tag:theconversation.com,2011:/au/topics/improved-executive-functioning-26649/articlesImproved executive functioning – The Conversation2023-05-24T18:07:45Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2061692023-05-24T18:07:45Z2023-05-24T18:07:45ZRhythmically stimulating the brain with electrical currents could boost cognitive function, according to analysis of over 100 studies<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527837/original/file-20230523-25-ialkgs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C1999%2C1499&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A meta-analysis helps resolve conflicting evidence on the benefits of tACS.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/brain-stimulation-conceptual-image-royalty-free-image/1178748384">Science Photo Library via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Figuring out how to enhance a person’s mental capabilities has been of considerable interest to psychology and neuroscience researchers <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=x40PdqgAAAAJ&hl=en">like me</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11948-009-9142-5">for decades</a>. From improving attention in high-stakes environments, like air traffic management, to reviving memory in people with dementia, the ability to improve cognitive function can have far-reaching consequences. New research suggests that <a href="https://theconversation.com/brain-stimulation-can-rewire-and-heal-damaged-neural-connections-but-it-isnt-clear-how-research-suggests-personalization-may-be-key-to-more-effective-therapies-182491">brain stimulation</a> could help achieve the goal of boosting mental function.</p>
<p>In the <a href="https://reinhartlab.org/">Reinhart Lab</a> at Boston University, my colleagues and I have been examining the effects of an emerging brain stimulation technology – <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/scitranslmed.abo2044">transcranial alternating current stimulation, or tACS</a> – on different mental functions in patients and healthy people.</p>
<p>During this procedure, people wear an elastic cap embedded with electrodes that deliver weak electrical currents oscillating at specific frequencies to their scalp. By applying these controlled currents to specific brain regions, it is possible to alter brain activity by <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1815958116">nudging neurons to fire rhythmically</a>.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Another type of transcranial electric stimulation, tDCS, applies a direct electrical current to the brain.</span></figcaption>
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<p>Why would rhythmically firing neurons be beneficial? Research suggests that brain cells <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2012.06.061">communicate effectively</a> when they coordinate the rhythm of their firing. Critically, these rhythmic patterns of brain activity show <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2015.0483">marked abnormalities</a> during neuropsychiatric illnesses. The purpose of tACS is to externally induce rhythmic brain activity that promotes healthy mental function, particularly when the brain might not be able to produce these rhythms on its own.</p>
<p>However, tACS is a relatively new technology, and how it works is still unclear. Whether it can strengthen or revive brain rhythms to change mental function has been a topic of considerable debate in the field of brain stimulation. While some studies <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-13417-6">find evidence</a> of changes in brain activity and mental function with tACS, others suggest that the currents typically used in people <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-02928-3">might be too weak</a> to have a direct effect.</p>
<p>When faced with conflicting data in the scientific literature, it can be helpful to conduct a type of study <a href="https://training.cochrane.org/handbook/current/chapter-10">called a meta-analysis</a> that quantifies how consistent the evidence is across several studies. A previous meta-analysis conducted in 2016 <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2016.04.011">found promising evidence</a> for the use of tACS in changing mental function. However, the number of studies has more than doubled since then. The design of tACS technologies has also become <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2016.04.035">increasingly sophisticated</a>.</p>
<p>We set out to perform a new meta-analysis of studies using tACS to change mental function. To our knowledge, this work is the <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/scitranslmed.abo2044">largest and most comprehensive meta-analysis</a> yet on this topic, consisting of over 100 published studies with a combined total of more than 2,800 human participants. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527841/original/file-20230523-27-bw5s8e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Electrodes being placed on a person's head" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527841/original/file-20230523-27-bw5s8e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527841/original/file-20230523-27-bw5s8e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527841/original/file-20230523-27-bw5s8e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527841/original/file-20230523-27-bw5s8e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527841/original/file-20230523-27-bw5s8e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=474&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527841/original/file-20230523-27-bw5s8e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=474&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527841/original/file-20230523-27-bw5s8e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=474&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Transcranial alternating current stimulation involves placing an electrode on a person’s scalp.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/SRnZ5m">J.M. Eddins Jr/U.S. Air Force via Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
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<p>After compiling over 300 measures of mental function across all the studies, we observed <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/scitranslmed.abo2044">consistent and immediate improvement</a> in mental function with tACS. When we examined specific cognitive functions, such as memory and attention, we observed that tACS produced the strongest improvements in <a href="https://theconversation.com/cognitive-flexibility-is-essential-to-navigating-a-changing-world-new-research-in-mice-shows-how-your-brain-learns-new-rules-204259">executive function</a>, or the ability to adapt in the face of new, surprising or conflicting information. </p>
<p>We also observed improvements in the ability to pay attention and to memorize information for both short and long periods of time. Together, these results suggest that tACS could particularly improve specific kinds of mental function, at least in the short term.</p>
<p>To examine the effectiveness of tACS for those particularly vulnerable to changes in mental function, we examined the data from studies that included older adults and people with neuropsychiatric conditions. In both populations, we observed reliable evidence for <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/scitranslmed.abo2044">improvements in cognitive function</a> with tACS. </p>
