tag:theconversation.com,2011:/au/topics/marine-pollution-15416/articlesMarine pollution – The Conversation2024-01-30T13:19:19Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2217702024-01-30T13:19:19Z2024-01-30T13:19:19ZNigeria’s plastic ban: why it’s good and how it can work<p>Two weeks into January 2024, Nigerian authorities took steps to curb environmental degradation caused by plastic pollution in the country.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://von.gov.ng/environment-ministry-bans-single-use-plastics-at-headquarters-agencies/">Federal Ministry of Environment</a> and the Lagos State government both announced <a href="https://twitter.com/tokunbo_wahab/status/1749055962193744206">bans</a> on single-use plastics.</p>
<p>The Federal Ministry of Environment was the first to issue a directive. It banned single-use plastics in its own departments and agencies. The Lagos State government followed a few days later with a ban on styrofoam containers (popularly used for food packaging) and <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OPr_5fdI_BQ">gave</a> businesses three weeks to mop up styrofoam in circulation.</p>
<p>The Abia State government in the south-east followed with its own <a href="https://dailypost.ng/2024/01/28/abia-govt-bans-take-away-foils/">ban</a> on single-use plastics, announced on 27 January. </p>
<p>Nigeria generates excessive amounts of <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/16/2/672#B9-sustainability-16-00672">plastic waste</a>, nearly 90% of which is <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/16/2/672">mismanaged</a>. </p>
<p>As an environmental toxicologist, I argue that there is enough research evidence showing the adverse effects of plastic waste on the environment – as well as potential harm to people – to support the ban. As a member of the Metrics Task Force of the <a href="https://www.globalplasticaction.org/nigeria">Nigeria National Plastic Action Plan</a>, among others, I have been part of several stakeholder <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/feed/update/urn:li:activity:7066392385236123649/">engagements</a> since 2022 across the plastic waste value chain, contributing to the evidence on the severity of the plastic waste menace in Nigeria. </p>
<p>The challenge will be implementation. Nigeria has had a law in the pipeline banning single-use plastics <a href="https://www.greenpeace.org/africa/en/blogs/11156/34-plastic-bans-in-africa/">since 2013</a>. It has still not been <a href="https://www.greenpeace.org/africa/en/blogs/50697/the-negative-impact-of-plastic-in-nigeria-the-need-for-a-legal-framework/">promulgated</a> at the national level. </p>
<p>Nevertheless, the recent bans are being announced with <a href="https://punchng.com/lasg-gives-styrofoam-makers-three-weeks-to-clear-stock/#:%7E:text=The%20Lagos%20State%20Government%2C%20on,before%20the%20commencement%20of%20enforcement.">pledges</a> of <a href="https://businesspost.ng/general/abia-prohibits-use-of-styrofoam-foils-after-lagos/#:%7E:text=A%20statement%20issued%20over%20the,but%20the%20implementation%20was%20relaxed.">stringent implementation</a>.</p>
<p>To make it work this time, Nigeria could learn from other countries like <a href="https://www.no-burn.org/rwanda-plastic-ban/#:%7E:text=Rwanda%20was%20the%20first%20country,the%20issue%20of%20plastic%20pollution.">Rwanda</a> that have issued similar bans. It is also important to consider affordable alternatives and the human and financial resources that are needed to enforce the ban.</p>
<h2>Why banning single-use plastics is necessary</h2>
<p>Nigeria has been rather slow to tackle plastic pollution. This is despite research documenting the extent of plastic waste in the environment, which has <a href="https://www.wacaprogram.org/sites/waca/files/knowdoc/Nigeria_plastics_PWC_final%20%281%29.pdf#page=4">caused</a> pollution of rivers and water bodies and reduced fish populations.</p>
<p>We conducted a <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Temitope-Sogbanmu/publication/360677339_Plastic_Pollution_in_the_Environment_in_Nigeria_A_Rapid_Systematic_Review_of_the_Sources_Distribution_Research_Gaps_and_Policy_Needs/links/6291f3886886635d5caa425c/Plastic-Pollution-in-the-Environment-in-Nigeria-A-Rapid-Systematic-Review-of-the-Sources-Distribution-Research-Gaps-and-Policy-Needs.pdf">review</a> of about 40 studies, mostly in south-western Nigeria, that documented the sources and extensive distribution of plastic waste. </p>
<p>In more recent <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S277241662400010X?via%3Dihub">research we found</a> microplastics in Osun River, its sediments and fish. These tiny pieces of plastic are not degradable and can leach into living organisms when ingested, causing adverse effects.</p>
<p>A range of studies have documented various plastic waste types, forms, sizes and polymer compositions, especially highly hazardous ones. Hazardous plastic polymers have been found in potable water (<a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03067319.2021.1982926">bottled water</a> and <a href="https://jfqhc.ssu.ac.ir/article-1-483-en.html">sachet water</a>) and food such as (<a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11356-023-26410-w">fish</a> and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0075951119300970?via%20percent%203DDihub">snails</a>). They have also been found in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2468227622001272">surface waters</a>, sediments and air. </p>
<p>There is also evidence of a large quantity of uncollected plastic litter across major metropolises like <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/361548692_REVIEWING_THE_CONCEPT_WASTE_HIERARCHY_GUIDELINE_AND_THE_ENVIRONMENTAL_PROBLEM_OF_WASTE_MANAGEMANET_IN_LAGOS_STATE_NIGERIA">Lagos</a> and Abuja. </p>
<p>And there’s evidence that single-use plastics make up most of the plastic waste across the country. An example is water sachets – about <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780128178805000220?via%3Dihub">60 million</a> of these are used daily in Nigeria. </p>
<h2>Lessons from other countries</h2>
<p>Nigeria can learn from the mistakes and successes of other countries that have banned single-use plastics. </p>
<p>It is estimated that <a href="https://www.euronews.com/green/2023/04/05/really-encouraging-plastic-bag-bans-work-say-campaigners-where-is-europe-lagging-behind">over 100 countries globally</a> have partially or fully banned single-use plastics. African and Asian countries top the list. </p>
<p>About <a href="https://cadmus.eui.eu/bitstream/handle/1814/73207/PB_2021_21_STG.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y#page=3">60%</a> of the countries in Africa have various bans on single-use plastics. Not all the countries have recorded <a href="https://cadmus.eui.eu/bitstream/handle/1814/73207/PB_2021_21_STG.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y">successes</a>. </p>
<p>Rwanda is one African country that has <a href="https://www.undp.org/blog/umuganda-rwandas-audacity-hope-end-plastic-pollution#:%7E:text=The%20cleanliness%20is%20anchored%20in,is%20not%20an%20isolated%20law">succeeded</a>. The government used a top-down approach involving enforcement with stringent penalties and a bottom-up approach involving advocacy campaigns at the grassroots. </p>
<p>There have also been failures. In <a href="https://www.efdinitiative.org/publications/case-banning-single-use-plastics-malawi">Malawi</a>, the ban failed thrice mainly due to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2667010021000081?via%3Dihub">lack of robust stakeholder</a> consultation and national advocacy. </p>
<p>In Nigeria, affordable alternatives to single-use plastics should be made available in critical sectors such as pharmaceuticals, fast moving consumer goods, food manufacturing and processing.</p>
<h2>Enforcement</h2>
<p>For sustainable enforcement in Nigeria, the ban should be done sequentially. Non-essential uses, such as fizzy drinks and beverages packaging, should be targeted first. </p>
<p>This should be done while providing affordable alternatives and encouraging the production and use of sustainable materials. For example, potable water needs to be provided by the government at accessible and affordable prices as an alternative to sachet and plastic bottled water. </p>
<p>Strategic stakeholder engagement for monitoring, advocacy and buy-in is also key. It is important to carry along the private and informal sectors which drive the single-use plastics value chain. </p>
<p>Incentives to promote the adherence to this ban are important. The Federal Ministry of Environment is already leading this by <a href="https://punchng.com/govt-plans-to-stop-single-use-plastics/#:%7E:text=Kindly%20share%20this%20story%3A,Ministry%20of%20Environment%20in%20Abuja.">enforcing</a> the ban across its departments and agencies first.</p>
<p>The use of mainstream and social media platforms is important. And the judiciary and legal institutions must be engaged to support the enforcement, as was done in <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/11/q-a-reflecting-on-kenyas-single-use-plastic-bag-ban-three-years-on/">Kenya</a>. </p>
<p>Funds must be invested in sustainable local alternatives to single-use plastics. The aim would be to provide livelihoods. </p>
<p>Universities, polytechnics, and government research institutions such as the <a href="https://www.scienceandtech.gov.ng/parastatals/">Federal Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation parastatals</a> should be funded to research and pilot innovative and affordable alternatives to single-use plastics. </p>
<p>Monitoring must be harmonised across states and national institutions to track progress. Open access digital platforms such as the <a href="https://eepon.unilag.edu.ng/">Environmental Evidence Portal for Nigeria</a> can be partnered by the government to make available contextual “Nigerian” evidence in non-technical formats for education and advocacy.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/221770/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Temitope O. Sogbanmu receives funding from the Association of Commonwealth Universities (ACU), Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) Canada, Royal Academy of Engineering (RAE), among other. Her affiliations include the Nigeria National Plastic Action Partnership (NPAP) as a member of the Metrics Task Force, One Health and Development Initiative (OHDI) and the the Nigerian Young Academy (NYA).</span></em></p>Banning single-use plastics in Nigeria is a step in the right direction. But its success will depend on provisions made for enforcement.Temitope O. Sogbanmu, Senior Lecturer, Ecotoxicology and Conservation Unit, Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, University of LagosLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2182532023-11-24T02:53:56Z2023-11-24T02:53:56ZAustralian dolphins have the world’s highest concentrations of ‘forever chemicals’<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/561466/original/file-20231123-15-7lw4an.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=89%2C19%2C4185%2C2824&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A Burrunan dolphin</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.marinemammal.org.au/gallery">Marine Mammal Foundation</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>As predators at the top of the food chain, dolphins tend to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/bioaccumulation#:%7E:text=Bioaccumulation%20is%20a%20process%20of,dietary%20intake%20(trophic%20transfer).">accumulate and magnify</a> high levels of toxins and other chemicals in their bodies. So health problems in dolphins can be a warning that all is not well in the system as a whole. </p>
<p>One group of persistent pollutants has been dubbed “forever chemicals” because they almost never break down in the environment. Commonly known by the acronym PFAS, these per- and polyfluorinated substances are globally recognised as an environmental hazard and a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.4890">potential human health issue</a>.</p>
<p>In our new research, we found dolphins with the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.168438">highest concentration of PFAS</a> in the world live in Australian waters. One young Burrunan dolphin had liver concentrations almost 30% higher than any other dolphin ever reported.</p>
<p>This is a critically endangered species endemic to southeast Australia. While the consequences for dolphin health and the implications for humans remain unknown, the record-breaking concentrations are cause for alarm. </p>
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<a href="https://theconversation.com/controversial-forever-chemicals-could-be-phased-out-in-australia-under-new-restrictions-heres-what-you-need-to-know-210697">Controversial ‘forever chemicals’ could be phased out in Australia under new restrictions. Here’s what you need to know</a>
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<h2>The case of the Burrunan dolphin</h2>
<p>The Burrunan dolphin was recognised as a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0024047">separate species in 2011</a>. Fewer than 200 individuals remain. Two small, isolated and genetically distinct populations reside in coastal Victoria, Australia. </p>
<p>In <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.168438">our research</a>, we took liver samples from Burrunan dolphins and three other dolphin species found dead and washed up on beaches. </p>
<p>We found the critically endangered <a href="https://www.marinemammal.org.au/burrunan-dolphin">Burrunan dolphin</a> had 50–100 times more PFAS than other dolphins in the same region. Their PFAS concentrations were the highest reported globally. </p>
<p>In 90% of these dolphins, the liver concentrations of these chemicals (1,020–19,500 nanograms per gram) were above those thought to cause <a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5b06076">liver toxicity</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.2122">altered immune responses</a>. </p>
<p>These record-breaking and potentially health-compromising PFAS concentrations are a major concern for the survival of the species. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/561478/original/file-20231124-18-4fqtj6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A graphic illustrating the results of PFAS testing in Victorian dolphins" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/561478/original/file-20231124-18-4fqtj6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/561478/original/file-20231124-18-4fqtj6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=232&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561478/original/file-20231124-18-4fqtj6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=232&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561478/original/file-20231124-18-4fqtj6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=232&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561478/original/file-20231124-18-4fqtj6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=291&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561478/original/file-20231124-18-4fqtj6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=291&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561478/original/file-20231124-18-4fqtj6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=291&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">The Burrunan dolphin had the highest global PFAS concentrations in the study.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969723070663?via%3Dihub">Science of The Total Environment</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
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<h2>Results from Australia and around the world</h2>
<p>By far the highest PFAS concentrations in the dolphins we studied were of a particular compound called PFOS (perfluorooctane sulfonate). PFOS is one of the most studied PFAS compounds. It is listed on the <a href="https://chm.pops.int/Implementation/IndustrialPOPs/PFAS/Overview/tabid/5221/Default.aspx">Stockholm Convention</a>, a global treaty on environmental pollutants, with international restrictions on use. </p>
<p>While Australia does not manufacture PFOS, heavy use of PFOS-containing firefighting foams occurred until the early 2000s. The Australian government <a href="https://www.epa.vic.gov.au/for-community/environmental-information/pfas/pfas-use-in-australia#:%7E:text=While%20PFOS%2C%20PFOA%20and%20other,as%20mist%20suppressants%20and%20coatings.">still allows PFOS import</a> for permitted purposes, such as mist suppressants in manufacturing and metal plating. </p>
