critical knowledge gaps.</p>
<h2>How much, how little?</h2>
<p>The studies to date suggest that it’s increasingly unlikely that economically and technically viable gas will be found in the Karoo. First desktop estimates of gas-in-place at depth in the Karoo basin were hundreds of tcf. </p>
<p>More realistic guesses – which is what they remain, in the absence of new exploration and testing – put the upper limit for gas in the Central Karoo at about 20 tcf. This is a tiny resource by global standards. In terms of energy content, 20 tcf of gas is about forty times smaller than the known remaining coal reserves in South Africa. Conventional gas reserves offshore of Mozambique have been estimated at 75 tcf. On the other hand, the continental shelf gas field off <a href="http://www.visitmosselbay.co.za/">Mossel Bay</a> located on South Africa’s garden route, exploited and now nearly depleted, was 1 tcf. </p>
<p>A viable gas find in South Africa, even if quite small, would potentially transform the national energy economy. But making a large investment in infrastructure, regulatory tools, monitoring bodies, and wellfield development for a resource which may not exist is financially, politically and environmentally risky. </p>
<p>Any decisions about how the country should proceed must therefore be based on solid research which is why efforts are under way to adopt a multidisciplinary research programme to fill in the key knowledge gaps. On top of this, good governance is a prerequisite if South Africa is to proceed to shale gas development. </p>
<h2>South Africa’s energy mix</h2>
<p>South Africa’s formal energy economy is <a href="http://www.energy.gov.za/files/coal_frame.html">dominated by coal</a>. But that cannot continue, as the country’s cheap, easily accessible coal reserves are <a href="http://www.sajs.co.za/sites/default/files/publications/pdf/369-2707-5-PB.pdf">nearing an end.</a> Coal mining has also devastated important <a href="http://www.miningweekly.com/article/cer-report-raises-concerns-about-impact-of-mining-in-mpumalanga-2016-06-17/rep_id:3650">agricultural and water-yielding landscapes</a>. Financial institutions are increasingly reluctant to fund new coal-burning power stations because of the impact carbon dioxide emissions are having on the global climate. </p>
<p>As a result, coal-burning power stations are likely, over time, to be replaced by wind and solar energy, or perhaps the more expensive nuclear option. But the degree to which the country’s energy supply can be based on intermittent sources like wind and sunshine depends on the availability of an energy source that can be easily switched on or off to fill the temporary shortfalls between supply and demand – like gas-fired turbines.</p>
<p>South Africa has already decided to increase the fraction of gas in <a href="http://www.gpwonline.co.za/Gazettes/Gazettes/40445_25-11_NationalGovernment.pdf">its energy mix</a>. The only question is where to source it from. Are international imports or domestic sources, like offshore conventional gas or onshore unconventional gas, including shale gas and coal-bed methane better?</p>
<h2>Next steps</h2>
<p>The optimal approach would be to take the first exploratory steps cooperatively, and in the public-domain, rather than in a competitive, secretive and proprietary way. This would allow South Africa to learn about the deep geology of the Karoo and the technologies and hazards of deep drilling, even if no viable gas was found.</p>
<p>A “virtual wellfield”, an imaginary but realistic computer simulation, could be developed on the basis of these findings. This would allow decision-makers and the public to better understand the economic spinoffs and environmental hazards of gas development before any significant actual development occurs. </p>
<p>The continuing low price of oil and the reduced demand for energy caused by the faltering <a href="https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2016-11-03-revealed-the-csirs-outlook-for-south-africas-future-electricity-mix/#.WdM49MYQ-Hs">South African economy</a> buy the country time to do the necessary research and exploration. It can establish the appropriate regulatory environment and institutions before making rushed decisions with large potential consequences.</p>
<p>This is a cautious, evidence-guided agenda which should be acceptable to most people who care both about national development and the quality of the environment.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>This article is the first in a series The Conversation Africa is running on shale gas in South Africa.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/83459/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Robert Scholes has received funds from the South African government to co-lead the Strategic Assessment of Shale Gas Development. He is a Trustee of the WWF South Africa. </span></em></p>South Africa’s Karoo region potentially holds shale gas that could transform the energy economy of the country. But given the uncertainties around exploration what’s the next logical step?Robert (Bob) Scholes, Professor Bob Scholes is a Systems Ecologist at the Global Change Institute (GCI), University of the WitwatersrandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/805912017-08-15T23:21:34Z2017-08-15T23:21:34ZThere may be a huge flaw in UK fracking hopes – the geology<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/181027/original/file-20170804-6565-h0ptux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Feeling fracktious. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/london-uk-7th-march-2015-editorial-428260897?src=lFd0UIvmq0qzwxOuHOqixA-1-8">John Gomez</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Gas is hugely important to the UK. The country <a href="https://www.britishgas.co.uk/the-source/our-world-of-energy/energys-grand-journey/where-does-uk-gas-come-from">uses</a> more than 65 billion cubic metres to heat most of its 25m homes and generate around a quarter of its electricity each year. Despite efforts to move to renewable energy sources such as wind and solar, demand for gas is likely to remain high for the foreseeable future.</p>
<p>Until 2004 all the gas the country needed was sourced from the UK, primarily from the North Sea and East Irish Sea. <a href="http://visual.ons.gov.uk/uk-energy-how-much-what-type-and-where-from/">Since then</a>, production has declined to the point where indigenous gas provides only 45% of the total. The shortfall comes from European pipelines (38%), particularly from Norway and Russia; and liquid natural gas (LNG) deliveries (17%), primarily from Qatar. </p>
<p>This dependency on foreign gas is precarious to say the least. <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-wales-south-west-wales-21925647">We saw</a> this in March 2013, for example, when an unseasonal cold snap almost left the country short of supplies. It was averted by an LNG delivery docking at Milford Haven in Wales in the nick of time. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/181228/original/file-20170807-25548-4o5exv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/181228/original/file-20170807-25548-4o5exv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/181228/original/file-20170807-25548-4o5exv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181228/original/file-20170807-25548-4o5exv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181228/original/file-20170807-25548-4o5exv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181228/original/file-20170807-25548-4o5exv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181228/original/file-20170807-25548-4o5exv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181228/original/file-20170807-25548-4o5exv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Docking at Milford Haven.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Gas_Ship_Coming_int_to_Milford_Haven_St_Annes_Head_Wales_-_panoramio.jpg">Wikimedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This late in its lifespan, conventional new gas exploration in the North Sea is unlikely to reverse this situation. This is why many argue that the UK should consider all options, including onshore shale gas. They point to its success in the US and the <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/68fa2c3e-55ad-11e7-80b6-9bfa4c1f83d2">recent announcement</a> that Centrica will decommission the UK’s main gas storage site in the southern North Sea, making the country even more reliant on imports to meet the demand. </p>
<p>Meanwhile, opponents raise understandable concerns about the environmental impact of the hydraulic fracturing – fracking – that would be involved and on the industrial scale required. This seems to have resonated with the public, with support for fracking <a href="https://www.desmog.uk/2017/08/03/uk-fracking-support-record-low">recently hitting</a> an all-time low of 17%. The Conservatives included <a href="http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/election-2017-conservatives-fracking-party-manifesto-tory-gas-shale-domestic-enivronment-a7742496.html">a commitment</a> to shale production in their June election manifesto, but only if “we maintain public confidence in the process”. </p>
<p>Yet both sides tacitly assume that fracking would work if exploration drilling went ahead. They pay little attention to whether the country’s geology is suitable for shale oil and gas production. The implication is that because fracking works in the US, it must also work here. In fact, the UK’s geological history suggests this is probably wrong. </p>
<h2>Sweet spots</h2>
<p>For a “sweet spot” suitable for commercial fracking, a number of geological criteria need to be met. The source rock needs a relatively high organic content, a good thickness, sufficient porosity and the right mineralogy. The organic matter must have been buried and heated <a href="http://infolupki.pgi.gov.pl/en/gas/thermal-maturity-organic-matter">in such a way</a> as to produce large amounts of gas. There must also be a relatively simple geological structure. </p>