<p>Interestingly, we also found that a specialized type of tACS that can target two brain regions at the same time and manipulate how they communicate with each other can both <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/scitranslmed.abo2044">enhance or reduce cognitive function</a>. This bidirectional effect on mental function could be particularly useful in the clinic. For example, some psychiatric conditions like depression may involve a reduced ability to process rewards, while others like bipolar disorder may involve a highly active <a href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2FYCO.0000000000000122">reward processing system</a>. If tACS can change mental function in either direction, researchers may be able to develop flexible and targeted designs that cater to specific clinical needs. </p>
<p>Developments in the field of tACS are bringing researchers closer to being able to safely enhance mental function in a noninvasive way that doesn’t require medication. Current statistical evidence across the literature suggests that tACS holds promise, and improving its design could help it produce stronger, long-lasting changes in mental function.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/206169/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>This work was supported by grants from the National Institutes of Health (R01-MH114877; R01-AG063775) and a gift from an individual philanthropist, all to Robert M. G. Reinhart, Ph.D., Associate Professor at the Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Boston University.</span></em></p>Transcranial alternating current stimulation, or tACS, is a type of brain stimulation that can change neural activity and improve memory, attention and executive function.Shrey Grover, Ph.D. Candidate in Psychological and Brain Sciences, Boston UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1180312019-06-11T23:09:05Z2019-06-11T23:09:05ZFrom obesity to allergies, outdoor play is the best medicine for children<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/278978/original/file-20190611-32356-13o88s8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C59%2C4984%2C3183&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Children report being at their happiest when playing outside.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>What if there was a simple, inexpensive and fun way to address some of the major challenges facing humanity today. What if it could help improve children’s health, development and well-being?</p>
<p>Imagine a solution that could stem the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)32129-3">current epidemics of obesity</a>, anxiety and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2009.10.005">depression</a> affecting children and youth today. Imagine that this solution could also promote brain health, creativity and academic achievement and prepare our children for the <a href="https://www.realplaycoalition.com/value-of-play-report/">rapidly-changing work force</a>. </p>
<p>Along the way it could reduce incidence of allergies, asthma and other <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1205624109">immunity challenges</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/cxo.12845">improve eye health</a>. It could <a href="http://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play/according-experts/indigenizing-outdoor-play">foster a culture of environmental stewardship and sustainability</a> and help build the health of cities — promoting neighbourliness and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.12.015">feelings of community connection</a>. </p>
<p>Imagine that this intervention could also help countries meet their targets for many of the <a href="https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals/">United Nations Sustainable Development Goals</a>, such as the goals of Good Health and Well-being, Inclusive and Equitable Quality Education, Decent Work and Economic Growth and Climate Action.</p>
<p>This isn’t an expensive intervention, or one that parents have to force their children to do — like homework or eating their vegetables. Rather than dreading it, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/21594937.2014.937963">children report being at their happiest</a> when doing it and they seek ways to keep at it for as long as possible.</p>
<p>What is this fix-all simple solution? Playing outside.</p>
<h2>The magic of outdoor play</h2>
<p>Many of us have <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7721/chilyoutenvi.26.1.0017">fond memories of childhoods spent outside</a>, hanging out with friends in our neighbourhoods, parks and wild places, making up the rules as we went along, with minimal (if any) adult supervision. </p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/278984/original/file-20190611-32356-1vvvbdz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/278984/original/file-20190611-32356-1vvvbdz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278984/original/file-20190611-32356-1vvvbdz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278984/original/file-20190611-32356-1vvvbdz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278984/original/file-20190611-32356-1vvvbdz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278984/original/file-20190611-32356-1vvvbdz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278984/original/file-20190611-32356-1vvvbdz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Children need the time, space and freedom to play outdoors.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
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<p>We need only reflect on our own play memories to realize how valuable these experiences can be and how they can shape our lifelong health and development. The research is now catching up to our intuitions, recognizing the <a href="http://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play/">vast and diverse benefits of outdoor play</a>.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-kids-need-risk-fear-and-excitement-in-play-81450">Why kids need risk, fear and excitement in play</a>
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</em>
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<p>Playing outside is not the same as playing inside. There are <a href="http://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play/according-experts/topic-commentary-why-outdoor-play">unique benefits of being in the outdoors</a>, particularly in nature, that don’t come as readily indoors. When children are allowed to play the way they want to play in stimulating environments, <a href="http://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play/according-experts/active-outdoor-play">they move more, sit less and play longer</a>. </p>
<p>They get their hands in the dirt and are <a href="http://letthemeatdirt.com/">exposed to microbes that help them build their immunity</a>. They make their own goals and figure out the steps to attain those goals, helping them build <a href="http://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play/according-experts/influence-outdoor-play-social-and-cognitive-development">executive function skills</a>. They <a href="http://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play/according-experts/young-childrens-outdoor-play-based-learning">learn</a>, build resilience and <a href="http://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play/according-experts/influence-outdoor-play-social-and-cognitive-development">develop their social skills</a>, learn how to <a href="http://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play/according-experts/outdoor-risky-play">manage risks</a> and keep themselves safe. Their eyes get the exercise they need to help combat <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/cxo.12845">short-sightedness</a>.</p>