<p>In recent years, public concern has prompted <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.canep.2022.102296">ongoing investigations</a> into areas of high firefighting foam use, such as Royal Australian Airforce training facilities and airports. </p>
<p>While firefighting foam is a probable source of PFAS in waterways, there are others. <a href="https://theconversation.com/pfas-forever-chemicals-are-getting-into-ocean-ecosystems-where-dolphins-fish-and-manatees-dine-we-traced-their-origins-216254">Recent research in Florida</a> in the United States found leaking septic and wastewater systems in urban areas were sources of PFAS runoff into the aquatic environment. </p>
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<a href="https://theconversation.com/pfas-forever-chemicals-are-getting-into-ocean-ecosystems-where-dolphins-fish-and-manatees-dine-we-traced-their-origins-216254">PFAS 'forever chemicals' are getting into ocean ecosystems, where dolphins, fish and manatees dine – we traced their origins</a>
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<p>The Burrunan dolphins are not alone. In 2017, the <a href="https://www.epa.sa.gov.au/files/12580_report_pfas_marine.pdf">South Australian Environment Protection Authority investigated</a> PFOS concentrations in dolphins from Western Australia, South Australia and New South Wales. Dolphins in the Swan-Canning River Estuary in Perth, and in Port River or Barker Inlet, SA, had high PFOS levels (2,800–14,000ng per gram and 510–5,000ng per gram, respectively). These PFOS levels are similar to those in the Burrunan dolphin (between 494ng and 18,700ng per gram).</p>
<p>The globally significant PFAS and PFOS concentrations in multiple Australian dolphin populations demonstrates potential widespread contamination. This highlights our limited understanding of the short- and long-term consequences in our oceans and estuaries. </p>
<p>It is crucial we understand where different PFAS compounds are coming from, particularly PFOS, and whether the contamination is from a time when we didn’t know better (known as legacy sources) or if we are still releasing them. </p>
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<h2>Isn’t PFOS getting banned anyway?</h2>
<p>The Australian government has <a href="https://theconversation.com/controversial-forever-chemicals-could-be-phased-out-in-australia-under-new-restrictions-heres-what-you-need-to-know-210697">expressed an intention</a> to further regulate PFOS and two other PFAS. This marks a significant step forward. However, the problem with forever chemicals is they will be around for a really long time. </p>
<p>Typically, these chemicals are substituted with alternatives believed to be less detrimental, but unfortunately that is not always the reality. For example, early replacements for PFOS were initially thought to be less readily absorbed by body tissues and pose lower health concerns. But <a href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Facs.est.3c00374">studies</a> have shown their high <a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/biomagnification">biomagnification</a> potential (with levels increasing higher up the food chain) and accompanying <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2023.107846">health risks</a>.</p>
<p>While PFOS levels were highest in the Burrunan dolphins we studied, emerging contaminants such as PFMPA, PFECHS, and 6:2 Cl-PFESA were also detected. The presence of these emerging and replacement compounds in dolphins shows they are accumulating within our waterways and suggests it is more than our historic usage that might be a problem. </p>
<h2>It’s not too late</h2>
<p>Dolphins are the “canary in the coal mine” for coastal ecosystems. They live their lives in these inshore waterways and they consume tonnes of fish within their lifetimes. Finding these alarming contaminant concentrations is an important first step to highlighting the problem. </p>
<p>So now we know there’s a problem, we need to ask why. Then we need to determine what can be done about it. </p>
<p>The next step is mapping sources of PFAS so we can more effectively manage this threat to our wildlife and ecosystems. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-found-long-banned-pollutants-in-the-very-deepest-part-of-the-ocean-204447">We found long-banned pollutants in the very deepest part of the ocean</a>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Chantel Foord receives funding from a Holsworth Wildlife Research Endowment Grant. She is affiliated with the Marine Mammal Foundation. </span></em></p>Researchers are finding alarming concentrations of persistent pollutants such as PFAS in Australian dolphins. These record-breaking levels are cause for concern.Chantel Foord, Research Associate, Marine Mammal Foundation, PhD researcher, RMIT UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2145972023-11-14T14:11:48Z2023-11-14T14:11:48ZWest Africa’s plastic waste could be fuelling the economy instead of polluting the ocean: experts<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557777/original/file-20231106-23-bfkep5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4031%2C3024&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A beach littered with plastic and other waste in the fishing village of Kayar, north of Dakar, Senegal.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Bara Deme</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Plastic pollution is an urgent environmental issue, globally. Every year, about eight million tonnes of plastic <a href="https://www.unoceandeplastique.fr/ocean-les-faits/">end up</a> in the oceans.</p>
<p>Most of the 17 west African countries have a problem managing plastic waste. Eight of them are <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1260352">among</a> the top 20 with the least effective plastic waste management practices – up from <a href="https://slacc.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/10.-Jambeck2015.pdf#page=2">five</a> in 2015. This has worsened marine pollution and adversely affected activities in the region. </p>
<p>Coastal provinces account for about <a href="https://www.wacaprogram.org/">56% of west Africa’s GDP</a> and one-third of the population lives there. </p>
<p>In 2018, west African nations launched the West Africa Coastal Area Management Programme <a href="https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2022/12/15/world-bank-approves-246-million-to-strengthen-coastal-resilience-in-west-africa#:%7E:text=The%20WACA%20Program%20was%20launched,erosion%2C%20flooding%2C%20and%20pollution.">to protect and restore</a> the ecological, social and economic assets of coastal areas. It’s supposed to do this by addressing coastal erosion, flooding and pollution. Last year it received an additional <a href="https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2022/12/15/world-bank-approves-246-million-to-strengthen-coastal-resilience-in-west-africa#:%7E:text=The%20WACA%20Program%20was%20launched,erosion%2C%20flooding%2C%20and%20pollution.">US$246 million in funding</a> from the World Bank. This has brought the World Bank’s total financing of the project to US$492 million. </p>
<p>For many years, we have <a href="https://researchportal.port.ac.uk/en/persons/pierre-failler/publications/">researched</a> development economics, particularly the interface between the use of <a href="https://researchportal.port.ac.uk/en/persons/elhadj-deme/publications/">natural resources</a> and the development of countries. We’ve also been involved in research on plastic pollution through the interdisciplinary <a href="https://www.port.ac.uk/research/themes/sustainability-and-the-environment/revolution-plastics">“Revolution Plastics”</a> initiative of the University of Portsmouth’s Centre for Blue Governance.</p>
<p>Our findings on plastic pollution could help west African countries to spend World Bank funds effectively.</p>
<p>We recommend that nations first quantify the volume, type and origin of plastics discarded in coastal zones. Then they must focus on reducing plastics from source, as well as promoting reuse and recycling. They can draw on successful case studies globally, which can be adapted to local contexts.</p>
<h2>Healthy oceans and a circular economy</h2>
<p>The West Africa Coastal Area Management Programme has initiated studies to <a href="https://www.banquemondiale.org/fr/news/feature/2023/07/12/we-are-losing-our-treasure-the-west-african-coastal-areas-tackle-plastic-waste#:%7E:text=En%20Afrique%20de%20l%27Ouest,secteurs%20touch%C3%A9s%20de%20plein%20fouet">assess</a> the environmental and economic impact of plastic pollution in the region. These studies also aim to explore the benefits of moving to a circular economy: an economic system that reuses or regenerates materials or products in a sustainable way.</p>
<p>The programme expects that a circular economy will create new economic opportunities through markets for reusing products and materials. Rather than discarding products, they can be put back into the economy. This can create demand for services and technologies related to collecting and processing them. </p>
<p>The programme can benefit from research on sustainable plastic management from other regions to achieve its objectives.</p>
<h2>Research partnership</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://www.port.ac.uk/research/research-groups-and-centres/centre-for-blue-governance">Centre for Blue Governance</a> has expertise in blue economy, marine ecosystem management, climate change and circular economy. It has extensively researched plastic pollution in Portsmouth, a port city in the United Kingdom, and beyond. We have found that sustainable plastic management can be achieved in various ways. These strategies could be relevant for initiatives in west Africa. They include:</p>
<p>Inclusive partnerships: Collaborating with businesses, campaigners and citizens on the <a href="https://www.port.ac.uk/research/themes/sustainability-and-the-environment/revolution-plastics">Revolution Plastics</a> initiative, we apply research to develop eco-friendly fabrics and combat microplastic pollution. </p>
<p>Awareness campaigns through art: Community awareness of the harmful effects of plastic pollution is necessary. Through the <a href="https://www.port.ac.uk/research/research-projects/masibambisane">Masibambisane project</a> in South Africa, we explored street art, theatre and song to create awareness about plastic pollution. </p>
<p>The project achieved significant results in KwaMhlanga, in South Africa’s Mpumalanga province. It demonstrated that raising awareness through art could inspire people to change their behaviour. These communities now have a deeper understanding of the urgent need to act against plastic pollution. </p>
<p>In addition, the introduction of sorting facilities close to homes increased recycling rates and encouraged sustainable habits. The west African programme can incorporate these lessons into the e-book it is planning. This is a way to share information about best practices and encourage action in communities. </p>
<p>Reuse and recycling projects: Through our <a href="https://www.port.ac.uk/research/research-projects/indigo-project">inDIGO-EU</a> and <a href="https://www.port.ac.uk/research/research-projects/microseap">Microseap</a> projects we reduced plastic waste by promoting recycling and reuse. For example, the INdIGO project has developed biodegradable fishing gear that reduces the environmental impact of ocean fishing in the UK and France. Based on this project, the West Africa Coastal Area Management Programme can develop a sustainable alternative to the gear used for small-scale fishing in the region. </p>
<h2>From diagnosis to action</h2>
<p>Our research findings suggest that for optimal use of the World Bank fund, the West Africa Coastal Area Management Programme could consider the following action plans:</p>
<p>Collect data on plastic pollution: Start with a regional study to quantify the volume, typology and origin of plastics discarded in coastal zones. This could involve the use of technologies such as drones, sensors and remote sensing to map pollution hotpots. Perception surveys could also help to understand behaviours and attitudes related to plastic pollution. The aim is to establish precise indicators and predictive models that can measure how well future interventions work.</p>
<p>Plan for a switch to a circular economy: The plan should focus on source reduction, reuse, recycling and material recovery. A committee made up of government actors, private enterprises and local communities could oversee implementation.</p>
<p>Design community awareness and education programmes: These campaigns should instil a sense of environmental responsibility and give people tools to actively participate in reducing plastic pollution. Involving opinion leaders could increase their impact.</p>
<p>Develop ways to use plastic waste: Value chains for sorting, recycling and valorising require infrastructure, like modern sorting centres. Advanced recycling technologies and market mechanisms for recycled materials are also necessary. Partnerships could be established with local businesses to create products from recycled plastics, such as construction materials or textiles.</p>
<p>By investing in these targeted areas, it is possible to create a sustainable system that offers economic and social opportunities to local communities.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/214597/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Initiating a circular economy can help coastal west African countries to address plastic pollution with a World Bank fund.Elhadj Bara Dème, Research Associate, University of PortsmouthPierre Failler, Professor in Economics and Director of the Centre for Blue Governance, UNESCO Chair in Ocean Governance, University of PortsmouthLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2044472023-04-28T14:53:02Z2023-04-28T14:53:02ZWe found long-banned pollutants in the very deepest part of the ocean<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523295/original/file-20230427-16-67rhr1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3308%2C2194&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Scientists found PCBs 8 kilometres below the waves.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">dimitris_k / shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>I was part of a team that recently <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-023-37718-z">discovered human-made pollutants</a> in one of the deepest and most remote places on Earth – the Atacama Trench, which goes down to a depth of 8,000 meters in the Pacific Ocean. The presence of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in such a remote location emphasises a crucial fact: no place on Earth is free from pollution.</p>
<p>PCBs were produced in large quantities from the 1930s to the 1970s, mostly in the northern hemisphere, and were used in electrical equipment, paints, coolants and lots of other products. In the 1960s, it became clear they were <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4311963">harming marine life</a>, leading to an almost global ban on their use in the mid-1970s. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523255/original/file-20230427-24-m0y3en.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Shaded map of western South America" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523255/original/file-20230427-24-m0y3en.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523255/original/file-20230427-24-m0y3en.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=1571&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523255/original/file-20230427-24-m0y3en.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=1571&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523255/original/file-20230427-24-m0y3en.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=1571&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523255/original/file-20230427-24-m0y3en.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1974&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523255/original/file-20230427-24-m0y3en.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1974&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523255/original/file-20230427-24-m0y3en.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1974&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sometimes called the Peru-Chile Trench, the Atacama Trench is visible in dark blue on this relief map (sea level is green and mountains are red).</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Peru-Chile_trench.jpg">NOAA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>However, because they take decades to break down, PCBs can travel long distances and spread to places far from where they were first used, and they continue to circulate through ocean currents, winds and rivers.</p>