<p>The most successful US shale areas, such as the <a href="http://geology.com/articles/marcellus-shale.shtml">Marcellus</a>, <a href="http://www.rrc.state.tx.us/oil-gas/major-oil-gas-formations/barnett-shale-information/">Barnett</a>, <a href="http://geology.com/articles/haynesville-shale.shtml">Haynesville</a> and <a href="https://bakkenshale.com">Bakken</a>, all lie at depths and temperatures that mean they are ready to expel their oil and gas when fracked. The basins in which these occur are primarily in relatively stable, undeformed areas away from the edges of active tectonic plates, which geologists refer to as “intracratonic” basins. They are characterised by continuous layers of rock with only gentle dips and few fractures or major faults. This all aids subsurface imaging, gas/oil detection and the <a href="http://www.rigzone.com/training/insight.asp?insight_id=295">directional drilling</a> needed for shale exploration. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/181028/original/file-20170804-27426-4jxb40.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/181028/original/file-20170804-27426-4jxb40.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/181028/original/file-20170804-27426-4jxb40.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=345&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181028/original/file-20170804-27426-4jxb40.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=345&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181028/original/file-20170804-27426-4jxb40.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=345&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181028/original/file-20170804-27426-4jxb40.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=434&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181028/original/file-20170804-27426-4jxb40.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=434&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181028/original/file-20170804-27426-4jxb40.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=434&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Drilling Marcellus shale in Pennysylvania, US.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/nicholas_t/7770508920/in/photolist-cQDTzJ-cSZPu9-cSZNn3-cT16uq-cT1kMy-cXvGt7-cSZVwC-cT14Vw-cSZUTG-cXvP9W-cSZKd3-cT17pf-cSZL8o-cSZY9N-cT1k5W-cSZJgS-cSZMfS-cSZZwb-cT12k7-cT18jm-cT13d7-cXvHm9-cXvXSq-cSZAVL-cXvKTL-cT142W-cXvFjN-cT195S-cT19Ry-cXvYJs-dMsyUt-f765hS-fLiXJx-gtnXH4-cXvX1o-8LrMNN-9GcW7w-9ZTpzp-98Fikf-nne7nC-cCBQ69-AvqC5W-ASchba-AvtSeG-Bt1Yyz-ASd9pr-e3SNGc-cTFWRm-dt7fe6-ec2rLW">Nicholas A. Tonelli</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A cursory look at the <a href="https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/originals/7d/f3/ce/7df3ce30b0f11998873230b4d0376026.jpg">geological map of the UK</a> shows a very different proposition. The whole land mass has been significantly uplifted by a <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bre.12052/abstract">chain of geological events</a> that started some 55m years ago with the upward rise of a plume of magma under Iceland. This helped break the tectonic plate in two, pushing Greenland and North America in one direction and the eastern segment containing the British Isles in the other, forming the Atlantic Ocean in between. </p>
<p>The crust moving east buckled against the stable tectonic interior of continental Europe, not only uplifting the British Isles but also tilting it so that north-west Scotland was elevated the most. For this reason, the oldest rocks in the UK are in places such as Lewis and Harris while the youngest ones occur in south-east England. </p>
<p>This movement profoundly affected many of the basins of sedimentary rock that make up the British Isles – including those considered to contain large shale resources. Areas once buried sufficiently deeply to experience temperatures where oil and gas are generated <a href="http://www.geodynamics.no/buiter/basininv.html">were lifted</a> to levels where this could no longer occur – unlike in the US where the relevant rock formations remain at their greatest depth of burial today. </p>
<p>The UK rock formations have also been highly deformed by the buckling to create folds and faults that cause the shales to be offset and broken up into compartments. At the same time, the activity created pathways that have allowed some of the oil and gas to escape.</p>
<h2>Damp squibs?</h2>
<p>One example is the <a href="https://www.ogauthority.co.uk/media/2775/bgs_weald_basin_shale_media_summary.pdf">Weald Basin</a> of southern England. What originated as a major area for sedimentary deposits in the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/Cretaceous-Period">Cretaceous period</a> between 65m and 145m years ago was subsequently deformed into a major anticlinal arch, such that the original basin now sits in its uplifted core. The margins of this tectonic fold are particularly well defined since they are marked by the steeply dipping chalk ridges that form the North Downs and South Downs in south-east England.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/182133/original/file-20170815-29240-25frdb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/182133/original/file-20170815-29240-25frdb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/182133/original/file-20170815-29240-25frdb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=213&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/182133/original/file-20170815-29240-25frdb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=213&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/182133/original/file-20170815-29240-25frdb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=213&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/182133/original/file-20170815-29240-25frdb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=267&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/182133/original/file-20170815-29240-25frdb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=267&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/182133/original/file-20170815-29240-25frdb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=267&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">UK Onshore Geophysical Library.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Malcolm Butler and Rachel Jamieson</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/182126/original/file-20170815-28398-4uorca.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/182126/original/file-20170815-28398-4uorca.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/182126/original/file-20170815-28398-4uorca.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/182126/original/file-20170815-28398-4uorca.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/182126/original/file-20170815-28398-4uorca.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/182126/original/file-20170815-28398-4uorca.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=541&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/182126/original/file-20170815-28398-4uorca.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=541&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/182126/original/file-20170815-28398-4uorca.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=541&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Riders on the South Downs Way.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/herry/5182258481/in/photolist-rFzoLr-99EY2d-a4RfWU-cUJdMb-6hkqZC-JHFGQm-bE1Bj4-8rxejW-6hkuzS-9xEtka-4MRzdy-c2qLJ3-dNTyQm-uewoV6-6hgeVX-amVvPk-AyVsUN-dkJUSv-7bRRT1-8FoSpj-9ZTuL-7bRQX1-7bRR7E-p1PMff-4MRySy-51eBjX-9z6UJh-6hkqFG-6hgeKR-br6HpQ-a4NoEp-cKuKE9-ACd3Cz-coR1H9-moCsTv-7bRSJw-4UpytE-br6MqJ-6hkqeY-8TWqUa-52PRjh-dPfuFu-bE1Frg-7bN2Xe-oN2AX5-SdnhoS-9z3Swk-51eL3X-r17yDG-dkeM17">Harry Lawford</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As for other UK basins said to hold large quantities of shale gas, like those containing the <a href="http://www.bgs.ac.uk/research/energy/shaleGas/bowlandShaleGas.html">Carboniferous Bowland Shale</a> in Lancashire and <a href="http://www.bgs.ac.uk/research/energy/shaleGas/midlandValley.html">West Lothian Oil Shale</a> in Scotland, they went through an additional <a href="https://www.geolsoc.org.uk/Plate-Tectonics/Chap4-Plate-Tectonics-of-the-UK/Variscan-Orogeny">previous episode</a> of deformation about 290m years ago. This has compounded their structural complexity. </p>
<p>In short, even where a shale source in the UK may have high organic content and thick and favourable mineralogy, the complex structure of the basins will be detrimental to ultimate recovery. Yet the only question that has been addressed to date is how large the shale resource could be in the UK. The inherent geological complexity of the sedimentary basins has not been fully appreciated or articulated. As a result, the opportunity has been overhyped and reserve estimates remain unknown. </p>
<p>At the very least, there is a need to factor this considerable and fundamental geological uncertainty into the economic equation. It would be extremely unwise to rely on shale gas to ride to the rescue of the UK’s gas needs only to discover it is 55m years too late.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/80591/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>John Richard Underhill's research has in part been supported by research grants from the Natural Environment Research Council and the Oil and Gas Authority. The views expressed in this article reflect his own personal views based upon this work and are not influenced by any company or funding agency. He has not received any research funding for activities associated with hydraulic fracturing.</span></em></p>Why protesters should think about putting their feet up.John Richard Underhill, Chief Scientist & Professor of Exploration Geoscience, Heriot-Watt UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/799462017-06-28T09:15:07Z2017-06-28T09:15:07ZIt’s nonsense to say fracking can be made safe, whatever guidelines we come up with<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175798/original/file-20170627-27176-1og9b1w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Can we mitigate the risks associated with fracking?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/justinwoolford/6254818029/">Justin Woolford/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Can fracking be safe? A new study suggests how fracking – the process of extracting oil and gas trapped in rocks deep underground by blasting water into the rock at high pressure – can be conducted without causing earthquakes, which is one of the <a href="https://theconversation.com/can-fracking-cause-bigger-more-frequent-earthquakes-16056?sr=3">most well known concerns</a>. While this kind of research can help produce guidelines to reduce the risks associated with fracking, ultimately, it makes no sense to talk of fracking being entirely “safe”.</p>
<p>You might as well ask whether you can ensure your journey to work is safe. There are rules designed to reduce the risks, such as speed limits and the highway code, but there will always be the chance of human error or equipment failure. Venturing onto the roads is an inherently unsafe business. Of course, that doesn’t mean we should never do it. The risks involved in any industrial activity mean that we need to think carefully about how to manage them, rather than trying to claim it is safe or not.</p>
<p>Fracking or hydraulic fracturing involves pumping up to <a href="http://www.refine.org.uk/research/whatisfracking/">16 Olympic swimming pools’ worth of water</a>, chemical additives and sand into shale rocks lying between 2km and 3km underground. This creates a dense network of small fractures in the rocks, releasing gas or oil that moves into the water stream and is pumped or carried to the surface.</p>