<p>We are rediscovering the magic of outdoor play. Governments see it as a way of <a href="http://www.phn-rsp.ca/aop-position-jae/index-eng.php">getting kids active</a> and averting the obesity crisis. Schools and <a href="http://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play/according-experts/building-capacity-support-outdoor-play-early-childhood-education">early childhood centres</a> see it as a way of promoting academic and socio-emotional learning. Corporations see it as a way of <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2019/01/play-gap-hurting-childrens-skills-futures">preparing children for the jobs of the future</a> that will focus on creativity, empathy and connection with others. Children just see it as a way of having fun and feeling free!</p>
<h2>Adults must let go of their fears</h2>
<p>There are three key ingredients to supporting outdoor play: <a href="http://www.playwales.org.uk/eng/outdoorplay">time, space and freedom</a>.</p>
<p>Kids need time to be able to play outside. In schools, that means <a href="https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1137793.pdf">recess policies that get kids outside every day</a>, finding opportunities to use the outdoors for learning and limiting homework. At home, that means laying aside screens and limiting scheduled structured activities.</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/278988/original/file-20190611-32331-12mgj2z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/278988/original/file-20190611-32331-12mgj2z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278988/original/file-20190611-32331-12mgj2z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278988/original/file-20190611-32331-12mgj2z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278988/original/file-20190611-32331-12mgj2z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278988/original/file-20190611-32331-12mgj2z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278988/original/file-20190611-32331-12mgj2z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Risky play teaches children to keep themselves safe.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
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<p>Kids also need <a href="http://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play/according-experts/early-childhood-outdoor-play-and-learning-spaces-ecopals-achieving">high quality outdoor spaces</a> to play in. That doesn’t necessarily mean expensive playground equipment. It means <a href="http://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play/according-experts/creating-inclusive-naturalized-outdoor-play-environments">spaces where all children feel welcome</a>, regardless of their abilities and backgrounds, that they can make their own and that also have loose parts (for example sticks, stones, water and cardboard boxes) they can use and let their imagination shape the play. </p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/five-tips-to-manage-screen-time-this-summer-97844">Five tips to manage screen time this summer</a>
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</em>
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<p>In cities, that means being prepared for and allowing play to happen everywhere, not just parks and playgrounds. We need to design <a href="http://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play/according-experts/designing-cities-outdoor-play">inclusive and child-friendly cities</a> where kids feel welcome everywhere and can easily access nature.</p>
<p>Finally, freedom: the biggest barrier to children’s ability to play the way they want to play is adults. We need to <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-kids-need-risk-fear-and-excitement-in-play-81450">let go of our excessive fears of injuries and kidnapping</a> and realize that the benefits of kids getting out to play far outweigh the risks. My lab developed a <a href="https://outsideplay.ca/">risk reframing tool for parents and caregivers to help them on this journey</a>.</p>
<h2>Support the children in your life</h2>
<p>Helping support children’s outdoor play can be as simple as opening the front door. It doesn’t have to be complicated or expensive. If we all do our bit, we can help bring back this crucial activity that should be part of all children’s daily lives, regardless of age, cultural background, gender or ability. </p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/278989/original/file-20190611-32317-1hy7cs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/278989/original/file-20190611-32317-1hy7cs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=378&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278989/original/file-20190611-32317-1hy7cs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=378&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278989/original/file-20190611-32317-1hy7cs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=378&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278989/original/file-20190611-32317-1hy7cs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=475&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278989/original/file-20190611-32317-1hy7cs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=475&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278989/original/file-20190611-32317-1hy7cs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=475&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Playing outdoors reduces incidence of allergies, asthma and other immunity challenges.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Unsplash/Matthew T Rader)</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
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<p>There are lots of <a href="https://www.cpha.ca/unstructured-play">tools to help you get started</a>, whether you’re a parent, caregiver, <a href="http://lawson.ca/advancing-op-ece.pdf">educator</a>, city planner or a neighbour. </p>
<p>I would encourage you to consider one simple and attainable thing you are going to do today to help get the child or children in your life get out to play.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/118031/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mariana Brussoni receives funding from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research, the Lawson Foundation and salary support from the BC Children's Hospital Research Institute. She is a board member of the Child & Nature Alliance of Canada.</span></em></p>Adults must let go of their fears of injury and kidnapping. Children need free outdoor play to build physical immunity, psychological health, executive functioning and social skills.Mariana Brussoni, Associate Professor of Pediatrics and Population and Public Health, University of British ColumbiaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1032402018-10-10T23:03:20Z2018-10-10T23:03:20ZThe truth about fetal alcohol spectrum disorder<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/240845/original/file-20181016-165924-1vl9cxd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Approximately 11 per cent of Canadian mothers report consuming alcohol during pregnancy, which can cause fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) in their children. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) is often overlooked and understudied. Caused by prenatal alcohol exposure, it is sometimes referred to as an “invisible disorder.” </p>
<p>But FASD is the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27892236">most common preventable cause of developmental disability</a>. Many who have it experience <a href="https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.141593">lifelong behavioural, intellectual, neurological and mental health difficulties.</a></p>
<p>Individuals with FASD and their families also face <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/phe/phv012">persistent stigma, negative stereotypes and harmful biases,</a> due to public misunderstandings. </p>