<p>Our <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-023-37718-z">study</a> took place in the Atacama Trench, which tracks the coast of South America for almost 6,000km. Its deepest point is roughly as deep as the Himalayas are high. </p>
<p>We collected sediment from five sites in the trench at different depths ranging from 2,500m to 8,085m. We sliced each sample into five layers, from surface sediment to deeper mud layers, and found PCBs in all of them.</p>
<h2>Pollutants stick to dead plankton</h2>
<p>In that part of the world, ocean currents bring cold and nutrient-rich waters to the surface, which means lots of plankton – the tiny organisms at the bottom of the food web in the oceans. When plankton die, their cells sink to the bottom, carrying with them pollutants such as PCBs. But PCBs don’t dissolve well in water and instead prefer to bind to tissues rich in fat and other bits of living or dead organisms, such as plankton. </p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523297/original/file-20230427-16-b29mjq.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Machine dangles off edge of boat" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523297/original/file-20230427-16-b29mjq.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523297/original/file-20230427-16-b29mjq.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523297/original/file-20230427-16-b29mjq.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523297/original/file-20230427-16-b29mjq.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523297/original/file-20230427-16-b29mjq.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523297/original/file-20230427-16-b29mjq.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523297/original/file-20230427-16-b29mjq.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Scientists used this ‘core sampler’ to extract sediment from the bottom of the trench.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Anni Glud/SDU</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Since seabed sediment contains a lot of remnants of dead plants and animals, it serves as an important sink for pollutants such as PCBs. About 60% of PCBs released during the 20th century are <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2018GB006018">stored in deep ocean sediment</a>.</p>
<p>A deep trench like the Atacama acts like a funnel that collects bits of dead plants and animals (what scientists refer to as “organic carbon”) that come falling down through the water. There is a lot of life in the trench, and microbes then degrade the organic carbon in the seafloor mud. </p>
<p>We found that the organic carbon at the deepest locations in the Atacama Trench was more degraded than at shallower places. At the greatest depths, there were also higher concentrations of PCB per gram of organic carbon in the sediment. The organic carbon in the mud is more easily degraded than the PCBs, which remain and can accumulate in the trench.</p>
<h2>A look into the past</h2>
<p>The storage of pollutants means ocean sediment can be used as a rear-view mirror on the past. It is possible to determine when a sediment layer accumulated on the seafloor, and by analysing pollutants in different layers we can gain information about their concentrations over time. </p>
<p>The sediment archive in the Atacama Trench surprised us. PCB concentrations were highest in the surface sediment, which contrasts to what we usually find in lakes and seas. Typically, the highest concentrations are found in lower layers of sediment that were deposited in the 1970s through to the 1990s, followed by a decrease in concentrations towards the surface, reflecting the ban and reduced emissions of PCBs. </p>
<p>For now, we still don’t understand why the Atacama would be different. It is possible that we didn’t look at the sediment closely enough to detect small variations in PCBs, or that concentrations have not yet peaked in this deep trench. </p>
<p>These concentrations are still quite low, hundreds of times lower than in areas close to human pollution sources such as the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0045653517316545">Baltic Sea</a>. But the fact we have found any pollution whatsoever shows the magnitude of humanity’s influence on the environment.</p>
<p>What we can say for sure is that the more than <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.9b06379">350,000 chemicals</a> currently in use globally come at a cost of polluting the environment and ourselves. Pollutants have now been found buried below the bottom of one of the world’s deepest ocean trenches – and they’re not going anywhere. </p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
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</figure>
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<hr><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/204447/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anna Sobek receives funding from The Swedish Research Council (VR), Swedish Research Council for Sustainable Development (Formas), Swedish Environmental Protection Agency. </span></em></p>No place on Earth is free from pollution.Anna Sobek, Professor of Environmental Chemistry and Head of Department of Environmental Sciences, Stockholm UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1922612022-11-02T02:12:59Z2022-11-02T02:12:59ZFishing kills at least 24,000 fishers every year – yet most countries are still refusing to adopt international safety rules<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491850/original/file-20221026-2505-y8o5dv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C8%2C5472%2C3628&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Dashu/Freepik</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Fishing is <a href="https://www.arinite.co.uk/the-worlds-most-dangerous-countries-for-workers">one of the most dangerous jobs in the world</a>.</p>
<p>The International Labour Organisation has estimated that every year, fishing vessel accidents claim as many as <a href="https://www.ilo.org/global/about-the-ilo/newsroom/news/WCMS_071324/lang--en/index.htm">24,000 fishers’ lives</a>. This figure is more than <a href="https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/issue-briefs/2018/10/the-cape-town-agreement-explained">10 times more lives claimed than in accidents on merchant ships</a> which transport either cargo or passengers.</p>
<p>Unlike safety of merchant vessels, which is governed by the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (<a href="https://www.imo.org/en/About/Conventions/Pages/International-Convention-for-the-Safety-of-Life-at-Sea-(SOLAS),-1974.aspx">SOLAS</a>), safety of fishing vessels has fallen through the cracks, making it largely unregulated and unmonitored. </p>
<p>Unsafe fishing vessels are also linked to illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing and may contribute to <a href="https://www.fao.org/responsible-fishing/resources/detail/en/c/1316896/#:%7E:text=Abandoned%2C%20lost%20or%20otherwise%20discarded%20fishing%20gear%20(ALDFG)%20is,that%20is%20increasingly%20of%20concern.">abandoned, lost or otherwise discarded fishing gear</a>, which is becoming a global concern as it can be a navigational hazard and <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/faf.12596">major source</a> of ocean plastic pollution. </p>
<p>Yet, there is currently no international treaty governing the safety of fishing vessels that has entered into force.</p>
<h2>Fishing vessel safety under international law</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491851/original/file-20221026-25-c2hyyv.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491851/original/file-20221026-25-c2hyyv.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491851/original/file-20221026-25-c2hyyv.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491851/original/file-20221026-25-c2hyyv.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491851/original/file-20221026-25-c2hyyv.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491851/original/file-20221026-25-c2hyyv.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491851/original/file-20221026-25-c2hyyv.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Fishing vessels at Mui Ne Fishing Harbour in Vietnam.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Maxpixel</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://www.un.org/depts/los/reference_files/chronological_lists_of_ratifications.htm">167 states and the European Union</a> have ratified the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, which obliges every state to ensure safety at sea for all ships flying its flag.</p>
<p>For decades, the International Maritime Organisation (IMO), the United Nations’ specialised agency for regulating international shipping, <a href="https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/issue-briefs/2018/10/the-cape-town-agreement-explained">hasn’t succeeded in bringing regulatory instruments on fishing vessel safety</a> into force.</p>
<p>The latest treaty on fishing vessel safety is the Cape Town Agreement, which was adopted in 2012 to update, amend, and replace the previous treaty: the 1993 Torremolinos Protocol. However, there are only 17 contracting parties with just over 1,000 eligible fishing vessels to date – far from the minimum requirements for the Agreement to enter into force.</p>
<p>The Cape Town Agreement <a href="https://www.imo.org/en/MediaCentre/HotTopics/Pages/CapeTownAgreementForFishing.aspx">states</a> the conditions to ensure the seaworthiness of fishing vessels of 24 metres in length and over. It requires the availability of life-saving appliances, <a href="https://www.imo.org/en/MediaCentre/HotTopics/Pages/CapeTownAgreementForFishing.aspx">communications equipment, and fire protection</a> on fishing vessels.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Baca juga:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-government-now-has-a-much-needed-regulation-on-the-recruitment-of-migrant-fishers-from-indonesia-what-next-181946">The government now has a much-needed regulation on the recruitment of migrant fishers from Indonesia. What next?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>In October 2019, during <a href="https://www.imo.org/en/About/Events/Pages/Torremolinos-Conference-safe-fishing-legal-fishing.aspx">an IMO-led conference on fishing vessel safety and illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing</a>, there was a momentum for the Cape Town Agreement to gain wider support.</p>
<p>During and after the conference, a total of 51 states <a href="https://cil.nus.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/formidable/18/2012-Cape-Town-Agreement-on-the-Implementation-of-the-Provisions-of-the-1993-Torremolinos-Protocol.pdf">declared their commitment to ratify the Cape Town Agreement</a> by the tenth anniversary of the adoption of the agreement, which was 11 October 2022. </p>
<p>Since the 2019 Conference, however, the Agreement has only gained four additional ratifications, far below expectations. The tenth anniversary of the Agreement has now passed and the Agreement still has not entered into force.</p>
<h2>What about Indonesia?</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Migrant fishers was categorised as vulnerable workers especially in unsafe fishing conditions." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491854/original/file-20221026-21-syiovm.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491854/original/file-20221026-21-syiovm.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491854/original/file-20221026-21-syiovm.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491854/original/file-20221026-21-syiovm.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491854/original/file-20221026-21-syiovm.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491854/original/file-20221026-21-syiovm.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491854/original/file-20221026-21-syiovm.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Indonesian Migrant Workers Union and Greenpeace Indonesia held a peaceful protest outside the Presidential Palace in Jakarta, asking the president to ratify regulations to protect Indonesian migrant fishers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.greenpeace.org/indonesia/cerita/44956/ingin-melindungi-abk-indonesia-ini-salah-satu-caranya/">Adhi Wicaksono/Greenpeace</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Many Asian states are among <a href="https://www.fao.org/3/cc0461en/cc0461en.pdf">the world’s top seafood producers</a>. At least <a href="https://www.fao.org/3/cc0461en/cc0461en.pdf">two-thirds of 4.1 million global fishing vessels</a> are flagged to Asian states. </p>
<p>Unfortunately, none of the Asian states are parties to the Cape Town Agreement.</p>
<p>Indonesia, the world’s second largest seafood producer, claims to have <a href="https://news.kkp.go.id/index.php/kkp-sederhanakan-proses-pendaftaran-kapal-perikanan/">more than 600,000 fishing vessels</a> in 2014.</p>
<p>The exact number of Indonesian fishing vessels remains unknown. But the majority of Indonesian fishing vessels are small-scale fleets, which are likely beyond the scope of the Cape Town Agreement.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Baca juga:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/indonesias-patron-client-system-both-a-bane-and-hope-for-sustainable-fisheries-132011">Indonesia's patron-client system: both a bane and hope for sustainable fisheries</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Many Indonesian fishers also work for foreign fishing vessels. The <a href="https://meetings.wcpfc.int/node/13863">latest data</a> shows 186,430 Indonesian nationals working on board Malaysian fishing vessels; 12,278 on Taiwanese fishing vessels; and 4,885 people on South Korean fishing vessels in 2018.</p>
<p>Sadly, none of these countries are parties to the Cape Town Agreement. Thus, it is very likely that their domestic regulations on fishing vessel safety vary. Leaving it to each country to regulate fishing vessel safety is problematic, as some countries can be more lenient than others. </p>
<p>An international regulation like the Cape Town Agreement would resolve this problem, by ensuring uniform minimum standards that are applicable to all states.</p>
<h2>How to protect more lives at sea</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Both fishing vessel and merchant vessel workers have the same right to work in a safe environment at sea." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491849/original/file-20221026-23-5gbu7p.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491849/original/file-20221026-23-5gbu7p.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491849/original/file-20221026-23-5gbu7p.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491849/original/file-20221026-23-5gbu7p.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491849/original/file-20221026-23-5gbu7p.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491849/original/file-20221026-23-5gbu7p.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491849/original/file-20221026-23-5gbu7p.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">A fishing boat at sea.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">FAO</span></span>
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<p>Governance of fishing vessel safety is more than a century behind that of commercial shipping, even though fishers’ lives are just as priceless as seafarers. </p>
<p>As both workers have the same right to work in a safe environment at sea, fishing vessels shall receive equal attention as commercial shipping. Thus, wider ratification to the Cape Town Agreement is necessary.</p>
<p>Countries with large numbers of migrant fishers, like Indonesia, should have the highest interest to ensure that the Cape Town Agreement enters into force as soon as possible. This is critical to ensure that their nationals are not working on substandard fishing vessels that could put their lives in danger. </p>
