tag:theconversation.com,2011:/au/topics/immigrant-students-24361/articlesImmigrant students – The Conversation2024-02-09T13:32:30Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2228492024-02-09T13:32:30Z2024-02-09T13:32:30ZWhy John Dewey’s vision for education and democracy still resonates today<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574482/original/file-20240208-30-vvibg1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=35%2C106%2C7790%2C5122&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">John Dewey was a proponent of active learning. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/students-working-on-stem-projects-royalty-free-image/1456008678?phrase=children+classroom+active+learning&adppopup=true">FatCamera via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>John Dewey was one of the <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/dewey/#:%7E:text=John%20Dewey%20(1859%E2%80%931952),half%20of%20the%20twentieth%20century.">most important educational philosophers</a> of the 20th century. His work has been cited in scholarly publications <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=dD5DTREAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">over 400,000 times</a>. Dewey’s writings continue to influence discussions on a variety of subjects, including <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/edth.12567">democratic education</a>, which was the focus of Dewey’s famous 1916 book on the subject. In the following Q&A, Nicholas Tampio, a political science professor and editor of a <a href="https://cup.columbia.edu/book/democracy-and-education/9780231558273">forthcoming 2024 edition of Dewey’s “Democracy and Education,”</a> explains why Dewey’s work remains relevant to this day.</em></p>
<h2>Why revisit John Dewey’s philosophy on education and democracy now?</h2>
<p>I think it is time to revisit Dewey’s philosophy about the value of field trips, classroom experiments, music instruction and children playing together on playgrounds. This is especially true after the pandemic when children spent <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.56157">significantly more time</a> in front of screens rather than having whole body experiences.</p>
<p>Dewey’s philosophy of education was that children “learn by doing.” Dewey argued that children learn from using their entire bodies in meaningful experiences. That is why, in his 1916 text, “<a href="https://cup.columbia.edu/book/democracy-and-education/9780231558273">Democracy and Education,”</a> Dewey called for schools to be “equipped with laboratories, shops, and gardens.”</p>
<p>Dewey argued that planting seeds, measuring the relationship between Sun, soil, water and plant growth, and then tasting fresh peas made for a seamless transition between childhood curiosity and the scientific way of looking at things. Dewey also encouraged schools to create time for “<a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/852/852-h/852-h.htm">dramatizations, plays, and games</a>.” </p>
<p>In his 2014 book, “<a href="https://www.cornellpress.cornell.edu/book/9780801479540/an-education-in-politics/#bookTabs=1">An Education in Politics: The Origin and Evolution of No Child Left Behind</a>,” the political scientist <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=OsXHylAAAAAJ&hl=en">Jesse H. Rhodes</a> shows how business groups and certain civil rights groups advocated federal laws that required states to administer high-stakes tests. This focus on tested subjects means that public school students in places <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10632913.2010.490776">such as Texas</a> have less time for arts education. </p>
<h2>What role did Dewey see for public schools in preserving democracy?</h2>
<p>For Dewey, modern societies can use schools to impart democratic habits in young people from an early age. He argued that the “intermingling in the school of youth of different races, differing religions, and unlike customs creates for all a new and broader environment.” Dewey was writing as <a href="https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/progressive-era-to-new-era-1900-1929/immigrants-in-progressive-era/">millions of European immigrants</a> were arriving in the United States between 1900 and 1915. Dewey believed that schools could teach immigrants what it means to be a citizen and incorporate their experiences into American culture. </p>
<p>Dewey’s view of the schools remains relevant today. In the <a href="https://www.gao.gov/assets/gao-22-104737.pdf">2020-21 school year</a>, more than a third of the country’s children attended schools where 75% of the student body is the same race or ethnicity – hardly the ideal conditions for Dewey’s vision of democracy. </p>
<p>Dewey <a href="https://chipbruce.files.wordpress.com/2008/11/dewey_creative_dem.pdf">opposed “racial, color, or other class prejudice</a>.” Segregated schools <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2293151">violate Dewey’s ideal</a> of treating all students as possessing intrinsic worth and dignity. Dewey <a href="https://chipbruce.files.wordpress.com/2008/11/dewey_creative_dem.pdf">believed that</a> democracy means “that every human being, independent of the quantity or range of his personal endowment, has the right to equal opportunity with every other person for development of whatever gifts he has.” Democratic schools, for Dewey, empower every child to develop their gifts in ways that benefit the community.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574477/original/file-20240208-28-gkl7uz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A young boy feeds a goat while his parents stand nearby." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574477/original/file-20240208-28-gkl7uz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574477/original/file-20240208-28-gkl7uz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=578&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574477/original/file-20240208-28-gkl7uz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=578&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574477/original/file-20240208-28-gkl7uz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=578&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574477/original/file-20240208-28-gkl7uz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=726&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574477/original/file-20240208-28-gkl7uz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=726&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574477/original/file-20240208-28-gkl7uz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=726&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Dewey espoused the idea of learning by doing.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">JHU Sheridan Libraries/Gado via Getty Images</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>How closely does today’s education system resemble Dewey’s vision for education?</h2>
<p>I would argue that the education system resembles the vision of modern testing pioneers like <a href="https://www.edweek.org/teaching-learning/pioneers-of-modern-testing/1999/06">Edward Thorndike</a> more than Dewey’s.</p>
<p>Dewey thought that standardized tests serve a small role in education. <a href="http://dewey.pragmatism.org/creed.htm">He believed</a> that “the child’s own instincts and powers furnish the material and give the starting point for all education.” Dewey maintained that teachers need to use student interest as the fuel to propel students to learn math, reading and the scientific method, and standardized tests serve mainly to help the teacher identify where <a href="http://dewey.pragmatism.org/creed.htm">each student</a> “can receive the most help.” In his lifetime, <a href="https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/E/bo3683209.html">Dewey opposed</a> proponents of intelligence testing, such as Thorndike.</p>
<p>But the testing proponents seem to be winning. According to a 2023 <a href="https://www.edweek.org/teaching-learning/educators-feel-growing-pressure-for-students-to-perform-well-on-standardized-tests/2023/09">Education Week</a> survey of teachers, nearly 80% feel moderate or large amounts of pressure to have their students perform well on state-mandated standardized tests. According to <a href="https://www.edweek.org/teaching-learning/educators-feel-growing-pressure-for-students-to-perform-well-on-standardized-tests/2023/09">one principal</a>, “There’s too much pressure put on these kids for testing, and there’s too much testing.”</p>
<p>Dewey’s vision of education is teachers nurturing each child’s passions and not using tests to rank children. For many teachers, U.S. public schools are <a href="https://www.nea.org/nea-today/all-news-articles/standardized-testing-still-failing-students">far from realizing that vision</a>.</p>
<h2>How popular are John Dewey’s views today?</h2>
<p>Dewey’s ideas were controversial during his lifetime. They remain so to this day.</p>
<p>In 2023, Richard Corcoran, the president of New College of Florida, criticized “<a href="https://www.srqmagazine.com/srq-daily/2023-11-16/22795_In-Conversation-with-Leaders-in-Higher-Education">the Dewey school of thought</a>” for training students to become “widget makers.” According to Corcoran, Dewey thought that “if we can teach (people) just enough skills to get on the assembly line and help us with this Industrial Revolution, everything will be great.” Corcoran is right that Dewey thought that schools should teach children about industry, including with hands-on tasks. But Dewey opposed vocational education that <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1179397">slotted children from a young age into a career path</a>. </p>
<p>“I am utterly opposed,” Dewey explained, “to giving the power of social predestination, by means of narrow trade-training, to any group of fallible men no matter how well-intentioned they may be.” Dewey thought that children could learn about history and economics from using machinery in schools. However, he opposed a two-tiered education system that denied working-class children a well-rounded education or that equated human flourishing with making widgets. </p>
<p>Educators and scholars such as <a href="https://dianeravitch.net/2017/12/31/john-dewey-my-pedagogic-creed/">Diane Ravitch</a>, <a href="https://www.tcpress.com/beyond-testing-9780807758526">Deborah Meier</a> and <a href="http://zhaolearning.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/josi12191_LR.pdf">Yong Zhao</a> cite Dewey and apply his insights to current education debates. Those debates include topics such as the place of standardized testing in schools, the freedom of the classroom teacher and the need for schools to build trust with families and community members.</p>
<p>Zhao, for instance, argues that Dewey outlined a way to address education inequity that does not rely on closing gaps in test scores. Dewey’s idea, according to Zhao, is that all children should have a chance to express and cultivate individuality, learn through experiences and make “the most of the opportunities of present life.”</p>
<p>Dewey believed that “<a href="https://chipbruce.files.wordpress.com/2008/11/dewey_creative_dem.pdf">democracy is a way of life</a>.” He also believed schools could teach that lesson to young people by allowing people in the school to have a meaningful say in the aims of education. For many people who read Dewey today, his call for <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/992653">democracy in education</a> still resonates.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222849/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nicholas Tampio does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Educational philosopher John Dewey saw America’s schools as a place for students from different backgrounds to learn from one another.Nicholas Tampio, Professor of Political Science, Fordham UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2086432023-11-06T13:33:03Z2023-11-06T13:33:03ZHigher education can be elusive for asylum-seekers and immigrants<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/548677/original/file-20230917-23-jr91z6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=185%2C271%2C7922%2C5203&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A study found that refugees want more guidance on how to navigate higher education in the U.S.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.ca/detail/photo/multi-ethnic-group-of-students-listen-in-lecture-royalty-free-image/1162863879?phrase=migrants+in+university&adppopup=true">FatCamera/E+ via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Pursuing higher education is often a pathway to <a href="https://research.stlouisfed.org/publications/page1-econ/2017/01/03/education-income-and-wealth">higher income</a> and <a href="https://www.luminafoundation.org/news-and-views/higher-education-linked-to-greater-wellbeing-job-fit-and-societal-progress-lumina-gallup-study-finds/">overall better well-being</a>. College graduates are <a href="https://www.aplu.org/our-work/4-policy-and-advocacy/publicuvalues/societal-benefits/">less likely to rely on public benefits</a>. Therefore, it’s beneficial for education leaders and policymakers to help newcomers – including asylum-seekers and refugees – to access higher education in the U.S., whether it be community college, taking advanced English courses, obtaining a certificate through training programs or going to a four-year university.</p>
<p>Despite these clear benefits, we have found that higher education can often be an elusive goal for people who’ve fled their homeland in search of a better life in the U.S. </p>
<p>We all study policy and education issues that affect refugees. Over the past year and a half, the three of us – <a href="https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9979-2105">Kerri Evans</a>, <a href="https://bush.tamu.edu/faculty/icasellasconnors/">Ishara Casellas Connors</a> and <a href="https://directory.esc.edu/view/lisa-unangst">Lisa Unangst</a> – teamed up to learn more about higher education pathways for refugees, asylum-seekers, recent Afghan parolees and people with <a href="https://www.uscis.gov/humanitarian/temporary-protected-status">temporary protected status</a>, in the Maryland, Virginia and Washington, D.C. area.</p>
<p>We partnered with <a href="https://lssnca.org">Lutheran Social Services of the National Capital Area</a>, one of the <a href="https://lssnca.org/about/annual-report-2022.html">largest refugee resettlement agencies</a> on the East Coast. We as researchers established a <a href="https://blogs.cdc.gov/pcd/2011/04/08/community-advisory-boards-in-community-based-participatory-research-a-synthesis-of-best-processes/">community advisory board</a> of local refugees and other immigrants to guide the research process.</p>
<p>While our findings have implications for all refugees and asylum-seekers, we see our findings as particularly relevant for the nearly <a href="https://refugees.org/uscri-statement-on-launch-of-new-re-parole-process-for-afghans/">77,000 Afghans who entered the U.S. with temporary</a> immigration statuses from 2021 to 2023. Most arrived with <a href="https://refugees.org/uscri-statement-on-launch-of-new-re-parole-process-for-afghans/">parole status</a>, which allows temporary stay and work in the U.S. for only two years. After that, renewals are needed. Parole status confers no option for lawful permanent resident status, unlike what happens when people fleeing their homeland arrive with official <a href="https://www.usa.gov/refugee">refugee status</a>.</p>
<p>Enrolling in college can be difficult for this population because of the uncertainty of their immigrant status and future in the U.S.</p>
<h2>Obstacles to higher learning</h2>
<p>To identify the barriers to higher education for refugees in the Maryland, Virginia and Washington, D.C., area, <a href="https://tinyurl.com/3yrmm7b7">our research team interviewed</a> 82 immigrants, all of whom were over 18 at time of arrival in the U.S., and two-thirds of whom were from Afghanistan and arrived since 2021.</p>
<p>We also interviewed 22 people who work for the Lutheran resettlement agency, the majority of whom were refugees or other immigrants who were resettled through the program in prior years. In reviewing the findings with the research team, the community advisory board implemented an additional survey to enhance our research by <a href="https://dscout.com/people-nerds/a-simplified-mixed-methods-roadmap-how-to-marry-quant-qual-data-for-more-insightful-results">using both qualitative and quantitative data</a>. Forty-three people – ages 22-55 – who would like to attend college in the U.S. chose to answer the survey, and 37 of them were from Afghanistan.</p>
<p>Through our research, we identified three main barriers for adult asylum-seekers and other immigrants who wanted to go to college or get advanced degrees.</p>
<h2>1. Getting their degrees recognized</h2>
<p>The process of getting degrees recognized is <a href="https://sites.ed.gov/international/recognition-of-foreign-qualifications/">lengthy, difficult and involves a fee</a> for immigrants. </p>
<p>More than half of participants experienced a barrier with either certifying the degrees they already earned back home or with curriculum requirements that differed from those of their home country. For instance, U.S. colleges may not accept high school and college degrees from other countries. Or participants may not meet all of the requirements for internships or to take specific courses in the U.S.</p>