<p>Negative public attitudes are detrimental to people living with FASD, impacting their self-esteem and beliefs in their own capabilities. Research shows that <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/diseases/fetal-alcohol-spectrum-disorder/support.html">with the right supports</a>, individuals with FASD can live <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22042791">productive and successful lives</a>. However a common, and often inaccurate, misconception is that these individuals are destined to be lifelong “burdens” on health and social systems. </p>
<p>As FASD researchers, we want to dispel common misunderstandings about children and youth with FASD, and offer some evidence-based truths.</p>
<h2>More common than autism</h2>
<p>FASD is alarmingly common, with an <a href="https://canfasd.ca/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/08/Prevalence-1-Issue-Paper-FINAL.pdf">estimated four per cent of Canadians</a> having the disorder, far <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9451756">more than previously thought</a>. Affecting approximately 1.5 million Canadians, this means it <a href="https://canfasd.ca/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2018/08/Prevalence-1-Issue-Paper-FINAL.pdf">is 2.5 times more prevalent than autism spectrum disorder</a>.</p>
<p>FASD affects children and youth across all races, ethnicities, cultures and socioeconomic status. In Canada, women of all ages and backgrounds consume alcohol. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/240136/original/file-20181010-133328-u04dit.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/240136/original/file-20181010-133328-u04dit.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/240136/original/file-20181010-133328-u04dit.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/240136/original/file-20181010-133328-u04dit.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/240136/original/file-20181010-133328-u04dit.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/240136/original/file-20181010-133328-u04dit.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/240136/original/file-20181010-133328-u04dit.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">It is not necessarily possible to tell by looking at children whether they do or do not have FASD.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Despite <a href="http://www.fasdontario.ca/cms/service-areas/prevention/effective-strategies-to-prevent-alcohol-use-in-pregnancy/">recent prevention efforts</a>, approximately <a href="http://bccewh.bc.ca/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/FASD-BIG-Infographics-Combined.-June.-2014.websized1.pdf">11 per cent of Canadians mothers</a> report consuming alcohol during pregnancy, with more than three per cent reporting alcohol binges during pregnancy. This is probably an underrepresentation, as some mothers deny drinking during pregnancy due to negative stigma.</p>
<p>You also can’t necessarily tell that someone has FASD by how they look. Less than <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/9783527632510.ch7">10 per cent of individuals with FASD have the associated facial features</a> — short palpebral fissures, smooth philtrum and thin upper lip. </p>
<p>For most individuals living with FASD, the invisibility of the disorder is problematic because it acts as a barrier to early identification and treatment, both of which <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/ddrr.68">are important for long-term outcomes</a>.</p>
<h2>Vulnerable to depression and abuse</h2>
<p>Many children and youth with FASD also experience secondary conditions. Mental health disorders are seen <a href="https://doi.org/10.3109/09638237.2011.577113">in over 90 per cent of individuals with FASD</a>, compared to 20 per cent of the general population. Depression and anxiety are among the most common. One study showed that depression <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9546004">affected 45-50 per cent</a> of a small group of individuals with FASD; another study showed anxiety to impact <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3410752/">20-40 per cent</a>.</p>
<p>Prenatal alcohol exposure does not cause all of the secondary issues seen in FASD. This is because prenatal alcohol exposure <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20335648">rarely occurs in isolation</a>. Children with FASD frequently experience other adverse childhood events, such as maltreatment, neglect or trauma. </p>
<p>In one study, 34 per cent of individuals exposed to alcohol prenatally were physically abused, and 24 per cent were sexually abused. </p>
<p>It is often difficult to disentangle what child outcomes are related to alcohol exposure and what result from other adverse experiences.</p>
<h2>Verbal, artistic and friendly</h2>
<p>Intelligence and thinking abilities vary in children and youth with FASD, due to variability in the types and frequency of their mothers’ drinking during pregnancy, as well as genetics and environmental factors. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1097/01.alc.0000175040.91007.d0">Executive functioning difficulties</a>, memory problems, language delays, visuospatial difficulties, attention problems and reduced IQ are <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3104937/">common in this population</a>. However, FASD differentially affects every individual, resulting in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/09297049.2017.1302579">unique areas of strengths and difficulties</a>. </p>
<p>While <a href="http://www.intellectualdisability.info/diagnosis/articles/fetal-alcohol-spectrum-disorder">many children and youth with FASD have average IQs</a>, these areas of strength may be overlooked or overshadowed by behavioural problems.</p>
<p>All kids have strengths, and <a href="https://fncaringsociety.com/sites/default/files/FPCFR%20journal%208(1)%202013_1.pdf">children with FASD are no exception</a>. Many are highly verbal, artistic, outgoing and friendly.</p>
<p>FASD does not disappear over time. It is a lifelong, pervasive disorder that requires a lifetime of supports. Issues associated with FASD may actually worsen over time. Research shows that individuals with FASD <a href="https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783319717548">may be at risk for substance use issues</a> and other co-occurring <a href="https://doi.org/10.3109/09638237.2011.577113">mental health disorders</a> well into adulthood.</p>
<h2>We must ditch our stereotypes</h2>
<p>Despite this, <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/fasd/treatments.html">early diagnosis and intervention</a> may reduce some of the challenges faced by kids with FASD. While there is no cure, some interventions have shown effectiveness in improving common difficulties. </p>
<p>For example, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26578111">recent research that has focused on improving self-regulation and attentional control</a> in children with FASD show improvements in lots of areas. This is evident through parent and caregiver reports, neuropsychological testing and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans.</p>
<p>To best meet the needs of children and youth with FASD, it is essential to try to understand the whole child in their context, all their experiences and their individual strengths and differences.</p>
