tag:theconversation.com,2011:/au/topics/learning-environment-10943/articlesLearning environment – The Conversation2023-06-20T20:12:23Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2073212023-06-20T20:12:23Z2023-06-20T20:12:23ZVertical schools are increasingly common. This is what students want in ‘high’ school design<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531585/original/file-20230613-21-2j4pgf.JPEG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=223%2C0%2C1790%2C947&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author supplied.</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The traditional idea of a one-or-two-storey school, spread over a vast campus is no longer an option for some new schools. Population <a href="https://isa.edu.au/documents/enrolment-trends">growth</a> and a lack of land in urban areas mean some schools <a href="https://architectureau.com/articles/perth-office-block-to-become-vertical-school/">have to go up</a>. </p>
<p>This has seen vertical schools become <a href="https://architectureau.com/articles/vertical-schools-on-the-rise/">increasingly common</a>. These are schools that tend to have <a href="https://doi.org/10.26188/13289639.v1">more than four storeys</a>. </p>
<p>Some academics <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/kids-need-grass-and-playgrounds-more-hotly-debated-high-rise-schools-planned-across-sydney-20220201-p59sz3.html">argue</a> vertical schools are not well suited to children’s need for space and learning. But what do children want? </p>
<h2>I asked students for their opinion</h2>
<p>My <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2023.110503">study</a> published this week surveyed students at three vertical schools. The schools had between five and ten storeys and were in Brisbane and Melbourne. They enrol students from the first year of schooling to Year 12.</p>
<p>I interviewed 38 students in years 3 to 7 through walking tours. They led me around their school, telling me what they liked and didn’t like about their environment. </p>
<h2>Children still want space to play</h2>
<p>Students told me they wanted access to outside and inside play spaces, even when the weather was bad. They said covered terraces, rooftop gardens and wide hallways allowed students to play in rainy weather. </p>
<p>This is where vertical schools can have an advantage over regular schools. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2019.103683">Regular schools</a> often have limited indoor play spaces or their covered outdoor learning areas are easily flooded. As one 9-year-old student said: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>We play out here [on the terrace] a lot […] when there’s a wet day […] It’s very good to get fresh air when you’re stuck inside.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>While vertical schools generally have limited space on school grounds, they are usually built in central urban locations with <a href="https://doi.org/10.26188/13289711.v1">parks or green spaces</a> close by. These provided children with access to a variety of outdoor environments within walking distance, an opportunity which is not necessarily available in a suburban school.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531566/original/file-20230613-21-vpe0jh.JPEG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531566/original/file-20230613-21-vpe0jh.JPEG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531566/original/file-20230613-21-vpe0jh.JPEG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531566/original/file-20230613-21-vpe0jh.JPEG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531566/original/file-20230613-21-vpe0jh.JPEG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531566/original/file-20230613-21-vpe0jh.JPEG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531566/original/file-20230613-21-vpe0jh.JPEG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A roof-top garden, partially covered and can be used during rainy days.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author supplied.</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>They don’t want to spend breaks climbing stairs</h2>
<p>Children had to travel via the stairs multiple times a day, for recess or lunch breaks or to change classes. </p>
<p>Students said having to line up to walk up or down the stairs during the peak recess or lunch time wasted their breaks. This was particularly a concern for the primary school participants in years 3 to 5 who found climbing the stairs “tiring” and said it “hurt [their] legs”.</p>
<p>Children tried to limit their use of stairs by using learning and recreational facilities close to their home rooms, if permitted. </p>
<p>Some common facilities in one of the schools were located on intervening floors, a design feature that children described as “really convenient”. As one 12-year-old student said: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>You just need to walk up one or two levels […] and you are at where you want to be. </p>
</blockquote>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531568/original/file-20230613-19-1lk376.JPEG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531568/original/file-20230613-19-1lk376.JPEG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531568/original/file-20230613-19-1lk376.JPEG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531568/original/file-20230613-19-1lk376.JPEG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531568/original/file-20230613-19-1lk376.JPEG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531568/original/file-20230613-19-1lk376.JPEG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531568/original/file-20230613-19-1lk376.JPEG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Play spaces close to home classrooms mean students don’t have to climb stairs.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author supplied.</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>They don’t want too much noise</h2>
<p>Open-plan classrooms and atrium stairways, where the stairs hug the edges of an atrium, are common features in vertical schools.</p>
<p>Students said they were major sources of noise pollution. They complained “the stomping [on the stairs] could be really loud” and “could interfere with [their] learning”. As one 9-year-old student told me:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>if someone drops something on level one, you can hear it from level four. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>This particularly happens when the learning areas are open to the atrium and the main staircase and therefore the noise travels between the levels. </p>
<p>Research <a href="https://www.architects.nsw.gov.au/public-resources/byera-hadley-travelling-scholarships1/research-reports/report/73">suggests</a> building stairs in the corners of the building and separating them from the atrium can minimise noise.
This way vertical movement won’t interrupt any central learning spaces.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532357/original/file-20230616-15-7soaej.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532357/original/file-20230616-15-7soaej.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=389&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532357/original/file-20230616-15-7soaej.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=389&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532357/original/file-20230616-15-7soaej.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=389&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532357/original/file-20230616-15-7soaej.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=488&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532357/original/file-20230616-15-7soaej.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=488&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532357/original/file-20230616-15-7soaej.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=488&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A school with stairwells located in the corners and separated from the atrium. This can help reduce noise.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author supplied.</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/open-plan-classrooms-are-trendy-but-there-is-little-evidence-to-show-they-help-students-learn-199591">Open-plan classrooms are trendy but there is little evidence to show they help students learn</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>But they want to be able to bump into each other</h2>
<p>Children said they wanted ways to meet their friends informally. They did not want to feel closed off in their class groups. </p>
<p>Atriums, wide stairs, and expansive views both inward and outward can promote a sense of community at school. As a 9-year-old student described:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>[Kids] can see what’s going on down there and if they see someone, they can knock on the glass and wave. And sometimes kids can watch their friends go to choir on those steps down there and they wave to them. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>This type of interaction is important as research shows a sense of community increases children’s <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.22759">emotional attachment</a> to school, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/16078055.2019.1661105">resilience</a> and overall <a href="https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-981-13-6092-3">sense of wellbeing</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531575/original/file-20230613-17-hrb0i9.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531575/original/file-20230613-17-hrb0i9.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531575/original/file-20230613-17-hrb0i9.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531575/original/file-20230613-17-hrb0i9.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531575/original/file-20230613-17-hrb0i9.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531575/original/file-20230613-17-hrb0i9.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531575/original/file-20230613-17-hrb0i9.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Wide stairs create opportunities for children to interact.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author supplied.</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>They also want a choice over the use of outdoor spaces</h2>
<p>Children would like to choose their preferred outdoor space during breaks, whether they are terraces close to the learning spaces, school grounds or neighbourhood parks. As one 13-year-old student said: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>I wish we could sit on [the terraces of] all of the levels […] You’re not allowed to go past level one in your lunch breaks because there is no supervision up here.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>While all these opportunities might be present in a vertical school, using them all at the same time poses a challenge to the adult supervision. </p>
<p>Schools struggling with staff shortages may not be able to supervise students in multiple floors and the neighbourhood park during breaks. But this can make spaces overcrowded.</p>
<p>Additionally, vertical movement is strictly programmed in primary schools. Children rely on the teachers taking them upstairs or downstairs before and after the break. </p>
<p>Despite attractive architectural concepts anticipating stair landings for informal interactions, children were unable to pause at their leisure and connect with their environment or each other. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/school-playgrounds-are-getting-squeezed-here-are-8-ways-to-keep-students-active-in-small-spaces-185760">School playgrounds are getting squeezed: here are 8 ways to keep students active in small spaces</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Keep talking to students</h2>
<p>Vertical schools provide new opportunities and new challenges for the way students play and learn. </p>
<p>My research shows the importance of <a href="https://eprints.qut.edu.au/239256/">including</a> children’s perspectives in the initial stages of school design. While architects may offer innovative visions, they will not be the ones eventually using the spaces they create.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/207321/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Fatemeh Aminpour receives funding from Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat (CTBUH). </span></em></p>In a new study, students say they want access to indoor and outdoor play spaces at vertical schools. But they don’t want too much noise.Fatemeh Aminpour, Associate Lecturer, School of Built Environment, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2040502023-06-19T14:05:44Z2023-06-19T14:05:44ZTanzanian students who struggle with English feel bullied - a major barrier to learning<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529329/original/file-20230531-17-88ouf7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Students at Mtitu Secondary School in Kilolo district, approximately 500 kilometres south-west of Tanzania’s commercial capital, Dar-es-Salaam.