<p>Earthquakes can occur when fracking takes place near a geological fault. It’s a bit like <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/bring-science-home-hovercraft/">how a hovercraft works</a>, by pumping air to produce a cushion so it can slip more easily over the land surface. If frack fluid is pumped into a geological fault, it can also slip more easily. Fracking can also change the stress on the fault, causing it to release, and a big enough fault shift will be felt as an earthquake.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40948-017-0065-3">new paper</a>, published in Geomechanics and Geophysics for Geo-Energy and Geo-Resources, tries to predict how far from a geological fault it is safe to frack a well without causing an earthquake. Such research is important as it could lead to areas of land being ruled out for fracking, prevent earthquakes and, of course, save the fracking industry from a PR disaster.</p>
<p>To make this prediction, the researchers from Keele and Birmingham universities ran 50 models of a fracking operation based loosely on a site in north-west England and modelled the extent of the expected change in underground stresses. They combined this with an estimation of the smallest stress change that geoscientists think could trigger an earthquake. The results show any fracking site needs to be at least 63 metres away laterally from any fault, and perhaps as far as 433 metres. They haven’t estimated by how much this would reduce the chance of an earthquake.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175664/original/file-20170626-29060-z5xeb1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175664/original/file-20170626-29060-z5xeb1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175664/original/file-20170626-29060-z5xeb1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175664/original/file-20170626-29060-z5xeb1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175664/original/file-20170626-29060-z5xeb1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175664/original/file-20170626-29060-z5xeb1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=473&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175664/original/file-20170626-29060-z5xeb1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=473&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175664/original/file-20170626-29060-z5xeb1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=473&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The process of fracking for shale gas.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/fracking-shale-gas-info-graphic-209800900?src=mQ-RjdLL7NNMwHw8Ik2bjA-1-7">jaddingt/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Fracking has been going on since the 1950s and on a large commercial scale in the US for the last 15 years, so it might seem surprising that there aren’t already guidelines that cover this kind of risk. But it partly reflects our limited knowledge of the complex underground landscape and how fracking interacts with it. Because of the complexity and variability, a detailed understanding of the geology of what’s below the Earth’s surface is very incomplete.</p>
<h2>The unknown underground</h2>
<p>We know the layers of rock beneath the Earth’s surface are extremely complex because we can see this in the rock outcrops at surface level. In the 1970s, exploration firms started to use soundwaves that bounce off underground rock layers to create <a href="http://www.seismicatlas.org/">acoustic images of the subsurface</a>. A borehole can then verify what the images correspond to and the properties of the rock layers. But the resolution of a seismic reflection is low, each at best representing ten metres of rock.</p>
<p>This variability and complexity in the rock – and our blurred understanding of it – means that when fracking is carried out for the first time in any location there are uncertainties and risks. How far do the rock layers continue for? What will actually happen to the fracking fluid? Could it travel further than expected into a fault?</p>
<p>To try to get answers to these questions, geoscientists carry out experiments in laboratories, build computer models and examine empirical evidence from the thousands of fracking operations that have been carried out in the US. But, even then, we cannot be sure of the answers.</p>
<h2>Making sense of fracking risks</h2>
<p>For example, in 2012 <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264817212000852">I led a study</a> into how tall fractures become and so how close to the surface they can get. We used thousands of measurements of fractures from the US. An obvious uncertainty is whether the full extent of the fractures was detected using the well-established method of deploying microphones in a nearby well and detecting the cracks as they grow. We found fractures caused by fracking are unlikely to extend beyond 600 metres vertically. This evidence is now the basis for the UK law that <a href="http://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/SN06073/SN06073.pdf">prohibits fracking within 1km of the earth’s surface</a>.</p>
<p>Similarly, the new research on earthquakes could one day inform a law on where exactly drilling can take place. But all these results are preliminary, using empirical data, modelling and various assumptions. Only by drilling and closely monitoring more wells will we learn whether the science is robust. </p>
<p>There are <a href="http://www.nerc.ac.uk/latest/news/nerc/fracking-monitoring/">plans for monitoring</a> the first fracking sites in the UK. This will give us data we can use to put more accurate parameters into our models and learn if the existing guidelines are too lax or too conservative. One day we could stream live environmental data from many sites and automatically detect abnormalities, potentially allowing us to spot environmental damage early.</p>
<p>The more we learn about fracking, the more we will be able to manage and reduce its risks. The debate around fracking needs to start with some honesty. Very little of our everyday lives are completely “safe”, and fracking is no exception.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/79946/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Richard Davies leads the ReFINE (Researching Fracking in Europe) consortium, which
has been funded by Ineos, Shell, Chevron, Total, GDF Suez, Centrica and Natural Environment Research Council (UK). He formerly worked in the oil and gas industry and is a Professor and Pro-Vice Chancellor at Newcastle University, UK.</span></em></p>From crossing a road to fracking for oil, everything has inherent risks. At best, we can only aim to agree that, on balance, they are contained and justified.Richard Davies, Pro-Vice Chancellor for Engagement and Internationalisation, Newcastle UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/673172016-11-10T15:34:38Z2016-11-10T15:34:38ZConsidering the technical readiness of South Africa to support the shale gas industry<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/145066/original/image-20161108-16685-5ff7il.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">South Africa's Karoo region, in the south west of the country, is thought to have significant reserves of shale gas.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The discovery and exploitation of very large shale gas reserves in countries like the United States have transformed <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ente.201402177/abstract">the energy market</a>. South Africa may also possess potentially large resources of shale gas. This could have a significant positive impact on the country’s energy balance should it be decided to exploit these resources.</p>
<p>The exploitation of these key energy resources might also have a significant social, economic or environmental impact while also presenting considerable technical challenges.</p>
<p>Given the recent challenges the country is facing in terms of <a href="http://www.gov.za/issues/energy-challenge">energy supply</a>, the possibility of exploiting shale gas deposits for power generation is of current significance. Shale gas also presents other downstream opportunities. Some include providing a key resource for the production of liquid fuels and chemicals, or enabling the development of a domestic market for gas as a cleaner <a href="http://www.mckinsey.com/global-themes/middle-east-and-africa/south-africas-bold-priorities-for-inclusive-growth">energy resource</a>.</p>
<h2>Uncertainties</h2>
<p>South Africa’s Karoo region, in the south west of the country, is thought to have significant reserves of shale gas. Recently there has been considerable interest from the government and various companies like Shell, Falcon and Bundu to develop a shale gas industry there. <a href="http://research.assaf.org.za/handle/20.500.11911/14">Considerable uncertainties</a> exist regarding the extent of these reserves and the geology at depths where they are typically found. These and other uncertainties and constraints include the following.</p>
<ul>
<li><p>The quantum of shale gas in the Karoo is still unclear: estimates range between <a href="http://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=11611">20 and 400 trillion cubic feet</a>. None of these reserves has yet been proven.</p></li>
<li><p>There are also constraints relating to geographical regions. For example, no fracking may take place in the vicinity of the <a href="https://www.ska.ac.za/">Square Kilometre Array station project</a>. The project consists of the largest network of radio telescopes ever built.</p></li>
<li><p>Ensuring that no hydraulic fracturing takes place at depths less than 1500m to protect groundwater resources will also reduce the geographical area of interest.</p></li>
<li><p>Shale gas exploitation requires the use of relatively large quantities of water. Given that potable groundwater should preferably not be used for any such exploitation, greater clarity is needed on the availability of deep-level saline water. This is considered to be acceptable for use in hydraulic fracturing.</p></li>
<li><p>Baseline studies need to be carried out to ascertain with greater certainty the environment at depths greater than 3 km underground. Such baseline studies should also ensure that there is a clear understanding of the status of the human and natural environments before any fracking commences.</p></li>
<li><p>South Africa has a serious shortage of the high-level skills that would be required to implement such an industry. Strategies need to be set in place to develop skills to ensure sustainable development of the shale gas industry.</p></li>
<li><p><a href="http://research.assaf.org.za/handle/20.500.11911/14">International experience</a> has highlighted the critical need to have all the necessary legislative and regulatory structures in place. But also, a sufficient number of regulators with the required skills before a shale gas industry is launched.</p></li>