<p>We must hope that more nations will finally act and ratify the Cape Town Agreement, so that we’re no longer losing tens of thousands of fishers’ lives at sea every year.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/192261/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dita Liliansa tidak bekerja, menjadi konsultan, memiliki saham, atau menerima dana dari perusahaan atau organisasi mana pun yang akan mengambil untung dari artikel ini, dan telah mengungkapkan bahwa ia tidak memiliki afiliasi selain yang telah disebut di atas.</span></em></p>Every year, it’s estimated as many as 24,000 fishers die in fishing vessel accidents. That’s more than 10 times more lives claimed than on merchant ships, carrying cargo or passengers. Why?Dita Liliansa, Ocean Law & Policy Research Associate, National University of SingaporeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1856232022-08-04T09:29:27Z2022-08-04T09:29:27ZThe plastic crisis has deep corporate roots: to protect our planet, they need to be exposed<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/471601/original/file-20220629-24-1kwtet.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C7916%2C5297&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Plastic pollution is a growing global problem.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/volunteer-man-collecting-trash-on-beach-1521472085">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>This spring, I taught a new undergraduate course in environmental sociology. Most of my students took the course because they were curious to see what their desire to live more sustainably had to do with sociology. </p>
<p>By the third week – after a deep dive into the troubling connections between <a href="https://www.versobooks.com/books/2002-fossil-capital">fossil capitalism</a> (the dependence of capitalism on fossil fuels), <a href="https://discardstudies.com/2018/11/01/waste-colonialism">waste colonialism</a> (the unjust international trade and disposal of hazardous waste between countries) and <a href="https://doi.org/10.3167/ares.2018.090109">environmental injustice</a> – a few students said glumly that they had thought the course would be more optimistic. </p>
<p>During the fourth week, we explored the well-documented history of <a href="https://insideclimatenews.org/book/exxon-the-road-not-taken/">climate denial and deception</a> among fossil fuel companies, as well as the related “<a href="https://www.ucpress.edu/book/9780520275829/deceit-and-denial">deceit and denial</a>” tactics of the tobacco, lead and chemical industries. “Do you think it’s really true?” one student asked me imploringly. “Do you think that businesses are really that unsustainable and will never change?” </p>
<p>I hesitated. I wanted my students to consider complex environmental problems from a critical sociological perspective, but I didn’t want to lead them down a pessimistic path. “Well,” I admitted, “I did just <a href="https://www.politybooks.com/plastic-unlimited/">write a book</a> about the plastics industry with the subtitle ‘how corporations are fuelling the ecological crisis and what we can do about it’”.</p>
<p>It’s hard to avoid pessimism when you witness firsthand the obstinacy of socially and environmentally damaging industries. Early in 2019, I attended a plastics industry conference in the wake of the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/nov/13/the-plastic-backlash-whats-behind-our-sudden-rage-and-will-it-make-a-difference">marine plastic crisis</a>, prompted by public outrage over viral images of marine wildlife <a href="https://www.sciencefocus.com/nature/has-blue-planet-ii-had-an-impact-on-plastic-pollution/">choking on plastic</a>. The crisis prompted a swift response from plastic-related corporations, who attempted to frame the problem in terms of littering and waste rather than overproduction. “We need to get the image of plastic in the oceans out of the public’s mind,” exclaimed a corporate executive at the conference. “We need to make plastic fantastic again.” </p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-ocean-is-full-of-tiny-plastic-particles-we-found-a-way-to-track-them-with-satellites-163709">The ocean is full of tiny plastic particles – we found a way to track them with satellites</a>
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<p>Since the dramatic rise of plastic production across the world after the <a href="https://www.sciencehistory.org/the-history-and-future-of-plastics">second world war</a>, petrochemical and plastics companies have fought to expand and protect their markets through creating demand for plastic products, denying toxic risks and shifting blame for pollution onto consumers. And despite increasing public awareness of (and regulations on) <a href="https://theconversation.com/plastic-pollution-is-a-global-problem-heres-how-to-design-an-effective-treaty-to-curb-it-176226">plastic pollution</a>, the global plastic crisis is only <a href="https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/articles/2020/07/23/breaking-the-plastic-wave-top-findings">getting worse</a>. </p>
<p>My new book, <a href="https://www.politybooks.com/plastic-unlimited/">Plastic Unlimited</a>, sheds light on the corporate roots of this crisis. In it, I address the concept of the “corporate <a href="https://www.ciel.org/news/oil-tobacco-denial-playbook/">playbook</a>” used by <a href="https://www.ciel.org/news/oil-tobacco-denial-playbook/">big oil, big tobacco</a>, and, more recently, <a href="https://talking-trash.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/TalkingTrash_FullReport.pdf">big plastic</a>. </p>
<h2>Playbook tactics</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://talking-trash.com/chapter/tactics-in-the-corporate-playbook/">corporate playbook</a> often contains a common repertoire of strategies used by controversial industries to conceal or cast doubt on the harmful effects of their products. Champions of these strategies have been dubbed “<a href="https://www.merchantsofdoubt.org/">merchants of doubt</a>” and accused of offences from downplaying the health risks of smoking to funding climate change denial. </p>
<p>As researcher David Michaels wrote in his exposé <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/doubt-is-their-product-9780195300673?cc=gb&lang=en&">Doubt is Their Product</a>, “the manipulation of science by the plastics industry was at least as flagrant and as self-serving as any other industry” he had researched – including the tobacco industry. Michaels was referring to the <a href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/180198">vinyl chloride scandals</a> of the 1960s and 1970s, when leading chemical companies conspired to hide evidence about the toxic health effects of the vinyl chloride monomer on workers in chemical plants. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A person wearing protective equipment and a white coat turns a metal wheel" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/471602/original/file-20220629-14-vbhit7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/471602/original/file-20220629-14-vbhit7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471602/original/file-20220629-14-vbhit7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471602/original/file-20220629-14-vbhit7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471602/original/file-20220629-14-vbhit7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471602/original/file-20220629-14-vbhit7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471602/original/file-20220629-14-vbhit7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Chemical workers have been unknowingly exposed to dangerous substances.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/side-view-portrait-young-female-worker-1931588168">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Big industry’s track record continues today. It has denied the <a href="https://www.ciel.org/plasticandhealth/">toxic hazards</a> of myriad petrochemicals and plastic products, funded <a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-change-misinformation-fools-too-many-people-but-there-are-ways-to-combat-it-170658">climate misinformation campaigns</a>, misled the public about the <a href="https://www.npr.org/2020/09/11/897692090/how-big-oil-misled-the-public-into-believing-plastic-would-be-recycled">effectiveness of recycling</a>, and lobbied to <a href="https://e360.yale.edu/features/in-pandemic-recovery-efforts-polluting-industries-are-winning-big">thwart and delay</a> environmental regulations. During the pandemic, it also lobbied to promote single-use plastic bags as the “<a href="https://www.greenpeace.org/usa/research/how-the-plastic-industry-exploited-anxiety-about-covid-19/">sanitary choice</a>”.</p>
<p>Leading corporations also use offensive tactics, including directing attention to their role as so-called innovators in green tech. Take the <a href="https://ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/topics/circular-economy-introduction/overview">circular economy</a>, for example. It sounds like a great idea to try to <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-what-is-a-circular-economy-29666">eliminate waste</a> by shifting from a linear “<a href="https://www.facebook.com/EllenMacArthurFoundation/videos/our-linear-take-make-waste-economy-is-no-longer-working-for-people-or-the-planet/250540573573756/">take-make-waste</a>” economy to one in which existing materials are reused for as long as possible. But, crucially, no global or national policy visions of a circular economy for plastics go so far as to call for <a href="https://direct.mit.edu/glep/article/21/2/121/97367/Future-Proofing-Capitalism-The-Paradox-of-the">limiting plastic production</a> altogether.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/plastic-pollution-is-a-global-problem-heres-how-to-design-an-effective-treaty-to-curb-it-176226">Plastic pollution is a global problem – here's how to design an effective treaty to curb it</a>
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<p>In fact, the plastics industry promotes the weakest form of the circular economy – <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-plastic-recycling-system-is-broken-heres-how-we-can-fix-it-167657">recycling</a> – which means <a href="https://www.npr.org/2020/09/11/897692090/how-big-oil-misled-the-public-into-believing-plastic-would-be-recycledhttps:/www.npr.org/2020/09/11/897692090/how-big-oil-misled-the-public-into-believing-plastic-would-be-recycled">plastic production</a> can keep going, despite the <a href="https://discardstudies.com/2021/02/15/on-wishcycling/">reality</a> that most items going into a recycling bin will end up being burned or dumped.</p>
<p>What’s more, recycling uses a lot of energy. <a href="https://cefic.org/a-solution-provider-for-sustainability/chemical-recycling-making-plastics-circular/">Chemical recycling</a>, for instance, involves returning plastics to their original molecular states to be used again. Although it’s promoted as a solution to the plastic crisis, it’s a toxic, carbon-intensive process that’s effectively the same as <a href="https://www.nrdc.org/resources/recycling-lies-chemical-recycling-plastic-just-greenwashing-incineration">incineration</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A person stands looking at cuboids of crushed plastic bottles" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/471613/original/file-20220629-20-ctq5nt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/471613/original/file-20220629-20-ctq5nt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471613/original/file-20220629-20-ctq5nt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471613/original/file-20220629-20-ctq5nt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471613/original/file-20220629-20-ctq5nt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471613/original/file-20220629-20-ctq5nt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471613/original/file-20220629-20-ctq5nt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Recycling is less effective in fighting climate change than commonly believed.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/engineer-standing-looking-back-plastic-bottle-1492220252">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Here’s some good news: in March 2022, the <a href="https://www.unep.org/environmentassembly/">UN Environment Assembly</a> in Nairobi agreed on a mandate for a <a href="https://www.ciel.org/momentum-towards-a-global-plastics-treaty-update-after-unea-5-2/">new global treaty</a> to address the <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-world-of-plastics-in-numbers-100291">crisis</a>. This was a landmark achievement towards creating <a href="https://www.breakfreefromplastic.org/2022/03/02/post-unea52-reactive/">legally binding measures</a> to prevent toxic plastic pollution.</p>
<p>Many scientists, activists and organisations insist that any resulting treaty must include a cap on <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abq0082">plastic production</a>. The negotiations will be challenging, however, given businesses’ <a href="https://theconversation.com/if-the-un-wants-to-slash-plastic-waste-it-must-tackle-soaring-plastic-production-and-why-we-use-so-much-of-it-179107">vested interests</a> in keeping regulations focused on waste rather than production. Now, it’s urgent that we push back against greenwashing and work towards a global mandate for limiting unsustainable plastics growth.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/185623/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alice Mah receives funding from the Leverhulme Trust and the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada and has previously received funded from the European Research Council.</span></em></p>The plastic industry uses powerful tactics to convince us it’s not that bad, but in reality many of their green solutions aren’t working.Alice Mah, Professor of Sociology, University of WarwickLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1845912022-06-27T14:01:49Z2022-06-27T14:01:49ZPlastic pollution in Nigeria is poorly studied but enough is known to urge action<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/469802/original/file-20220620-24-nai1fx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=14%2C0%2C4780%2C3198&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Plastic waste from land based sources pollute the beaches and other water bodies. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/volunteers-collect-plastic-debris-into-rubbish-bags-at-news-photo/1231999260">Pius Utomi Ekpei/AFP via GettyImages</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In recent years, the amount of <a href="https://www.unep.org/interactives/beat-plastic-pollution/">plastic in the environment</a> has become a global concern. With the world population <a href="https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/">approaching eight billion</a>, more and more plastic and plastic-derived products are being used and discarded. An estimated <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/282732/global-production-of-plastics-since-1950/">367 million tonnes</a> (367 billion kg) of plastic were produced in 2020 alone – about 12 tonnes (12,000kg) of plastic waste produced every second that year.</p>
<p>With about 2.5 million tonnes of plastic waste annually, Nigeria ranks ninth globally among countries with the <a href="https://avestia.com/MCM2021_Proceedings/files/paper/HTFF/HTFF_135.pdf">highest contributions</a> to plastic pollution. Unfortunately, over 88% of the plastic waste generated in Nigeria <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6239059/">is not recycled</a>. Instead, much of it ends up in water bodies – rivers, lakes, drains, lagoons and the ocean.</p>
<p>Waste comes in sizes ranging from macroplastic (pieces larger than 25 millimetres in diameter) to nanoplastic (less than 1,000 nanometers). It takes various forms, such as polyethylene terephthalate (used for food packaging, beverages, and personal care products), polyvinyl chloride (used in plumbing pipes, flooring, and clothing) and polystyrene (used for food packaging, laboratory materials, toys and computer housing).</p>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0048969717331613">Studies</a> globally have demonstrated the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0304389421027849">adverse impacts</a> of plastic waste on the environment. For example, it can cause intestinal damage when ingested by <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0048969717331613">fishes</a> and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0025326X17302746?via%3Dihub">turtles</a>. </p>