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Tony Karumba/AFP via Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>In many postcolonial contexts, early learning is conducted, and assessed, in a language that is unfamiliar to learners. About <a href="https://en.unesco.org/gem-report/if-you-don%E2%80%99t-understand-how-can-you-learn">40%</a> of the world’s population cannot access schooling in a language that they understand and that is regularly used in their communities. This figure may be as high as <a href="https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/entities/publication/537645d3-981c-5137-836d-f7cfd8ac46d6">80% in sub-Saharan Africa</a>. </p>
<p>Language policies in some countries preserve a role for mother tongue or other familiar local languages in the first years of schooling. This is the case for example in Kenya, Botswana and Ethiopia. In Tanzania, the national language – Kiswahili – is the <a href="https://www.journals.esciencepress.net/index.php/IJES/article/view/725/404">language of instruction</a> in primary schooling. The use of Kiswahili at this level was seen as integral to forging a new national Tanzanian identity after independence. </p>
<p>But <a href="https://www.unicef.org/esa/sites/unicef.org.esa/files/2018-09/UNICEF-2016-Language-and-Learning-FullReport.pdf">nearly all countries</a> switch to English, French or Portuguese by the start of secondary schooling. </p>
<p>Tanzania is no exception. Although there was a shift in the wording of the <a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3389821">language policy</a> in 2015, there was <a href="https://www.thecitizen.co.tz/news/Tanzania-has-no-plans-of-scrapping-English-as-a-language-/1840340-5154162-11xcx0c/index.html">strong opposition</a> to change. Young people continue to experience an <a href="https://journaljesbs.com/index.php/JESBS/article/view/60">abrupt transition</a> to English when they enter Form 1 of secondary school from 14 years old. </p>
<p>There is clear <a href="https://hakielimu.or.tz/download/does-language-of-instruction-affect-quality-of-education">evidence</a> that the compulsory use of English makes learning more difficult and contributes to poor outcomes. Research has also <a href="https://www.iiste.org/Journals/index.php/JEP/article/view/5752/0">found</a>, however, that many students and teachers wanted to retain English as the language of instruction. </p>
<p>To try to unpick this perplexing confusion, I sought to explore students’ experiences of language in school, alongside their broader attitudes and aspirations relating to education and language. My <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2022.2093357">study</a> confirmed previous findings that compulsory use of English limits learner comprehension and participation. More significantly, I found that underlying student fear of poor expression in a new language – and being laughed at or mocked by teachers and fellow students – was a prevalent barrier to learning and participation. </p>
<p>The findings from this study are a clear pointer that any new approaches must include changes to classroom management. Laughter and humiliation should not be allowed as responses to mistakes. </p>
<h2>The study</h2>
<p>This study was conducted over eight months in two secondary schools in the Morogoro region of central Tanzania. The urban school had more than 1,500 students and included both lower and advanced secondary level, forms 1-6. The rural school was a newer, community school, with 600 students in forms 1-4. This study was designed for depth of understanding, so it focused on only two schools. There may be differences in learners’ experiences in different schools and regions across the country, but the challenges found in these two schools were similar to those reported in the wider literature. </p>
<p>The research approach was ethnographic – through observation in and out of class as well as formal and informal interviews with students and teachers. During this research, young people were free to speak Kiswahili, English or a mix of these two. Although there were other local languages used in the communities, they were not widely used in school. This is perhaps different in other regions of the country where there is a more <a href="https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/items/08a9f569-fb93-4c68-8802-83760e16cf77">dominant local language</a>. </p>
<p>I trained and worked with a group of pupil researchers from the two schools. They conducted their own interviews, co-facilitated workshops and helped to interpret the findings and explain their meaning in the Tanzanian context. I wanted to recognise the importance of their accounts and explanations. </p>
<h2>What we found</h2>
<p>The vast majority of pupils in this study had not used English as a language of instruction before starting secondary school at age 14 or above. They also had limited exposure to English outside school. Only a small number of pupils at the urban school had attended private, English-medium primary schools. </p>
<p>To enable learners to understand, most teachers translated lesson content into Kiswahili. This happens elsewhere too, but it is much less common for teachers to allow students to answer questions in a familiar language. In this study I observed learners asking to speak in Kiswahili and being told that this was not permitted. Students had to translate their knowledge into English to respond.</p>
<p>Many students explained that they preferred to remain silent. This is because if they tried to answer and failed to express themselves, they risked being laughed at and perceived as unintelligent by their teachers and classmates. A female Form 2 student in the urban school said: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>You will be laughed at, which means we are afraid of the shame … fear, again. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Students’ fears were not unfounded. I recorded many instances of laughter punctuating student responses in class. These include some which were led by teachers who seemed to be using humiliation and fear of failure as strategies to motivate learners to work harder. In some cases, threats of physical punishment were also used against students who were unable to complete a task. </p>
<p>This study found that girls were particularly worried about cruel comments from other girls that they termed “gossiping”. Learners’ experiences of negative emotions may <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/01434632.2022.2159031">differ based on gender</a> but this was not the focus of my study. </p>
<h2>Conclusion</h2>
<p>Requiring young students to use an unfamiliar language to participate in learning works against the global aspirations for <a href="https://sdgs.un.org/goals/goal4">inclusive and equitable quality education</a>. In Tanzania and other sub-Saharan African countries, some important work is <a href="https://talast.ac.tz/processes-of-pedagogic-change-2/">being done</a> with local teachers and teacher educators to develop multilingual, translingual and language supportive approaches to teaching. </p>
<p>The key feature is the use of a familiar language for exploratory discussion and to support learning of both subject content and the target language. Currently on a small scale, it is happening in a several countries, including <a href="https://www.ejmste.com/article/practice-in-teaching-and-learning-of-invertebrates-evaluating-the-effectiveness-of-pedagogical-9697">Tanzania</a>, <a href="https://perlinguam.journals.ac.za/pub/article/view/628">South Africa</a>, and <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342368321_Pushing_linguistic_boundaries_translanguaging_in_a_bilingual_Science_and_Technology_classroom">Zimbabwe</a>. Research is also <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/media-library/sites/education/documents/bristol-working-papers-in-education/working-paper-bowden-barrett-2022.pdf">under way</a> to explore opportunities for expanding to a larger scale. </p>
<p>Students must feel safe to talk and experiment with language and ideas without fear of shame.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/204050/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Laela Adamson has received funding from the Education Development Trust (Tim Morris Award) and the UKRI Economic and Social Research Council, grant number: ES/W005484/1. </span></em></p>Students’ fears were not unfounded. I recorded many instances of laughter punctuating student responses in class.Laela Adamson, Lecturer, University of Strathclyde Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/885322018-04-03T10:46:46Z2018-04-03T10:46:46ZGenes and environment have equal influence in learning for rich and poor kids, study finds<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/212454/original/file-20180328-109204-1um4x34.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Two youngsters in a kindergarten classroom. A new study suggests that class may not affect their learning as much as previously believed. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/american-african-boys-reading-together-happiness-1006711075?src=YuGIwz_MT0h0pXNI6GXfBw-1-59">mangpoor2004/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>More than 40 years ago, psychologist Sandra Scarr put forth a provocative idea: that genetic influence on children’s cognitive abilities is linked to their family’s income. The wealthier the family, the <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/content/174/4016/1285">more influence genes have on brain development</a>, the thinking went. </p>
<p>Scarr turned the nature-nurture debate on its head, proposing that how much “nature” matters varies between environments. Scarr’s research has since been roundly debated and thoroughly studied by other researchers with mixed results, including reaffirmation by another American psychologist, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10546338">David Rowe</a>, in 1999. </p>