<p>To maximize the best outcomes for these children, we also need to be aware of our own biases and stereotypes. These can be harmful to the very children and families who need our support the most.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/103240/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Carly McMorris receives funding from the Mental Health and Addiction Strategic Clinical Network Grant, through Alberta Health Services. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Catherine Lebel receives funding from the Mental Health and Addiction Strategic Clinical Network Grant, through Alberta Health Services. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Chantel Ritter does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>With an estimated prevalence of four per cent, fetal alcohol syndrome disorder (FASD) is more common than autism. And yet is it surrounded by myth and stigma.Carly McMorris, Assistant Professor of Education, University of CalgaryCatherine Lebel, Assistant Professor of Radiology, University of CalgaryChantel Ritter, MSc student in School and Applied Child Psychology, University of CalgaryLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/606792016-06-16T15:47:45Z2016-06-16T15:47:45ZHow to win the Euros – with a little help from neuroscience<p>It can’t be easy trying to pick a team for a huge football tournament like the Euros, carrying the hopes of an entire nation. Football managers may have great skill and intuition, but it is, after all, not an exact science. But what if their talents could be supported by more precise tools informed by the latest research? </p>
<p>It turns out this is becoming a possibility. In a series of scientific studies, <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0034731">we have shown</a> that simple neuropsychological tests of football players’ executive functions and working memory can help predict how many goals they will score, how many passes they will make and how successful they will be overall.</p>
<p>Football players are typically selected from an early age based on their football skills and fitness through a complex, rather nebulous system. <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/28950665">In the English system</a>, players typically earn their first full-time training contract at 16. By 21 the attrition rate is 75% or above.</p>
<p>However, while selection is usually based on physical skills, football is in the end more about the brain. Successful football players need to process massive amounts of information quickly under extreme mental and physical pressure. Fast decisions must be taken in a very short time span, suppressing irrelevant information and adapting to a highly dynamic environment. Players also need to be creative and accurate in making those decisions to be at the right spot at the right time and add to the overall team performance.</p>
<p>The current system is therefore worrying, as it could easily miss world-class footballers such as Xavier “Xavi” Hernández Creus, who plays for Qatari club Al Sadd SC, and fellow Spaniard Andres Iniesta, who plays for FC Barcelona and the Spanish national team – both physically small in stature. Yet they both have the outstanding brain abilities that have allowed them to thrive far beyond all expectations. </p>
<h2>Game intelligence</h2>
<p>The cognitive abilities needed in football are often referred to as “game intelligence” in sport psychology. Traditionally, however, this has been thought to be impossible to measure. But the field of cognitive psychology has developed methods for measuring something called executive functions; a set of complex regulatory brain processes that orchestrate higher-order thought and action, especially in non-routine situations.</p>
<p>So far four different studies <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0034731">have assessed</a> several hundreds of <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0091254">junior and senior elite players</a> and <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3560394/">compared them with</a> semi-elite and novice players as well as the normal population. </p>
<p>These <a href="http://cjs.sagepub.com/content/20/1-2/117.refs">neuropsychological assessments</a> are performance tests made typically with either computers and/or paper-and-pen, and in this case non-verbal. They measure things like problem solving, planning, sequencing, attention, inhibition, utilisation of feedback, multi-tasking, cognitive flexibility and ability to deal with novelty.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/uwlVBQF3J5k?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>The results of these studies show that executive function is clearly linked to game intelligence and that elite footballers outperform their non-elite footballing peers on these measures. Our study <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0034731">showed</a> that the performance on these tests also predicted how many goals a footballer scored or helped score for more than two years after the tests were taken. We also tested Xavi and Iniesta and showed that their test results were vastly superior to the rest of the footballers we also tested.</p>
<h2>The science of teams</h2>
<p>Football is not only about individual players but rather about how the individuals fit the team. Ongoing research in our laboratories is focusing on identifying the different brain profiles of players in different positions in teams. </p>
<p>Our initial results suggest that successful midfielders such as Xavi and Iniesta will need to have sustained, excellent executive function performance over time. These players are able to keep mental track of the position of other players over an entire game so that they together can play passes that create space for the team and win matches. </p>
<p>In contrast, strikers will exhibit short-lasting, ultra-fast impulsive decision making that allows for decisive actions in front of goal, while defenders may have yet different profiles of executive functions. Defenders do not need to think about space constantly but need to be highly skilled at response inhibition and prediction, counteracting and neutralising the ultra-fast impulsive attackers and the strategic midfielders.</p>
<p>While these tests are clearly highly significant in establishing the abilities of individual players, it is important to remember that football is a team sport. Successful managers have to be able to put together the complex jigsaw of individual skills to create a team where the parts are more than the whole. Some of the best examples of teams in previous Euro competitions who successfully managed this were Denmark, who won in 1992, and Greece, who won in 2004. </p>
<p>Nevertheless, the days of trying to second guess the intuitive methods of managers may soon be complemented with the precise tools developed in brain science. </p>
<p>These could be used in many ways, such as selecting gifted footballers at an early age or testing and selecting from the large, untapped pool of footballing ability in a global football world. We expect that footballers would want to take these tests to learn about their strengths and to identify potential weaknesses that can be improved with training. And managers could use these methods to find the perfect set of profiles of a winning team and identify the missing players in this jigsaw.
In fact, this may produce the kind of competitive advantage needed to stage the most spectacular, unexpected and romantic wins that football fans everywhere crave.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/60679/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Morten L. Kringelbach receives funding from the ERC. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Predrag Petrovic receives funding from VR and SLSO.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Torbjörn Vestberg does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Neuropsychological tests of football players can help predict their performance, according to research.Morten L. Kringelbach, Associate Professor and Senior Research Fellow in Neuroscience, University of OxfordPredrag Petrovic, Senior Reseacher in Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska InstitutetTorbjörn Vestberg, Licensed psychologist, Karolinska InstitutetLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/567262016-04-25T14:05:07Z2016-04-25T14:05:07ZThere are also drawbacks to being bilingual<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/119879/original/image-20160422-17417-2ktxto.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">shutterstock</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">noche</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/speaking-in-tongues-the-many-benefits-of-bilingualism-49842">ability to speak more than one language</a> certainly has its perks. It enables you to work in another country, for example, interact with people while travelling, or consume foreign media. </p>