<p>Microplastic particles (less than 5mm long) have been shown to be potential vectors of <a href="https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlehtml/2022/en/d2en00019a?casa_token=bvVKnrpanrkAAAAA:j9ysuRY8SptbXn0oCfJEWslAff8qUNxTmm2lff52fsWLInN4ZdJbv0yxqr-qM5x9MVc9zSW_vKJv5Q">disease agents</a>. Plastic has been reported in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0045653522007603">cooking salt</a>, <a href="https://www.acpjournals.org/doi/full/10.7326/M19-0618?casa_token=iYL5uPa4_qYAAAAA%3A3icOkoK_C0L_Ao49Ft29DTcl6gfN9d0H8mroDIArphXlps4WZMfBuCJBm6UYE5RUWBa9oVpPCfQQrw">stool</a> and <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fchem.2018.00407/full">drinking water</a> (tap, bottled, and sachet), with potential risks to human health.</p>
<p><a href="https://ir.unilag.edu.ng/bitstream/handle/123456789/9128/Sogbanmu%20-%20EUEPiN%20Poliy-Brief-No.-1-2020.pdf?sequence=1">Sustaining life</a> in water and on land is among the United Nations <a href="https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/about-unodc/sustainable-development-goals/sdg14-and-15.html">Sustainable Development Goals</a>. This makes it necessary to have a clear idea of where the plastic pollution is coming from, what harm it is causing and what the authorities can do about it. </p>
<h2>Plastic waste in Nigeria</h2>
<p>We conducted a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2468227622001272">systematic review</a> of academic studies on plastic pollution in the environment in Nigeria. There were relatively few. As at 30 May 2021 there were only 26 such studies in Nigeria, compared to 62 peer-reviewed studies on the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43017-022-00279-8">Arctic Ocean</a>. Between 1987 and September 2020, there were 59 studies on the <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11356-020-11736-6">African aquatic environment</a>. </p>
<p>We looked for the main sources and types of plastic waste in Nigeria and their biological effects. We identified big research gaps but were able to make some recommendations. </p>
<p>The studies indicate that water sachets and shopping bags are the major constituents of plastic waste in Nigeria. Educational institutions, markets and households are among the major routes. They are indirect routes of entry of plastic waste, particularly into water bodies in Nigeria. </p>
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<a href="https://theconversation.com/lagos-beaches-have-a-microplastic-pollution-problem-128133">Lagos beaches have a microplastic pollution problem</a>
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<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/470011/original/file-20220621-15-31la3l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Shops in a busy market area" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/470011/original/file-20220621-15-31la3l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/470011/original/file-20220621-15-31la3l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/470011/original/file-20220621-15-31la3l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/470011/original/file-20220621-15-31la3l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/470011/original/file-20220621-15-31la3l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/470011/original/file-20220621-15-31la3l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/470011/original/file-20220621-15-31la3l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Markets are one of the major sources of plastic pollution.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/the-jankara-market-in-lagos-island-on-march-16-2016-in-news-photo/646813140?adppopup=true">Frédéric Soltan/Corbis via GettyImages</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>The sources of plastic waste included tyre wear, cigarette butts and electronic waste (mobile phone components, electronics, electrical appliances). Others were fishing ropes, biosolids, cosmetics, clothing, food packs, and cellphone bags. Microplastic particles were found in some insects, snails and fish sampled from water bodies as well as in table salt (mostly in Southern Nigeria).</p>
<h2>Research gaps</h2>
<p>Further research is needed to establish holistic evidence of plastic pollution from all sources across the six geopolitical zones in Nigeria. </p>
<p>We also need to know more about its effect on agricultural soils, air, plants, animals, drinking water and human health as well as the socio-economic and psycho-social impact. </p>
<p>Despite these gaps, the evidence for land-based sources indirectly polluting water bodies and the oceans is a concern. </p>
<p>With increasing evidence of <a href="https://opendocs.ids.ac.uk/opendocs/bitstream/handle/20.500.12413/14761/675_Climate_Change_in_Nigeria.pdf?sequence=1">climate change in Nigeria</a>, such as floods, the chances for transfer of plastic waste from indirect sources into the aquatic environment are higher. </p>
<h2>Next steps</h2>
<p>The low level of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6239059/">recycling</a> – less than 12% – and inadequate waste collection pose a huge threat to plastic pollution management in Nigeria. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/nigerias-plastic-pollution-is-harming-the-environment-steps-to-combat-it-are-overdue-177839">Nigeria's plastic pollution is harming the environment: steps to combat it are overdue</a>
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<p>Some African countries have taken steps to curb plastic waste discarded into the environment. They are <a href="https://www.greenpeace.org/africa/en/blogs/11156/34-plastic-bans-in-africa/#:%7E:text=In%202005%2C%20the%20East%20African,outright%20ban%20on%20plastic%20bags.&text=The%20West%20African%20country%20adopted,to%20end%20marine%20plastic%20pollution">gradually eliminating</a> or <a href="https://anchorenvironmental.co.za/sites/default/files/2019-04/Addressing%20plastic%20pollution%20in%20Malawi%20-%20Final%20report.pdf">banning</a> single-use plastics. They have also made producers more responsible through <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0921344909001578">buy-back programmes</a>. </p>
<p>Education about plastic pollution management should start at the elementary level and continue into adulthood. </p>
<p>The informal sector also has a role in curbing plastic waste in the environment. Policies and incentives, backed by robust enforcement, should target plastic producing companies to encourage polymer replacement and recycling. </p>
<p>Researchers need up-to-date facilities and funds to evaluate plastic footprint and the risk to animals and humans. They should explore trans-disciplinary approaches to curbing plastic pollution, including using innovative technologies.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/184591/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Temitope O. Sogbanmu works for the University of Lagos, Nigeria. She is affiliated with the Evidence Use in Environmental Policymaking in Nigeria (EUEPiN) Project, The African Academy of Sciences (The AAS), the Nigerian Young Academy (NYA), and other Professional Environmental Societies. </span></em></p>Nigeria generates 2.5 million tonnes of plastic waste yearly. Research and public enlightenment can help address the problem.Temitope O. Sogbanmu, Lecturer I, Ecotoxicology and Conservation Unit, Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, University of LagosLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1827912022-05-29T08:23:43Z2022-05-29T08:23:43ZMarine life in a South African bay is full of chemical pollutants<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/462233/original/file-20220510-20-ldy7cu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Limpets had the highest concentrations of chemical compounds compared to other marine organisms studied.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">A. Mertens/Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The adage “out of sight, out of mind” has long summed up humans’ attitude to dumping personal and industrial waste. In a 1974 Scientific American <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24950139">article</a>, the oceanographer Willard Bascom wrote that “the ocean is the plausible place for man to dispose of some of his wastes”. If done “thoughtfully”, he continued, “it will do no damage to marine life.” </p>
<p>But it hasn’t been done thoughtfully. Earth’s oceans are not only full of plastics: they’re also clogged with dumped medications, antibiotics, disinfection products, household chemicals and pesticides, among other products. This isn’t just bad news for the environment and marine life. It harms humans, too. <a href="https://cdnsciencepub.com/doi/10.1139/er-2018-0054">The compounds</a> contained in some of these dumped products cause feminisation and lower the quality of sperm. They can also lead to sexual abnormalities and reproductive impairments in both sea life and humans, as well as causing persistent antibiotic resistance and endocrine disruption. </p>
<p>In a <a href="https://setac.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/etc.5053">recent study</a> in South Africa, we tested for the presence of eight selected pharmaceuticals and personal care products in Cape Town’s False Bay marine environment. False Bay is 30km wide, located between Cape Hangklip and the Cape Peninsula of South Africa on the perimeter of Cape Town, a city with a population of close to 4.6 million people.</p>
<p>Our findings were troubling. We tested the seawater itself, as well as the sediment, seaweed, and five marine invertebrates: limpets, mussels, sea urchin, sea snail and starfish. Numerous compounds were found in the various species. These included diclofenac, a widely prescribed anti-inflammatory drug, and the antibiotic sulfamethoxazole, which can promote antibiotic resistance in the many faecal microorganisms that contaminate sea water through poorly treated sewage effluents. The City of Cape Town has <a href="https://resource.capetown.gov.za/documentcentre/Documents/City%20research%20reports%20and%20review/Know_Your_Coast_2020.pdf">published a report</a> showing extensive faecal contamination of the Peninsula coastline.</p>
<p>When humans eat fish, mussels and other foods tainted with antibiotics, the residual antibiotics may cause bacterial pathogens to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s13756-021-00963-2">become resistant</a>. The resistant bacteria don’t respond to standard antibiotics and can proliferate unchecked. This means the most important treatment options for infections are rendered useless.</p>
<p>These results, which echo findings of our previous studies in two other Cape Town marine environments, <a href="https://sajs.co.za/article/view/3854/5333">Camps Bay</a> and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0048969720338687">Sea Point</a>, point to major flaws in the city’s wastewater treatment plants. Urgent action is needed to address these issues and limit the many different chemical compounds and pollutants poured into marine environments.</p>
<p>This multi-source contamination is a global concern. A recent <a href="https://www.bonefishtarpontrust.org/downloads/bonefish-study-summary.pdf">US study</a>, for example, found 104 commonly prescribed pharmaceuticals in a popular food fish.</p>
<h2>Grim findings</h2>
<p>In our False Bay study, we found the presence of numerous pharmaceuticals and other compounds. Their concentrations varied significantly across the eight sample sites. This could be because the various species found at the sites have differing abilities to absorb and metabolise these compounds. The sites also had different contaminant profiles due to ocean current mixing or proximity to discharged effluents. </p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-whales-and-dolphins-can-tell-us-about-the-health-of-our-oceans-84169">What whales and dolphins can tell us about the health of our oceans</a>
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<p>Limpets, the varied-sized and -coloured seashells that cling to rocks, were found to have the highest concentrations of these compounds compared to the edible organisms such as mussels and sea urchins. Although limpets are not an edible species, this knowledge is valuable: limpets could be used as sentinel organisms to monitor pollution in and around the ocean – a sort of “canary in the coalmine.”</p>
<p>In this study, as in our previous research, the pharmaceuticals, pesticides, industrial chemicals and personal care products were most commonly found at low concentrations in the seawater samples. Significantly higher levels were detected in the marine species and seaweed samples. This can do serious harm over time, slowly killing off the sea creatures and affecting the area’s biodiversity. </p>
<p>We also studied samples of four common fish species that are often consumed locally, like snoek and bonita (a tuna species). We found even higher levels of these chemical compounds in their flesh. That included four types of pesticides, eight different pharmaceuticals and five different perfluorinated compounds, all of which are termed “<a href="https://enveurope.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/2190-4715-23-38">persistent organic pollutants</a>”. They do not degrade rapidly, so they stick around in the environment for a long time. </p>
<h2>Wastewater plant shortcomings</h2>
<p>The sewage that causes this widespread pollution isn’t just dumped into the ocean. The City of Cape Town has 17 wastewater treatment or sewerage works and six smaller facilities spread across the Cape Peninsula. The treatment plants are meant to clean the water enough that it can safely go into rivers, canals, the ocean, or other water bodies. </p>
<p>But these measures, our findings suggest, may not be keeping up with the city’s rapidly growing population and the rising number of pharmaceuticals and other chemicals being produced and consumed.</p>
<p>Ideally, wastewater should go through four treatment steps:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>pre-treatment to remove very large solid materials</p></li>
<li><p>primary treatment for the removal of smaller solids as well as grease, fats and oils</p></li>
<li><p>secondary treatment for the disinfection of the wastewater</p></li>
<li><p>tertiary treatment for the further “polishing” and more thorough removal of chemical compounds and microorganisms.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>In reality, there are few such tertiary treatment stages at any of Cape Town’s currently inadequate wastewater treatment facilities because the regulations governing the quality of effluents released from waste water treatment plants are not strict enough. This allows poorly treated effluents to be discharged – and many microbes, as well as chemical compounds and pharmaceutical pollutants, escape and are released directly into oceans via rivers. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-found-traces-of-drugs-in-a-dam-that-supplies-nigerias-capital-city-161927">We found traces of drugs in a dam that supplies Nigeria's capital city</a>
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<p>There are also three “marine outfall pipelines” that pump untreated sewage – only sieving out larger items – directly from toilets and drains into the ocean via underwater pipelines. As our studies show, then, microbial and chemical contamination from faeces is now widespread around the Peninsula.</p>
<p>The release of untreated sewage via marine outfalls must be prevented. Sewage water treatment plants should be upgraded to include tertiary stages. The regulations governing the quality of effluents need to be more stringent – and must be monitored more carefully for chemical content. </p>
<p>The ocean is part of Cape Town’s identity. It is a lifeblood for many in the fisheries sector, which is a <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2021.652955/full">multi-billion rand industry</a>. City officials need to act urgently to make sure not just that marine life can flourish but that human health isn’t compromised by what’s dumped into the oceans.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/182791/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Leslie Petrik receives funding from the National Research Foundation and the Water Research Commission of South Africa. She is affiliated with the University of the Western Cape.