<p>The line of research has come to be called the Scarr-Rowe hypothesis — that parents’ socio-economic status moderates genetic contributions to variation in intelligence. The thinking was that, for people of lower socio-economic status, a person’s intelligence is influenced more by his or her environment than by genetics, meaning whether a child reaches full potential depends on economic standing. </p>
<p>I have been studying the relationship of early health conditions to subsequent school performance for 25 years and been fascinated by the role that genetics and environment play in student achievement.</p>
<p>A group of us set out to re-examine the question: Are genetic influences on cognitive abilities larger for children raised in a more advantaged environment? To get that answer, I collaborated with colleagues at Northwestern University and Stanford University. </p>
<h2>Studying twins, siblings gives insight</h2>
<p>We <a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/114/51/13441">analyzed birth and school records</a> of 24,000 twins and nearly 275,000 siblings born in Florida between 1994 and 2002. As did previous researchers who examined genetic and environmental influences of cognitive development, we focused on a very large set of twins and siblings. </p>
<p>Twins and siblings close in age allowed us to disentangle the role of genes and environment in development of cognitive ability. We found no evidence that social class played more of a role in educational performance for poor kids than for rich ones.</p>
<p>While students in the higher income groups performed better than students in the lower income groups, the relative influence of genetic and environmental differences was the same across groups. The results were published recently in the <a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/114/51/13441">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.</p>
<h2>A complex gene-environment interaction</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/212455/original/file-20180328-109185-t173q0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/212455/original/file-20180328-109185-t173q0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/212455/original/file-20180328-109185-t173q0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/212455/original/file-20180328-109185-t173q0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/212455/original/file-20180328-109185-t173q0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/212455/original/file-20180328-109185-t173q0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/212455/original/file-20180328-109185-t173q0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The influence of genetics and environment is equally strong in kids from rich and poor families.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/man-woman-parents-two-children-having-71140174?src=7Y7aaCTHhwEwYM8a8ZGYiw-1-25">Darren Baker/Shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>What is the significance of our findings? According to David Figlio, dean of the School of Education and Social Policy at Northwestern and lead author of the study, we did not confirm that environmental factors mitigate the effects of genetics on cognitive development. Environmental differences are just as important for students from affluent backgrounds as students from poorer backgrounds.</p>
<p><a href="https://labs.la.utexas.edu/tucker-drob/files/2015/02/Tucker-Drob-Harden-4.20.15-A-Behavioral-Genetic-Perspective-on-Noncognitive-Factors-and-Academic-Achievement.pdf">Recent research</a> has found evidence of a difference in genetic influence on academic performance between rich and poor families in the United States, when compared with families in Australia or Western Europe. </p>
<p>However, our research did not replicate the U.S. findings, in part because our large data set from Florida represented a very socio-economically diverse set of families. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/1XgKGTQchHw?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>Our findings, however, do not contradict the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4641149/">overall pattern</a> that parental socio-economic status is associated with children’s cognitive development. Among twins and siblings pairs who were close in age, standardized math and reading scores increased proportionally along with mothers’ years of education beyond high school. </p>
<p>More broadly, our findings suggest that the confluence of genes and environment that shape a child’s cognitive ability is not so clear cut; it is far more elusive and complex than currently understood.</p>
<p>Jeremy Freese, a Stanford University sociology professor and second author of our paper, noted that being able to say that genes matter more for one group than another is appealing partly for its simplicity. We suspect the truth is more complicated: Some genes may matter more in wealthier families, and other genes may matter more in poorer families, so there’s no overall characterization one can provide.</p>
<p>In the near future, deeper understanding of the interplay between genetics and environment will become available. With the advent of more specific genetic information, we may be able to map more precisely the gene-environment connection. Such information will improve the ability for researchers to forecast how children achieve their intellectual potential.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/88532/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jeffrey Roth received funding from the National Science Foundation.</span></em></p>For years, educators have viewed socio-economic status as an influence on learning. Here’s why a recent study suggests the full story may be more complicated than that.Jeffrey Roth, Professor of Pediatrics, University of FloridaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/898612018-02-07T01:36:01Z2018-02-07T01:36:01ZClassroom design should follow evidence, not architectural fads<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/205006/original/file-20180206-14078-mkvt55.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">There is limited evidence to support the idea that making physical changes to classrooms boosts learning outcomes.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Churchie</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The past decade has seen a boom in the construction of trendy buildings with visually appealing interiors in schools and universities. Proponents highlight the potential of these flexible and technology-rich spaces, referred to as innovative learning environments (ILEs), <a href="http://www.oecd.org/edu/ceri/innovativelearningenvironments.htm">to shape behaviours to enhance student learning</a>. </p>
<p>Economic and technological changes have caused a reconsideration of the nature of teaching and learning. This narrative has been used to underpin the call to re-imagine school learning environments.</p>
<p>Critiques highlight the constrained, static design of conventional classrooms, which favours more traditional teaching practices. It is suggested this is <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13602365.2014.882376">not conducive to those learning experiences favoured in current policy</a>. </p>
<p>However, this claimed relationship between space and teacher practice is flimsy. There is a <a href="https://dro.deakin.edu.au/eserv/DU:30036968/blackmore-researchinto-2011.pdf">lack of evidence to underpin it</a>.</p>
<h2>What evidence is there for this relationship?</h2>
<p>Systematic investment in new learning environments is a matter of policy in many countries. In Australia alone, more than <a href="http://apo.org.au/node/19434">A$16 billion funded the Rudd government’s Building the Education Revolution</a> program. Current <a href="http://advancingeducation.qld.gov.au/SiteCollectionDocuments/building-future-schools-fund.pdf">state government initiatives</a> will soon increase this public investment.</p>
<p>The need for innovative classroom spaces stems from questions about how efficient existing classrooms are. Analysis by the <a href="http://www.iletc.com.au">Innovative Learning Environments and Teacher Change</a> (ILETC) project suggests conventional or traditional classrooms account for <a href="http://www.iletc.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/TechnicalReport_Web.pdf">about 75% of all spaces in Australian and New Zealand schools</a>. It has been suggested most current classrooms are <a href="https://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2011/07/29/37nair.h30.html?print=1">obsolete and unfit for today’s learners</a>.</p>
<p>A systematic review conducted for the project identified empirical studies that evaluated the relationship between educational spaces and academic achievement. Of the 5,521 articles retrieved (since 1960), only 21 studies evaluated impacts of the physical environment of primary and secondary schools on measures of student learning outcomes. In particular, the review highlighted how little is understood about the long-term impact of different learning spaces.</p>
<p>The review highlighted that the large and interconnected spaces of the open-plan movement from the 1960s to 1970s <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/0260136830030104?journalCode=cslm19">had questionable effects on academic outcomes</a>. </p>
<p><a href="http://eprint.ncl.ac.uk/pub_details2.aspx?pub_id=12574">Similar reviews</a> highlighted the problems of <a>top-down implementation, lack of teacher consultation and support, poor acoustics and overt focus on design over use</a> that contributed to their varying impact. Radical spatial changes, like those in some Australian schools, were rarely evaluated and outpaced desired changes in teacher practices.</p>