<p>Bilingualism is very common – <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XgRum7AWOoUC&lpg=PP1&dq=bilingualism%20grosjean&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false">current estimates</a> are that more than half of the world’s population is bilingual and that this <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NhW7IkefMbcC&lpg=PP1&dq=the%20handbook%20of%20bilingualism%20bhatia&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false">prevalence is rising</a>.</p>
<p>Cognitive psychologists have been interested in how bilingualism shapes the mind for almost a century. There are those who <a href="http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=150193&fileId=S1366728998000133">suggest</a> that in order to speak in one language, bilinguals have to suppress the influence of the other. <a href="http://www.yumingschool.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/07/Bilingualism.-The-good-the-bad-and-the-indifferent.pdf">Research from the past three decades</a> has argued that this unique form of language processing “trains the brain” in the use of non-verbal abilities known as “<a href="http://fulbright.uark.edu/departments/world-languages/_resources/multitasking.pdf">executive functions</a>” such as ignoring irrelevant information or shifting attention. </p>
<p>Bilinguals <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Raymond_Klein/publication/8485256_Bilingualism_aging_and_cognitive_control_evidence_from_the_Simon_task/links/02e7e5162c0ba8be64000000.pdf">of different ages and cultural backgrounds</a> have been shown to be faster and more accurate than their monolingual peers when performing cognitive tasks demanding these abilities. Furthermore, it has been argued that bilingualism may lead to a <a href="http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.383.6808&rep=rep1&type=pdf">delayed onset of symptoms associated with dementia</a>.</p>
<p>But the scientific community recently has become increasingly <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0010945215001380">sceptical</a> of the bilingual advantage hypothesis. One of the main points of criticism is that differences between monolinguals and bilinguals when it comes to executive function are not always apparent. This has generated a heated debate, especially in the <a href="http://www.journals.elsevier.com/cortex/media-coverage/do-bilingual-people-have-a-cognitive-advantage/">Bilingualism Forum</a> of the <a href="http://www.journals.elsevier.com/cortex/">scientific journal Cortex</a>, about whether bilingualism is associated with cognitive advantages or not.</p>
<h2>Fresh challenge</h2>
<p>It appears that research on bilingualism is at a <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0010945215003007">turning point</a>. We need to pursue a new approach to understand, beyond those individual examples of executive functions, how the bilingual mind works. We have attempted to address this challenge by testing whether bilinguals and monolinguals differ in terms of how accurately they can assess their own performance. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/119862/original/image-20160422-17409-18gl70p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/119862/original/image-20160422-17409-18gl70p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/119862/original/image-20160422-17409-18gl70p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/119862/original/image-20160422-17409-18gl70p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/119862/original/image-20160422-17409-18gl70p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/119862/original/image-20160422-17409-18gl70p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/119862/original/image-20160422-17409-18gl70p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Might come in handy in parts of Wales.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">FatManPhoto</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This ability is called metacognition and is associated with, but separate from, other areas where bilinguals have been shown to have an advantage. Surprisingly, however, <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0010027716300361">we found</a> that bilinguals had less insight into their performance than their monolingual peers. </p>
<h2>Joining the dots</h2>
<p>In an effort to find out whether bilinguals also display advantages in other cognitive abilities (beyond executive function), we evaluated metacognitive processing in young adult monolinguals and bilinguals. Metacognition is the ability to <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232599909_Metacognition_and_Cognitive_Monitoring_A_New_Area_of_Cognitive-Developmental_Inquiry">evaluate one’s own cognitive performance</a> or simply to have “thoughts about thoughts”. </p>
<p>This ability is a crucial function of everyday life, when we have to make decisions where the outcomes are not immediate. For example, when an entrepreneur reviews their company’s performance, they need to take into account a variety of factors – including, for example, revenues and expenses – in order to evaluate whether the company is doing well. Confidence in their ideas and performance can be the determining factor in whether they decide to keep investing time in their company or give up and apply for another job (the so-called “<a href="http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/362/1481/933.short">exploitation exploration trade-off</a>”).</p>
<p>In <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0010027716300361">our research</a>, we presented participants with a situation in which they had to observe two circles on a screen and guess which one contained more dots. Sometimes the difference was obvious, making the decision easy, while at other times the decision was very difficult (for example, one circle contained 50 dots and the other 49). Participants were then asked to determine how confident they were in their decision on a scale from less to more confident than normal.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/116086/original/image-20160322-32309-d3mdb0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/116086/original/image-20160322-32309-d3mdb0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/116086/original/image-20160322-32309-d3mdb0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=145&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/116086/original/image-20160322-32309-d3mdb0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=145&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/116086/original/image-20160322-32309-d3mdb0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=145&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/116086/original/image-20160322-32309-d3mdb0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=182&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/116086/original/image-20160322-32309-d3mdb0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=182&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/116086/original/image-20160322-32309-d3mdb0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=182&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Illustration of the metacognition paradigm employed by Folke et al., 2016.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Folkes et al, 2016</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Over the course of two experiments, we found that bilinguals and monolinguals were equally likely to choose the circle containing the highest number of dots. However, monolinguals were better able than bilinguals to discriminate between when they were right and when they were wrong. In other words, bilinguals had less insight into their performance than monolinguals. This went against our initial predictions, as we expected to find a bilingual advantage in metacognitive processing. These results indicate that bilingualism may be associated with cognitive disadvantages as well as benefits.</p>