<p>A female resettlement staff member who is from Afghanistan explained that the problem is having documents from their home country, such as diplomas and work credentials, evaluated here in the U.S.</p>
<p>“For example … let’s say, they have their bachelor’s degree or master’s degree in Afghanistan,” the resettlement staff member said. “But when they arrive in here, somehow, (the degrees are) lost,” she continued, explaining that immigrants often choose to attend college all over again and get the degree in the U.S.</p>
<h2>2. Insufficient guidance</h2>
<p>Half of the Afghan migrants we interviewed indicated they would like more help applying to college and graduate school programs than they’re getting.</p>
<p>Without guidance, many said they had lost precious time trying to navigate the higher education system. Some said they wanted more help with writing college application essays. Two-thirds of the Afghans wanted a personal connection with university alums or professors who could guide them through the college application process and be a mentor during their time in college. </p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Young African American and Asian college students work together at a library." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/548680/original/file-20230917-8684-itz0ia.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/548680/original/file-20230917-8684-itz0ia.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548680/original/file-20230917-8684-itz0ia.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548680/original/file-20230917-8684-itz0ia.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548680/original/file-20230917-8684-itz0ia.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548680/original/file-20230917-8684-itz0ia.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548680/original/file-20230917-8684-itz0ia.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Guidance helps migrants find educational opportunities.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.ca/detail/photo/young-african-american-and-asian-college-students-royalty-free-image/1434905523">silverkblack/iStock via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>3. Financial</h2>
<p>Newly resettled refugees and others who were forced to flee their country struggle to pay their bills as they restart their lives in the U.S. Often they are relegated to low-wage jobs.</p>
<p>Nearly three-quarters of the 43 migrants said they couldn’t afford college tuition for themselves. About two-thirds indicated they would need information about scholarships and other financial resources in order to reconsider applying for college – information that is not always easily available for those who aren’t graduating from high schools in the U.S.</p>
<p>“I have to pay for rent. I have to pay for a car. I have to pay for oil. I have to pay for everything,” said one male from Afghanistan, reflecting on the fact that there is no money left for tuition payments. “Whatever I’m earning is a zero.”</p>
<p>Another male from Afghanistan observed: “We do have families. We have to support them, and at the same time, education fees are so high here.” </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A group of students studying together in the library." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/548678/original/file-20230917-27-edvy8n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/548678/original/file-20230917-27-edvy8n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548678/original/file-20230917-27-edvy8n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548678/original/file-20230917-27-edvy8n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548678/original/file-20230917-27-edvy8n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548678/original/file-20230917-27-edvy8n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548678/original/file-20230917-27-edvy8n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Refugees often have trouble affording tuition at U.S. colleges and universities.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.ca/detail/photo/students-studying-together-in-the-library-royalty-free-image/1516348692">AnnaStills/iStock via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>To overcome these barriers, our research team and community advisory board members recommend the following strategies:</p>
<p>• Identify scholarships for which immigrants and refugees would be eligible and share them with those who are interested.</p>
<p>• Educate resettlement staff on the nuances of legal status for in-state tuition so they can help asylum-seekers and refugees to determine if they are eligible.</p>
<p>• Create webinars and videos that include an <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IYW5GGt7XEM">overview of U.S. higher education</a> and the <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t-Vy2lwIfSg">financial aid rules for immigrants and refugees</a>.</p>
<p>• <a href="https://myemail.constantcontact.com/August-Headlines--Shohna-ba-Shohna--Two-Years-On.html?soid=1102312314614&aid=Qa94YmOa7Gg">Recruit mentors</a> to help asylum-seekers and refugees apply to college.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/208643/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kerri Evans receives funding from receives funding from the University of Maryland, Baltimore, Institutefor Clinical & Translational Research (ICTR) and the William T. Grant Foundation. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ishara Casellas Connors receives funding from the William T. Grant Foundation and University of Maryland, Baltimore, Institutefor Clinical & Translational Research (ICTR), and the National Center forAdvancing Translational Sciences (NCATS) Clinical Translational ScienceAward (CTSA). </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lisa Unangst receives funding from the University of Maryland, Baltimore, Institute for Clinical & Translational Research (ICTR) and the William T. Grant Foundation.</span></em></p>Migrants to the US say they need a map to help them navigate the world of higher education.Kerri Evans, Assistant Professor, University of Maryland, Baltimore CountyIshara Casellas Connors, Assistant Professor, Public Service and Administration, Texas A&M UniversityLisa Unangst, Assistant Professor, SUNY Empire State CollegeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1910352022-11-29T15:15:36Z2022-11-29T15:15:36ZAre ‘top scholar’ students really so remarkable — or are teachers inflating their grades?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/493581/original/file-20221104-10296-rvgdyl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Who gets to be a top scholar? </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Schools in the Greater Toronto Area (GTA) are “<a href="https://www.thestar.com/news/gta/2022/10/29/an-explosion-in-a-students-grades-are-rising-at-gta-high-schools-heres-what-it-means-for-your-kids.html">handing out higher marks than ever before</a>.”</p>
<p>This is according to a recent <em>Toronto Star</em> investigation into grade inflation. It asked: “Is runaway grade inflation holding top students back and setting others up to fail?”</p>
<p>The <em>Star</em> found that data indicate “Grade 12 averages are on a steady slope upwards and the number of kids entering university with a 95+ average has exploded.”</p>
<p>This question had me recalling <a href="https://www.thestar.com/news/gta/2022/08/19/100-in-english-toronto-catholic-boards-top-scholars-reveal-their-academic-secrets.html">summer media reports about “top scholars” graduating from schools in the GTA</a> with average grades of 100 per cent. </p>
<p>Understandably, what accounts for the upward trend in grade averages is difficult to determine, since there are many complicated and nuanced reasons. </p>
<p>Nevertheless, among the reasons the <em>Star</em> investigation identifies is “the popularity of STEM courses” to boost averages. </p>
<p>When I examined reporting about the “top scholars” who received grades of 100 per cent, they were mainly taking science courses. </p>
<p>I wonder about the effects such media narratives have on youth who tend not to see their stories celebrated as “top scholars.”</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A row of lockers seen, some that are sunlit." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/493586/original/file-20221104-23-5zmyv5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/493586/original/file-20221104-23-5zmyv5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/493586/original/file-20221104-23-5zmyv5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/493586/original/file-20221104-23-5zmyv5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/493586/original/file-20221104-23-5zmyv5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/493586/original/file-20221104-23-5zmyv5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/493586/original/file-20221104-23-5zmyv5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Both teachers and the media play a role in students’ sense of themselves.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>‘Top scholars’ coverage</h2>
<p>Media reports of this year’s top students indicate that while some of them had averages of 99 per cent <a href="https://toronto.ctvnews.ca/top-of-the-class-four-highest-achieving-students-from-tdsb-honoured-1.4523627">as in other years</a>, others had averages of 100 per cent.</p>
<p>In an attempt to learn more about the trajectory of these “top scholars,” their school experiences, relationships with teachers and their ambitions, I examined media reports: four top scholars media reports in 2018-19, one in 2019-20 and in 2020-21 and 10 reports in 2021-22. I did not systematically review all coverage on top scholars, so my analysis is not based on a representative sample.</p>
<p>Of the 16 students in the sample — seven females and nine males, as they were identified — 10 attended Toronto District School Board institutions, five attended Toronto Catholic District School Board and one attended York Region District School Board. A majority of the students were first- and/or second-generation Canadians and mostly of Asian, white and South Asian descent.</p>
<h2>Worked hard, adjusted to Canada</h2>
<p>Some coverage of these top scholars advanced the narrative that some of their educational aspirations were, in part, motivated by <a href="https://www.routledge.com/First-Generation-Student-Experiences-in-Higher-Education-Counterstories/James-Taylor/p/book/9780367547158#">the sacrifices their parents made to come to a new country</a>.</p>
<p>One student, an immigrant from Afghanistan, was quoted as saying that <a href="https://torontosun.com/news/local-news/with-honours-tdsb-celebrates-top-grads">his goal was to give back to his parents after they fled turmoil</a>.</p>
<p>Another who immigrated to Canada from Turkey about four years ago was said to have learned <a href="https://www.thestar.com/news/gta/2021/07/28/four-years-ago-he-moved-to-canada-knowing-no-english-now-hes-one-of-three-tdsb-students-graduating-with-a-100-per-cent-average.html?rf">English quickly, worked hard and was able to “adjust to Canadian culture.</a>”</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/493587/original/file-20221104-25-htyphg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/493587/original/file-20221104-25-htyphg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/493587/original/file-20221104-25-htyphg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/493587/original/file-20221104-25-htyphg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/493587/original/file-20221104-25-htyphg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/493587/original/file-20221104-25-htyphg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/493587/original/file-20221104-25-htyphg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Coverage spotlighted how youth were, in part, motivated by sacrifices their parents made to come to a new country.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Media narratives</h2>
<p>Implicit in how these stories are framed is the notion that these students’ success is embedded with a commitment to their parents. However, given these students’ achievements, readers should also consider their determination to resist the scourges of inequity, xenophobia and racism.</p>
<p>Research indicates that information and narratives coming from the media <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/254776366_News_Racism_A_discourse_analytical_approach">influence people’s knowledge, attitudes, interpretations and beliefs about themselves and others</a>. These narratives play a role in building and amplifying language and stories <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/17475759.2014.939214">about people’s lives and how they relate</a> to the wider world.</p>
<p>Repeated media presentations often function <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/106461799246735">to feed myths, stereotypes and expectations of students based on their background</a>.</p>
<h2>STEM study, role of teachers</h2>
<p>In my sample, 15 of the 16 students took at least four of their five or more courses during high school in mathematics and/or sciences. Eight of them planned to pursue engineering, while three planned on pursuing computer science or program at Canadian universities.</p>
<p>The positive schooling experiences and educational ambitions of these students could not have been accomplished independent of teachers.</p>
<p>Many of the students were quoted as saying that it was the relationships they were able to build with teachers that account for their successes.</p>
<p>One top scholar <a href="https://www.thestar.com/news/gta/2022/08/19/100-in-english-toronto-catholic-boards-top-scholars-reveal-their-academic-secrets.html">recounted to the <em>Star</em></a>: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“I was close to my teacher. We would talk after class and she would give me good feedback. I think it would be significantly harder to get 100 per cent if I had just left as soon as the bell rang. Also, I don’t believe I got 100 per cent on my own effort….”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Another student attributed his <a href="https://www.thestar.com/news/gta/2022/08/19/100-in-english-toronto-catholic-boards-top-scholars-reveal-their-academic-secrets.html">success to the “many times” he talked with his teachers</a> about what he could do to improve on his work.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/493570/original/file-20221104-15-5ktnij.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/493570/original/file-20221104-15-5ktnij.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/493570/original/file-20221104-15-5ktnij.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/493570/original/file-20221104-15-5ktnij.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/493570/original/file-20221104-15-5ktnij.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/493570/original/file-20221104-15-5ktnij.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/493570/original/file-20221104-15-5ktnij.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Many the students discussed how the relationships with teachers were integral to their successes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Bonuses</h2>
<p>In a situation that would baffle many educators and students, one student even scored 100 per cent, even in English. Indeed, as one reporter asked: “<a href="https://www.thestar.com/news/gta/2022/08/19/100-in-english-toronto-catholic-boards-top-scholars-reveal-their-academic-secrets.html">How does one get 100 per cent in English?</a>”</p>
<p>The students’ accounts point to the key role teachers can play in guaranteeing the outcome some students fervently desire.</p>
<p>As a student shared: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“I’ll let you in on a bit of secret: usually for advanced placement courses, they’re considered much harder than academic courses, so toward the end, they don’t round up your average, but they give you a bonus. I achieved an average really close to 100 already and (100) was guaranteed with my bonus.”</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Messages to students</h2>
<p>Media coverage on top scholars risks sending the message that maths and sciences are more valued and it’s at least theoretically more possible to achieve perfect grades in those subjects. But as Ontario’s 2010 report on students’ assessment, <em>Growing Success</em>, noted, <a href="https://books.google.ca/books/about/Assessment.html?id=NOynAAAACAAJ&redir_esc=y">citing educator Ruth Sutton</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“It is worth noting, right from the start, that <a href="https://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/policyfunding/growsuccess.pdf">assessment is a human process, conducted by and with human beings</a>, and subject inevitably to the frailties of human judgment. However crisp and objective we might try to make it, and however neatly quantifiable may be our ‘results,’ assessment is closer to an art than a science. It is, after all, an exercise in human communication.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>With reference to the issue of grade inflation it was noted that teachers <a href="https://www.thestar.com/news/gta/2022/10/29/an-explosion-in-a-students-grades-are-rising-at-gta-high-schools-heres-what-it-means-for-your-kids.html">“applied less weight to some tests</a>.” One student said, speaking on the issue of grade inflation, she finds teachers have been evaluating students “with a lot of empathy.”</p>