<li><p>The implementation of a shale gas industry in an area like the Karoo may have a significant socio-economic impact on the local population. Similar concerns have been expressed in studies especially from <a href="http://www.scienceadvice.ca/uploads/eng/assessments%20and%20publications%20and%20news%20releases/shale%20gas/shalegas_fullreporten.pdf">Canada</a> and <a href="http://www.acola.org.au/index.php/projects/securing-australia-s-future/project-6">Australia</a>. So it is important to ensure that there is a full understanding of the potential impact. Plans must be developed to manage them.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Resolution of these uncertainties requires extensive and ongoing consultation with all relevant parties. As such government has an important role to play as an honest broker of key information.</p>
<h2>Risk and challenges</h2>
<p>These uncertainties point to specific risks and challenges associated with the establishment of a shale gas industry in South Africa. This will require government to create an enabling environment to encourage investment in the industry while also ensuring that the state and local communities benefit. It is also critical that there is clarity regarding the pricing structures that may prevail. This is crucial when the industry begins to exploit the shale gas reserves, and obviously requires a clearer understanding of the potential quantum of the known reserves.</p>
<p>Establishing a shale gas industry presents complex technical and economic challenges, and implementation will require a whole-of-government <a href="http://research.assaf.org.za/handle/20.500.11911/14">approach</a>.</p>
<p>A structure at government level to facilitate and coordinate all the activities relating to the industry is recommended. This could coordinate the awarding of licences by various government departments and would have oversight of the activities of the regulators.</p>
<p>Awarding a production licence should proceed after satisfactory completion of terms associated with an exploration licence. This would require operators to demonstrate compliance of processes with legislation.</p>
<p>It is evident that before a shale gas industry in South Africa is implemented, important baseline studies need to be done. This will determine both the exact status quo prior to the commencement of a shale gas industry and the technical, social and economic consequences of such a development.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/67317/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Cyril O'Connor does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Shale gas holds considerable advantages. But there are still a number of uncertainties around whether South Africa is ready for such a bold step.Cyril O'Connor, Emeritus Professor Department of Chemical Engineering Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, University of Cape TownLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/554282016-05-05T10:08:33Z2016-05-05T10:08:33ZShould Florida ‘frack’ its limestone for oil and gas? Two geophysicists weigh in<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/120905/original/image-20160502-19546-1lbj7pn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Florida's unique geology means alternative fracking methods would be used, but can aquifers be safely separated from injection wells? </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/jsjgeology/25151912551">jsjgeology/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Florida is on the front lines of a debate over the spread of the controversial drilling technique hydraulic fracturing, or fracking, which raises a crucial question: are the state’s unique geology and hydrology safe for expanded oil and gas drilling?</p>
<p>Over the past several months, a number of counties and cities in Florida have <a href="http://www.floridatoday.com/story/news/local/environment/2016/03/15/brevard-county-approves-fracking-ban/81801966/">banned</a> fracking over <a href="http://www.tallahassee.com/story/news/2015/10/23/fracking-fears-surface-florida-panhandle/74464786/">environmental concerns</a>. Earlier this year, the state legislature considered but <a href="http://www.tallahassee.com/story/news/politics/2016/03/01/fracking-bill-dies-florida-senate/81160462/">did not pass a bill</a> to <a href="http://www.fl-counties.com/docs/default-source/2016-Advocacy/191-staff-analysis.pdf?sfvrsn=0">regulate fracking</a> at the state level, which would have superseded local bans. </p>
<p>So far, there has been at least <a href="http://www.arcgis.com/home/item.html?id=ca2c172f3e094afaadae6a8de57f225c">one exploratory well</a> in Florida using fracking, but the practice is not widespread. However, the question of how and whether to allow fracking is likely to come back up again, <a href="http://www.eenews.net/stories/1060033924">as early as next year</a>.</p>
<p>How would fracking be done in Florida and what environmental and geologic questions are worth considering? A close look at the particular conditions of the Florida peninsula reveals a number of unresolved areas of concern. </p>
<h2>Acid fracturing</h2>
<p>In some respects, Florida is an unlikely site for this battle. Florida <a href="https://www.eia.gov/state/rankings/#/series/101">ranks</a> 31st of the 50 states in energy production. The state currently has <a href="http://fdep.maps.arcgis.com/home/webmap/viewer.html?webmap=a5d360cf9fa644148e035c3a501bdf6b">two regions</a> with conventional hydrocarbon production – the <a href="http://pubs.usgs.gov/om/om-226/OM226.pdf">Sunniland trend</a> in South Florida and the western Panhandle. Hydrocarbons are stored within carbonate rocks, which are composed of limestone and <a href="http://geology.com/rocks/dolomite.shtml">dolostone</a> in South Florida and carbonates and sand in the Panhandle. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/120908/original/image-20160502-19546-1p4v1jx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/120908/original/image-20160502-19546-1p4v1jx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/120908/original/image-20160502-19546-1p4v1jx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=906&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120908/original/image-20160502-19546-1p4v1jx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=906&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120908/original/image-20160502-19546-1p4v1jx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=906&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120908/original/image-20160502-19546-1p4v1jx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1139&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120908/original/image-20160502-19546-1p4v1jx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1139&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120908/original/image-20160502-19546-1p4v1jx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1139&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A protest in 2014 against a bill that would allow fracking in Florida, where there are worries over the effects to the drinking water and tourism industry.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/astronomygal/14208576904/in/photolist-fyXWgF-o6QXBi-o6QNRS-o6Qzqy-ooiUAb-o6QLXJ-omiwaL-ooj4E3-oo8uo5-o6QRu7-oojx7s-ookFot-omiRqE-o6QwME-oo4u6g-o6RZDv-oo4EZF-omiWZq-o6SqDR-ookS9r-nDyFXW-o6R8pf-ookTci-ookXTx-nn5GvW-o6RDeH-oo8b6o-o6Qt8L-o6RaJK-ookVSP-o6S5vK-oo8zqQ-nDyETS-nDzoBH-nn5GfB/">astronomygal/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Potential hydrocarbon reservoir rocks in Florida are distinct from shales – the layers of sedimentary rock in other parts of the U.S. where fracking has led to a drilling boom in <a href="http://www.eia.gov/pub/oil_gas/natural_gas/analysis_publications/maps/maps.htm">natural gas and oil</a>. The rock under Florida generally has a higher permeability, making it easier for liquids to move through it. </p>
<p>A fracas ensued when one company in 2013 tested fracking <a href="http://www.eenews.net/stories/1060033924">before receiving a permit</a> in Florida, which resulted in a cease and desist order from the Department of Environment Protection (DEP). </p>
<p>The company used a technique known as acid fracturing, which is substantially different than what’s more commonly practiced elsewhere in the U.S. In this method, which is suitable only for carbonate reservoirs, acidic water is injected at high pressure into a well to dissolve the rock. Because carbonate rocks are highly soluble, acids can increase pore size and permeability, allowing oil or gas to flow.</p>
<h2>What we know</h2>
<p>Elsewhere in the U.S., fracking has gained attention due to its association with two hazards: earthquakes and groundwater contamination. </p>
<p>Fracking is a <a href="http://www2.usgs.gov/faq/taxonomy/term/10416">well stimulation technique</a> that entails injecting a mixture of water, sand and chemicals at <a href="https://www.iris.edu/hq/inclass/lesson/induced_seismicity_hydraulic_fracturing_wastewater_injection_and_earthquakes">high pressure into oil and natural gas wells</a>. The fracking fluid pressure breaks up the rocks hosting the oil and gas, increasing their permeability and allowing the oil, gas, natural brine in the rock (called produced waters) and fracking fluid to migrate quickly to the surface. The oil and gas make their way to market, and the fracking fluids are often recovered and reused. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/120907/original/image-20160502-19538-u1t738.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/120907/original/image-20160502-19538-u1t738.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/120907/original/image-20160502-19538-u1t738.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=2207&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120907/original/image-20160502-19538-u1t738.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=2207&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120907/original/image-20160502-19538-u1t738.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=2207&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120907/original/image-20160502-19538-u1t738.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=2773&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120907/original/image-20160502-19538-u1t738.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=2773&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120907/original/image-20160502-19538-u1t738.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=2773&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The practice of fracturing rock with high pressure does not cause earthquakes but disposal of water that comes up after wells have been drilled has been linked to seismic activity in Oklahoma and other places in the U.S.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.epa.gov/uic/class-ii-oil-and-gas-related-injection-wells">EPA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>However, the briny produced waters can pose a problem. They are too laden with dissolved salts to release on the surface, where they would constitute a major pollutant. So, these brines are generally reinjected into the Earth in very deep wells, called <a href="http://water.epa.gov/type/groundwater/uic/class2/">injection wells</a>.</p>