</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Cecilia Yejide Ojemaye does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>When humans eat fish, mussels and other foods containing antibiotics, the residual antibiotics may cause bacterial pathogens to become resistant.Leslie Petrik, Professor / Leader of the Environmental and Nanoscience Research Group, University of the Western CapeCecilia Yejide Ojemaye, Researcher, Department of Chemistry, University of the Western CapeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1805482022-04-05T02:46:55Z2022-04-05T02:46:55ZDolphins, turtles and birds don’t have to die in fishing gear – skilled fishers can avoid it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/456030/original/file-20220404-23-ga7p8r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=8%2C0%2C5542%2C3711&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Getty</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em><strong>Editor’s note: The authors of this article are currently reviewing a section of the data used in their Nature paper to investigate a potential error. If there is an error, this article will be updated and a correction issued.</strong></em></p>
<p>In 1987, a biologist <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/allenelizabeth/2021/04/28/the-origin-of-the-dolphin-safe-tuna-label/?sh=6b3f6b023c11">went undercover</a> on a commercial tuna fishing vessel. One video he took made headlines around the world: hundreds of dolphins encircled in purse seine nets, drowning in distress. </p>
<p>Before that, few people had given much thought to bycatch – the fish and marine animals caught when trying to catch something else. It was out of sight, out of mind. But now, everyone could see the shocking footage. </p>
<p>In the decades since, some of the most confronting bycatch issues have been solved. Even so, bycatch remains one of the most difficult obstacles to making the world’s seafood more sustainable. </p>
<p>So if better nets and better rules aren’t the full answer, what is? Our <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-022-00865-0">new research</a> suggests part of it is the human factor. The more skilled fishers are, the more likely they are to avoid accidental bycatch. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/456027/original/file-20220404-13-tdif2m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3770%2C2485&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Dolphin stuck in net" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/456027/original/file-20220404-13-tdif2m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3770%2C2485&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/456027/original/file-20220404-13-tdif2m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=395&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/456027/original/file-20220404-13-tdif2m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=395&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/456027/original/file-20220404-13-tdif2m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=395&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/456027/original/file-20220404-13-tdif2m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/456027/original/file-20220404-13-tdif2m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/456027/original/file-20220404-13-tdif2m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Videos of dolphins like this one stuck in nets drew world attention to bycatch.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Getty Images</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>We need more than technology and top-down solutions</h2>
<p>So far, the solutions for bycatch have tended to be technical or regulatory. Think of <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y71cgxmyMO4">modified fishing gear</a> so non-target animals can escape, or <a href="https://sustainablefisheries-uw.org/sea-turtle-bycatch-california/">closing high bycatch areas to fishing</a> during certain seasons or when bycatch exceeds a threshold. </p>
<p>While they can work, these approaches are often <a href="https://www.msc.org/en-au/media-centre-anz/news-views/news/2020/06/10/a-sound-idea-banana-pinger-audio-device-could-help-reduce-porpoise-bycatch">expensive</a>, especially for <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/feature-story/cost-saving-sea-turtles-gillnets#:%7E:text=Over%20a%20three%2Dyear%20period%2C%20it%20would%20cost%20between%20%2434,the%20lightsticks%2C%20the%20researchers%20found">small or lower-value fisheries</a>. They also require increased monitoring and enforcement to ensure fishing fleets follow the rules.</p>
<p>Top-down regulatory approaches are often met with stubborn <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/rural/2018-06-28/sea-lion-exclusion-zones-threaten-wa-gillnet-fishing-industry/9915086">resistance from fishers</a>. Commercial fishing boat operators may feel they’re being targeted by experts who don’t understand the challenges they face.</p>
<p>Technology and regulation have so far failed to tackle the most challenging bycatch problems. </p>
<p>It’s proven very difficult, for instance, for trawlers to stop catching endangered sharks, rays and <a href="https://www.nespmarine.edu.au/system/files/Udyawer%20et%20al_A8_M19_Distribution%2C%20fisheries%20interactions%2C%20assessment%20of%20threats_Aus_Sea_Snakes_Apr%2021.pdf">sea snakes</a> at unsustainable rates – even though the same trawlers now sport clever turtle excluder devices which have <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HOtvkNcHwW8">slashed sea turtle deaths</a> in northern Australia’s prawn fishery. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/456022/original/file-20220404-23-fsq8n6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="prawn trawler Australia" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/456022/original/file-20220404-23-fsq8n6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/456022/original/file-20220404-23-fsq8n6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/456022/original/file-20220404-23-fsq8n6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/456022/original/file-20220404-23-fsq8n6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/456022/original/file-20220404-23-fsq8n6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/456022/original/file-20220404-23-fsq8n6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/456022/original/file-20220404-23-fsq8n6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Australia’s prawn trawlers have adopted turtle excluding devices.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Or consider gillnets, which in Australia continue to catch and kill endangered <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/oct/17/sawfish-numbers-in-global-stronghold-fall-prompting-calls-for-fishing-protection">sawfish</a>, <a href="https://www.marineconservation.org.au/the-pictures-the-authorities-didnt-want-you-to-see/">dugongs</a>, and <a href="https://www.wwf.org.au/news/news/2019/gill-net-carnage-on-the-reef-must-stop">sharks</a>. When fishers change techniques to avoid catching one type of bycatch, they often find bycatch of other species increases. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/buy-australian-oysters-and-farmed-barramundi-5-tips-to-make-your-feast-of-summer-seafood-sustainable-172954">Buy Australian oysters and farmed barramundi: 5 tips to make your feast of summer seafood sustainable</a>
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<p>Every now and again, bycatch will resurface in the public mind. You might see grotesque images of lovable sea animals mangled in nets spreading through social media channels as part of a new <a href="https://www.seashepherd.org.au/our-campaigns/dolphin-bycatch/">bycatch campaign</a>. </p>
<p>Progress does exist – but it’s slow, expensive and risks pushback. The prevailing industry attitude is that bycatch should be reduced where possible, but some is inevitable.</p>
<h2>How boosting fishers’ skills could cut bycatch further</h2>
<p>Many fisheries managers intuitively understand the importance of the human factor in managing environmental issues, such as bycatch. They know the vessels and captains in their fleet. And they know most compliance issues can usually be traced back to a small number of problem vessels. </p>
<p>We put these assumptions to the test in our <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-022-00865-0">new research</a> into Australian fisheries, and found it was true. </p>
<p>We found a clear pattern across different locations and types of fishing gear, where specific fishers were able to maintain high target species catch with lower rates of bycatch. In short, skilled fishers can avoid catching dolphins, seabirds, sharks, and other bycatch species. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/456017/original/file-20220404-21-ihkj3p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3259%2C2443&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Bycatch shark" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/456017/original/file-20220404-21-ihkj3p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3259%2C2443&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/456017/original/file-20220404-21-ihkj3p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/456017/original/file-20220404-21-ihkj3p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/456017/original/file-20220404-21-ihkj3p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/456017/original/file-20220404-21-ihkj3p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/456017/original/file-20220404-21-ihkj3p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/456017/original/file-20220404-21-ihkj3p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sharks can still be caught as bycatch.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Getty Images</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It was surprisingly difficult to test the managers’ assumptions with data. So how did we show this? </p>
<p>It’s well known that fishing skill varies. As a result, some fishers and boats are consistently more profitable. If fishers have variable skill in catching their target species, it follows they would have variable skill at avoiding bycatch species. </p>
<p>The pattern of varying skill had never been tested against bycatch rates. In part, that’s because we need a lot of data to isolate individual behaviour and skill from many other factors affecting bycatch. For instance, fishers often link high bycatch numbers to environmental factors, such as specific fishing grounds or breeding seasons. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/there-arent-plenty-of-fish-in-the-sea-so-lets-eat-all-that-we-catch-104329">There aren't plenty of fish in the sea, so let's eat all that we catch</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>While these factors do affect bycatch levels, we were able to draw out the effect of individual vessels by using robust data sets collected by scientific observers in five major commercial fishing sectors in Australia. </p>
<p>We found a clear signal in the data. Overall, individual vessels drove differences in bycatch rates more than fishing location, season, or year. In each of the five fisheries, we found high performance operators able to consistently achieve a high catch of target species and low bycatch, as well as low performers, who did the opposite. This holds even across fishing gear known for high bycatch globally, such as bottom trawls and gillnets. </p>
<p>We don’t know exactly what fishers are doing to avoid bycatch. Fishing “skill” is likely a mix of experience and knowledge of the environment, ability to effectively manage a crew, operate and maintain gear, and quickly respond to changing conditions at sea. These nuanced behaviours are not recorded in logbooks and are difficult to describe, which means we’ll have to work directly with fishers to really untangle the vessel effect.</p>
<h2>Could we upskill our fishers?</h2>
<p>Now we know the skill of our fishers matters so much, we have an opportunity to drive bycatch even lower than thought possible. We can challenge the belief bycatch is an unavoidable part of fishing. </p>
<p>Harnessing the skills and knowledge of high-performance fishers can <a href="https://e360.yale.edu/features/how_data_and_social_pressure_can_reduce_home_energy_use">motivate behaviour change</a> in ways more likely to succeed than top-down regulations or new technologies.</p>
<p>We can look at incentives to encourage skilled and experienced fishers to spread their knowledge and abilities. This would raise the bar for low-performing fishers, and help the industry avoid punishments from the actions of a few highly damaging boats. </p>
<p>If we work closely with high-performance fishers, we could see even more innovation in cutting bycatch, as well as other longstanding issues such as waste management and abandoned “ghost nets” which can keep killing for years.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/180548/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Chris Wilcox receives funding from the Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, and philanthropic funders.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Leslie Roberson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Technology and regulation have solved some issues with bycatch. To reduce damage to marine life further, we can harness the skills of our best fishers.Leslie Roberson, Postdoctoral research fellow, The University of QueenslandChris Wilcox, Senior Principal Research Scientist, CSIROLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1751332022-02-10T15:28:42Z2022-02-10T15:28:42ZHow autonomous underwater robots can spot oil plumes after an ocean spill<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444842/original/file-20220207-23031-1sjwsqf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=77%2C61%2C3347%2C2505&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Response teams often make assumptions about the way oil behaves in the ocean, but this means oil plumes can go undetected and get missed in the clean-up.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>On April 20, 2010, the offshore oil rig Deepwater Horizon exploded, burned, sank in the Gulf of Mexico and terrified the world. This horrific accident — recorded as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aab4133">the largest oil spill in history</a> — killed 11 workers and released 210 million gallons of crude oil into the ocean.</p>
<p>While about a half of the oil rose to the surface, the other half formed a <a href="https://www.whoi.edu/oceanus/feature/a-plume-of-chemicals-from-deepwater-horizon/">suspended plume</a> of many tiny oil droplets about 1,000 metres below the surface. Its extent and whereabouts couldn’t be determined from above.</p>
<p>Autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) are untethered marine robots that can explore the underwater world. AUVs were first used in oil probing missions when the <a href="https://www.whoi.edu/what-we-do/explore/underwater-vehicles/auvs/">Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution</a> and the <a href="https://www.mbari.org/at-sea/vehicles/">Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute</a> rapidly deployed them to assess the extent of the submerged plume from the Deepwater Horizon spill.</p>
<p>Since then, AUVs have been developed to accommodate a variety of payloads that are similar to the sensing organs of humans, such as underwater cameras, sonars and chemical and sniffing sensors that operate like our eyes, ears and noses. In our research, we equip the AUV with a scanning sonar to find distant oil plumes and other sensors to take measurements — such as particle size and petrochemical type — when it comes into contact with the plume.</p>
<h2>Impacts of marine oil pollution</h2>
<p>Although AUVs were used to identify oil plumes in the Deepwater Horizon spill, they are not yet in regular use. They have also been operated with several assumptions about the way oil behaves in the ocean after a spill. This means that clean-up operations may miss large portions of the oil, which can have severe consequences on marine habitats, fish and birds.</p>
<p>Even a small amount of oil can be fatal to a bird. Oil-coated feathers make flying impossible and damages their body insulation. During the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.323.5921.1558">Exxon Valdez spill</a> off the coast of Alaska in 1989, 250,000 seabirds were killed. The <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/09644016.2019.1657646">Deepwater Horizon spill</a> killed 82,000 birds from 102 species, 6,165 sea turtles, 25,900 marine mammals and an incalculable number of fish.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444843/original/file-20220207-27-12xsum4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444843/original/file-20220207-27-12xsum4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444843/original/file-20220207-27-12xsum4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444843/original/file-20220207-27-12xsum4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444843/original/file-20220207-27-12xsum4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444843/original/file-20220207-27-12xsum4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444843/original/file-20220207-27-12xsum4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Patches of oil from the Deepwater Horizon spill are suspended in the water, in the Gulf of Mexico, south of Venice, La., on June 7, 2010, nearly two months after the drilling rig exploded and the leak was discovered. It took 87 days to stop the initial leak.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Rich Matthews)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>If we can find these plumes and clean them up, we might be able to save some of the animals in the event of a disastrous spill.</p>
<p>To date, in designing AUV missions, operators have assumed that underwater oil plumes are continuous with a <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/app9153145">smooth concentration gradient</a>. Yet real oil plumes consist of patchy clouds made up of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/2017JC013193">oil droplets</a>. </p>
<p>A better approach is needed to effectively track real oil plumes by detecting the plume from a distance and recognizing their true patchy nature.</p>
<h2>An ear in the sea</h2>
<p>We developed an approach to search for and detect patches of oil droplets in the ocean using sonar. Sonar works well for this because of the difference between the density of oil droplets and that of water, and the strength of the <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/sonar.html">sound reflections</a> from these clouds of oil droplets.</p>
<p>Integrating sonar with the AUV allows the vehicle to continuously detect its surroundings without having to make contact with the oil droplets. </p>
<p>As the on-board computer collects the data and processes it in real-time, it draws conclusions about the location of a patch of oil droplets and then sends the AUV an updated set of directions to help it build a three-dimensional map of the oil plume</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A bright yellow torpedo-shaped autonomous underwater vehicle" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444935/original/file-20220208-19-1d9pb66.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444935/original/file-20220208-19-1d9pb66.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444935/original/file-20220208-19-1d9pb66.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444935/original/file-20220208-19-1d9pb66.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444935/original/file-20220208-19-1d9pb66.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444935/original/file-20220208-19-1d9pb66.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444935/original/file-20220208-19-1d9pb66.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Memorial Univeristy’s Explorer AUV is equipped with sonars that can detect oil plumes from a distance.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Rich Blenkinsop)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The on-board computer acts like a backseat driver, overriding and adapting the pre-programmed mission as needed. These override instructions allow the AUV to track around a patch of oil droplets at a distance of up to 50 meters, recording the size and position of the patch. </p>
<p>Once an oil plume has been identified and mapped out, the backseat driver can instruct the AUV to enter the patch and take readings using additional chemical sensors, or collect a water sample to understand more about the composition of the oil itself.</p>
<h2>Into the depths</h2>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.18178/ijmerr.10.6.292-300">We’ve carried out several marine oil pollution search missions</a> using proxies for the oil in a sheltered coastal environment in Holyrood Bay, N.L. One of these was to design a search pattern that maximized spatial coverage, and reduced the total search time and distance travelled needed to find an oil spill of interest. Another tested the effectiveness of the backseat driver control to direct the AUV. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2020.3032161">The tracking missions</a> have been successfully tested in computer simulations and will be deployed in coastal waters where <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse9020126">micro-air bubbles</a> will be used to represent the oil. In 2023, we plan to test these sonar-equipped AUVs near Scott Inlet in Baffin Bay, where there are several naturally occurring oil seeps.</p>
<p>While we’ve developed this approach to sense patches of oil droplets in seawater, the principle could also be used for other targets in the ocean, including identifying plastic and micro-plastic debris, studying schools of fish, plankton or other biological matter or mapping seabed topography and searching for hydrothermal vents.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/175133/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Neil Bose receives funding from Memorial University, NSERC and DFO Canada. DFO funds three projects under the Multi-Partner Research Initiative (MPRI) including Oil Spill Reconnaissance and Delineation through Robotic Autonomous Underwater Vehicle Technology in Open and Iced Waters and Inshore Trials of Robotic Autonomous Underwater Vehicle Technology for Oil Spill Reconnaissance and Delineation using an Environmentally Friendly Proxy. One of the NSERC grants is under their Alliance program, Characterization and delineation of oil-in-water at the Scott Inlet seeps through robotic autonomous underwater vehicle technology, and is in partnership with Fugro Canada and International Submarine Engineering, BC.