<p>The high grades allude to <a href="https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1220324#">how positive teacher–student relationships have</a> a <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/radio/ideas/change-the-system-not-the-students-sociologist-on-black-lives-in-canadian-education-1.6632950">cumulative effect across students’ school subjects, and hence on their post-secondary aspirations</a> — but we need to be concerned about the relationships that students with low grades have with their teachers. </p>
<p>Ultimately, as one of the top scholars – who said that he “figured out how to succeed within that system” – told the <em>Star</em>, “<a href="http://www.thestar.com/news/gta/2022/10/29/an-explosion-in-a-students-grades-are-rising-at-gta-high-schools-heres-what-it-means-for-your-kids.html">Grades are not a measure of intelligence</a>.” </p>
<p>Grade inflation needs to be examined in a wider context of considering <a href="https://theconversation.com/ending-streaming-is-only-the-first-step-to-dismantling-systemic-racism-in-ontario-schools-142617">the opportunities presented to students or the learning designations applied to them to channel them into particular paths</a> — and also how our media landscape affects the lives of youth.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/191035/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Carl E. James does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Both teachers and our media landscape contribute to how youth make sense of what is expected of them, and who are bound to excel in which fields.Carl E. James, Professor, Jean Augustine Chair in Education, Community & Diaspora, York University, CanadaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1782922022-03-08T19:02:19Z2022-03-08T19:02:19ZLessons from the pandemic on fairer and more caring uni teaching and learning<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/450548/original/file-20220308-108911-16mfl77.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=60%2C0%2C6720%2C4456&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The pandemic forced universities to rush out remote delivery of their courses online. Now we have had time to take stock of the impacts. <a href="http://refugee-education.org">Our</a> newly published <a href="https://www.ncsehe.edu.au/publications/covid-19-online-learning-caldmr-students/">Australia-wide research</a> investigated the challenges and opportunities of remote delivery for culturally and linguistically diverse migrant and refugee (CALDMR) students and university staff. </p>
<p>We identified many changes to teaching and learning that we should strive to keep. Students and teachers told us they got to know each other on a more personal, human level. Being essentially inside each other’s homes led to higher levels of care and engagement. </p>
<p>But the disruptions of COVID also highlighted existing educational disadvantage caused by “the digital divide”. Online delivery made it worse for equity cohorts, especially <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/07294360.2020.1824991">refugee students</a>. As one student recalled:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“[…] at one point my laptop stopped working, and then I couldn’t do Zoom meetings. That was a bit of an issue, and then co-ordinating that with the university.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>A lecturer told us: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“[…] there’s that extra language barrier. I can’t see their confusion like I could see it in person.” </p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/trauma-racism-and-unrealistic-expectations-mean-african-refugees-are-less-likely-to-get-into-australian-unis-121885">Trauma, racism and unrealistic expectations mean African refugees are less likely to get into Australian unis</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>While looking to return to in-person learning, universities must still plan for possible disruptions in 2022. However, after two years of “pivoting” to emergency remote delivery, the time is right to proactively prepare for equitable online engagement.</p>
<p>We need to embed equity in our framing of teaching and learning to ensure we aren’t leaving groups of students behind. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1465567088806805504"}"></div></p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/fair-access-to-university-depends-on-much-more-than-making-students-job-ready-171674">Fair access to university depends on much more than making students 'job-ready'</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Policies offered support but left gaps</h2>
<p>Our research explored the impacts of government and institutional policies and of the move online.</p>
<p>We reviewed national, state and institutional policy statements in the year to March 2021. A range of financial supports from <a href="https://www.englishaustralia.com.au/news/support-packages-for-international-students">governments</a> and universities provided a financial lifeline for many students. </p>
<p>However, our findings highlight the need to provide other resources to support culturally and linguistically diverse students in their studies.</p>
<p>Limited attention was paid to planning for equity in the sudden shift online. There was nothing that explicitly targeted the issues that migrant and refugee students faced, including limited access to technology and wi-fi. </p>
<h2>Care and engagement came to the fore</h2>
<p>COVID also exposed the stresses and workloads for staff who had to respond to CALDMR students’ needs during remote learning. They include lecturers and tutors, student-facing support staff (equity officers, student advisers, learning advisers, counsellors) and educational designers, who support teaching and learning design and delivery. One lecturer told us:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“I just didn’t have any time or space to be able to make big changes to my approach. I felt really pressured […] stressed […] definitely a question of survival.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Despite the negative aspects, our research captured hopeful changes, which benefited culturally and linguistically diverse students in particular. </p>
<p>Emergency remote delivery led to a greater focus on the importance of more <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00131911.2021.2015293https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00131911.2021.2015293">caring and engaged</a> teaching and learning practices. Educators gained an increased awareness of students’ complex lives and needs. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Student sitting in kitchen as he chats online with teacher" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/450549/original/file-20220308-130118-1m2k0m1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/450549/original/file-20220308-130118-1m2k0m1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/450549/original/file-20220308-130118-1m2k0m1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/450549/original/file-20220308-130118-1m2k0m1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/450549/original/file-20220308-130118-1m2k0m1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/450549/original/file-20220308-130118-1m2k0m1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/450549/original/file-20220308-130118-1m2k0m1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Being essentially inside each other’s homes led to higher levels of care and engagement.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>However, this came at a cost for these educators:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“I felt to give students a good experience I really had to over-service them - drop-in sessions [on Zoom] […] play the [pre-recorded] lecture and sit on Zoom and answer everyone’s questions over the chat box […]”</p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/our-uni-teachers-were-already-among-the-worlds-most-stressed-covid-and-student-feedback-have-just-made-things-worse-162612">Our uni teachers were already among the world's most stressed. COVID and student feedback have just made things worse</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>3 recommendations</h2>
<p>Paying attention to students’ needs in ways that are reasonable for educators requires careful planning. Based on the experiences of the past two years, we make three recommendations for sustaining the gains in equitable student learning.</p>
<p><strong>Recommendation 1</strong></p>
<p>Course delivery must be more flexible. </p>
<p>Culturally and linguistically diverse students need time and space to manage the linguistic load of their studies. But many migrant and refugee students also have work and caring responsibilities. That leaves them with less time to engage with course materials. </p>
<p>One support staff member told us:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“There were quite conflicting activities that they had […] Some of my younger students really struggled. I’m talking 18-to-20-year-olds with family responsibilities, not their own families, but looking after their parents because they were home, or they got thrown into domestic duties.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Hence the need to plan online or hybrid instruction that allows students to review learning materials at their own pace and enables meaningful interactions to build community.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/covid-has-changed-students-needs-and-expectations-how-do-universities-respond-172863">COVID has changed students' needs and expectations. How do universities respond?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p><strong>Recommendation 2</strong></p>
<p>Design online learning with CALDMR students in mind. </p>
<p>Successful and equitable online education is not simply a matter of uploading materials used in face-to-face instruction. Careful planning is needed to maximise interaction and support within the digital space.</p>
<p>This means taking care not to assume students have equal access to linguistic and cultural resources, including digital literacy. One lecturer said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“A lot of [CALDMR] students […] often, in the class, you could tell that they weren’t getting something. You can see. I miss that with the online. […] A lot of them are probably falling through the cracks because they don’t feel they could ask.” </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Explicit planning and modelling of literacy requirements – linguistic, academic and digital – will help ensure online learning is accessible and engaging for all students.</p>
<p><strong>Recommendation 3</strong></p>
<p>Support educators to embed inclusive practices in their teaching and engagement with students. </p>
<p>Universities need to invest in staff professional development, including casual staff. Around 90% of the educators in our study indicated they want to learn more about supporting CALDMR students. </p>
<p>Universities should also invest in dedicated liaison staff to help these students navigate university systems and assessment requirements. A developer involved in moving teaching online told us:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“It’ll be good to have some greater understanding of their needs and ways to address them in teaching and learning, assessment design and emotional well-being.” </p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/5-tips-on-how-unis-can-do-more-to-design-online-learning-that-works-for-all-students-144803">5 tips on how unis can do more to design online learning that works for all students</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Let’s build on the lessons of the pandemic</h2>
<p>The disruptions of the pandemic added to existing educational inequalities. Left unaddressed, students from disadvantaged backgrounds, such as refugees, are more likely to miss out on learning. </p>
<p>However, the shift to online delivery has also highlighted opportunities for sector-wide commitment to teaching and learning practices that are more responsive to issues of equity.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/178292/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sally Baker works for the University of New South Wales. She received funds from the National Centre for Student Equity in Higher Education for this project, and has previously received funds from the NSW Department of Education, the Department of Education, and the (former) Office of Learning and Teaching. Sally is the Chair of the Refugee Education Special Interest Group (<a href="http://www.refugee-education.org">www.refugee-education.org</a>)</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Joel Anderson works for Australian Catholic University and the Australian Research Centre in Sex, Health and Society at La Trobe University. He received funding from the National Centre for Student Equity in Higher Education for this project. Joel is a member of the Refugee Education Special Interest Group (<a href="http://www.refugee-education.org">www.refugee-education.org</a>).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lisa Hartley works for Curtin University's Centre for Human Rights Education. She received funds from the National Centre for Student Equity and Higher Education for this project, and has previously received funding from the Australian Research Council and the (former) Office of Learning and Teaching. Lisa is a member of the Refugee Education Special Interest Group (<a href="http://www.refugee-education.org">www.refugee-education.org</a>). </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rachel Burke works for the University of Newcastle. She has received funds from the National Centre for Student Equity in Higher Education (NCSEHE) for this project, and has previously received funding from Perpetual Impact. She is a steering committee member of the Refugee Education Special Interest Group (RESIG) and convenes the CALD Education Special Interest Group of the Australian Association of Research in Education (AARE).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tebeje Molla works for Deakin University. He receives funding from the National Centre for Student Equity in Higher Education for this project and has previously received funds from the Australian Research Council. Tebeje has published on refugee education and is a member of the Refugee Education Special Interest Group (<a href="http://www.refugee-education.org">www.refugee-education.org</a>)</span></em></p>The switch to online delivery further disadvantaged students from migrant and refugee backgrounds. But a new study also finds many students and staff developed closer and more caring relationships.Sally Baker, Senior Lecturer, School of Education, UNSW SydneyJoel Anderson, Lecturer in Social Psychology, Australian Catholic UniversityLisa Hartley, Senior Lecturer, Centre for Human Rights Education, Curtin UniversityRachel Burke, Senior Lecturer, School of Education, University of NewcastleTebeje Molla, Senior Lecturer, School of Education, Deakin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1659892021-09-20T13:58:07Z2021-09-20T13:58:07Z5 ways immigrant parents support children’s home language learning<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/420773/original/file-20210913-19-174ee25.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=1032%2C17%2C4544%2C2991&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Moments of intimate playing, learning and teaching are among the ways that
immigrant parents extend and expand their home languages with their children.
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Rajesh Rajput/Unsplash)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>It is important to preserve and develop a child’s home language for their cultural, linguistic and social development. Research shows that English plays a dominant <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/ycyoungchildren.69.4.86">role in schools and society at large, while children’s diverse home languages are often marginalized.</a> Languages other than English are often not welcomed or encouraged in classrooms.</p>
<p>Marginalizing languages <a href="https://theconversation.com/language-learning-in-canada-needs-to-change-to-reflect-superdiverse-communities-144037">beyond English in school has negative effects on children and classroom cultures</a> by creating environments that suggest the daily language practices of children whose families speak languages other than English aren’t “good enough.” Unsurprisingly, if children feel unwelcome or disrespected in the classroom, this can adversely affect their <a href="https://www.edcan.ca/articles/multilingual-students">learning engagement and academic achievement</a>. </p>
<p>This includes immigrant children — children who were born elsewhere and immigrated with their families, or those who are born in Canada and are being raised by immigrant parents who are establishing new lives in a new country. In families that are seeking to retain a link with their heritage language, the burden of preserving this falls almost exclusively on parents. </p>
<h2>Immigrant parents bring knowledge</h2>
<p>However, schools rarely consider immigrant parents as capable knowledge holders. Immigrant parents <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/canajeducrevucan.35.2.120">and their knowledge are typically seen as having deficits</a>.