<h2>What’s next?</h2>
<p>The <a href="http://www.anglia.ac.uk/science-and-technology/research/our-research-institutes-and-groups/brain-and-cognition-research-group/language-and-cognition">Multilanguage & Cognition lab</a> (MULTAC) at Anglia Ruskin University is currently undertaking a three-year project funded by the <a href="https://www.leverhulme.ac.uk/">Leverhulme Trust</a> to enhance our understanding of the bilingual mind. </p>
<p>The lab has already published evidence of cognitive advantages associated with bilingualism, suggesting that bilinguals are better at <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4486347/">filtering out verbal interference</a> as well as visual attention, specifically spotting the difference in a <a href="http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=10167021&fileId=S1366728915000917">visuo-spatial working memory task</a>.</p>
<p>This new research indicates that bilingual people may experience a disadvantage in metacognition. We hope that this new direction in bilingualism research will encourage further attention and enable us to resolve theoretical debate through the adoption of open-minded, empirically driven exploration of cognitive effects (both positive and negative) that may be associated with learning more than one language.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/56726/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The research mentioned in this article was funded by the Leverhulme Trust, grant RPG-2015-024.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tomas Folke receives funding from Economics and Social Sciences Research Council.</span></em></p>Research suggests that bilinguals have less insight into the way they perform tasks than people who only speak one language.Julia Ouzia, PhD candidate in cognitive psychology, Anglia Ruskin UniversityTomas Folke, PhD candidate, University of CambridgeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/574702016-04-15T09:58:19Z2016-04-15T09:58:19ZWhy the baby brain can learn two languages at the same time<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/118779/original/image-20160414-2657-1bqrolz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">How do babies learn language?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/irenezaccari/5745450917/in/photolist-9KGWoz-5HCfUn-8xGzdH-ep8c1D-avPTiY-4Ee9zx-dPamP3-58ijVf-5ww1yt-7jNyZd-dbSvBo-ep8dMt-5zXSmc-7WW7qS-af3eH8-dfqMuf-8Pby5A-dGrrzV-5e1poT-eMhKvD-8P9xQD-5wAkxE-gNvtw-6mmzW-iwU32-9strtj-7uhncG-bE9jtV-K4REY-4DBWKx-4ApiAq-avMcyx-kppiR-6SJRi5-98ev41-bB6FQH-3qStoQ-5ww2zH-4d9mPa-bEUUvt-iSSkb2-6KtqdV-8GECBK-jxbaJT-8E8pA3-28KzW-4CdpT8-xoLyo-4VCHfq-bsEoPd">Irene Zaccari</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Any adult who has attempted to learn a foreign language can attest to how difficult and confusing it can be. So when a three-year-old growing up in a bilingual household inserts Spanish words into his English sentences, conventional wisdom assumes that he is confusing the two languages. </p>
<p>Research shows that <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0305000900009971">this is not the case</a>. </p>
<p>In fact, early childhood is the best possible time <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0010028589900030">to learn a second language</a>. Children who experience two languages from birth typically become native speakers of both, while adults often struggle with second language learning and <a href="http://www.jimflege.com/files/Flege_Yeni-Komshian_age_constraints_JML_1999.pdf">rarely attain native-like fluency</a>.</p>
<p>But the question remains: is it confusing for babies to learn two languages simultaneously? </p>
<h2>When do babies learn language?</h2>
<p>Research shows babies begin to learn language sounds before they’re even born. In the womb, a mother’s voice is <a href="http://doi.org/10.1080/02646839308403210">one of the most prominent sounds</a> an unborn baby hears. By the time they’re born, newborns can not only tell the difference between their <a href="http://ilabs.uw.edu/sites/default/files/2012%20Moon%20et%20al.pdf">mother’s language and another language</a>, but also show a capability of distinguishing between languages. </p>
<p>Language learning depends on the processing of sounds. All the world’s languages put together comprise about 800 or so sounds. Each language uses only about 40 language sounds, or “phonemes,” which distinguish one language from another. </p>
<p>At birth, the baby brain has an unusual gift: <a href="http://ilabs.washington.edu/kuhl/pdf/Kuhl_2004.pdf">it can tell the difference</a> between all 800 sounds. This means that at this stage infants can learn any language that they’re exposed to. Gradually babies figure out which sounds they are hearing the most. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/118758/original/image-20160414-2614-crlwdv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/118758/original/image-20160414-2614-crlwdv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118758/original/image-20160414-2614-crlwdv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118758/original/image-20160414-2614-crlwdv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118758/original/image-20160414-2614-crlwdv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118758/original/image-20160414-2614-crlwdv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118758/original/image-20160414-2614-crlwdv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Babies learn to recognize their mother’s voice even before they are born.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/johnmichaelmayer/6870462134/in/photolist-bt7V2G-ftLq75-9msoye-bBpW47-27cLW-aKYRr4-aKZ8ir-nYXrSb-nRUnCD-cZuumC-qAhU8p-9oCvkd-beq3a4-nVtnQg-nobq41-99xQRx-bepVh2-4qJdSM-ftKEtN-9byCMj-bnMnsm-cr3bnj-98H9Fs-ftvVLZ-6V3L7U-eS7mU7-6YvUB9-Gztnk-7UMtfq-cUkPvW-8WSZdS-a8bUKC-a8cUAh-7V7nzX-9Gk5W-9mMQew-4nyXMB-eVrXTA-5RHTcg-98CNew-7CUQZV-6FeB8-9XeMNS-7VaqUQ-639Vik-Pd3P1-9buGpR-cZutFw-8YqdT2-9cFt6F">John Mayer</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Between six and 12 months, infants who grow up in monolingual households become more specialized in the subset of sounds in their native language. In other words, they become <a href="http://ilabs.washington.edu/kuhl/pdf/Kuhl_etal_2006.pdf">“native language specialists.”</a> And, by their first birthdays, monolingual infants begin to lose their ability to hear the differences between foreign language sounds.</p>
<h2>Studying baby brains</h2>
<p>What about those babies who hear two languages from birth? Can a baby brain specialize in two languages? If so, how is this process different then specializing in a single language? </p>
<p>Knowing how the baby brain learns one versus two languages is important for understanding the developmental milestones in learning to speak. For example, parents of bilingual children often wonder what is and isn’t typical or expected, or how their child will differ from those children who are learning a single language. </p>
<p>My collaborators and I recently studied the brain processing of language sounds in 11-month-old babies from monolingual (English only) and bilingual (Spanish-English) homes. We used a completely noninvasive technology called <a href="http://ilabs.washington.edu/what-magnetoencephalography-meg">magnetoencephalography (MEG)</a>, which precisely pinpointed the timing and the location of activity in the brain as the babies listened to Spanish and English syllables. </p>