<p>A growing <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-is-oil-and-gas-activity-causing-earthquakes-and-can-we-reduce-the-risk-40810">body of research</a> based on high-quality seismic data collected at surface sites around these injection wells clearly shows that voluminous wastewater injection affects <a href="http://earthquake.usgs.gov/research/induced/">seismicity</a>. Earthquakes in Oklahoma and several other pockets of midcontinent U.S. – including two in Oklahoma with magnitudes greater than 5 since 2011 – have been <a href="http://earthquakes.ok.gov/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/OGS_Summary_Statement_2015_04_20.pdf">associated</a> with high-volume deep-well injection of wastewater, a byproduct of oil and gas production.</p>
<p>An additional problem associated with oil and gas production is the potential for contamination of drinking water and irrigation aquifers by either fracking fluids or produced wastewaters. Done correctly, production wells can be constructed and cemented to avoid the migration of fluids into the well. However, natural gas and chemicals used in fracking have been <a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/112/20/6325">found in the aquifers of the Marcellus Shale in Pennsylvania</a>, and poor drilling practices have been blamed for <a href="https://stateimpact.npr.org/pennsylvania/tag/methane-migration/">methane entering aquifers</a>. Surface operations associated with drilling may also <a href="https://theconversation.com/hydraulic-fracturing-components-in-marcellus-groundwater-likely-from-surface-operations-not-wells-48873">contribute to contamination.</a> </p>
<p>As a result of the experiences in other states, the possibility of fracking in Florida has met <a href="http://www.tallahassee.com/story/news/2015/10/23/fracking-fears-surface-florida-panhandle/74464786/">strong opposition</a> in some quarters. </p>
<h2>What we still don’t know</h2>
<p>What would the environmental impact of fracking be in Florida? </p>
<p>At this point, there are more questions than answers. The specifics of <a href="http://www.fl-counties.com/docs/default-source/2016-Advocacy/191-staff-analysis.pdf?sfvrsn=0">proposed fracking in Florida</a> are complicated by the very different regional geology of the peninsula. </p>
<p>Much of Florida sits atop what is called a <a href="http://maps.unomaha.edu/maher/GEOL1010/lecture12/lecture12.html">karst terrane</a>, a geological formation characterized by a complex, highly permeable and porous carbonate aquifer system. The geology includes an equally complex set of less permeable rock units – called confining units – that are distributed within, around and throughout the aquifer system. </p>
<p>Key unknowns for Florida include:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Are there are extractable oil and gas reservoirs outside of the currently producing regions of the Panhandle and South Florida? The recent local bans include many regions with no confirmed oil or gas reserves. Shales exist below the carbonate rocks in some locations, but it is unclear if conditions were right for oil/gas to form in those shale formations.</p></li>
<li><p>Where are the faults that could produce earthquakes in Florida? Wastewater injection occurs in many locations, but <a href="http://www2.usgs.gov/faq/taxonomy/term/9833">earthquakes are much less common</a>. Earthquakes due to wastewater injection require a combination of factors. First, there must be faults that can produce earthquakes and sufficient stresses. Second, there must be fluid pathways within the rock through which injected wastewater can increase the fluid pressure significantly. The locations of basement faults in Florida are poorly known, and although none have been known to generate earthquakes, their ultimate impact on seismicity in the state will depend on knowing their proximity to proposed locations of wastewater injection.</p></li>
<li><p>Where and how deeply will wastewater be injected? Currently, some of the wastewater from Florida’s oil and gas drilling is injected where it is produced, which are in zones below drinking water. In South Florida, the “Boulder Zone” lies above layers from which oil and gas are drawn and below the tapped ends of the Floridan aquifer system. This cavernous zone receives injected wastewater from oil and gas and from municipalities with <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10040-007-0183-z">little pressure increase</a>. This could possibly indicate that induced seismicity may not occur even following rapid and high volume wastewater injection. Many other parts of Florida do not have such a permeable zone similar to the Boulder Zone, but the precise distribution of permeable and impermeable zones in the Florida subsurface is poorly known, so safe wastewater disposal is highly uncertain. </p></li>
</ul>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/121247/original/image-20160504-11494-1sbpxpm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/121247/original/image-20160504-11494-1sbpxpm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/121247/original/image-20160504-11494-1sbpxpm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121247/original/image-20160504-11494-1sbpxpm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121247/original/image-20160504-11494-1sbpxpm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121247/original/image-20160504-11494-1sbpxpm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121247/original/image-20160504-11494-1sbpxpm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121247/original/image-20160504-11494-1sbpxpm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A sinkhole in Florida. The state’s unique geology means water moves rapidly, making the state’s aquifers potentially vulnerable to spills and contaminants.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/innovationschool/7113005221/in/photolist-bQy1D4-4R4Bar-hg1MHi-hg1BYi-hBtNnT-pP5hkr-2EpENf-aBk2xB-oh9Wj2-hg1DJH-2Ekga2-cCZMWG-tv2B75-xnxZX-hfZexa-By2Vf-By2Ve-bhGAPZ-9DbKGn-pwCdDQ-86mXaK-8KT9o2-613KjG-bhGAKR-pLYLkj-h6aCET-hfWBvf-pP9AT7-h6bWJp-dFQS9M-hBtSpa-6tpg6i-oSdGcN-aYRwYr-pNQtqg-5pucpb-jPoMhh-86q9cj-hg3gfa-pP5faV-h6aJFb-jPwk7K-pwzDpi-7GdCJg-hfWeUt-hfZLQQ-fgevbd-5VRQHD-pwCVgR-hg1GYi">innovationschool/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Florida’s geology is significantly different from Oklahoma, where there has been the most seismic activity. In Florida, wastewater injection has generally been above oil/gas producing zones. This means they are farther from deep formations. That could decrease the risk of earthquakes, since earthquake-producing faults occur in these deep formations in locations such as Oklahoma. </p>
<p>On the other hand, Florida’s practice results in wastewater injection closer to drinking water aquifers. The confining units within the Floridan aquifer system (FAS) have been extremely difficult to map and are highly variable in thickness and properties. A comprehensive effort to map these and zones of high permeability – which could be suitable for injecting and storing wastewater – and rapid groundwater flow would be a monumental task requiring full-time work from many geologists and geophysicists for decades. In other words, understanding with certainty how effective Florida’s geology is for storing wastewater from oil and gas drilling and its ultimate effect on aquifers will be a huge undertaking.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/DBUZLNIlAmg?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>Furthermore, Florida cities have generally tapped shallower aquifers until now. However, as these aquifers become overused, deeper brackish to saline portions of the FAS are being considered as source of freshwater through desalination. These aquifers could be used to store freshwater during wet periods, which would be pumped later during dry times (aquifer storage and recovery). Thus, zones of water used for human consumption may approach those where wastewater would be injected.</p>
<ul>
<li>What will be the impact of surface operations? More widespread production of oil and gas drilling with fracking <a href="https://theconversation.com/hydraulic-fracturing-components-in-marcellus-groundwater-likely-from-surface-operations-not-wells-48873">can result in a larger footprint of operations and more opportunity for surface contamination</a>. Florida’s karst geology contains sinkholes, as well as extensive cave systems, which allow rapid entry and dispersive flow of contaminants into the aquifer system. These karst features are obvious in North and Central Florida, where caves can be large enough to <a href="http://fl.water.usgs.gov/floridan/visual_gallery.html">walk or swim through</a>. </li>
</ul>
<p>South Florida’s aquifers also have rapid flow. In <a href="http://www.miaminewtimes.com/news/beneath-the-pink-underwear-6347605">a 2003 dye tracer study</a> in the Miami region, dyes reached the Miami Dade County well field in hours rather than the expected days. Not only did the dye turn the water red, it exposed the vulnerability of Florida’s carbonate aquifers to contamination. Contaminants could reach irrigation and drinking water systems rapidly enough to pose economic and health risks before any effective warnings could be issued.</p>
<p>So although there’s been a sharp debate over fracking in Florida, the focus on “fracking” alone risks losing sight of the bigger picture. Florida’s aquifers are potentially vulnerable to injected wastes, contaminant migration through poorly sealed wells and from surface activities, regardless of whether fracking is involved.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/55428/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ray Russo receives funding from the U.S. National Science Foundation. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Elizabeth Screaton does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>There’s a debate over whether fracking should be introduced into Florida, a state with a unique geology and hydrology that introduces a long list of environmental concerns.Ray Russo, Associate Professor of Geophysics, University of FloridaElizabeth Screaton, Professor of Geology, University of FloridaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/495422015-10-26T06:04:46Z2015-10-26T06:04:46ZDoes fracking cause cancer and infertility?<p>It can be hard to know what to believe when it comes to fracking safety. Campaigners against the controversial oil and gas drilling technique say it can <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/jan/06/drilling-pollution-complaints-state-reports-pennsylvania">contaminate water</a> supplies, pollute local air and cause <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/aug/26/fracking-earthquakes-waste-disposal-potential-lawsuit-epa">dangerous earthquakes</a>. But the fossil fuel industry contradicts these claims by pointing <a href="https://royalsociety.org/topics-policy/projects/shale-gas-extraction/report/">to reports</a> that the risks can be managed and fracking operations set up safely. </p>