As education researcher Yan Guo notes, North American models of parent involvement tend to focus on experiences “relevant to parents of Anglo-Celtic descent than to those from non-English-speaking backgrounds,” as well as assuming “middle-class rather than working-class values and concerns.” </p>
<p>Through <a href="https://doi.org/10.36510/learnland.v14i1.1026">autobiographical narrative inquiry research</a>, I explored the informal teaching and learning practices as an immigrant parent with my children in the home context. </p>
<p>My research highlighted something that other researchers have also documented: <a href="https://doi.org/10.20355/C5QC78">immigrant parents bring a lot of linguistic, cultural and social knowledge</a> to their children’s home language education. Here are some of the ways they pass their knowledge of their home language along.</p>
<p><strong>1. Using home language in daily conversations</strong></p>
<p>Immigrant children’s home literacy-learning environments are characterized by conversations in their home language. Daily oral input is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2012.01168.x">staggeringly important to a child’s language development.</a> When parents engage in daily routines with their children, such as getting dressed, taking baths, eating meals, playing games, taking walks and so on, they elaborate, explain and encourage detailed conversations. </p>
<p>The use of home language becomes especially important after children begin formal schooling and master the English language. Parents who build a home-language-rich environment tend to foster in their children <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1468798406069797">a more positive attitude</a> toward and higher levels of proficiency in that language.</p>
<p><strong>2. Engaging in inter-generational communication</strong></p>
<p>In some Chinese immigrant families, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/01494929.2011.594218">grandparents continue the tradition of providing care to grandchildren.</a> Inter-generational communication plays an important role in the development of immigrant children’s home languages. Everyday communication between generations promote a commitment to speak the child’s heritage language at home.</p>
<p>Children from multilingual homes are often acutely aware, for example, that their grandmother speaks another language, so they pay attention to whom they are talking to, and switch languages in different scenarios.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/420782/original/file-20210913-16-lbbaqy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/420782/original/file-20210913-16-lbbaqy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420782/original/file-20210913-16-lbbaqy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420782/original/file-20210913-16-lbbaqy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420782/original/file-20210913-16-lbbaqy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=521&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420782/original/file-20210913-16-lbbaqy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=521&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420782/original/file-20210913-16-lbbaqy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=521&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In some immigrant families, grandparents play an important role in passing on language and culture.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Pexels/Alex Green)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A second way grandparents pass on language and culture is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10823-018-9357-5">by cooking and sharing food with their grandchildren.</a> In such family activities, the two generations converse about making and enjoying authentic cultural cuisines together.</p>
<p><strong>3. Reading picture books in intimate and creative ways</strong></p>
<p>Research has confirmed that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00417">storybook exposure promotes language acquisition</a>.</p>
<p>Many immigrant parents <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/09500782.2017.1349137">make picture book reading a part of their language practice</a> because picture books have fascinating topics, short, simple text and visual images that help children communicate ideas.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/global-storybooks-from-arabic-to-zulu-freely-available-digital-tales-in-50-languages-127480">Global Storybooks: From Arabic to Zulu, freely available digital tales in 50+ languages</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Rather than a “learning activity,” shared reading at home is a fun family time during which everyone cuddles close and shares a book with lively pictures and vibrant colours in their home language.</p>
<p>My research demonstrated that children’s initiative, imagination and creativity makes picture book reading a rich experience. When parents and children together creatively respond to stories through creative media or performance, the transformative power of drawing, painting, crafting, music, dance and performance is not only a way to understand the stories more deeply, but also a way to create spaces to travel freely across the interwoven language worlds.</p>
<p>It is common in bilingual and multilingual households for children to <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9781137385765_5">use two or more languages spontaneously and pragmatically</a>. Such <a href="https://www.multilingual-matters.com/page/detail/Foundations-of-Bilingual-Education-and-Bilingualism/?k=9781788929882">exchange and use of languages is beneficial </a>for both heritage and dominant language development.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A mother reads to two daughters." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/420780/original/file-20210913-27-1p0ubxc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/420780/original/file-20210913-27-1p0ubxc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420780/original/file-20210913-27-1p0ubxc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420780/original/file-20210913-27-1p0ubxc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420780/original/file-20210913-27-1p0ubxc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420780/original/file-20210913-27-1p0ubxc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420780/original/file-20210913-27-1p0ubxc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Children’s initiative, imagination and creativity makes picture-book reading a rich experience.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Pexels/Kindel Media)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong>4. Developing language skills through real-life stories</strong></p>
<p>Real-life stories are the most beloved type of storytelling, given the very personal and particular nature of the home landscape. Enacting real-life stories, such as about the day they were born, helps children develop advanced use of their home language, and makes them feel closer to their parents. These are the times when immigrant children learn how to listen to, participate in and understand when, where and how to express themselves in their home language. </p>
<p>In addition, the gradual introduction <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/14790718.2018.1447943">of more complex vocabulary and expressions supports the development of home language</a>. Sharing past experiences and telling real-life stories also help develop <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716409990191">children’s social capital</a> — children’s sense of belonging to certain social and cultural networks, as well as their access to resources in these groups.</p>
<p>When children engage in real-life storytelling and story-acting, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.05.024">they benefit intellectually, socially, emotionally and linguistically</a>. When children tell and act out true stories, in addition to developing memory and social skills, they <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10904018.2014.861302">draw on their bodies and manipulate objects</a> in ways that support a foundation for language development.</p>
<p><strong>5. Nurturing passion for early writing</strong></p>
<p>As young as age two, children begin imitating the act of writing by <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-012-0563-4">making sketches and symbolic marks</a> that reflect their ideas and thoughts. In immigrant families, early writing includes sketches and symbols in English and in their home language. </p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/420786/original/file-20210913-19-q1qbo3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/420786/original/file-20210913-19-q1qbo3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=509&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420786/original/file-20210913-19-q1qbo3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=509&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420786/original/file-20210913-19-q1qbo3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=509&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420786/original/file-20210913-19-q1qbo3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=640&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420786/original/file-20210913-19-q1qbo3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=640&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420786/original/file-20210913-19-q1qbo3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=640&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">When a child writes in their home language it helps them to make relevant cultural and linguistic connections. Here, ‘apple’ is shown in traditional Chinese characters: 蘋果 (píng guǒ).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In many cases, children <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/ca/academic/subjects/education/education-history-theory/language-and-literacy-development-early-childhood?format=PB">learn to read and write through play</a>. Playful introduction to early writing at home helps young children open the door to their home language and the wonder of print. Immigrant parents engage their children in emergent writing at home to <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/90015861">introduce the knowledge of sound/symbol connections, the conventions of print, and accessing and conveying meaning</a> through print in their home language system (which might be very different from the dominant language). </p>
<p>Early writing in their home language also helps children construct meaning by <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Handbook-of-Research-on-Reading-Comprehension/Israel-Afflerbach-Alexander-Allen-Allington/p/book/9781462528882">making relevant cultural and linguistic connections</a> between print in their home language and their own lived experiences.</p>
<p>Many immigrant parents extend and expand their children’s home language practices on a daily basis, through moments of intimate teaching, learning and playing. When schools acknowledge, honour and learn from immigrant parents’ knowledge, they support more opportunities to enhance young children’s linguistic, cultural and social experiences both at school and elsewhere.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/165989/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Emma Chen does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>When schools honour and learn from immigrant parents’ knowledge, they support more opportunities to enhance young children’s linguistic, cultural and social experiences.Emma Chen, Doctoral Student, Curriculum Studies, University of SaskatchewanLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1446332020-09-21T12:14:19Z2020-09-21T12:14:19ZFor many immigrant students, remote learning during COVID-19 comes with more hurdles<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/358874/original/file-20200918-18-1bmelj8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5463%2C3637&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A Guatemalan immigrant tries to log on to his Chromebook while remote learning in Stamford, Connecticut.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/recovering-from-covid-19-guatemalan-immigrant-junior-tries-news-photo/1221625097?adppopup=true">John Moore/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Schools across the U.S. responded to the COVID-19 pandemic last spring with an <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/05/learning/when-the-pandemic-ends-will-school-change-forever.html">unprecedented shift to remote learning</a> – a trend that has continued <a href="https://www.npr.org/2020/08/13/902277403/parents-on-how-they-are-bracing-for-another-semester-of-distance-learning">into the new school year</a> for many districts.</p>
<p>Millions of children now use laptops and tablets at home as part of their daily education. This arrangement is neither ideal nor easy. But immigrant students who are still learning English – often called <a href="https://theconversation.com/1-in-10-us-students-are-english-learners-143324">English learners</a> – face additional complications. Remote learning can be especially challenging for the roughly <a href="https://www2.ed.gov/about/overview/focus/immigration-resources.html">5 million students</a> in U.S. schools who are already confronting significant linguistic, sociocultural and economic challenges as <a href="https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674045804">they navigate learning a new language</a> and their schoolwork simultaneously. </p>
<p>As <a href="https://www.umb.edu/academics/cla/faculty/avary_carhill_poza">scholars of immigration</a> <a href="https://www.bc.edu/bc-web/schools/ssw/faculty-research/faculty-directory/Timothy-Williams.html">and education</a>, we have conducted research into how immigrant students used technology for learning. Our <a href="https://doi.org/10.1086/709430">recent paper</a> draws on research carried out at a public high school in the greater Boston area between 2013 and 2016. More than half of the 1,850 students at the school speak a language other than English at home, and 38% of the students are growing up in economic hardship.</p>
<p>The school gave all students a laptop or tablet to promote independent learning and extend their engagement with learning beyond the classroom. From home, students were expected to watch lectures, write papers and ask their teachers questions. But we found that immigrant students were often unable to take advantage of the flexibility that the new technologies provided in the ways their school expected. Instead, they and their teachers worked hard to use the technologies in ways that made sense to support their learning.</p>
<p>Students struggled when their lives outside the classroom were not fully taken into account. Many immigrant students have other responsibilities at home and work, live in multigenerational households and have limited access to Wi-Fi.</p>
<p>As schools implement hybrid and remote learning on a large scale, we recommend that educators consider three key lessons we learned in our research. </p>
<h2>1. Access is not the same as equity</h2>
<p>Not too long ago, a “<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-digital-divide-leaves-millions-at-a-disadvantage-during-the-coronavirus-pandemic-133608">digital divide</a>” in education was defined by unequal access to a computer or the internet. But access to technology is no longer the most significant factor in equality. Today, most U.S. students have access to an array of technologies in their classrooms and homes, and inequalities take a more subtle form. Immigrant students who attend the poorest schools may have access to technology, but inadequate training for themselves and their teachers to use technology well – a knowledge gap that will render the use of those technologies less effective. In Massachusetts, <a href="https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED589944">other studies </a> have found that immigrant students learning English are 70% more likely to have underperforming teachers than their English-speaking, nonimmigrant classmates. </p>
<p>Some experts have also <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/09/us/coronavirus-public-private-school.html">expressed concern</a> that immigrant students are being expected to adjust to an education mandate that was not designed with their learning needs in mind. To use laptops and tablets for learning, students will need ongoing support across a range of areas including assessment, academic content and using the technologies. Our research shows that teachers and immigrant students were able to adapt new technologies to meet their needs over time, but these efforts required investment at all levels. Teachers needed to understand how to support immigrant students in leveraging the available technologies to address their needs, including work schedules and confidence using English, and build on strengths such as their multilingual and multicultural experiences.</p>