<p>Key studies in the field often focused on the <a href="https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ810757.pdf">design</a> and <a href="http://usir.salford.ac.uk/32306/">physical performance of buildings</a>. A small number evaluated their <a href="http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/jnp/ct/2014/00000029/00000001/art00002">use in teacher practice and effects on student learning experiences</a>. </p>
<p>With <a href="https://www.acmartin.com/sites/default/files/LearningSpaceDesign-L_0.pdf">few reliable and robust methods and metrics available</a>, the current narrative for spatial change must be considered with caution.</p>
<h2>What works</h2>
<p>The review of literature suggests that, by themselves, new educational spaces are not a catalyst for direct improvement in learning. Typically, the beliefs, practice and technical expertise of the teacher mediated positive effects on measures of student learning. School culture and the contexts that affect learning influenced teachers’ abilities to use the elements of different classroom layouts, rather than these spaces dictating their practice. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/202241/original/file-20180117-53289-1rr7qi2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/202241/original/file-20180117-53289-1rr7qi2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202241/original/file-20180117-53289-1rr7qi2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202241/original/file-20180117-53289-1rr7qi2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202241/original/file-20180117-53289-1rr7qi2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202241/original/file-20180117-53289-1rr7qi2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202241/original/file-20180117-53289-1rr7qi2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Stonefields School.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Alex de Freitas</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="http://www.stonefields.school.nz/">Stonefields School in Auckland, New Zealand</a>, presents the archetype for the use of innovative classrooms to facilitate a collaborative learning culture. Its success is built on the creation of a co-operative space for teachers to engage in continuous professional learning. Collective teacher capacity ensures the elements of the space are used to enhance teacher practice.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/202380/original/file-20180118-114727-1i2g66r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/202380/original/file-20180118-114727-1i2g66r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=974&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202380/original/file-20180118-114727-1i2g66r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=974&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202380/original/file-20180118-114727-1i2g66r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=974&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202380/original/file-20180118-114727-1i2g66r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1223&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202380/original/file-20180118-114727-1i2g66r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1223&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202380/original/file-20180118-114727-1i2g66r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1223&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Gateway School.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Peter Lippman</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Evaluation at the <a href="http://173.254.28.45/%7Epehkaorg/?page_id=81">Gateway School in New York City</a> indicates innovative learning environments are neither open-plan nor a series of differentiated classrooms and breakout spaces. Rather, classrooms and breakout spaces must be understood and designed as interconnected and defined activity settings. These complementary spaces provide opportunities to reinvent the use of communal or
shared spaces outside the classroom.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/202367/original/file-20180117-53314-rtmfks.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/202367/original/file-20180117-53314-rtmfks.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202367/original/file-20180117-53314-rtmfks.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202367/original/file-20180117-53314-rtmfks.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202367/original/file-20180117-53314-rtmfks.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202367/original/file-20180117-53314-rtmfks.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202367/original/file-20180117-53314-rtmfks.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Glömsta School.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Peter Lippman</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The learning community at <a href="http://www.huddinge.se/glomstaskolan">Glömsta School in Huddinge, Sweden,</a> reinforces this concept of placemaking. Despite the design, which followed a top-down philosophy, the learning community identified a unique solution to a cluster of classrooms around a common space. Rather than the view of classrooms as primarily instructional spaces, they are used as a breakout setting to complement the activities that occur in the common areas.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/202232/original/file-20180117-53320-lvf4j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/202232/original/file-20180117-53320-lvf4j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=334&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202232/original/file-20180117-53320-lvf4j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=334&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202232/original/file-20180117-53320-lvf4j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=334&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202232/original/file-20180117-53320-lvf4j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202232/original/file-20180117-53320-lvf4j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202232/original/file-20180117-53320-lvf4j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Churchie Centenary Library.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Brand and Slater Architects</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://www.churchie.com.au/academic/new-generation-learning-spaces">Anglican Church Grammar School (Churchie) in Brisbane</a>, the <a href="http://research.unimelb.edu.au/learnetwork">Learning Environments Applied Research Network (LEaRN)</a> and <a href="http://www.brandandslater.com.au">Brand and Slater Architects</a> used evaluation as a fulcrum for strategic improvement. Longitudinal studies correlated different learning space designs to improvement in student perceptions and engagement that affected <a href="http://issuu.com/anglicanchurchgrammarschool/docs/churchie_s_new_generation_learning_?e=25566505/38531718">significant academic gain in English and mathematics</a>. </p>
<p>The process identified removing the front teaching position by a combination of visual technologies (whiteboards and screen), which allowed greater teacher movement to actively engage with students and moderate their behaviour and focus. An unexpected outcome was the development of collective teacher capacity in the optimal use of traditional classrooms and innovative learning spaces to enhance learning experiences. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/202234/original/file-20180117-53310-1xvccbq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/202234/original/file-20180117-53310-1xvccbq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202234/original/file-20180117-53310-1xvccbq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202234/original/file-20180117-53310-1xvccbq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202234/original/file-20180117-53310-1xvccbq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202234/original/file-20180117-53310-1xvccbq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202234/original/file-20180117-53310-1xvccbq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Hayward Midson Creative Precinct Studio Design.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Brand and Slater Architects</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>We need better evidence to inform classroom design</h2>
<p>There is limited evidence to support the idea that making physical changes to classrooms boosts learning outcomes. The reason for this is schools are complex places. </p>
<p>The case studies emphasise the mediating influence of context and school culture. So, designs can’t be imposed on the basis of current architectural trends or policy. Further evidence of how different physical layouts support best practice for teachers is required.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/89861/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Terry Byers receives funding from the Australian Research Council through the Linkage Project 'Innovative Learning Environments and Teacher Change'</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Peter C. Lippman received funding from the Gateway School of New York City, and sits on the board of Projects For Environmental Health, Knowledge, and Action in New Jersey. </span></em></p>Despite a boom in the construction of trendy buildings and classrooms, the evidence for their link to boosting learning outcomes is limited.Terry Byers, Research fellow, The University of MelbournePeter C. Lippman, PhD Candidate, School of Arts, Sciences & Commerce, La Trobe UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/834182017-10-01T23:44:33Z2017-10-01T23:44:33ZDecoration or distraction: the aesthetics of classrooms matter, but learning matters more<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/188279/original/file-20171001-8620-1qnwq8r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A primary function of school displays should be to allow children to see their own work around the classroom and school walls.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>On a recent holiday to Greece, my 30-year-old daughter took a trip down memory lane and visited her old primary school. She posted a photo to Instagram captioned:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>It might look like a jail but at least the view was good. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>The view from the classrooms across the bay to the mountains beyond is indeed mesmerising, but the building does look like a grim correctional facility.</p>