<p>Both sides have also been accused of misrepresenting the evidence. In 2013, the Advertising Standards Agency (ASA) <a href="https://www.asa.org.uk/Rulings/Adjudications/2013/4/Cuadrilla-Resources-Ltd/SHP_ADJ_203806.aspx#.VierSNY-DuQ">ruled that</a> the fracking firm Cuadrilla Resources had published misleading information exaggerating the strength of the evidence for the technique’s safety. More recently, the same company complained to the ASA that the charity Friends of the Earth <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-lancashire-34570974">stated in an advert</a> that chemicals used in fracking could cause cancer. Cuadrilla said only chemicals deemed non-hazardous to groundwater would be used in any UK fracking operations.</p>
<p>No doubt this won’t be the last controversy about the hazards of fracking but it reminds us that there is a significant public health issue at stake here. In the US, almost <a href="http://www2.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-03/documents/fracfocus_analysis_report_and_appendices_final_032015_508_0.pdf">700 different chemicals</a> have been used in fracking, some of which have been linked not just to cancer but <a href="http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/1409535/">also reproductive issues</a>.</p>
<p>What’s more, some of these health problems have been directly linked with fracking operations. For example, <a href="http://pdfs.journals.lww.com/epidem/9000/00000/Unconventional_Natural_Gas_Development_and_Birth.99128.pdf">one strong study</a> of more than 10,000 babies born near fracking operations in Pennsylvania from 2009 to 2013 found that the 25% of mothers most exposed to fracking were 40% more likely to give birth prematurely than the 25% least exposed.</p>
<p>There are a number of papers looking at the potential for fracking to cause cancer in humans but as development of the disease takes years there are not yet any studies proving whether there is a connection or not.</p>
<h2>Unknown in the UK</h2>
<p>The problem is that there hasn’t been any large scale commercial fracking in other countries, and we do not yet know exactly which chemicals will be used if and when operations start. We also don’t know how fracking workers and local communities might be exposed to these chemicals in the short, medium and long term. Another problem is that chemicals that might appear harmless on their own could interact with other natural substances in the rock being fracked.</p>
<p>All this means we can’t say for sure how much of a risk new fracking operations outside of the US will pose to people living nearby. That’s why researchers are looking so closely at US studies analysing fracking substances used there and the exposures linked to fracking and the areas where it has been carried out. </p>
<p>We have a definitive source of information on cancer-causing substances in the WHO’s <a href="http://www.iarc.fr/">International Agency for Research on Cancer</a>. This carries out research to identify proven human carcinogens (Class 1) as well as probable (2A) and possible (2B) ones. Class 1 human carcinogens in the IARC list that have been linked with fracking in the US or recorded near fracked wells include benzene, formaldehyde, crystalline silica dust in the form of quartz or cristobalite, and diesel engine exhaust.</p>
<p>Industries also often argue that even if people were exposed to these chemicals, it would not be enough to threaten their health. They also argue that the public is much more likely to be exposed to other sources of these chemicals from wider pollution, transport and food and drink consumption. Communities in areas likely to be fracked or affected by other forms of unconventional gas extraction <a href="http://www.refracktion.com/index.php/myth-busting/myth-3-fracking-fluids-are-harmless/">appear unconvinced</a> by such arguments.</p>
<h2>Complex mixture</h2>
<p>One of the issues is that it’s not possible to say for sure what will happen to the chemicals once they are injected into the ground. <a href="http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/es503724k">One study</a> looked at chemicals used in the US called biocides, which prevent clogging in the fracking process. On their own, some of these <a href="http://source.colostate.edu/csu-review-environmental-impact-toxicity-biocides-used-fracking-still-largely-unknown/">are reportedly</a> toxic and carcinogenic. But the authors also identified gaps in industry knowledge about what happened when the biocides mixed with plastic gelling agents, friction reducers and groundwater pollution.</p>
<p>They found the biocides sometimes degraded into carcinogenic formaldehyde and nitrosamines, and that some biocides could react with water to become more toxic and persistent. And they noted there had been 595 documented spills from fracked wells in 2013 in Colorado alone, giving some sense of the scale of the industry’s challenge to prevent pollution.</p>
<p>This lack of information may not be resolved even after fracking operations begin. Fracking companies in the UK say they will fully disclose the details of any chemicals they use. But there is still <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2013/feb/28/shale-gas-lobbyist-urges-disclose-chemicals">no legal requirement</a> to reveal this information to the public and, so far, firms have only agreed in principle to disclose to the Environment Agency. As such, the controversy and conflict over fracking and its health impact looks set to continue for some time.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/49542/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrew Watterson is not currently a member of any political party, industry association or environmental or community group and takes no funding or consulting monies or any other moniesfrom either the industry or its critics</span></em></p>Fracking in the US has relied on chemicals linked to a range of health problems but the industry claims UK operations would be far safer.Andrew Watterson, Chair in Health Effectiveness, University of StirlingLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/452782015-10-19T09:55:15Z2015-10-19T09:55:15ZLearning from others, Michigan considers best options for future fracking<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/98565/original/image-20151015-30715-1cibjq4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A fracking well in Pennsylvania, which saw rapid and sometimes-problematic spread of natural gas development. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/wcn247/7797098122/in/photolist-cT1aCf-cSZNn3-cSZKd3-cSZRYQ-cT18jm-cSZUTG-cT1n3E-cT1cLh-cSZVwC-cT12k7-cT1eff-cSZZwb-cT15ME-cT1hUL-cT13d7-cSZY9N-cSZMfS-cSZPu9-cT1fU9-cSZQMm-cT1f5Y-cT1boU-cSZT3W-cT1izq-cT142W-cT1dsL-cSZWcj-cT1mrU-bFY5ZX-bFY48t-bFY7t8-br46Sa-s3pxXc-p4FprP-oJkDzE-caeChj-cxSLdJ-bt4mdN-bFY738-bFYbmk-bt4o1y-bFY7Te-bt4rvQ-bt4c91-buFaos-oJkH3m-br4RQX-br4NLZ-btoWwo-btoUNN">wcn247/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>There is significant momentum behind natural gas extraction in the United States, with many states viewing it as an opportunity to foster economic growth, move toward domestic energy security and create a cleaner energy supply. </p>
<p>However, as domestic production has accelerated in the past 10 years, there has also been increased public scrutiny of natural gas development, particularly with respect to <a href="http://www.usgs.gov/hydraulic_fracturing/">high-volume hydraulic fracturing</a> in shale gas deposits. </p>
<p>Key concerns include potential chemical contamination from fracturing fluids, wastewater disposal, and possible environmental and health impacts. </p>
<p>There is also a perceived lack of information transparency on these questions.</p>
<p>With the rapid rise in hydraulic fracturing activity, numerous government, industry, academic and environmental organizations have rushed to examine the potential benefits and impacts of high-volume hydraulic fracturing. In fact, one review of the available scientific peer-reviewed literature on the impacts of shale gas development found that the bulk, or <a href="http://psehealthyenergy.org/data/Database_Analysis_FINAL2.pdf">73%, of the studies</a> have been published only since January 1 2013. </p>
<p>Last month the University of Michigan (U-M) published a comprehensive <a href="http://graham.umich.edu/knowledge/ia/hydraulic-fracturing">report</a> on the options for Michigan for high-volume hydraulic fracturing. </p>
<p>The report, which we both worked on, takes into account both the sometimes-problematic development of shale gas elsewhere in the US as well as the <a href="http://www.eia.gov/forecasts/steo/report/natgas.cfm">projected growth</a> in natural gas production in the US. It also identifies a number of issues related to environment, the economy, health and communities that other states – or countries – should consider before expanding natural gas development. </p>
<h2>Limited production thus far</h2>
<p>Michigan has a long track record with respect to oil and gas development and hydraulic fracturing. </p>
<p>While not a top producer of natural gas, there has been significant activity in Michigan, with the state ranking <a href="http://www.eia.gov/state/rankings/#/series/47">18th in natural gas production</a> and <a href="http://www.eia.gov/dnav/ng/ng_prod_shalegas_s1_a.htm">ninth in shale gas production in 2013</a>. </p>