<h2>2. Language matters</h2>
<p>The demands of using a second language to learn remotely are different to those of in-class learning. Participation in a discussion, clarifying a concept or completing an assignment are all dependent on immigrant students’ comfort using English. In our research, many immigrant students who were still learning English found it difficult to communicate complex ideas through texting or commenting functions. Rather, they preferred the more nuanced conversations that they could have with their teacher and peers in person. Spontaneity, visual cues and community support all contributed to the kinds of academic conversations students needed. Teachers concurred that meaningful academic conversations were “just easier in person,” particularly for students who were less confident in their English language skills.</p>
<p>Conversely, students and teachers found that technology provided opportunities for immigrant students who were learning English to utilize their bilingual skills to learn more. Students used apps like <a href="https://translate.google.com/">Google Translate</a>to get the gist of longer texts quickly, enabling them to dive deeper into academic content. As learning during the pandemic spurs fear of students falling behind, it may be useful to remember that bilingualism is an asset that can support remote learning too.</p>
<h2>3. Many immigrant students work</h2>
<p>Many immigrant students <a href="https://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2019/04/10/how-schools-are-responding-to-migrant-children.html">work to support their families</a>. For example, one of the participants in our study, “Victor,” was a 17-year-old junior who worked at a high-end restaurant downtown. He worked five days a week from afternoon until midnight. Balancing full-time school with a full-time job was not easy, but it was necessary.</p>
<p>“The money I get from the restaurant I use to pay all my bills,” he told us. “My phone, the rent, to send money to my mom” in Colombia. This was a common experience for the immigrant students we spoke to. During the pandemic, many of them have continued to work full time.</p>
<p>Other immigrant students reported responsibilities at home such as child care, cooking, cleaning, bill-paying and translating for other family members that precluded doing homework or communicating with teachers and classmates on their laptops as schools might expect. Before the pandemic, teachers were able to create flexible, independent learning spaces for students in class that supported academic achievement and continuity of learning goals and led to a better understanding of students’ lives. A similar shift in thinking about how to do remote learning will need to take place for immigrant students to maintain their school-work balance during the COVID-19 pandemic.</p>
<h2>Supporting tech</h2>
<p>Technology can be a powerful tool for learning. But it isn’t a teacher.</p>
<p>Our research shows that careful planning based on a deep familiarity with immigrant students’ lives makes a big difference. There is a very real danger that the move to remote learning could reinforce the very <a href="https://theconversation.com/heres-why-immigrant-students-perform-poorly-52568">inequalities immigrant students already encounter in U.S. schools</a>. We argue that remote learning must be calibrated to attend to the needs of those students at the margins. New funding and policy changes need to support those students who are less familiar with remote learning or have limited access to new technologies, are learning English or who have competing responsibilities.</p>
<p>[<em>You’re smart and curious about the world. So are The Conversation’s authors and editors.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=youresmart">You can read us daily by subscribing to our newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/144633/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dr. Carhill-Poza received funding from the Nellie Mae Education Foundation to conduct a 3-year study of school-based technologies in an urban school community.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Timothy P Williams does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Immigrant students often have work commitments outside class, and they may need additional language support. Giving them equal access to technology during remote learning might not be enough.Timothy P Williams, Adjunct Professor, Boston CollegeAvary Carhill-Poza, Associate professor, UMass BostonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1084002018-12-20T11:34:01Z2018-12-20T11:34:01ZMore DREAMs come true in California: How tuition waivers opened doors for undocumented students<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251643/original/file-20181219-45400-rbx0ez.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Undocumented students took advantage of tuition benefits they called for through the 2013 California DREAM Act.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.sccollege.edu/StudentServices/AB540/PublishingImages/dreamact3.jpg">Santiago Canyon College</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>California decided to crack open the door to higher education a little more for undocumented students through the <a href="https://www.csac.ca.gov/california-dream-act">California DREAM Act</a>.</p>
<p>In a new <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.3102/0013189X18800047">study of the impact of this 2013 policy</a>, education researcher Samantha Astudillo and I discovered that it helped put undocumented students on equal footing with students who are U.S. citizens in terms of how many credits they take each semester.</p>
<p>The policy – which takes its name from students known as “Dreamers” – offers the students state grant aid and community college fee waivers. This financial aid is valued at <a href="http://californiacommunitycolleges.cccco.edu/Portals/0/Reports/2016-CCCCO-BOG-FeeWaiver-Report-final.pdf">US$550</a> a semester for community college students. Once California made the aid available to low-income undocumented students attending community college, those students completed about two more college credits in the first semester of enrollment than prior groups. That meant undocumented students completed an average of 7.5 credits, on par with U.S. citizen students who receive aid.</p>
<p>Our findings carry important implications for the estimated <a href="https://edtrust.org/the-equity-line/let-young-dreamers-continue-dream/">65,000</a> undocumented students who graduate from U.S. high schools each year. They also are relevant to states and advocates who are interested in expanding educational opportunity for members of this particular group, who often find themselves in legal limbo and with <a href="https://theconversation.com/heres-how-undocumented-students-are-able-to-enroll-at-american-universities-69269">limited options</a>.</p>
<h2>Why the findings matter</h2>
<p>The significance of our findings might vary, of course, based on one’s political views or vantage point.</p>
<p>For instance, this finding could be important from an economic standpoint if you think it’s a good investment for undocumented students to go to college to get the kinds of credentials that enable them to earn a living and contribute to the workforce. For those who see <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2018/12/18/tucker-carlsons-immigration-comments-lead-companies-pull-ads/2356151002/">immigrants as undesirables</a>, our study offers a counter-narrative – that many are just aspiring college students.</p>
<p>It should be noted that in-state resident tuition benefits for undocumented students have already lowered the cost of college for undocumented students in <a href="https://epaa.asu.edu/ojs/article/view/2809">17 states</a>. These states include California and Texas, which have the <a href="http://www.pewhispanic.org/interactives/unauthorized-immigrants/">largest</a> undocumented populations. Still, paying in-state tuition remains difficult for undocumented students from lower-income families. That is why the tuition and fee waivers may be needed to further expand opportunity.</p>
<h2>A closer look</h2>
<p>Our study examined the transcripts of more than 26,000 students entering a set of California community colleges between 2011 and 2014. We could identify students who were likely undocumented because the colleges we studied collected resident status information to determine financial aid awards. About 10 percent of the students in the data fell into this category. We base this on the fact that the students checked the “other visa” box instead of other options, such as U.S. citizen, permanent resident or international student visa, to indicate their status. Also, these students appeared in the local high school data.</p>
<p>We determined the impact of the California DREAM Act by comparing the outcomes of undocumented students to the outcomes of U.S. citizen students before and after the policy. Citizen students served as a “control” group since the policy change didn’t affect them.</p>
<p>Before the California DREAM Act, some undocumented students with higher GPAs than U.S. citizen students were not enrolling in college. The promise of aid made these high-achieving undocumented students more likely to enroll.</p>
<p>The promise of aid also apparently led undocumented high school students to improve their GPAs between 11th and 12th grade. For instance, Hispanic U.S. citizen students increased their GPA by 0.11 points between 11th to 12th grades. This figure held steady before and after the policy. But for undocumented Hispanic students, the average change grew from 0.08 before the policy to 0.11 points afterwards. This suggests that undocumented students might have started to see college as more of a possibility and worked hard in class as a result.</p>
<h2>The college try</h2>
<p>I believe our findings suggest that states with in-state resident tuition policies should replicate the California DREAM Act.</p>
<p>If such a proposed policy draws opposition from critics who think state resources should not be given to undocumented immigrants, then perhaps free community college programs, or <a href="https://theconversation.com/can-college-promise-programs-deliver-87850">“promise” programs,“</a> for local high school graduates may be a way to support all low-income students, <a href="https://edtrust.org/resource/can-undocumented-students-access-free-college-programs/">provided they are accessible</a> to undocumented students.</p>
<p>At the very least, the results of this study show that undocumented students have dreams of completing college. Decreasing college costs through targeted financial aid policy such as the California DREAM Act can help to make more of those dreams a reality.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/108400/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Federick J. Ngo has received funding from the National Science Foundation, the Spencer Foundation, and the Asian and Pacific Islander American Scholarship Fund for other research.</span></em></p>When researchers took a close look at transcripts for thousands of California community college students, they discovered an encouraging trend in enrollment for undocumented students.Federick J. Ngo, Assistant Professor of Higher Education, University of Nevada, Las VegasLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/979082018-06-21T10:25:41Z2018-06-21T10:25:41ZHow refugee children make American education stronger<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/223925/original/file-20180619-126566-n8ftbt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Schools are seeing declines in refugee children under the Trump administration.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://theconversation.com/asset_images/223925/edit?content_id=97908">Jan Andersen/www.shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In recent years, there has been a great deal of <a href="https://theconversation.com/refugees-is-there-room-for-a-middle-ground-72634">public angst</a> about refugee resettlement in the U.S. and Europe. Americans are deeply divided on the issue. For instance, a <a href="http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2018/05/24/republicans-turn-more-negative-toward-refugees-as-number-admitted-to-u-s-plummets/">Pew Research Center study</a> published in May of this year found that only a quarter of Republicans and right-leaning independents say the U.S. “has a responsibility to accept more refugees,” compared with almost three-quarters of Democrats and left-leaning independents.</p>
<p>Policies under the Trump administration reflect this division: The number of <a href="http://www.unhcr.org/en-us/us-refugee-resettlement-facts.html">refugees being resettled to the United States</a> in 2017 was just over 50,0000 – less than half the number from 2016. The decline is even sharper for 2018, since the administration <a href="https://www.npr.org/2017/09/27/554046980/trump-administration-to-drop-refugee-cap-to-45-000-lowest-in-years">lowered the annual cap to 45,000 refugees</a>. Fewer admissions also means a <a href="http://www.chicagotribune.com/suburbs/aurora-beacon-news/news/ct-abn-west-aurora-enrollment-st-0828-20170825-story.html">decrease in numbers of students with refugee backgrounds in U.S. public schools.</a> </p>
<p>Those who see refugees as a drain on public resources might view these declines as a positive. However, qualitative research published recently in my co-edited book, <a href="http://www.multilingual-matters.com/display.asp?K=9781783099986">“Educating Refugee-background Students: Critical Issues and Dynamic Contexts</a>,” suggests that this trend represents a loss to our schools and communities. </p>
<p>Having fewer students with refugee backgrounds, I argue, may result in missed opportunities for learning among all U.S. students – particularly when it comes to preparing them for global citizenship, civic responsibility and perseverance both inside and outside of the classroom.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/222219/original/file-20180607-137291-upakvf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/222219/original/file-20180607-137291-upakvf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=901&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/222219/original/file-20180607-137291-upakvf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=901&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/222219/original/file-20180607-137291-upakvf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=901&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/222219/original/file-20180607-137291-upakvf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1133&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/222219/original/file-20180607-137291-upakvf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1133&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/222219/original/file-20180607-137291-upakvf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1133&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Proponents of education reform in the U.S. often cite <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-the-world-needs-more-global-citizens-84680">global citizenship</a> as an important piece of college and career readiness, as well as engaged citizenship. At the crux of global citizenship is an awareness of one’s place in the world and a sense of openness to different viewpoints.</p>
<p>Many current K-12 education reforms have placed strong emphasis on global citizenship and cross-cultural engagement. Such reform efforts include the <a href="http://www.p21.org/our-work/global-education">Framework for 21st Century Learning</a> and the <a href="http://neatoday.org/2013/11/25/common-cores-role-in-building-global-competencies/">Common Core State Standards</a>. Global citizenship and cross-cultural engagement have also been the focus of curricular innovation <a href="https://www.insidehighered.com/blogs/globalhighered/global-citizenship-%E2%80%93-what-are-we-talking-about-and-why-does-it-matter">within higher education</a>. </p>
<h2>Cultural artifacts, diverse perspectives</h2>
<p>In a chapter by Bryan Ripley Crandall, an associate professor of education at Fairfield University, Somali-born student writers describe ways they contribute to their peers’ cross-cultural understanding. They share information about family heirlooms, colonial history on the African continent and the legacy of slavery in the U.S. One student created a Facebook page where he and his friends discuss history and post their own creative writing. A poem posted on the page, entitled “History Should Come First,” opens with these lines:</p>
<pre class="highlight plaintext"><code>I wish I can take you back, time,
when African pride was still shining.
African king was more than a dream.
Consider it supreme and heart of the lion,
before children suffer and are dieing (sic),
before bullet was already flying
before leaders was already lying
killing wrong people so.