<p>We found some <a href="http://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12427">key differences</a> between infants raised in monolingual versus bilingual homes. </p>
<p>At 11 months of age, just before most babies begin to say their first words, the brain recordings revealed that:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Babies from monolingual English households are specialized to process the sounds of English, and not the sounds of Spanish, an unfamiliar language</p></li>
<li><p>Babies from bilingual Spanish-English households are specialized to process the sounds of both languages, Spanish and English. </p></li>
</ul>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/TAYhj-gekqw?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Here’s a video summarizing our study.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Our findings show that babies’ brains become tuned to whatever language or languages they hear from their caregivers. A monolingual brain becomes tuned to the sounds of one language, and a bilingual brain becomes tuned to the sounds of two languages. By 11 months of age, the activity in the baby brain <a href="http://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12427">reflects the language or languages</a> that they have been exposed to. </p>
<h2>Is it OK to learn two languages?</h2>
<p>This has important implications. Parents of monolingual and bilingual children alike are eager for their little ones to utter the first words. It’s an exciting time to learn more about what the baby is thinking. However, a common concern, especially for bilingual parents, is that their child is not learning fast enough. </p>
<p>We found that the bilingual babies showed an equally strong brain response to English sounds as the monolingual babies. This suggests that bilingual babies were learning English at the same rate as the monolingual babies. </p>
<p>Parents of bilingual children also worry that their children will not know as many words as children who are raised with one language. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/118805/original/image-20160414-2625-15xpgjp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/118805/original/image-20160414-2625-15xpgjp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118805/original/image-20160414-2625-15xpgjp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118805/original/image-20160414-2625-15xpgjp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118805/original/image-20160414-2625-15xpgjp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=468&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118805/original/image-20160414-2625-15xpgjp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=468&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/118805/original/image-20160414-2625-15xpgjp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=468&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Bilingualism does not cause confusion.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/jakeliefer/306499266/in/photolist-t5Ty7-vitzc-3gnsd1-4XbYKT-aCoK3V-85woV7-bTqBk4-FUfJgo-5H9ZoV-7DEWgo-23vBn-fWcNXJ-hLeWWR-aapvN1-avtvd6-nB6EUJ-6HBwHF-9jPJvJ-avw6kN-Grwiv-7q1rWt-7B53ex-4VwK6v-b3ijHR-gfike-eWuRLy-vitzz-9ycGeQ-iiEtM-7iY76g-57b8Us-2cy4dp-aLD3GP-og4UjY-9gY7HA-avw4YW-daxohx-i2SsC-atMpUm-avwcg3-bMaKsD-aoZQ5X-57b7C5-4rYnE4-6RXGUZ-8Rzozd-o5X91S-x4imX-dTuGgX-ad6Hv9">jakeliefer</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>To some extent, this concern is valid. Bilingual infants split their time between two languages, and thus, on average, hear fewer words in each. However, studies consistently show that bilingual children <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0305000910000759">do not lag behind</a> when both languages are considered. </p>
<p>Vocabulary sizes of bilingual children, when combined across both languages, have been <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24297614">found to be equal to or greater than</a> those of monolingual children. </p>
<p>Another common concern is that bilingualism causes confusion. Part of this concern arises due to “code switching,” a speaking behavior in which bilinguals combine both languages. </p>
<p>For example, my four-year-old son, who speaks English, Spanish, and Slovene, goes as far as using the Slovene endings on Spanish and English words. Research shows bilingual children code-switch because <a href="http://www.psych.mcgill.ca/perpg/fac/genesee/11.pdf">bilingual adults around them do too</a>. Code-switching in bilingual adults and children is <a href="http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=63647&fileId=S1366728900000365">rule-governed</a>, not haphazard. </p>
<p>Unlike monolingual children, bilingual children have another language from which they <a href="http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=37003&fulltextType=RA&fileId=S0305000999003852">can easily borrow</a> if they can’t quickly retrieve the appropriate word in one language. Even two-year-olds modulate their language <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0142716400008183">to match the language</a> used by their interlocutor. </p>
<p>Researchers have shown code switching to be part of a bilingual child’s normal language development. And it could even be the beginning of what gives them the extra cognitive prowess known as the “bilingual advantage.”</p>
<h2>Bilingual kids are at an advantage</h2>
<p>The good news is young children all around the world can and do acquire two languages simultaneously. In fact, in many parts of the world, being bilingual is the norm rather than an exception.</p>
<p>It is now understood that the constant need to shift attention between languages leads to several cognitive advantages. Research has found that bilingual adults and children show an
<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4341987/">improved executive functioning</a> of the brain – that is, they are able to shift attention, switch between tasks and solve problems more easily. Bilinguals have also been found to have <a href="http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9922.2007.00412.x">increased metalinguistic skills</a> (the ability to think about language per se, and understand how it works). There is evidence that being bilingual makes the learning of a third language <a href="http://www.bilingualism.northwestern.edu/bilingualism-psycholinguistics/files/KMjeplmc2009.pdf">easier</a>. Further, the accumulating effect of dual language experience is thought to translate into protective effects against <a href="http://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181fc2a1c">cognitive decline with aging</a> and the onset of Alzheimer’s disease. </p>
<p>So, if you want your child to know more than one language, it’s best to start at an early age, before she even starts speaking her first language. It won’t confuse your child, and it could even give her a boost in other forms of cognition.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/57470/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The research described here was supported by the National Science Foundation Science of Learning Center Program grant to the UW LIFE Center (P.K.K., PI: Grant No. SMA-0835854), the Ready Mind Project at the UW Institute for Learning & Brain Sciences, and the Washington State Life Science Discovery Fund (LSDF).</span></em></p>Research shows babies begin to learn language sounds before they’re even born. What about babies who hear two languages from birth? Can a baby brain specialize in two languages?Naja Ferjan Ramirez, Research Scientist, University of WashingtonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.