Neil Bose is a co-chair of the not for profit group Panel on Underwater Robotics, Society for Underwater Technology, UK.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jimin Hwang receives funding from Memorial University and Australian Research Council's Special Research Initiative through the Antarctic Gateway Partnership under Project SR140300001. This work is supported in part by DFO through the Multi-Parner Research Initiative (MPRI) 1.03: Oil Spill Reconnaissance and Delineation through Robotic Autonomous Underwater Vehicle Technology in Open and Iced Waters and in part by the Australian Government Research Training Program Scholarship.</span></em></p>Clean-up operations after a spill can miss large quantities of the oil, with severe risks for marine habitats, fish and birds.Neil Bose, Vice President (Research) and Professor, Ocean and Naval Architectural Engineering, Memorial University of NewfoundlandJimin Hwang, Postdoctoral Researcher, University of TasmaniaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1494102020-11-05T15:16:32Z2020-11-05T15:16:32ZMetal pollution is leaving scallops helpless against crabs and lobsters<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/367728/original/file-20201105-20-iif35j.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=8%2C0%2C5455%2C3071&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Will Notley</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Shellfish such as scallops, mussels and oysters – bivalve molluscs – <a href="http://www.int-res.com/abstracts/meps/v211/p157-167/">readily take up tiny specs of metals</a> into their tissues and shells. In sufficient concentrations this can harm their growth and survival chances, and even threaten the health of any human who eats their contaminated meat. Such shellfish provide <a href="http://www.fao.org/state-of-fisheries-aquaculture">one-quarter of the world’s seafood</a>, so the impact of pollution from the “heavy metals” such as lead, zinc and copper, is hugely important.</p>
<p>We recently investigated the effects of metal pollution on the great scallop, <em>Pecten maximus</em>, for a new <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969720365499">scientific study</a>. This is a common species which supports the <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/uk-sea-fisheries-annual-statistics-report-2019">most valuable fishery</a> in England and the third most valuable in the UK overall. </p>
<p>We first discovered these effects of pollution by chance. While carrying out routine stock assessment surveys around the Isle of Man, a self-governing island that lies between Britain and Ireland, we noticed that scallops found on the Laxey fishing ground off the east coast were much more likely to have lethally damaged shells than scallops from elsewhere.</p>
<p>Laxey is famous for the world’s largest working <a href="https://www.visitisleofman.com/experience/great-laxey-wheel-and-mine-trail-p1292251">waterwheel</a>, a spectacular example of Victorian engineering used to pump water <a href="https://www.nmrs.org.uk/mines-map/metal/isle-man-mines/laxey-mine/">from a mine</a> which produced lead, copper, silver and zinc. The mine closed in 1929, but its legacy is that sediments in the rivers, estuary and sea waters around Laxey are unnaturally high in metals. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/367722/original/file-20201105-17-1tjxqsy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A large red and white wheel next to a tower." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/367722/original/file-20201105-17-1tjxqsy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/367722/original/file-20201105-17-1tjxqsy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/367722/original/file-20201105-17-1tjxqsy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/367722/original/file-20201105-17-1tjxqsy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/367722/original/file-20201105-17-1tjxqsy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/367722/original/file-20201105-17-1tjxqsy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/367722/original/file-20201105-17-1tjxqsy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The 22-metre diameter Laxey Wheel is now a tourist attraction.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Powerofflowers / shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It looked as though metal pollution may be responsible for the damaged shells we discovered. To test this hypothesis, we analysed the strength of scallop shells that had been collected from Laxey and other fishing grounds around the Isle in both 2004 and 2013. In both groups the shells from Laxey were found to be significantly weaker than those from all other areas.</p>
<p>A detailed analysis revealed the Laxey shells were proportionally thinner than shells found at other areas, and that the internal structure of shells contained a disruption, or fault line. We were not able to detect metals in the shells themselves, but we think that even in low quantities the metals are either affecting the physiology of the scallops or disrupting chemical reactions during the mineralisation (shell-growing) process.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/367727/original/file-20201105-21-1ke2lxx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Diagram of heavy metal pollution and impact on scallops." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/367727/original/file-20201105-21-1ke2lxx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/367727/original/file-20201105-21-1ke2lxx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/367727/original/file-20201105-21-1ke2lxx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/367727/original/file-20201105-21-1ke2lxx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/367727/original/file-20201105-21-1ke2lxx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=460&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/367727/original/file-20201105-21-1ke2lxx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=460&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/367727/original/file-20201105-21-1ke2lxx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=460&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Scallops with unnaturally thin shells are also more likely to be damaged when being captured.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Stewart et al (2020)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In ecotoxicology terms, what we observed is called a <a href="https://www.oecd.org/chemicalsafety/testing/49963576.pdf">non-apical endpoint effect</a>. Weakened shells don’t directly kill scallops, but instead leave them more vulnerable to mortality. Such responses are rarely considered when assessing the effects of environmental contaminants, but could have significant implications. This is a concern, because the levels of metal contamination we observed were generally below the current regulatory limits thought to affect marine life, and the scallops were considered perfectly safe to eat.</p>
<h2>Metals at sea</h2>
<p>It is remarkable that mining from 100 years ago is still affecting marine life in this way. But, given that metal contamination is <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40726-015-0018-9">a common and increasing threat</a> in coastal areas around the world, and that many other shellfish and marine species such as corals produce calcified structures chemically-similar to scallop shells, we believe metals may be having unseen effects on a large scale. We may therefore need to rethink how we assess and manage the risks of metal contamination.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/367729/original/file-20201105-16-rc110n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Photo showing four scallop shells" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/367729/original/file-20201105-16-rc110n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/367729/original/file-20201105-16-rc110n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=665&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/367729/original/file-20201105-16-rc110n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=665&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/367729/original/file-20201105-16-rc110n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=665&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/367729/original/file-20201105-16-rc110n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=836&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/367729/original/file-20201105-16-rc110n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=836&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/367729/original/file-20201105-16-rc110n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=836&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">King scallops showing different levels of damage after being caught in dredges around the Isle of Man. This type of damage is much more likely in areas contaminated with heavy metals.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Bryce Stewart</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Metals are a natural component of marine systems and in trace concentrations may be essential for supporting life. However, human activities have <a href="https://oap.ospar.org/en/ospar-assessments/intermediate-assessment-2017/pressures-human-activities/contaminants/metals-fish-shellfish/">elevated their concentrations</a> in many marine environments to the point where they have become toxic. This pollution comes from <a href="https://scialert.net/fulltext/?doi=jas.2004.1.20">a variety of sources</a> such as run off from mining, agricultural and industrial activity; offshore oil and gas exploitation; and leaching of anti-fouling paint from ships hulls. As a result, metal pollution tends to be highest in estuaries, around ports and in inshore waters. </p>
<p>Despite stricter recent regulations controlling the use of metals in marine environments, they continue to be an increasing threat. This is because heavy metals are highly persistent (they do not disappear over time) and ongoing coastal development and bottom-towed fishing gear is <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0269749112003284">remobilising contaminated sediments</a>. Climate change is also <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/gcb.12048">exacerbating the threat</a> because higher rainfall is increasing run-off from contaminated areas, and ocean warming and acidification is increasing the rate of uptake and toxicity of metals in seawater.</p>
<p>Most previous studies have concentrated on the direct effects of metals on shellfish <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0141113687900523">survival</a> or <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780081006740000217">food safety</a>. However, our new study has unearthed that even relatively low concentrations of metal contamination appears to be causing scallops to grow weaker shells. This leaves the scallops more vulnerable to being <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00227-002-0977-4">eaten by crabs and lobsters</a> and to disturbance from storms and fishing activity, with potentially substantial ecological and economic repercussions.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/149410/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bryce Stewart receives funding from the European Maritime and Fisheries Fund, the Economic and Social Research Council, the Global Challenges Research Fund and the Blue Marine Foundation. He is a member of the ICES Scallop Working Group, the Marine Conservation Society and the Yorkshire Wildlife Trust </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Roland Kröger receives funding from EPSRC, NERC, Leverhulme Trust, European Comission. </span></em></p>New research points to ‘heavy metals’ having unseen effects on a much larger scale than previously thought.Bryce Stewart, Senior Lecturer in Marine Ecosystem Management, University of YorkRoland Kröger, Professor, Department of Physics, University of YorkLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1201572019-07-10T04:49:46Z2019-07-10T04:49:46ZWe organised a conference for 570 people without using plastic. Here’s how it went<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/283432/original/file-20190710-44453-1k1dc75.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Delegates at this week's marine science conference in Fremantle take a plastic-free coffee break.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Alicia Sutton/AMSA</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>What did we use before single-use plastics became ingrained in our everyday lives? Before the 1980s, plastic bags were a rarity in our supermarkets. In 2019, excessive plastic use feels not just normal, but necessary to sustain our hectic lifestyles. From takeaway containers and supermarket packaging to cheap, low-quality goods, plastic permeates our daily lives.</p>
<p>However, with every passing year the scale tips further against the immediate convenience of single-use plastics, and towards the extreme inconvenience of piles of waste. The true cost to society and the environment of a “disposal economy” is becoming <a href="https://theconversation.com/eight-million-tonnes-of-plastic-are-going-into-the-ocean-each-year-37521">increasingly stark</a>.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/will-the-discovery-of-another-plastic-trashed-island-finally-spark-meaningful-change-117260">Will the discovery of another plastic-trashed island finally spark meaningful change?</a>
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</em>
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<p>Finding solutions to eliminate plastic waste in everyday life presents challenges, particularly during large events such as professional conferences. At some time during our careers as academics, scientists, researchers, or industry professionals, we may be part of a conference organising committee. Back in the 1990s, conferences proudly tallied how many coffee cups they used – how times have changed.</p>
<p>As organisers of this week’s <a href="http://amsa19.amsa.asn.au">national conference of the Australian Marine Sciences Association</a>, we took on the challenge to walk the walk rather than just talk the talk – by holding a plastic-free conference for 570 marine science professionals, academics, and students. But how do you cater for so many people while limiting waste and using no plastic at all?</p>
<h2>Turning the tide – be part of the solution</h2>
<p>We started this journey 12 months ago, once we knew the challenge we were facing: a marine conference, themed around the <a href="https://theconversation.com/marine-science-challenges-for-a-growing-blue-economy-22845">blue economy</a>, during July, in the Western Australian port city of Fremantle – the birthplace of the <a href="http://www.plasticfreejuly.org">Plastic Free July</a> movement. </p>
<p>From day 1, we were clear we wanted to eliminate plastic and reduce overall waste – everything from day-to-day rubbish to plastic take-home novelties that feature at so many conferences but inevitably make their way into landfill.</p>
<p>Recycling is only a small part of the solution. We need to “refuse, reduce, and recycle” to really tackle plastic.</p>
<h2>What we did</h2>
<p>We began by selecting a <a href="http://encanta.com.au/">like-minded event organiser</a> to work with us. Then we looked for non-plastic alternatives for obvious conference items. Here’s what we came up with:</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/283424/original/file-20190710-44479-nkzyeh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/283424/original/file-20190710-44479-nkzyeh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/283424/original/file-20190710-44479-nkzyeh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=886&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283424/original/file-20190710-44479-nkzyeh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=886&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283424/original/file-20190710-44479-nkzyeh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=886&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283424/original/file-20190710-44479-nkzyeh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1113&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283424/original/file-20190710-44479-nkzyeh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1113&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283424/original/file-20190710-44479-nkzyeh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1113&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">No plastic here at AMSA 2019.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Angela Rossen</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<ul>