<p>Extracting gas from shale rock involves cracking, or fracturing, a layer of underground rock with a high-pressure mix of water, sand and chemicals. After drilling a vertical well, drillers can then drill horizontally through layers of rock to access fuel. The combination of fracturing and horizontal drilling has allowed drillers to access gas trapped in shale rock and fueled the surge in domestic gas production in the US. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/96993/original/image-20151001-23065-3hrx0i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/96993/original/image-20151001-23065-3hrx0i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/96993/original/image-20151001-23065-3hrx0i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=724&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/96993/original/image-20151001-23065-3hrx0i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=724&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/96993/original/image-20151001-23065-3hrx0i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=724&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/96993/original/image-20151001-23065-3hrx0i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=909&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/96993/original/image-20151001-23065-3hrx0i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=909&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/96993/original/image-20151001-23065-3hrx0i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=909&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Hydraulic fracturing process.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Tip of the Mitt Watershed Council</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>According to the Michigan Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ), over the past several decades, more than 12,000 oil and gas wells have been fractured in the state. Regulators have not reported <a href="http://www.michigan.gov/deq/0,4561,7-135-3311_4111_4231-262172--,00.html">any instances of adverse environmental impacts</a>. Most of these wells are relatively shallow (1,000 to 2,000 feet deep), are in the <a href="http://www.michigan.gov/documents/deq/GIMDL-USGSOFR9575K_303059_7.pdf">Antrim Shale</a> in the north of the state and were drilled and completed in the late 1980s and early 1990s.</p>
<p>A May 2010 auction of state mineral leases, however, brought in a record US$178 million – nearly as much as the state had earned in the previous 82 years of lease sales combined. </p>
<p><a href="http://graham.umich.edu/media/files/HF-02-Technology.pdf">Most of this money</a> was spent for leases of state-owned mineral holdings with the <a href="http://graham.umich.edu/media/files/HF-03-Geology-Hydrogeology.pdf">Utica and Collingwood Shales</a> and will likely require so-called high-volume hydraulic fracturing or a well operation that is intended to use a total volume of more than <a href="http://www.michigan.gov/documents/deq/SI_1-2011_353936_7.pdf">100,000 gallons of hydraulic fracturing fluid</a>.</p>
<p>To date, though, there has been little activity on lands leased for drilling. As of May 28 2015, there were only <a href="http://www.michigan.gov/documents/deq/hvhfwc_activity_map_new_symbols-jjv_483124_7.pdf">14 producing</a> oil and gas wells completed with high-volume hydraulic fracturing in Michigan. Higher gas prices, though, could significantly change this course. </p>
<p>Even with the limited activity, <a href="http://closup.umich.edu/fracking/bills/">several bills</a> have been proposed in the Michigan legislature to further regulate or study hydraulic fracturing. And, since 2012, the ballot question committee Let’s Ban Fracking has been working to <a href="http://letsbanfracking.org/">get the issue in front of Michigan voters.</a> </p>
<h2>Best practices</h2>
<p>The purpose of the U-M report is to present information that expands and clarifies the scope of policy options available. It does so in a way that allows a wide range of decision-makers to make choices based on their preferences and values. The report, in other words, does not advocate for recommended courses of action. </p>
<p>However, several key stakeholders have identified areas of particular importance. </p>
<p>For example, in a <a href="http://www.michigan.gov/documents/150313_Energy_Message_FINAL_484033_7.pdf">special message on energy policy</a> earlier this year, Michigan Governor Rick Snyder noted that the project helped the state to “see an opportunity to strengthen our protection of water and give the public more information.” </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/96994/original/image-20151001-23098-ztyxw7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/96994/original/image-20151001-23098-ztyxw7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/96994/original/image-20151001-23098-ztyxw7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=405&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/96994/original/image-20151001-23098-ztyxw7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=405&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/96994/original/image-20151001-23098-ztyxw7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=405&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/96994/original/image-20151001-23098-ztyxw7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=509&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/96994/original/image-20151001-23098-ztyxw7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=509&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/96994/original/image-20151001-23098-ztyxw7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=509&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Left: Activity in Michigan of oil and gas wells in 2005. Right: Activity in Michigan of high-volume hydraulic fracturing wells as of May 28 2015.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Michigan Department of Environmental Quality</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In addition, the <a href="http://michigandistilled.org/2015/09/28/mec-and-tip-of-the-mitt-highlight-policy-options-worth-pursuing-in-new-um-fracking-report/?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=mec-and-tip-of-the-mitt-highlight-policy-options-worth-pursuing-in-new-um-fracking-report">Michigan Environmental Council and the Tip of the Mitt Watershed Council</a> highlighted several areas that they believe deserve special consideration by Michigan lawmakers and the Snyder administration. These include:</p>
<p><strong>In public notice and involvement</strong></p>
<ul>
<li><p>expanding public notification when the state proposes to lease oil and gas drilling rights on public land</p></li>
<li><p>requiring the Michigan Department of Natural Resources to compile a summary of public comments received, how the department responded to public input and how that input influenced its decision about whether and how to lease the rights on the parcel</p></li>
<li><p>allowing adversely affected parties to request a public hearing before a high-volume hydraulic fracturing well permit is approved.</p></li>
</ul>
<p><strong>In water protection</strong></p>
<ul>
<li><p>disallowing high-volume hydraulic fracturing operations within areas with a <a href="http://www.miwwat.org/wateruse/documents/Cold-Transitional%20Stream%206_17.pdf">cold-transitional stream</a>, which have highly permeable geologies</p></li>
<li><p>updating the state’s <a href="http://www.michigan.gov/deq/0,4561,7-135-3313_3684_45331-201102--,00.html">Water Withdrawal Assessment Tool</a> used to determine the impact of drawing large volumes of water. </p></li>
</ul>
<p><strong>In wastewater disposal</strong></p>
<ul>
<li><p>increasing monitoring and reporting requirements for wastewater that is a byproduct of fracking</p></li>
<li><p>obtaining primary authority by the state over <a href="http://water.epa.gov/type/groundwater/uic/class2/">injection disposal wells</a> to improve oversight of wastewater disposal activities.</p></li>
</ul>
<p><strong>In financial assurance to protect taxpayers</strong></p>
<ul>
<li>requiring oil and gas companies to purchase liability insurance, in addition to the bonds, to protect taxpayers from cleanup costs.</li>
</ul>
<p>We developed the policy options in our report based on key issues identified in a set of previously released <a href="http://graham.umich.edu/knowledge/ia/hydraulic-fracturing/tech-reports">technical reports</a>, numerous public comments and a review of current policy in Michigan, other states, and best practices.</p>
<p>A peer-review panel of subject area experts noted that the report provides a potential model for how other states can assess these issues, and <a href="http://2020science.org/2015/09/23/new-report-on-sustainable-hydraulic-fracking/">2020 Science</a> noted that “while the report focuses on Michigan, the analysis is broadly applicable to other states and beyond, and provides a deep and broad analysis of fracking.” </p>
<p>We hope the contributions of all involved in this report will be put to good use for shale gas regulatory decision-making, both in Michigan and elsewhere.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/45278/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Different states and countries with shale gas can benefit from the mistakes made by other regions that rushed into fracking. Here’s one state’s plan.John Callewaert, Integrated Assessment Director, Graham Sustainability Institute, University of Michigan, University of MichiganMaggie Allan, Integrated Assessment Program Specialist, University of MichiganLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/488732015-10-12T20:52:17Z2015-10-12T20:52:17ZHydraulic fracturing components in Marcellus groundwater likely from surface operations, not wells<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/98136/original/image-20151012-17843-mmioai.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A fracking well injects large volumes of water, chemicals and sand to fracture rock. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/128012869@N08/15137840369/in/photolist-p4FoxK-pmbHr8-pb2D6K-pm9SeQ-pb1LHJ-8Qt9W3-ptYyHn-duPq4B-duPiQv-oo4EZF-q5h6jQ-bg6vWP-cTFWRm-ofjtM7-pj9woy-jbjgHt-pseDWM-duUXWm-duPpDX-duUZHy-duUZ7S-duUYDm-duUZpG-duUYxG-duUXTs-duPo42-duPoBe-duUZhj-duPnVv-duUZxd-duUVqy-duPmn4-duPoJZ-dL46uE-duV13A-duURU1-a1fVT3-pXegcN-fQuaVd-jboCF3-q3Le2D-qk9dAb-q3MLPc-qhVyxN-q3MMhM-podjgd-qk9c79-q3Ld2H-q3D6To-qmDJdT">128012869@N08/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>US natural gas production <a href="http://www.eia.gov/dnav/ng/hist/n9070us2A.htm">increased by 42%</a> between 2005 and 2014, largely due to recent advances in horizontal drilling and high volume hydraulic fracturing. One of the largest natural gas reservoirs in the US, the Marcellus Shale, underlies much of the state of Pennsylvania, and there is concern that chemicals used in association with gas extraction will end up in local drinking water supplies.</p>