<p>We had moved to Greece, from Australia, when she was in Year 4. Her new primary school, with its bare walls and single desks bolted in rows to the cold marble floors, was a shock to both of us. </p>
<p>Where were the soft carpets, bright tote trays and clever tessellating tables? Where were the decorated walls, displays of children’s work and carefully constructed charts with reminders of class birthdays and times tables? </p>
<p>What an uninviting learning space, I thought.</p>
<h2>Do the aesthetics of our learning environments matter?</h2>
<p><a href="http://usir.salford.ac.uk/33995/">A comprehensive UK research study</a> attempted the complex task of identifying the effects of the built learning space on student learning in primary schools. </p>
<p>They found that natural light - but not direct sunlight - and good air quality were by far the most significant factors correlated with high student learning outcomes. </p>
<p>Next on the list were individualised classrooms. For example, having the right sized chairs and desks for the children in the class, and the flexibility to change the layout for different learning activities. </p>
<p>So far, so predictable. Perhaps more surprising is the finding that classrooms with too much colour and too many display items, have a negative effect on learning outcomes. They also found that classrooms with no colour and no display items correlated with low learning outcomes. </p>
<h2>Decoration or distraction</h2>
<p>I was one of those teachers who devoted my weekends and afternoons to transforming my classroom into an underwater wonderland, a castle, a spaceship. This usually involved a lot of fishing nets, cardboard boxes and visits to the “crazy cheap reject” shop. </p>
<p>Frankly, it was difficult for an adult to walk upright in my classroom. I’d even cover the windows with “atmospheric” coloured cellophane. So much for natural light.</p>
<p>It was fun. It was time-consuming. It was <a href="https://www.tes.com/news/school-news/breaking-news/exclusive-teachers-are-spending-hundreds-pounds-a-year-classroom?utm_content=bufferc19f3&utm_medium=social&utm_source=twitter.com&utm_campaign=buffer">a drain on my financial resources</a>. And with the benefit of hindsight and the research evidence, there wasn’t much educational benefit to my students. </p>
<p>Highly-decorated classrooms are <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28471220">more of a distraction than an aid to learning</a>. This has been found to be particularly so for children in the early primary years, and children with special learning needs. </p>
<p>The older the children, the less prone to distraction they are. So it is perhaps ironic that it is our early childhood classrooms that tend to be over stimulating, whilst our high school classroom walls usually offer no stimulation at all. We need a happy compromise.</p>
<h2>Window dressing</h2>
<p>Displays in schools send <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17457820701547450">a message about the school’s values</a> - sometimes overtly, and sometimes covertly.</p>
<p>As a very frequent visitor to schools, the displays in the public common spaces of the school do give me an initial “read” on the school. The child constructed messages of hope and diversity on the hall walls of one primary school made me feel I was with kindred spirits. </p>
<p>By contrast, the commercially-printed “welcome” stickers in a dozen languages on the front door of another school, where the Greek version was upside down, made me wonder how genuine their commitment to embracing diversity really was.</p>
<p>Schools should consider carefully the messages being sent by their public displays - not just their content but their intent. </p>
<h2>Celebrating students and their learning.</h2>
<p>The displays children actually notice and interact with most of all are those of their own work. It makes them feel proud, part of the school community and <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17457820701547450">a legitimate player in the school’s story</a>.
They are, however, <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03004277808558889?journalCode=rett20">not that interested in anyone else’s work</a>.</p>
<p>So a primary function of school displays should be to allow children to see their own work around the classroom and school walls. Don’t just choose the “best”, unless of course you are seeking to actively disengage some students from the school’s esprit de corps. </p>
<h2>Reinforcing student learning</h2>
<p>Many classroom displays incorporate commercial or teacher-made reminders of learning - reference lists of commonly used words, or “interesting” adjectives, times-tables, or classroom rules. </p>
<p>However, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28471220">recent observational studies</a> have found the students rarely turn their gaze to those kinds of displays. This reinforces findings from <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03004277808558889?journalCode=rett20">older studies</a>, which found most students did not refer to the displays on the walls when given a task to complete, even though the answers to that task were on the wall.</p>
<p>Displays designed to reinforce, remind or support learning should be co-constructed with the students, in the context of learning - not simply appear on the walls after yet another teacher’s weekend sacrificed to the laminating machine. It is the students’ input into the content being displayed that will bring their attention back to it when they need that content for their classroom work.</p>
<h2>Getting it right</h2>
<p>When work is on display, we do need to get it right. That doesn’t mean triple mounting children’s work on coloured cardboard, but it does mean respecting their work enough to hang it straight.</p>
<p>It doesn’t mean buying expensive laminated charts from the shiny catalogues on the staffroom table, but it does mean ensuring that your information - and your spelling - is correct. </p>
<p>A bright classroom that reflects school values, and celebrates children’s learning, is an important part of the teaching and learning puzzle. But a whisper of advice to beginning teachers from someone who has been there and done that - your time is precious. Prioritise lesson planning over classroom decoration.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/83418/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<h4 class="border">Disclosure</h4><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Misty Adoniou works for the University of Canberra. She has received funding from government and non-government organisations to research curriculum, standards and refugee education. She is on the Board of Directors of TESOL International, a voluntary organisation of teachers' associations around the globe. </span></em></p>Schools should carefully consider the messages that are sent by how they have constructed the learning environment.Misty Adoniou, Associate Professor in Language, Literacy and TESL, University of CanberraLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/385212015-03-11T11:08:26Z2015-03-11T11:08:26ZGuns on campus: there will be no artist or doctor once the trigger is pulled<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/74320/original/image-20150310-13576-detwg3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The possibility of a gun in a classroom may lead to fear in a learning environment </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/jam_project/6989583027/in/photolist-bDDrwc-7AoE8s-9Awdpk-aXd7cK-85QtDR-7pTiqe-7D5j15-mp1Ekz-4u2CyD-9zJRU4-7kkDJi-7yWysC-7PVSib-63VLsq-bDDrZR-bDDrHg-rbX737-7eBUAW-2U9nA-6YTcyf-uWCaP-5cfKNY-afjkBn-hZkFMU-6Sbrhi-5Adove-fuZbgi-dEMphp-i1gV9o-nqVizp-8BxG6h-6FQEh7-p2Lsit-5WoVQy-8nmzni-7qG6EM-bVRipA-6m6As7-7Tx3yN-hYmaeU-6YEDpt-hYjUhE-dghzXc-dPMsNo-761khh-7GWSGL-4sTktN-6SL8Ck-7pSa5k-6i3RGL">JAM Project/ Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>As a rational academic, living in one of the most conservative states, where legislators are planning to <a href="http://trib.com/news/state-and-regional/govt-and-%20politics/concealed-carry-of-guns-in-wyoming-schools-government-buildings-stirs/article_3204c4c4-%201c98-5eee-b23e-32dda6d3943f.html">allow firearms</a> in virtually all public places, including the University of Wyoming, I have labored to understand my own deep antipathy to the idea of my students and colleagues being armed. </p>
<p>Gun advocates and opponents can each fire off statistics; however, the debate will not be resolved with data when the fundamental conflict is a matter of ideals. I could dredge up <a href="http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/injury.htm">statistics</a> about the frequency of gun accidents, while advocates could offer <a href="http://www.gunfacts.info/gun-%20control-myths/concealed-carry/">numbers</a> showing that people with concealed gun permits rarely shoot innocent bystanders.</p>
<p>But dueling spreadsheets fail to get to the heart of the issue. Rather, my resistance to a well-regulated militia crossing the quad between classes is rooted in non-quantifiable principles. </p>