</code></pre>
<p>Another piece of global citizenship is understanding and responding to prejudice. In her chapter about Muslim students from Iraq, Amy Pucino, an assistant professor of sociology at the Community College of Baltimore County, has documented the strategies her students use to respond to Islamophobic and xenophobic comments from peers. After being called a “terrorist,” for example, one student tells his peers: “Hold on a second. The (U.S.) army, when they came to Iraq, killed my uncle and killed my best friend. And they killed this and that person. Were you included in that? … No, you don’t have anything to do with that.”</p>
<h2>Finding their way</h2>
<p>Many students with refugee backgrounds want to be not only global citizens but social change agents. This is illustrated in a research collaboration between Erin Papa, a dual language facilitator in the Pawtucket School Department, and students of Cambodian and Guatemalan heritage. The students used photography and writing to suggest ways the schools and community could be more culturally responsive. Students criticized local police for lack of cultural sensitivity, pointing out that officers sometimes removed a religious string known as a “ksai-see-ma” from the wrists of Cambodian students during an arrest, claiming the string could be used as a weapon. “I get so scared whenever I lose my ksai-see-ma,” one student explained. “This is a big deal … it means a lot because without it you’re open to evil spirits, like, messing with you.”</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/222220/original/file-20180607-137306-5oefkm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/222220/original/file-20180607-137306-5oefkm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/222220/original/file-20180607-137306-5oefkm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/222220/original/file-20180607-137306-5oefkm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/222220/original/file-20180607-137306-5oefkm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/222220/original/file-20180607-137306-5oefkm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/222220/original/file-20180607-137306-5oefkm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Ksai-see-ma.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This line of research also offers insights into the nature of resilience, another <a href="https://studentsatthecenterhub.org/resource/promoting-grit-tenacity-and-perseverance-critical-factors-for-success-in-the-21st-century/https:/studentsatthecenterhub.org/resource/promoting-grit-tenacity-and-perseverance-critical-factors-for-success-in-the-21st-century/">focus of much discussion lately</a> in U.S. education. In her study of autobiographical narratives from Rohingya youth, Kristiina Montero, an associate professor of education at Wilfrid Laurier University in Ontario, Canada, finds evidence of self-healing, expressed in statements of religious faith and a commitment to community service. </p>
<p>The examples cited in the book represent just a sampling of the many ways that students with refugee backgrounds can and do contribute to American classrooms. Rather than seeing refugees as a drain on resources, I believe educators and policymakers should consider how to tap in more fully to the assets these students and their families bring to U.S. schools and communities.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/97908/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Shawna Shapiro does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The steep decline in refugee children in US schools will lessen the nation’s ability to produce students who possess the skills of global citizenship, a researcher argues.Shawna Shapiro, Associate Professor of Writing and Linguistics; Director of Writing & Rhetoric Program, MiddleburyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/979372018-06-17T18:53:44Z2018-06-17T18:53:44ZThree issues language proficiency can hide for students from non-English speaking backgrounds<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/223294/original/file-20180615-32316-1sa1ppe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Learning difficulties or challenges such as dyslexia or Autism Spectrum Disorder may be masked by language ability for students from non-English speaking backgrounds.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Universities have increasingly diverse student bodies, bringing together varying forms of <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1361332052000341006?journalCode=cree20">social and cultural knowledge</a>. But universities generally don’t recognise diverse forms of knowledge. This is particularly so with language and cultural practices, and the way these may affect learning. </p>
<p>Universities require specific forms of English language knowledge in order to complete degrees. This includes advanced understandings of discipline-specific language. </p>
<p>And yet, narrow views of what counts as academic language — and the idea that language and literacy are neutral, transferable “skills” — create <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03075079812331380364">challenges for students and staff</a>. It also perpetuates the idea that students lack the capacity to communicate. This is particularly true for culturally and linguistically diverse students if language proficiency is seen as representative of <a href="https://srhe.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/13562510902898866?needAccess=true">academic ability</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/more-international-students-should-mean-more-support-for-communication-and-interaction-39914">More international students should mean more support for communication and interaction</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Language (mis)use can disguise other issues for students from non-English speaking backgrounds. In particular, learning difficulties or challenges such as dyslexia or Autism Spectrum Disorder may be masked by language ability. This presents several challenges for universities, including the extent to which students require specialised English language support, as distinct from social, emotional or mental health support.</p>
<h2>1. Language leading to disengagement</h2>
<p>Not participating in tutorials, presentations or group work can be seen as lack of commitment in universities and other higher education institutions. But this <a href="https://openjournals.library.sydney.edu.au/index.php/IEJ/article/view/6766/7411">silence</a> is more likely due to the anxieties caused by having to perform and articulate learning and understanding through unfamiliar and high-stakes forms of language. This includes oral presentations or participation requirements in tutorials.</p>
<p>For example, students’ pronunciation can often cause embarrassment and inhibit participation in class. Additionally, <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/record/2009-13602-002">research</a> has found students who struggle with English also typically see themselves as inferior to their peers. </p>
<p><a href="https://digital.library.adelaide.edu.au/dspace/bitstream/2440/93463/3/hdl_93463.pdf">Research</a> in primary and secondary schools indicates a narrow focus solely on language acquisition can lead to disengagement at school: for example, through reduced attendance or decreased commitment to learning. In the school setting, learning activities that don’t rely on English language knowledge (such as music, arts and sport) have been shown to increase school engagement and participation at school. </p>
<p>In the university setting, bringing diverse cultural knowledge of theories or practical issues (for example in psychology, of cultural understandings of mental health) to learning activities may help engage culturally and linguistically diverse students. Such activities will benefit all students by offering nuanced learning activities that assist them to think outside specific cultural reference points.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/223295/original/file-20180615-32313-lqiff4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/223295/original/file-20180615-32313-lqiff4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/223295/original/file-20180615-32313-lqiff4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/223295/original/file-20180615-32313-lqiff4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/223295/original/file-20180615-32313-lqiff4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/223295/original/file-20180615-32313-lqiff4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/223295/original/file-20180615-32313-lqiff4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Universities need to do more to support students with difficulties relating to English ability.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>2. Language impacting relationships with staff and students</h2>
<p>Communication between non-English speaking background students and educators or other students can be interpreted as students either not knowing the “rules of the game”. Or — worse — it can be interpreted as being deliberately rude. </p>
<p>For example, <a href="http://www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/wjer/article/view/1173/1319">excessive formality</a> (or informality) and the misappropriation of titles (such as “Dear Professor”) or using only surnames. Students are not typically taught how to deal with the power dynamics and structures of higher education. They wouldn’t know why all lecturers aren’t called “professor”, or why it’s the norm to use titles in the first place. </p>
<p>Also, language is a key inhibitor to <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07294360.2013.806447">forming relationships</a> with students from Australian-born backgrounds. <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/record/2009-13602-002">Research</a> has found these relationships are important for wellbeing. This means language plays a central role in the broader wellbeing of culturally and linguistically diverse students in higher education. </p>
<p>Universities could help by offering student activities (assessed or otherwise) that take into account the diversity of strengths brought by culturally and linguistically diverse students. Providing opportunities for culturally and linguistically diverse students to demonstrate their own knowledge may assist them to form relationships with staff and students and increase self esteem.</p>
<h2>3. Masking dyslexia or other learning difficulties</h2>
<p>Errors in spelling, grammar and punctuation can be read as the student not having the “right kind” of English. But these kinds of mistakes can be the result of (potentially undiagnosed) learning <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/e/9781317482963">difficulties like dyslexia</a>, or underdeveloped literacy which requires specialist support. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/universities-need-to-do-more-to-support-refugee-students-97185">Universities need to do more to support refugee students</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p><a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0004944115587365">Research</a> at the primary and secondary school level suggests understanding whether language misuse or lack of engagement is related to the student’s non-English background or a language disorder is complex and challenging. More work is required in this area.</p>
<h2>What can be done to address this?</h2>
<p>These challenges show us universities and other higher education institutions need to invest more time and money on language and cultural development for students and staff. This would be done by trying to level the playing field in communication. </p>
<p>More <a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10734-017-0127-z">holistic educational practices</a> that take into account varying cultural forms of knowledge or approaches to learning will <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4253321/">benefit the entire student body</a>by asking academic teachers to clarify the kinds of language-related assumptions that many take for granted.</p>
<p>For example, educators could consider any hidden causes of silence within classes, reconsider responses to students who do not fully understand communication norms (such as the use of titles), and design courses to include space for students to discuss understandings of course content from their own cultural perspective.</p>
<p>There is much we can learn from the experiences of culturally and linguistically diverse students and their language-related challenges at university.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/97937/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Clemence Due has received funding from the Australian Research Council to explore the educational and wellbeing experiences of refugee and migrant background young people, as well as from the Office of Learning and Teaching to look at online learning in undergraduate degrees.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sally Baker has received funding from the Office for Learning & Teaching (OLT) for a project titled (Re)claiming social capital: improving language and cultural pathways for refugee students into Australian higher education (ID15-4758). Sally has also received funding from the National Centre for Student Equity in Higher Education (NCSEHE) for a project titled ‘People Seeking Asylum: Access and support in higher education’. Sally is also the co-chair of the national Refugee Education Special Interest Group (<a href="https://www.refugeecouncil.org.au/educationsig/">https://www.refugeecouncil.org.au/educationsig/</a>)</span></em></p>Difficulty with English language can mask other difficulties culturally and linguistically diverse students may have, such as Austism or dyslexia.Clemence Due, Lecturer in the School of Psychology, University of AdelaideSally Baker, Lecturer, School of Social Sciences, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/937412018-04-02T19:59:04Z2018-04-02T19:59:04ZWhy some migrant school students do better than their local peers (they’re not ‘just smarter’)<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/212541/original/file-20180329-189830-tb953a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Asian Australian students tend to spend more time studying than Anglo-Australians.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Australians from some migrant backgrounds achieve better results than their local peers, according to recent reports on the academic performance of school students.</p>
<p>The 2017 OECD <a href="http://www.oecd.org/education/the-resilience-of-students-with-an-immigrant-background-9789264292093-en.htm">review of migrant education</a> found that students from the Philippines, China and India were more likely to achieve baseline academic proficiency than their Australian born counterparts. Baseline academic proficiency is demonstrating key knowledge and skills in science, reading and mathematics at the standard expected for age 15.</p>
<p>Similar patterns <a href="http://www.nap.edu.au/docs/default-source/default-document-library/naplan-national-report-2017_final_04dec2017.pdf?sfvrsn=0">have been seen</a> in the 2016 National Assessment Program – Literacy and Numeracy (NAPLAN) results. Students who don’t speak English at home scored higher in spelling, grammar, writing and numeracy tests than those from English speaking backgrounds. Numeracy scores were also higher among primary school students who came from a non-English speaking background.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/international-study-shows-many-australian-children-are-still-struggling-with-reading-88646">International study shows many Australian children are still struggling with reading</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>This isn’t a new phenomenon, nor is it unique to Australia. Since the 1980s, researchers have hunted for explanations. Why do migrant students, who otherwise experienced considerable challenges settling in a new country, do better than local-born students? And why is this seen not in all, but in particular, migrant groups?</p>
<h2>Not just smarter</h2>
<p>The stereotype of the model minority student dates back to a <a href="https://eric.ed.gov/?id=Ed012275">1966 US report</a> that found Asian Americans matched or exceeded the performance of “white” Americans on IQ tests and basic achievement. Studies in the <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/record/1987-98782-000">1980s</a> and <a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/24938938">1990s</a> showed similar findings. </p>
<p>The answer isn’t as simple as “they’re smarter”. In 1991, the intelligence researcher, James Flynn, reanalysed previous IQ research with Asian Americans and <a href="https://www.questia.com/library/7864008/asian-americans-achievement-beyond-iq">concluded that</a> their mean IQs roughly equalled those of North Americans. Similarly, <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01443410220138502">our study</a> with Chinese and Vietnamese Australian primary students found they had higher mathematics achievement than their Anglo-Australian counterparts, despite having the same IQ.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/six-ways-australias-education-system-is-failing-our-kids-32958">Six ways Australia's education system is failing our kids</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Asian Australian students also reported spending more time studying than did Anglo students, which contributed to their higher maths achievement. But that they worked harder wasn’t a sufficient explanation for better results. </p>