<p>Our <a href="http://www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1511474112">study</a> showed that organic chemicals detected in groundwater wells were derived from surface releases (i.e., spills at the ground surface) from hydraulic fracturing operations, rather than transport from deep shale formations. This analysis provides more clarity on potential issues related to hydraulic fracturing and can help communities and industry better address potential water contamination events. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/98099/original/image-20151012-17811-1pm8juj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/98099/original/image-20151012-17811-1pm8juj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=233&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98099/original/image-20151012-17811-1pm8juj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=233&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98099/original/image-20151012-17811-1pm8juj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=233&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98099/original/image-20151012-17811-1pm8juj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98099/original/image-20151012-17811-1pm8juj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98099/original/image-20151012-17811-1pm8juj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The number of Pennsylvania shale gas wells (dots on the map) increased significantly in seven years, and much of that growth was due to unconventional well drilling in the northeastern corner of the state.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Brian Drollette</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The bigger picture</h2>
<p>To get natural gas from underground shale formations, drillers inject large volumes of water, sand, and some chemicals into wells, which fractures the rock and releases the trapped gas.</p>
<p>Earlier this year, the US Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) issued a long-awaited <a href="http://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/hfstudy/recordisplay.cfm?deid=244651">assessment</a> of hydraulic fracturing and directly noted “there is insufficient pre- and post-hydraulic fracturing data on the quality of drinking water resources.” </p>
<p>Our study helps to address this issue by collecting complimentary geochemical data over a wide geographic area. Nearly 1,000 organic chemicals are disclosed as additives in hydraulic fracturing, but it is unclear if they enter drinking water supplies. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/98139/original/image-20151012-17807-1frtli3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/98139/original/image-20151012-17807-1frtli3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/98139/original/image-20151012-17807-1frtli3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=490&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98139/original/image-20151012-17807-1frtli3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=490&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98139/original/image-20151012-17807-1frtli3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=490&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98139/original/image-20151012-17807-1frtli3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=615&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98139/original/image-20151012-17807-1frtli3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=615&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98139/original/image-20151012-17807-1frtli3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=615&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Wastewater from hydraulic fractured wells is collected and disposed of in containment pools or, for permanent disposal, in injection wells.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www2.epa.gov/hfstudy/hydraulic-fracturing-water-cycle">EPA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There are a number of potential migration pathways to groundwater aquifers, including: faulty gas well casings, leaking waste containment ponds, underground fuel storage tanks, migration from deep shale (formations approximately 1 mile deep), and surface releases associated with hydraulic fracturing activities. We determined that the likely exposure pathway was from surface operations at gas well sites and not from deep subsurface transport. </p>
<p>These findings are encouraging, because disclosed spills of chemicals at the surface can be targeted for rapid clean up, and homes in the area can employ point-of-use water treatment technologies when needed. In other words, surface releases are much easier to treat and control than subsurface processes. Also, the types of organic chemicals detected in this study are readily treated by in-home water filtration systems that employ charcoal or activated carbon.</p>
<p>Since domestic fossil fuel production often necessitates the colocation of industrial operations with residential areas, there is an inherent environmental and public health risk associated with accidents, just as with any engineering practice. </p>
<p>Shale gas exploration has increased the area in the US subjected to this type of risk, and efforts to minimize human and machine error will minimize the impacts on local residences. Further, better accident reporting and environmental monitoring can help local municipalities ensure the safety of their drinking water in cooperation with gas extraction experts. </p>
<h2>Evidence of fluids</h2>
<p>In this study, we focused on over 50 compounds organic compounds associated with hydraulic fracturing to address a gap in research on this topic. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/98137/original/image-20151012-17811-j0w2eg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/98137/original/image-20151012-17811-j0w2eg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/98137/original/image-20151012-17811-j0w2eg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98137/original/image-20151012-17811-j0w2eg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98137/original/image-20151012-17811-j0w2eg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98137/original/image-20151012-17811-j0w2eg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98137/original/image-20151012-17811-j0w2eg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98137/original/image-20151012-17811-j0w2eg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Containment ponds from hydraulic fracturing wastes that come up from natural gas wells.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/marcellusprotest/4955490403/in/photolist-8xUbDH-8P7Zxd-8P4TpD-8P7ZtQ-cXw4vy-8NQF4r-cXvRWh-cXvJam-8xXez5-8z948p-8xUaUi-8xXfk9-8xXekL-8xUbTz-8xXeQm-8xUd4T-8xUc76-8xUbqp-8xUbak-8zcc5b-depRR1-depRNo-depRzh-depSVZ-depSZc-depRSN-depTa2-depT9k-depSRg-cXvVfh-cXvTuy-cXvYJs-cXvQDW-depRLY-depST6-depSWD-depSU4-depTax-depRHE-8yFtpi-8yJytW-8yFtqF-8yFtcT-8yFtsH-8yJyvb-8yJyAE-8yJymE-8zcbuA-8zcbiC-8zcbdJ">marcellusprotest/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Levels of diesel range organic compounds (hydrophobic chemicals with boiling points similar to diesel fuel) in the groundwater samples were dilute (less than 200 parts per billion). However, they were statistically correlated with distance to the nearest active shale gas well in the region and were significantly higher within a one kilometer radius of a gas well. </p>
<p>These results are similar to studies of hydrocarbon gases (e.g., methane, ethane, and propane) in the same region. In particular, active shale gas wells that have had a documented environmental health and safety violation were spatially correlated with groundwater that contained higher levels of diesel range organic compounds. Furthermore, a known hydraulic fracturing fluid additive, bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate, was detected in a subset of samples. This chemical is used in many industrial materials and practices, but it was not detected in a wide range of samples or representative natural water (i.e., a natural spring in the study area).</p>
<h2>Upward migration?</h2>
<p>A common question regarding the environmental and public health consequences of natural gas extraction via hydraulic fracturing is whether or not fluids can travel from shale horizons to drinking water aquifers through geologic faults and fissures. That is, can hydraulic fracturing fluids migrate upward through cracks to contaminate sources of drinking water?</p>
<p>Proposed upward migration scenarios could introduce the nearly 1000 disclosed organic industrial chemicals used during the fracturing process to shallow groundwater. To date, this remains unproven and undocumented. </p>
<p>The detected organic compounds in the sampled groundwater in our study were not the result of migration of fracturing fluids from the shale horizon to drinking water aquifers. This was demonstrated using a series of complimentary analyses.</p>
<p>For example, fluids migrating from deep shale horizons should contain high amounts of unique noble gases and salts, but the groundwater samples that contained higher diesel range organic compounds did not contain these other chemical markers. In contrast, the chemical character of the groundwater showed the water was in relatively recent contact with the surface of the Earth and was not related to the salt content.</p>
<h2>Outstanding questions</h2>
<p>Our study focused solely on a region of developed Marcellus Shale in northeastern Pennsylvania, and it is important to note that the results of this study may not translate across all shale formations within the US. Spatial and temporal separations of hydraulically fractured shale horizons can vary widely due to local geology. </p>
<p>Similarly, vertical distances between aquifers and shale formations, as well as the historical oil and gas development in the region, can affect the transport times of deep subsurface fluids to shallow groundwaters. Therefore, continuous monitoring will provide a better understanding of potential risks that may arise over time and space.</p>
<p>Considering that domestic fuel production is growing, it would be helpful to compare the rates of spills associated with natural gas production with spills from other chemical or fuel industries. In ocean transport of oil, only <a href="http://www.eia.gov/beta/international/regions-topics.cfm?RegionTopicID=WOTC">0.00007%</a> of the volume is released on average (including large spill years). Since gas extraction violation reports do not include volumes, it is not currently possible to answer the question: are surface releases associated with hydraulic fracturing any worse than other fuel technologies on which we rely? Having the volume information will help improve the industrial practices and safety of the growing natural gas industry.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/48873/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Brian D. Drollette receives funding from the National Science Foundation. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Desiree L. Plata receives funding from the National Science Foundation. </span></em></p>Fracking fluids in Marcellus shale have contaminated groundwater but new study finds that the source is likely from surface spills, not leaks from underground wells.Brian D. Drollette, PhD Student, Chemical & Environmental Engineering, Yale UniversityDesiree L. Plata, Assistant Professor of Chemical & Environmental Engineering, Yale UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.