<h2>Fear undermines classroom learning environment</h2>
<p>The proliferation of virtual courses notwithstanding, the soul of a university remains its classrooms. These are the places of genuine human engagement, debate, thought, and passion. Students must come prepared -— ready to learn (by having done the reading), ready to argue (by thinking critically about ideas), and ready to change (by cultivating intellectual humility). </p>
<p>Here they are tested and challenged. This is where they flounder and flourish. Arming students seems inimical to learning. The presence, even the possibility, of a loaded weapon casts a pall over classroom discussion. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/74323/original/image-20150310-13585-tlpm4p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/74323/original/image-20150310-13585-tlpm4p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=444&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/74323/original/image-20150310-13585-tlpm4p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=444&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/74323/original/image-20150310-13585-tlpm4p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=444&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/74323/original/image-20150310-13585-tlpm4p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=557&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/74323/original/image-20150310-13585-tlpm4p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=557&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/74323/original/image-20150310-13585-tlpm4p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=557&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Arming students is inimical to learning as classrooms are meant to provide a safe space for intellectual growth.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/kwreinsch/2219374522/in/photolist-3jPF2-6JASjB-8k3i9A-9Fs1yg-7FuToD-vDvyp-5RgF3t-fv1mTg-4o7SHY-apt73p-apvEdj-5bmN6S-6WEzbz-apsPBB-aN6Wja-po1eGH-6et71W-6eoYia-7ZP7uz-6QQWZ-9FaDku-962HQp-6eoUjR-dghA4v-dghzTK-dghAiB-dghBTL-dghBKG-dghC1Q-4STEVX-dTB6Rv-6et6pE-6MyS29-6et33h-6et4Yu-6eoWQ8-6et5hU-6eoXPM-6et2Ww-6eoXAP-6eoX3H-6et7sQ-6eoV1X-6eoWJ6-6eoWh8-6et6Ub-6eoVXB-6eoYqv-6eoVAg-6et65d">K W Reinsch/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Fear undermines the openness and vulnerability necessary for learning. When getting ready for class means preparing to die (or to kill), an academic community has failed. </p>
<p>I remember going back home to Albuquerque – a city with a violent and property crime rate well <a href="http://www.city-data.com/crime/crime-Albuquerque-New-Mexico">above the national average</a>– for Christmas when our kids were little to find that my parents had installed burglar bars in their windows. I was overwhelmed by a sense of sadness that the city of my youth had failed so miserably that the people barricaded their homes. </p>
<h2>Universities are meant to be safe spaces</h2>
<p>My parents were free to live behind bars to protect their property, and the legislature wants to free me to arm myself in the classroom to guard my life. Somehow, these don’t feel like liberties. I want to work at a university that is big enough to provide students with a hundred opportunities and small enough to notice one anguished student. </p>
<p>Maybe I’m safer if a student in my seminar is carrying a gun. For that matter, maybe I’d be safer if I wore a Kevlar vest while lecturing. But I don’t want to teach where we prepare to shoot and be shot. I don’t want to be a part of failure. In all likelihood, no armed student will take (or save) my life. But the same cannot be said of that student’s life. </p>
<h2>Suicide rates are already high</h2>
<p>Suicide rates on college campuses are appalling. I said that numbers wouldn’t resolve the issue, but the fact is that suicide rates among young adults has tripled since the 1950s, having become the second most common cause of death among college students. Given current <a href="http://youngadults.about.com/od/healthandsafety/qt/suicide.htm">statistics,</a> the University of Wyoming with an enrollment of 14,000 can expect at least two thousand of these students to contemplate suicide, two hundred to make an attempt, and perhaps two to succeed. </p>
<p>I was the first person to arrive on the scene of two suicide attempts when I was in college. I mopped up a lot of blood, but razor blades are not all that effective. Guns work much better. Filled with shame, my friends asked me to hide the evidence and lie in the emergency room. I did. </p>
<p>They were both extremely intelligent young men. But laboring under enormous stress and failed relationships, on a dark, lonely night, collapsed into a moment of utter despair. Lonely but not alone -— nearly <a href="http://psychcentral.com/blog/archives/2010/09/02/statistics-about-college-depression/">half</a> of all university students report symptoms of depression. </p>
<p>Enough of the numbers. Consider this <a href="http://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2014/03/when-college-athletes-face-%20depression/284484/">simple statement</a> from a college athlete who was battling depression: “If I’d had a gun, I’d have probably put a bullet in my head.” </p>
<h2>Campus grounds are not for killing or being killed</h2>
<p>Perhaps my perspective is darkened by experience, but my deepest fear is not that a student with a gun comes to my classroom in the morning, but that the student leaves his dorm room in a body bag that evening. </p>
<p>Campuses are places fraught with doubt, conflict, angst, disorientation, and drama. A university education is not easy intellectually -— or existentially. College is where assumptions die, identities expire, and beliefs perish. But this should not become a place where students come to kill or be killed. </p>
<p>A university should be where the dying dream of being an engineer is resurrected as a graphic artist, where an identity as a straight Christian gives way to being a gay ethicist, and where the parental narrative of being a biology teacher is reborn as a student’s own aspiration of becoming a doctor. </p>
<p>But once the trigger is pulled, there will be no artist, philosopher, or doctor. Maybe I’m an idealist, but how else does one avoid cynicism and fatalism? If we aren’t willing to imagine and risk, then there’s no “good fight” left in the professoriate. An academic life worth living requires courage, hope, defiance and compassion. It does not require guns. </p>
<p><em>The issue of guns on American campuses is a subject of vigorous debate. By 2013, at least 19 states had introduced legislation to allow guns on campus. Seven states now allow concealed weapons on campus. We carry here both sides of the debate. Today, we are carrying this article opposing concealed weapons on campuses. Later this week, we will be carrying another article arguing in favour of guns on campus.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/38521/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jeffrey Alan Lockwood does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Classrooms are places of genuine human engagement, debate, thought and passion. Guns undermine the openness and vulnerability necessary for learning.Jeffrey Alan Lockwood, Professor of Natural Sciences & Humanities Director of the MFA program in Creative Writing, Department of Philosophy, University of WyomingLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/313002014-09-17T03:02:58Z2014-09-17T03:02:58ZListen to your elders: inviting Aboriginal parents back to school<p><em>Tony Abbott <a href="https://www.pm.gov.au/media/2014-06-23/visit-north-east-arnhem-land">is spending this week in North East Arnhem Land</a>, part of his <a href="http://www.smh.com.au/federal-politics/federal-election-2013/abbott-calls-for-new-era-of-engagement-with-indigenous-australia-20130810-2rony.html">long-held hope</a> “to be not just the Prime Minister but the Prime Minister for Aboriginal Affairs”. We asked our experts: what stories does the PM need to hear while he’s in the Top End?</em></p>
<p>Promising “a new approach to engaging with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people to achieve real results”, the top priorities of the Australian Government’s new <a href="http://www.indigenous.gov.au/indigenous-advancement-strategy">Indigenous Advancement Strategy</a> are “getting children to school, adults into work and building safe communities”.</p>
<p>Based on 40 years of experience in Top End education, I’d argue that if you can get the schooling right – which involves adults just as much as kids – you can lay the foundations for more adults in work and safer communities too.</p>
<h2>Lifelong learning</h2>
<p>“Free, compulsory and secular” education took a long time to establish for Aboriginal children in the Northern Territory. </p>
<p>I arrived at Milingimbi in the early 1970s as one of the first government educators, soon after the good-willed but under-funded Methodists had handed over their mission schools to the Northern Territory Administration Aboriginal Welfare Branch. There, the parents asked me why, if education were so important, it was visited upon children rather than adults.</p>
<p>I had learnt in my now radical-seeming teacher education in New Zealand the stories of how formal, universal education had served to keep poor children off the streets while their parents worked in the factories of the industrial revolution, and how it prepared the children for the same menial repetitive work in confined spaces for extended periods (the rich already had their schools).</p>
<p>Yet at Milingimbi in the 1970s, there remained a vibrant Methodist tradition of adult education, and plenty of interaction between the school and adult education staff and students. Every classroom had at least one local Aboriginal teacher, and there was often a grandfather outside under a tree singing or a mother telling stories.</p>