<p>Occupational and educational aspirations, so important to the migrant experience, were a crucial factor. Our Asian Australian participants had much higher goals for their future education and hoped for higher status- and-income occupations than did their Anglo peers. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/212551/original/file-20180329-189801-arbd32.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/212551/original/file-20180329-189801-arbd32.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/212551/original/file-20180329-189801-arbd32.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/212551/original/file-20180329-189801-arbd32.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/212551/original/file-20180329-189801-arbd32.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/212551/original/file-20180329-189801-arbd32.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/212551/original/file-20180329-189801-arbd32.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/212551/original/file-20180329-189801-arbd32.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Confucian, East Asian, cultures place a high value on education.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/TVSRWmnW8Us">Photo by Tra Nguyen on Unsplash</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Migrant aspirations</h2>
<p>In our research, Asian-Australian children <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/0144341022000023662">reflected the aspirations of their parents</a>, pointing to what might be called a migrant effect. This is a pattern of <a href="https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED264336">higher educational aspirations</a> among immigrants in general. </p>
<p>Migrants are motivated to exploit opportunities that aren’t available in their homelands, with the ultimate goal of increasing their social standing. Researchers <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/record/1987-98782-000">have proposed</a> that education is an <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/record/2009-10744-005?doi=1">attractive way to achieve this</a> as it’s a system assumed to be based on merit and less affected by the racial discrimination and prejudice encountered by migrants in other areas.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-were-making-no-progress-tackling-the-exploitation-of-migrant-workers-62961">Why we're making no progress tackling the exploitation of migrant workers</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>This is particularly the case for migrants who are visibly different from the majority, such as those from India, China and the Philippines, compared to those from the UK, Scotland or non-Maori New Zealanders. The latter were found to be less likely to attain baseline proficiency than Australian born students in the OECD report. </p>
<p>But not every country’s educational and social systems offer educational opportunities, which may be why the OECD findings show country of destination matters. </p>
<p>The differences between countries could also be due to cultural factors that interact with the drive for social mobility through education. These include the <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/record/2009-10744-005?doi=1">high value placed on education</a> in Confucian (East Asian) cultures and in countries like India.</p>
<p>Valuing education, having high educational aspirations and working hard might also translate into teachers <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1034912X.2014.984591">holding higher expectations</a> for students from some minority groups, which in turn, could enhance academic performance.</p>
<h2>So, what about Australians?</h2>
<p>This doesn’t mean local-born Australians don’t value education. Our study showed they just may not <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/0144341022000023662">make it the same priority</a> as some migrant parents.</p>
<p>And it’s important to remember that high expectations can have negative <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/buy/2014-36696-001">mental health consequences</a> for some children and young people. This was perhaps the reason why some Anglo-Australian parents in our study said it was more important their children were happy and free to choose whatever occupation they wanted, than encouraging them to focus on academic achievement and high status occupations. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/migrant-children-are-often-their-parents-translators-and-it-can-lead-to-ill-health-55309">Migrant children are often their parents' translators – and it can lead to ill health</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>But this is arguably the privilege of those born into the majority cultural group who aren’t subject to the same obstacles as some migrants, or Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders who still lag behind their peers in educational attainment. These differences highlight a bigger question: how can we can ensure all Australian children take advantage of the educational opportunities on offer?</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/93741/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Justine Dandy has received funding from the Ministerial Council for Immigration and Multicultural Affairs in the past. She is a member of GetUp and CARAD, the Coalition for Refugees, Asylum Seekers and Detainees.</span></em></p>Students from the Philippines, China and India consistently achieve better results at school than their Australian-born counterparts. This is due to a number of factors, including parents’ values.Justine Dandy, Senior lecturer in Psychology, Edith Cowan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/790922017-06-29T23:57:25Z2017-06-29T23:57:25ZImmigrant youth help to build nations<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/173019/original/file-20170608-22791-1g9us6s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">We need a clear understanding of how well immigrant students perform in education systems in order to best serve them.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Christine Armario)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Immigrants and refugees, especially those from developing nations, are often portrayed by segments of the media and policy makers as an economic burden, a threat to our social cohesion and “our way of life.”</p>
<p>However, immigrants and immigrant youth can help build nations like Canada. They are a great source of economic potential, while also contributing to a rich cultural mosaic. But immigrants must be supported with appropriate education and training policies. </p>
<h2>Collaboration needed for collective impact</h2>
<p>The future success of nations, including Canada, is ultimately determined by its youth. This means as a society, we need to understand how to contribute to their success.</p>
<p>It’s vital to have a clear understanding of how well immigrant students perform in education systems in order to best serve them.</p>
<p>Education policies should not be divorced from broader social programs and economic policies. Governments need to work collaboratively in order to effectively impact school environments and education opportunities for immigrant youth.</p>
<p>In other words, the success of immigrant students is influenced by the success of the social and economic integration of their parents.</p>
<p>Refugees often come from the most challenging economic situations. Consider the recent influx of more than 40,000 Syrian refugees to Canada who have come from a country devastated by war. Policies that integrate social, economic and educational issues will have the most impact.</p>
<h2>Education impacts economic prosperity</h2>
<p>While sovereign nations take their lead from their voting constituents on how to approach immigration issues, it is important for governments to promote policies based on evidence rather than political rhetoric.</p>
<p>Populist movements in the West tend to characterize immigration as a threat to social cohesion and economic stability. The Canadian government, to date, has taken a different approach with respect to the “value-added” by immigrants. Canada’s official multiculturalism policy, which has existed since the early 1970s, is a model designed to celebrate and support the ethnic diversity of its citizens.</p>
<p>Ultimately, the success (or lack thereof) of immigrant student populations has profound implications for the economic prosperity and the social cohesion of countries around the world. </p>
<h2>Immigrant students are often at a disadvantage</h2>
<p>The <a href="http://www.oecd.org/pisa/">Programme for International Student Assesssment</a> (PISA), administered by the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), has quickly become the global benchmark used to judge the effectiveness of education systems.</p>
<p>PISA is well established in both research and policy spheres and has even been likened to the “Olympics of education.” The large national and international samples of students who participate in the PISA triennial assessments across three learning domains (reading, mathematics and science literacy) provide comparable data used to tell a story of student literacies across the world.</p>
<p>Immigrant students often have a significant performance disadvantage in relation to their non-migrant peers. For example, only two out of 25 European countries (Slovakia and Hungary) had PISA 2012 mathematics results where immigrants outperformed non-migrants. </p>
<h2>Migrant students perform better with diverse peers</h2>
<p>This performance disadvantage however does not characterize all countries across Western Europe. For example, the mathematics performance of immigrant and non-migrant students across the United Kingdom was almost identical.</p>
<p>All other things being equal, students in Australia, Canada, Israel and the United States perform equally well regardless of migrant status. The OECD argues the reason for this is because immigrant populations are high in those countries — approximately 25 per cent. The belief is that immigrant students perform better when they are not surrounded by peers with socio-economic disadvantages.</p>
<p>Unique country examples support this argument. For example, Finland is one of the highest performing countries on PISA — and the highest performing nation from Europe. However, it also had one of the largest reported performance disadvantages between its non-migrant and immigrant student populations in the PISA 2012 mathematics domain. </p>
<p>Finland also has one of the most homogeneous student populations in the world. Given that immigrant students perform better in school systems with relatively large immigrant populations, ethnic and cultural diversity may be an important way to reduce immigrant students’ performance gaps.</p>
<p>Overall, Canadian students perform similarly to students in Finland on the PISA assessments. In contrast to the low proportion of immigrants in Finland, Canada has a higher share of the percentage of first- and second-generation students at 29.6 per cent - making it second to Luxembourg (46 per cent) among OECD countries. </p>
<h2>Poor policy impacts children’s lives</h2>
<p>Our research has shown Canada is one of the few educational jurisdictions in the world where immigrant students significantly outperform their non-migrant counterparts. </p>
<p>However, even in Canada, the relative performance of immigrant students varies across provinces. This variability suggests an even greater complexity among factors that impact educational outcomes for immigrant students — and the likelihood educational policies, a provincial responsibility in Canada, may also play a role. </p>
<p>A <a href="http://www.mipex.eu/">recent report</a> noted education emerged as the greatest weakness in integration policies in most countries. This report examined integration in a variety of area including education, labour market mobility, political participation, access to nationality, family reunion, health, permanent residence and anti-discrimination. </p>
<h2>Support to immigrant students goes a long way</h2>
<p>In education, the majority of immigrant students around the world have little support to catch up if they are behind. They often have to quickly learn a new language. </p>
<p>Poor outcomes of immigrant students are often accompanied with many new but weak targeted policies. Research shows targeted education policies, such as language support and intercultural mediators, help to improve immigrant student achievement gaps. </p>
<p>Collectively, the available research suggests immigrant youth have the potential to make significant strides in education systems if they are provided with appropriate support. Their success is inextricably intertwined with the success of nations.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/79092/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Louis Volante received funding from the Social Science and Humanities Research Council of Canada for this research. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Don A. Klinger receives funding from the Social Science and Humanities Research Council of Canada for this research. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dr. Melissa Siegel received funding from the Social Science and Humanities Research Council of Canada for this research. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ozge Bilgili does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The future of our country depends on our youth. Many of our youth are immigrant students and we need to understand how to best support them so we can thrive as a nation.Louis Volante, Professor of Education, Brock UniversityDon A. Klinger, Professor of Measurement, Assessment and Evaluation , Queen's University, OntarioMelissa Siegel, Professor of Migration Studies and Head of Migration Studies at the Maastricht Graduate School of Governance and UNU-MERIT, Maastricht UniversityOzge Bilgili, Assistant Professor, Utrecht UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/567602016-04-01T04:22:45Z2016-04-01T04:22:45ZHow teachers can help migrant learners feel more included<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/116458/original/image-20160325-17857-1rrvikb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Migrant children can feel left out and excluded in schools far from home.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Kim Ludbrook/EPA</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Children are often at the forefront of working out what it means to be a new arrival in a different country. They feel the anxiety that comes with being the new girl or boy at school. They’re in an environment that emphasises “integration” – learning new rules, making new friends, possibly learning a new language and grappling with a new testing regime.</p>
<p>Amid all of these changes, teachers may not realise how important it is simply for children to feel included. Even making their home countries a feature of lessons in, for example, geography can help children feel more at ease. It is a valuable opportunity for them to contribute. If their identities are ignored these children may feel detached from school. This sense of detachment has been <a href="https://books.google.co.za/books?id=tZ6KLHSZgO0C&pg=PA74&lpg=PA74&dq=children+who+feel+detached+don%27t+learn+well&source=bl&ots=WyX10pn4p5&sig=sC5m91hw2YTViNB0xI6Sy1hDtgs&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjS8pTOu9vLAhVDVxoKHaa3AvgQ6AEIIDAB#v=onepage&q=children%20who%20feel%20detached%20don't%20learn%20well&f=false">shown</a> to negatively affect learning. It may also have more serious consequences for a child’s sense of belonging and, ultimately, well-being.</p>
<p>Research I am currently doing in South Africa and England – countries with long histories of migration – looks at the inclusion of migrant learners in primary schools through their own lens, quite literally. The children take photographs in school as a way of explaining and engaging with their environment as a place of inclusion and exclusion. </p>
<h2>Children as migrants</h2>
<p>South Africa’s <a href="http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/sources/census/2010_PHC/South_Africa/ZAF04-Census2011.pdf">2011 census</a> showed that almost 2.2 million people living there were born elsewhere. Some are economic migrants, seeking work. Others are <a href="http://www.unhcr.org/pages/49e485aa6.html">refugees or asylum seekers</a>. There is also a large population of undocumented migrants. Most come from other African countries.</p>
<p>It’s not known exactly how many migrant children attend South African schools. New arrivals – especially refugees – may <a href="http://www.fhr.org.za/index.php/download_file/728/3152/">lack the formal documentation</a> required for school registration. Added to this challenge is the reality of <a href="http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/inpictures/2015/05/xenophobia-south-africa-150501090636029.html">xenophobic attacks</a> against new immigrants. </p>
<p>On paper, at least, children enjoy good protection. The <a href="http://www.unicef.org.uk/Documents/Publication-pdfs/UNCRC_summary.pdf">United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child</a> requires all signatories – South Africa and the UK included – to adhere to a long list of rights. These include the right to free primary education, non-discrimination and to be consulted on anything that affects them.</p>
<p>But <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03057925.2015.1119649">my previous research</a> in conflict-affected societies revealed that children and adolescents, particularly those from marginalised groups, struggle with freedom of speech in school. They also don’t often feel represented in the curriculum.</p>