<p>Operating without carrots or sticks for attendance, the school had a central place in the life of the community, and we spent much time on country. We learnt from the elders that each child in school was unique to his or her particular links to history, people and place, and that we needed to understand and acknowledge those differences.</p>
<p>Today, times have changed. Under the pressures of “normalisation”, people everywhere are paying attention to NAPLAN test results. They are particularly poor for Aboriginal children in remote communities who grow up with little English around them, and who come to school whenever it pleases, truancy officers notwithstanding. </p>
<p>Communities and governments alike are looking for new and different ways to work collaboratively towards “Indigenous Advancement”.</p>
<p>If I were asked for ideas that could “achieve real results” – in remote Indigenous education – the following two would be at the top of my list.</p>
<h2>Adults are as important as the kids</h2>
<p>School can be an alienating experience when there are no senior family members around and no teachers speaking familiar languages. And the ancient practice of growing up children as independent agents in their environment, free of coercion, is still very strong in remote communities. </p>
<p>Parents would love to see their kids in school every day, but only if their kids choose to be there. The kids will choose to be there if they can see their families and clan elders working together with teachers and community leaders to make active contributions to their schooling and their futures.</p>
<p>Finding good ways of welcoming parents and elders – including their languages and authority – back into schools would do wonders for the NAPLAN results, if only because of improved attendance rates and the commitment of parents to a collaborative working together.</p>
<h2>Practical benefits of tapping into local knowledge</h2>
<p>We must also think about the new generation and its contribution to our future. The emphasis on English and maths results above all else means kids are assessed well before they are confident in the richness of their local identities and connections.</p>
<p>There is so much knowledge – including local languages, history, culture, environmental and ecological knowledge – that is there, waiting to be tapped into and reappear in classroom life, just as that knowledge was shared very productively in the past.</p>
<p>If Aboriginal families and their knowledge were taken seriously in schools, alongside the important knowledge from the outside world, it would not only revive the attendance rates but also prepare students to take part in the changing remote economies.</p>
<p>This isn’t just wishful thinking. If we want Aboriginal people to take an active and productive part in the future of remote Australia, a combination of traditional Aboriginal and contemporary Australian knowledge is very much what we need.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/3N91HaKMO64?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">A film about a collaborative project between CSIRO and Aboriginal rangers, organisations and community people, tackling showing locals were tackling weeds in central Australia.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There are practical ways that traditional knowledge can be a crucial path to future employment for young Aboriginal kids. For instance, in environmental services, <a href="http://www.nailsma.org.au/walfa-west-arnhem-land-fire-abatement-project">major carbon abatement projects (such as fire management)</a>, <a href="http://www.csiro.au/Organisation-Structure/Flagships/Biosecurity-Flagship/DVD-UnwelcomeStrangers.aspx">biosecurity and invasive species</a> management, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_heritage_management">cultural heritage management</a>, language, history, law, and many other areas. </p>
<p>All Australians benefit from having healthy, strong, bi-cultural Aboriginal populations in northern and central Australia.</p>
<hr>
<p><strong><em>Further reading in this <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/abbott-in-arnhem-land">Abbott in Arnhem Land</a> series:<br>
<a href="https://theconversation.com/birthing-on-country-could-deliver-healthier-babies-and-communities-31180">Birthing on Country could deliver healthier babies and communities</a><br>
<a href="https://theconversation.com/welcome-to-my-country-seeing-the-true-beauty-of-life-in-bawaka-31378">Welcome to my Country: seeing the true beauty of life in Bawaka</a><br>
<a href="https://theconversation.com/pm-for-aboriginal-affairs-abbott-faces-his-biggest-hearing-test-31021">‘PM for Aboriginal Affairs’ Abbott faces his biggest hearing test</a><br>
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australias-7-up-the-revealing-study-tracking-babies-to-adults-27312">Australia’s 7 Up: the revealing study tracking babies to adults</a><br>
<a href="https://theconversation.com/well-connected-indigenous-kids-keen-to-tap-new-ways-to-save-lives-30964">Well-connected Indigenous kids keen to tap new ways to save lives</a><br>
<a href="https://theconversation.com/indigenous-australias-rapid-rise-is-shifting-money-and-votes-26524">Indigenous Australia’s rapid rise is shifting money and votes</a><br>
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-crowded-homes-can-lead-to-empty-schools-in-the-bush-30971">How crowded homes can lead to empty schools in the bush</a><br>
<a href="https://theconversation.com/would-you-risk-losing-your-home-for-a-few-weeks-of-work-30911">Would you risk losing your home for a few weeks of work?</a><br>
<a href="https://theconversation.com/indigenous-australians-need-a-licence-to-drive-but-also-to-work-31480">Indigenous Australians need a licence to drive, but also to work</a><br>
<a href="https://theconversation.com/keeping-indigenous-teens-in-school-by-reinventing-the-lessons-30960">Keeping Indigenous teens in school by reinventing the lessons</a><br>
<a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-can-a-dna-test-reveal-if-youre-an-indigenous-australian-31767">Explainer: Can a DNA test reveal if you’re an Indigenous Australian?</a><br>
<a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-what-indigenous-constitutional-recognition-means-31770">Explainer: what Indigenous constitutional recognition means</a></em></strong></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/31300/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael Christie receives funding from the Australian and Northern Territory Governments to undertake governance research, as well as funding from the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p>Tony Abbott is spending this week in North East Arnhem Land, part of his long-held hope “to be not just the Prime Minister but the Prime Minister for Aboriginal Affairs”. We asked our experts: what stories…Michael Christie, Professor of Education, Charles Darwin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/273572014-06-19T05:04:13Z2014-06-19T05:04:13ZPupils and teachers should get a say in how to spend £2bn for building new schools<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/51533/original/hmww7d9t-1403094696.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The happiest days of your life.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">P. Woolner</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The government’s announcement of a second phase of its <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/education-spending">Priority School Building Project</a> demonstrates a commitment to around £2 billion of capital investment in the UK’s school stock. But it also reveals distinctly mixed understandings of the impact that the physical learning environment has on education. It’s important that pupils, teachers and other staff are involved in making decisions about the buildings where they spend their time. </p>
<p>Fortunately, the Department for Education has understood one key message from the debate that surrounded the previous government’s Building Schools for the Future (BSF) programme: that there are clear negative consequences of inadequate school buildings. </p>
<p>Studies have revealed correlations between measures of school building quality with various student outcomes, including <a href="http://eab.sagepub.com/content/40/4/455.abstract">behaviour</a>, <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0272494408000194">attendance and attainment</a>. In addition, and importantly, more focused research has found direct effects on learning of specific physical problems including <a href="http://eab.sagepub.com/content/29/5/638.abstract">noise</a>, <a href="http://www.google.co.uk/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&ved=0CCAQFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.schoolfunding.info%2Fpolicy%2Ffacilities%2FACLUfacilities_report1-04.pdf&ei=KfqfU6y6DYTIObPsgMAD&usg=AFQjCNEdkq2ATbXr3V2y9tSprdVz8v7jvg&sig2=Ph4OcJBq5AmsLfOJWiGU3g&bvm=bv.68911936,d.ZGU&cad=rjt">high and low temperatures</a>, <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360132311002617">poor air quality</a> and <a href="http://eab.sagepub.com/content/35/4/566.abstract">limited learning space</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/50499/original/mx4t88b7-1402051806.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/50499/original/mx4t88b7-1402051806.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/50499/original/mx4t88b7-1402051806.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/50499/original/mx4t88b7-1402051806.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/50499/original/mx4t88b7-1402051806.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/50499/original/mx4t88b7-1402051806.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/50499/original/mx4t88b7-1402051806.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Who wants to learn here?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">P. Woolner</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>I have also carried out <a href="http://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/the-design-of-learning-spaces-9781441193322/">research</a> that suggests, perhaps not surprisingly, how a poor school environment might contribute to a spiral of decline. This can involve declining student attitudes, increases in poor behaviour, reduced well-being and attendance, lowered staff morale and difficulties in staff retention. Overall, it is easier to find <a href="http://www.ncl.ac.uk/cflat/news/DCReport.pdf">evidence for the negative effects of a poor educational environment</a> than it is to demonstrate the positive effects of superior school premises.</p>
<h2>No one-size fits all solution</h2>
<p>Yet the danger of this way of thinking about the issue is that we find ourselves imagining we can all agree on what makes a suitable learning environment and build it, just by making good any obvious deficiencies. This is a trap; if we fall into it, we risk ignoring the human side of educational environments, and also over-simplifying the physical side.</p>
<p>The research that reveals the effects of specific problems does not provide priorities for fixing them, and sometimes the solutions may even be in conflict. For example, increasing ventilation to improve air quality, either mechanically or by opening the window, may well also increase noise. </p>
<p>The balance of cost and benefit will hinge on the particular circumstances of the school. For some schools, increasing learning space might be a cheap and relatively quick fix while for others, such as schools on restricted urban sites, this might be almost impossible. </p>
<p>As I pointed out in a <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03054980601094693?queryID=%24%7BresultBean.queryID%7D">review of this area</a> some years ago, there is no metric for comparing the benefits of improved physical infrastructure with other possible ways of spending the same money, such as on staff or resources.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/50500/original/6rxpzrqm-1402052213.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/50500/original/6rxpzrqm-1402052213.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/50500/original/6rxpzrqm-1402052213.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/50500/original/6rxpzrqm-1402052213.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/50500/original/6rxpzrqm-1402052213.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/50500/original/6rxpzrqm-1402052213.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/50500/original/6rxpzrqm-1402052213.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">School space adapted for curriculum innovation and to support enquiry learning.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">P. Woolner</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This awareness of the complexity of any educational environment makes sense of occasions when an apparently unexceptional school setting supports excellent education. Instead, it is often a matter of matching premises to needs. </p>
<p>Although no learner or teacher needs a leaky roof, the suitability of other aspects depend on what you want to do in your classroom. If the preferred teaching style is to teach the whole class at once, then the teacher needs to be visible and audible to all learners. Seating then in small groups may be counter-productive. Alternatively, a school that values speaking skills and learner discussion might be noisy at times.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/50498/original/yv8zxj9b-1402051410.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/50498/original/yv8zxj9b-1402051410.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/50498/original/yv8zxj9b-1402051410.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/50498/original/yv8zxj9b-1402051410.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/50498/original/yv8zxj9b-1402051410.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/50498/original/yv8zxj9b-1402051410.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/50498/original/yv8zxj9b-1402051410.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Classroom furniture arranged to maximise carpet space.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">P. Woolner</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Of course, one way to enhance the match between educational setting and proposed activities is to change the setting to make it more appropriate. This is something that <a href="http://imp.sagepub.com/content/15/1/45.abstract">individual teachers do on a small scale</a>: rearranging furniture for group work, organising resources to be accessible, maximising the carpet space to use for learning games and debates. </p>
<h2>Effective schools use space wisely</h2>
<p>Some <a href="http://www.emeraldinsight.com/journals.htm?articleid=1793202">studies of effective schools</a> suggest that a willingness to engage with the school environment can contribute to their “can-do” ethos. This goes beyond individual teachers organising their own classrooms and seems to involve the school community pulling together to make their premises work for them, enabling effective learning and social practices.</p>
<p>Such a dynamic was noticed nearly four decades ago in <a href="http://books.google.co.uk/books/about/Fifteen_Thousand_Hours.html?id=j_7FcLrSrEQC">a classic piece of British research</a>, but has been remarked upon in a much <a href="http://www.emeraldinsight.com/journals.htm?issn=0957-8234&volume=46&issue=1&articleid=1657805&show=html">more recent study</a> of school performance in the US state of Virginia. 80 schools were surveyed, revealing the expected associations between school quality and educational outcomes. Notably, the researchers found that aspects that were under the schools’ control, such as cleanliness, were as important as design elements. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.emeraldinsight.com/journals.htm?articleid=1793202">Case studies</a> of two surprisingly successful schools in economically deprived areas in Virginia showed how the members of these school communities had made good use of the premises to enhance teaching and learning. </p>
<h2>Getting involved</h2>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/50504/original/xwpngnww-1402052593.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/50504/original/xwpngnww-1402052593.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/50504/original/xwpngnww-1402052593.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/50504/original/xwpngnww-1402052593.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/50504/original/xwpngnww-1402052593.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/50504/original/xwpngnww-1402052593.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/50504/original/xwpngnww-1402052593.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Pupils taking part in school design.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">P. Woolner</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This all implies a necessity of actively <a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10984-009-9067-6">involving school users </a>in any redesign or rebuilding. This is because there is no ideal school: the building must fit the users’ needs and they will need to think collaboratively about exactly what those needs are. Interestingly, the Building Schools for the Future programme explicitly included ideas about <a href="http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415840767/">participation</a> with attempts made to involve learners, school staff and the wider community in design processes. </p>
<p>Worryingly, this is being determinedly left out of the new funding arrangements. The <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/review-of-education-capital">James review </a> levelled specific criticism at the participation attempted during the Building Schools for the Future era, because the process could be lengthy and challenging. </p>
<p>So it’s difficult – but that does not negate the need to do it. Ironically, there is a growing awareness within architecture of the <a href="http://www.ribabookshops.com/item/architecture-and-participation/38389/">benefits of user participation</a> in design. Within the related discipline of planning, participatory processes have been a <a href="http://lithgow-schmidt.dk/sherry-arnstein/ladder-of-citizen-participation.html">valued and hotly pursued goal for decades </a>.</p>
<p>The current school funding arrangements may be just about sufficient to sort out dilapidated school buildings, which, as I have argued, is clearly important. But as it stands, the process is ill-equipped to tackle the complexity of designing for a productive dynamic between educational space and activities. Even a “cheap” school building requires significant investment – and it might actually be more wasteful to spend public money on mere containers for education that only aspire to be physically adequate provision for average needs.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/27357/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Pamela Woolner has received funding from schools, local authorities and charities, including Open Futures and Creative Partnerships, in connection with researching the physical school environment. </span></em></p>The government’s announcement of a second phase of its Priority School Building Project demonstrates a commitment to around £2 billion of capital investment in the UK’s school stock. But it also reveals…Pamela Woolner, Lecturer in education, Newcastle UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.