<h2>A new, visual voice</h2>
<p>My new, ongoing research explored inclusion in primary schools from the point of view of recent migrant children. The learner-researchers, who are nine or ten years old, worked in small groups, each child using a digital camera. We worked with <a href="http://www.shauntan.net/books/the-arrival.html"><em>The Arrival</em></a>, a wordless picturebook that has recently started to be used in this sort of <a href="http://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/visual-journeys-through-wordless-narratives-9781780937588/">research</a>. It helped the children think about what it’s like to arrive in a new country and stimulated memories of their own experiences. </p>
<p>Then we walked together around school photographing signs, classrooms, playgrounds and people – anything that the children thought was important to know about their school. Finally, we talked about the photos and came up with some advice for teachers and other learners about how to help new arrivals feel included. </p>
<h2>Three ways to include migrant learners</h2>
<p>So how can we include migrant learners in school? Here are three tips based on a combination of what the learners in the two countries shared while taking part in the photographic project.</p>
<p>First, ask them. Children struggle with the idea that they are free to make suggestions to adults. I found that when we tried to come up with a list of advice for teachers, it turned into a list of rules for the learner to keep. It emerged that some things teachers did to be helpful, like getting the learner to introduce themselves on the first day, were the opposite of what the children wanted – to be welcomed quietly while sitting with a classmate.</p>
<p>Part of the process of doing research that involves children as participants includes building their capacity so that they can see themselves as individuals who have something important to say. Simply explaining that “We, as adults, know some things about school, but you also know many things that I don’t know because you go to this school” can empower them.</p>
<p>Second, be creative. Use picturebooks, <a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10643-009-0324-1">photography</a>, music and dance. These methods can engage new arrivals in a way that doesn’t demand great proficiency or confidence in using the school’s language. Of course the school day is very demanding for both learners and educators, but finding time to do something outside of the normal routine may pay great dividends in learners’ confidence and well-being.</p>
<p>Third, make sure that their identities are discussed and valued in the curriculum, and reflected in their school’s ethos. We must allow them to “find themselves in the story” of what they are learning in school. This will ensure their confidence in who they are, and is particularly important for marginalised groups. The very fact that these learners were chosen to take part in this project seemed to make them feel privileged and valued.</p>
<h2>Children’s voices matter</h2>
<p>The late statesman Nelson Mandela is quoted as <a href="http://www.un.org/en/events/mandeladay/gallery/photo_16.shtml">declaring</a> that:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Children are our greatest treasure. They are our future. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Migrant children are a part of this great treasure. They must be included – and this will happen best when their own voices and stories are heard.</p>
<p><em>Author’s note: most of the children’s photographs featured their own faces, and so cannot be republished here. I would also like to acknowledge the support of the Centre for International Teacher Education at the CPUT, where I have been working as a visiting researcher.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/56760/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Helen Hanna does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Migrant children may feel uncomfortable or shy trying to verbally explain their experiences. Photography is a powerful medium through which to make their voices heard.Helen Hanna, Lecturer in Education Studies and Visiting Researcher at Centre for International Teacher Education, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Leeds Trinity UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/525682016-01-29T10:45:17Z2016-01-29T10:45:17ZHere’s why immigrant students perform poorly<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/109502/original/image-20160128-27130-xq1wn8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Why do immigrant kids perform poorly in school?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/mmmswan/10611045165/in/photolist-9jP8xk-6bSdcu-d5y9p-bFWMtF-haEFQE-haEdUA-haEtPK-haCqvp-haEMY1-haDWVZ-haEX2a-haDWy8-haEiDH-haFwUi-haF8Nu-haEo3z-haEWW9-haFk5B-haDewM-haEzn9-haEgGh-haCM98-haEeZu-haFVEi-haFCF8-haGo76-haEo9f-haDXoy-haEvnK-haEtmu-haEa61-haGc8c-haDmoe-haEFX2-haDMDU-haETyC-6c2jMX-uUs6TS-FGe3i-bFhqFp-bEwmcn-r89meo-4o69vm-g7jWYj-dNFRcz-qmX8jU-qmX8Ms-hLaQ-9fhnH-disUk">Michael_swan</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Immigrant students in the United States consistently <a href="http://www.oecd.org/unitedstates/PISA-2012-PS-results-eng-USA.pdf">perform </a><a href="http://www.ibtimes.com/immigration-reform-2015-more-hispanics-us-schools-theyre-struggling-keep-1827574">worse</a> <a href="https://www.apa.org/ed/resources/racial-disparities.pdf">academically</a> than nonimmigrant students. This achievement gap is evident <a href="http://futureofchildren.org/publications/docs/21_01_PolicyBrief.pdf">as early as preschool</a> and only grows as immigrant students advance through high school.</p>
<p>But, what causes the achievement gap?</p>
<p>One notion that fuels anti-immigrant attitudes is the belief that immigrant students perform poorly because of their immigrant backgrounds.</p>
<p>This is misguided.</p>
<p>As a former teacher and now researcher of immigrant families, I am familiar with concerns about low academic achievement among immigrant students. However, as my work shows, immigrant students face barriers beyond their immigrant backgrounds, including <a href="http://cie.sagepub.com/content/15/2/122.abstract">restrictive learning environments</a> in their classrooms.</p>
<h2>A multitude of barriers</h2>
<p>Research has also shown that immigrant students <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13691830903006150">tend to be concentrated in poor neighborhoods</a>, speak a language other than English at home and <a href="http://www.migrationpolicy.org/research/preparing-children-immigrants-early-academic-success">enter school later than nonimmigrant students</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/109514/original/image-20160128-27148-13h709u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/109514/original/image-20160128-27148-13h709u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/109514/original/image-20160128-27148-13h709u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/109514/original/image-20160128-27148-13h709u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/109514/original/image-20160128-27148-13h709u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=592&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/109514/original/image-20160128-27148-13h709u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=592&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/109514/original/image-20160128-27148-13h709u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=592&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Immigrant kids tend to be concentrated in poorer neighborhoods.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/mmmswan/10611435593/in/photolist-9jP8xk-6bSdcu-d5y9p-bFWMtF-haEFQE-haEdUA-haEo3z-haEtPK-haCqvp-haEMY1-haDWVZ-haEX2a-haDWy8-haEiDH-haFwUi-haF8Nu-haEWW9-haFk5B-haDewM-haEzn9-haEgGh-haCM98-haEeZu-haFVEi-haFCF8-haGo76-haEo9f-haDXoy-haEvnK-haEtmu-haEa61-haGc8c-haDmoe-haEFX2-haDMDU-haETyC-6c2jMX-uUs6TS-FGe3i-bFhqFp-bEwmcn-disUk-r89meo-4o69vm-g7jWYj-dNFRcz-qmX8jU-qmX8Ms-hLaQ-9fhnH">michael_swan</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We know that <a href="http://www.academicjournals.org/article/article1379765941_Lacour%20and%20Tissington.pdf">poverty</a>, <a href="http://cep.lse.ac.uk/pubs/download/cp368.pdf">language barriers</a> and <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22368155">low levels of preschool enrollment</a> contribute to poor academic performance.</p>
<p>There is also another, lesser known, factor at work here: school and teacher attitudes toward immigrant students. Immigrant students have been shown to perform worse when their <a href="http://steinhardt.nyu.edu/immigration.olde/pdf/2009/EngagementTCR.pdf">schools or teachers harbor negative attitudes</a> about their presence and abilities. </p>
<h2>Poverty</h2>
<p><a href="http://www.oecd.org/edu/immigrant-students-at-school-9789264249509-en.htm">A recent report</a> on immigration and education from the <a href="http://www.oecd.org/">Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)</a> shows the extent of the immigrant achievement gap. </p>
<p>According to the report, in 2012, students in the U.S. with an immigrant background performed worse than nonimmigrant students on the <a href="http://www.oecd.org/pisa/keyfindings/pisa-2012-results-overview.pdf">Programme for International Student Assessments</a> (PISA), a test administered to 15-year-olds in 65 countries, including the U.S. Immigrant students in the U.S. scored about 20 points lower in reading and 15 points lower in math.</p>
<p>Many people are also concerned that <a href="http://www.nationalcenter.org/P21PR-Immigration_Public_Schools_081814.html">immigrant students</a><a href="http://www.breitbart.com/london/2015/10/09/students-schools-high-numbers-migrants-get-lower-test-scores/"> negatively impact</a> the education systems that they enter. </p>
<p>Current <a href="http://www.oecd.org/edu/immigrant-students-at-school-9789264249509-en.htm">research,</a> however, shows the opposite.</p>
<p>The presence of immigrant students does <em>not</em> negatively affect overall school performance. Rather, schools that serve poor families <a href="http://www.apa.org/pi/ses/resources/publications/factsheet-education.aspx">tend to underperform</a> and immigrant families are often poor. </p>
<p>Poverty affects over half of immigrant families. In 2013, <a href="http://datacenter.kidscount.org/data/tables/118-children-living-in-low-income-families-below-200-percent-of-the-poverty-threshold-by-family-nativity?loc=1&loct=1#detailed/2/2-52/true/36,868,867,133,38/78,79/451,452">54 percent</a> of immigrant families in the US qualified as low-income. </p>
<p>In fact, when family income is taken into account, the difference between scores from immigrant students and nonimmigrant students on the PISA disappears. </p>
<h2>Language and preschool</h2>
<p>Immigrant students also struggle when they do not have mastery of the dominant language in their new country. </p>
<p>In 2015, <a href="http://www.migrationpolicy.org/programs/ell-information-center">nearly 10 percent</a> of students in K-12 in the U.S. were classified as English Language Learners. These language barriers explain a larger portion of the achievement gap than immigrant backgrounds. </p>
<p>Also, low levels of enrollment in early childhood programs have a huge impact. Early entrance into the school system increases students chances for success in later grades. However, many immigrant families do not enroll their children in preschool programs because of <a href="http://www.futureofchildren.org/futureofchildren/publications/docs/21_01_04.pdf">families’ legal status, language barriers and cultural sensitivities</a>. </p>
<h2>Discrimination and racism</h2>
<p>There is actually more evidence to show that schools in the U.S. are negatively impacting <a href="https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=haOuu_tcc3kC&oi=fnd&pg=PR3&dq=subtractive+schooling+valenzuela&ots=SU83M6pb3m&sig=ML2yX40Q9eNRvNoNrL37GvXLhX4#v=onepage&q=subtractive%20schooling%20valenzuela&f=false">immigrant students</a><a href="http://www.ipsnews.net/2014/06/u-s-education-system-not-helping-immigrant-parents/"> and their families</a>, not the other way around. </p>
<p>Many immigrant students <a href="https://www.princeton.edu/futureofchildren/publications/journals/article/index.xml?journalid=39&articleid=123&sectionid=808">face discrimination and racism</a> in the form of segregation and hostile attitudes at their schools. Also, many schools <a href="http://socialwork.columbia.edu/news-events/schools-resources-important-helping-children-immigrant-families-succeed-classroom">don’t offer essential resources</a>, like family liaisons or other social services, that would support immigrant families as well as the larger school community. </p>
<p>Immigrant students are also affected by a rarely acknowledged but equally important factor: the receptiveness of their host country’s education system, also known as the “<a href="http://bit.ly/1OiQmo2">context of reception</a>.” </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/109517/original/image-20160128-27156-18wyel4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/109517/original/image-20160128-27156-18wyel4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/109517/original/image-20160128-27156-18wyel4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/109517/original/image-20160128-27156-18wyel4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/109517/original/image-20160128-27156-18wyel4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=563&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/109517/original/image-20160128-27156-18wyel4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=563&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/109517/original/image-20160128-27156-18wyel4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=563&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Teachers’ views of immigrant kids leave a big impact.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/presidioofmonterey/6947110047/in/photolist-bzTKMr-cTmUAU-dvakxJ-8PCwt2-cTmE1d-8CutqV-bVACx8-eg5hzD-8SMZsm-cTmKxb-qrtqd2-9qr8c3-HJCf-am1wbA-2FMQZN-cTmM5q-9bTe76-d2kArd-5NpaP-pLViJs-dXkbDh-cTmU2f-6oG67K-dXeDxK-dXeeZ4-dXefeB-dXeqq2-dXk5Um-dXjWKd-dXka31-dXk4aE-dXjWk7-6rXpEn-82s2DE-dXjDdf-dXeG2z-dXkiTW-dXknwN-dXknVo-dXeDXV-dXdPuk-dXdMrD-dXeBcT-dXkdyC-dXdJQK-dXkgzE-dXkkNm-dXjsQo-dXexXi-dXkfj9">https://www.flickr.com/photos/presidioofmonterey/6947110047/in/photolist-bzTKMr-cTmUAU-dvakxJ-8PCwt2-cTmE1d-8CutqV-bVACx8-eg5hzD-8SMZsm-cTmKxb-qrtqd2-9qr8c3-HJCf-am1wbA-2FMQZN-cTmM5q-9bTe76-d2kArd-5NpaP-pLViJs-dXkbDh-cTmU2f-6oG67K-dXeDxK-dXeeZ4-dXefeB-dXe</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>When teachers and staff have negative views of immigrant children and their families, it has a negative impact on the academic performance of immigrant students.</p>
<p>Negative views are particularly harmful when they involve <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2gvVi8_BesMC&dq=iq+testing+deficit+thinking">deficit thinking</a>, or the belief that immigrant students perform poorly because their families have less or know less. </p>
<p>Alternatively, immigrant students who enter a welcoming environment benefit from positive school outcomes. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3946425/">Research in education</a> shows that students who enter positive contexts of reception are more motivated, better adjusted and more engaged in curriculum. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.oecd.org/edu/immigrant-students-at-school-9789264249509-en.htm">The OECD report</a> also found that immigrant students who said they felt supported and cared for by their teachers scored higher on the PISA.</p>
<h2>Value in diversity</h2>
<p>Research shows that despite barriers, immigrant students often hold <a href="http://www.boldapproach.org/immigrants">high aspirations</a> for themselves. These high aspirations make them more likely to put in greater effort to take advantage of educational opportunities and succeed academically. This is part of a phenomenon known as the <a href="http://www.apa.org/pubs/books/4318097.aspx">immigrant paradox</a>.</p>
<p>Just consider this fact. Among <em>low-income</em> students who took the PISA, immigrants make up a <a href="http://www.oecd.org/edu/immigrant-students-at-school-9789264249509-en.htm">larger share</a> of high-performing students than nonimmigrants. </p>
<p>At a time when presidential candidates are <a href="https://www.tedcruz.org/cruz-immigration-plan-summary/">threatening to build a </a><a href="https://www.donaldjtrump.com/positions/immigration-reform">wall along the US-Mexican border</a> and governors are attempting to <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/republican-governors-and-candidates-move-to-keep-muslim-migrants-out/2015/11/16/17adafaa-8c7c-11e5-baf4-bdf37355da0c_story.html">close their states to Syrian refugees</a>, it is important to understand that immigrant students do not harm our education system or our communities. Instead, they bring valuable diversity.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/52568/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Molly McManus does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>School and teacher attitudes have a lot to answer for when it comes to the achievement gap between immigrant and non-immigrant children.Molly McManus, Ph.D. Student in Educational Psychology, The University of Texas at AustinLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.