<li><p>stiff cardboard name badges with no plastic pockets</p></li>
<li><p>bamboo lanyards with metal clips</p></li>
<li><p>100% natural conference tote bags</p></li>
<li><p>no printed envelopes for registration packs, and no printed conference abstracts</p></li>
<li><p>all necessary printing was done on sustainably sourced paper, by a company using a <a href="http://www.thebigpicturefactory.com.au/">solar-powered printer</a></p></li>
<li><p>delegates were asked to bring their own reusable water bottles and coffee cups, or pre-register to buy a reusable coffee cup at the conference</p></li>
<li><p>coffee carts with <a href="http://go2cup.com.au/">returnable cups</a> that can be washed and reused</p></li>
<li><p>water jugs with glassware (or to refill personal water bottles) at the back of each presentation room</p></li>
<li><p>no packaged mints or lollies</p></li>
<li><p>sustainably sourced pencils instead of pens (with sharpening stations provided!)</p></li>
<li><p>plates, silverware and glassware for all meal breaks</p></li>
<li><p>vegetarian catering for tea breaks</p></li>
<li><p>all exhibitors, workshop organisers and additional functions (such as the student night and public lecture) were committed to reducing plastic waste for free giveaway products and catering.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Most importantly, we delivered these changes without increasing the budget or impacting the bottom line.</p>
<h2>What we learned</h2>
<p><strong>Plan early</strong>. Going against the grain can take a bit of work, but there are usually plastic-free options available. Take the extra time and file the solution away for your next event.</p>
<p><strong>Work with everyone</strong>. Create a shared goal with your whole team: event organisers, venue, exhibitors, caterers – more ideas make for better solutions. This creates a ripple effect, not only for the event, but in developing more sustainable practice for other events.</p>
<p><strong>Do a site visit</strong>. Identify potential problems and devise solutions ahead of time. Rebecca Prince-Ruiz, founder and executive director of <a href="https://www.plasticfreejuly.org/">Plastic Free July</a>, visited our conference venue and provided valuable insights.</p>
<p><strong>Don’t assume</strong>. At another marine conference we attended, plastic water bottles were replaced by jugs of water (great!) and polystyrene cups (not so great!). Not all suppliers are knowledgeable about sustainable materials, so make the effort to talk through what plastic-free and zero-waste really mean.</p>
<h2>Removing ‘hidden’ plastics</h2>
<p>No matter how much planning you do, there will always be “hidden plastics” in the supply chain. It is impossible to control every aspect of operation of the conference venue, their suppliers (food, linen services, waste removal), and the other hotels used by delegates (who may provide guests with water bottles, drinks, and personal hygiene products in rooms).</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-change-seeing-the-planet-break-down-is-depressing-heres-how-to-turn-your-pain-into-action-114407">Climate change: seeing the planet break down is depressing – here's how to turn your pain into action</a>
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<p>Early buy-in by all service providers can help reduce this, but remember the goal is to change people’s attitudes towards waste, not to reinvent the entire events industry in one conference.</p>
<p>But if we can do it for 570 people, then everyone can start making <a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-change-seeing-the-planet-break-down-is-depressing-heres-how-to-turn-your-pain-into-action-114407">similar changes</a> at their own home and workplace too.</p>
<hr>
<p><em><a href="https://www.amsa.asn.au">AMSA</a> will host its <a href="http://amsa19.amsa.asn.au/amsa-public-lecture/">annual public lecture</a>, sponsored by the <a href="http://www.oceans.uwa.edu.au">UWA Oceans Institute</a>, in Fremantle on Wednesday July 10 at 6.30pm. It addresses the issue of plastic pollution and what can be done about it, both globally and locally.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/120157/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Elizabeth Sinclair receives funding from the Australian Research Council and is a member of the WA branch of the Australian Marine Science Association board.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Charlotte Birkmanis is the Secretary and Student Representative of the Australian Marine Sciences Association of Western Australia.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Robert Pemberton is the vice-chair of the Australian Marine Science Association of Western Australia.</span></em></p>This year’s national conference of the Australian Marine Science Association is a plastic-free zone, as marine scientists aim to reduce the environmental burden of throwaway plastic.Elizabeth Sinclair, Senior Research Fellow, School of Biological Sciences and The UWA Oceans Institute, The University of Western AustraliaDr Charlotte Birkmanis, PhD Candidate, The UWA Oceans Institute and School of Biological Sciences, The University of Western AustraliaRobert Pemberton, Business Support Manager, UWA Oceans Institute, The University of Western AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1147902019-04-18T21:10:18Z2019-04-18T21:10:18ZCities and countries aim to slash plastic waste within a decade<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/269646/original/file-20190416-147514-1573sta.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Plastics pile up at Thilafushi, an artificial island created as a landfill, in the Maldives. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>If all goes well, 2030 will be quite a special year. </p>
<p>Global and local community <a href="https://sdg.iisd.org/news/unea-4-commits-to-global-environmental-data-strategy-reducing-single-use-plastics/">leaders from more than 170 countries have pledged</a> to “significantly reduce” the amount of single-use plastic products by 2030. Success would result in significantly less plastic pollution entering our oceans, lakes and rivers. </p>
<p>Today, societies around the world have a love affair with disposable plastics. Just like some love stories, this one has an unhappy ending that results in plastic bags, straws and takeout containers strewn about the global environment. </p>
<p>As researchers who study the contamination and effects of plastic pollution on wildlife, it would be nice if by 2030 we no longer heard about plastics showing up in the <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-47608949">stomachs of dead whales</a>, <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2017/05/a-remote-paradise-island-is-now-a-plastic-junkyard/526743/">littering the beaches of distant islands</a> and contaminating <a href="https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2018/08/20/636845604/beer-drinking-water-and-fish-tiny-plastic-is-everywhere">tap water and seafood</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/269042/original/file-20190412-76837-1h00f22.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/269042/original/file-20190412-76837-1h00f22.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/269042/original/file-20190412-76837-1h00f22.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/269042/original/file-20190412-76837-1h00f22.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/269042/original/file-20190412-76837-1h00f22.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/269042/original/file-20190412-76837-1h00f22.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/269042/original/file-20190412-76837-1h00f22.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Plastic doesn’t belong on the beach.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It is time for some good news about the environment, including stories about how cities and countries are managing plastics and other waste materials in more sustainable ways, and how children will have cleaner beaches to play on.</p>
<h2>No reason to wait</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1738284?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents">Scientists have known</a> about plastic pollution in our oceans for more than four decades. It is pervasive in rivers, lakes and soils too. Plastic pollution knows no boundaries, with <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/10/12/124006">small bits of plastic</a> found from the equator to the poles and even on the <a href="https://theconversation.com/microplastics-have-even-been-blown-into-a-remote-corner-of-the-pyrenees-115503">remote slopes of the French Pyrenees mountains</a>. </p>
<p>Plastic waste damages ecosystems, smothers coral reefs and fills the bellies of sea life. In the absence of action, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41599-018-0212-7">the amount of plastic waste produced globally is predicted to triple between 2015 and 2060</a>, to between 155 and 265 million tonnes per year.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/microplastics-have-even-been-blown-into-a-remote-corner-of-the-pyrenees-115503">Microplastics have even been blown into a remote corner of the Pyrenees</a>
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<p>As a welcome response, global leaders have decided to act. At the <a href="http://web.unep.org/environmentassembly/">UN Environment Assembly</a> in Nairobi in March, environment ministers from around the world signed a voluntary commitment to make measurable reductions in single-use plastic products, including straws, shopping bags and other low-value plastic items that are sent to landfill after being used once.</p>
<p>Similar goals to deal with plastic pollution have been introduced by municipal, provincial, federal and regional governments across the globe. Non-profit organizations and industry leaders are making efforts to tackle the problem of plastic pollution. For example, <a href="https://oceanconservancy.org/trash-free-seas/plastics-in-the-ocean/">Ocean Conservancy</a> is uniting citizens and organizations around the world in cleanups to meet their goal of an ocean free of plastics by 2030, and <a href="https://www.unilever.com/sustainable-living/reducing-environmental-impact/waste-and-packaging/">Unilever</a> has pledged to use 100 per cent recyclable packaging by 2025. </p>
<h2>Canada joins the movement</h2>
<p>Canada introduced the <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/nova-scotia/halifax-g7-meeting-plastics-1.4827886">Ocean Plastics Charter</a> at the G7 summit in 2018, committing nations to work with industry to make all plastics reusable, recyclable or recoverable by 2030. That means sending no plastic waste to landfill.</p>
<p>Vancouver aims to be a zero-waste city by 2040. Although the city has <a href="https://thetyee.ca/News/2019/02/28/Less-Waste-Vancouver-Green-Goal/">reduced the mass of waste going to landfill by 23 per cent since 2008, it still has a long way to go</a>.</p>
<p>Ontario also has its sights on being waste-free by developing a <a href="https://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/circular-economy/concept">circular economy</a>, which means keeping materials in use for as long as possible. The province aims to cut the amount of waste sent to landfills in half by 2030, a reduction of <a href="https://www.ontario.ca/page/strategy-waste-free-ontario-building-circular-economy">4.5 million tonnes</a>, through reuse and recycling. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/beyond-our-oceans-microplastics-pollute-rivers-and-lakes-too-94559">Beyond our oceans: Microplastics pollute rivers and lakes too</a>
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<p>To propel Ontario into action, Ian Arthur, the member of the Ontario provincial parliament for Kingston and the Islands introduced a <a href="https://www.ola.org/en/legislative-business/bills/parliament-42/session-1/bill-82">private member’s bill</a> in March to eliminate Ontario’s use of non-recyclable single-use plastic products such as straws, coffee cups and plastic cutlery, which ultimately end up in landfills. These plastics do not feed into a circular economy. </p>
<p>In addition, <a href="https://www.thewhig.com/news/local-news/kingston-pupils-petition-targets-plastic-bags-polystyrene">school children in Ontario are working towards collecting 10,000 signatures on petitions</a> to ban single-use plastics in the province. </p>
<p>Canadians would like to see more action against plastic waste. According to a <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/marketplace/blog/plastic-waste-survey-results">recent poll</a>, 90 per cent of Canadians were either very concerned or somewhat concerned about the environmental impact of plastic waste, and 82 per cent thought government should do more to reduce plastic waste.</p>
<h2>Bye bye plastic waste</h2>
<p>Our research, and the research of others, has found that single-use plastic products <a href="https://www.shorelinecleanup.ca/">litter our beaches and coastlines</a>, small pieces of plastics contaminate our <a href="https://www.utoronto.ca/news/beyond-our-oceans-microplastics-pollute-rivers-and-lakes-too">Great Lakes</a> and the <a href="https://thenarwhal.ca/plastics-are-showing-up-in-canadas-arctic-birds/">Arctic Ocean</a>, and microplastics are present in our sport fish and drinking water.</p>
<p>Ambitious global, regional and local collaborations are sorely needed to truly realize these goals. It’s time to commit to ending the love affair with disposable plastics. </p>
<p>Individual action does work. Quench your need for caffeine by using a reusable mug. Hydrate with water from a durable and refillable bottle. Purchase groceries that come in containers that can be reused or recycled. Plan your kid’s birthday party and your work meetings without using disposable single-use plastics. </p>
<p>A decade of positive habits could lead to a future where plastic is no longer waste, but valued as a material that can be reused and recycled — shifting our current paradigm to a more sustainable one that lasts far beyond 2030.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/114790/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Chelsea Rochman receives funding from Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council, the Ontario Ministry of the Environment, Conservation and Parks, Fisheries and Oceans Canada and Environment and Climate Change Canada to do work on plastics. She is a scientific advisor for the Ocean Conservancy.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Diane Orihel receives funding from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council, Environment and Climate Change Canada and Ocean Conservancy.</span></em></p>Without action, the amount of plastic waste produced globally could reach as much as 265 million tonnes per year by 2060.Chelsea Rochman, Assistant Professor of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of TorontoDiane Orihel, Assistant Professor, School of Environmental Studies, Queen's University, OntarioLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1116872019-02-14T15:21:53Z2019-02-14T15:21:53ZThe major source of ocean plastic pollution you’ve probably never heard of<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/259062/original/file-20190214-1742-xfwefe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/hand-hold-touching-plastic-pellets-polymer-1028856157?src=AXmroU5wAwKT5xNYzdXw-w-1-0">Shutterstock/Extarz</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>“Nurdles” may sound cute but they pose a huge risk to the marine environment. Also known as “mermaid tears”, these small plastic pellets are a feedstock in the plastic industry. Instead of being converted into household items, many end up in the ocean, collecting toxins on their surfaces and being eaten by marine wildlife. Not so cute now, are they?</p>
<p>Nurdles are the building blocks for most plastic goods, from single-use water bottles to televison sets. These small pellets – normally between 1mm and 5mm – are classed as a primary microplastic alongside the microbeads used in cosmetic products – they’re small on purpose, as opposed to other microplastics that break off from larger plastic waste in the ocean.</p>
<p>The small size of nurdles makes them easy to transport as the raw material which can be melted down and moulded into all kinds of plastic products by manufacturers. Unfortunately, mismanagement of these little pellets during transport and processing leads to billions being unintentionally released into rivers and oceans through effluent pipes, blown from land or <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0269749115000949">via industrial spillage</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/258553/original/file-20190212-174857-1e44jhe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/258553/original/file-20190212-174857-1e44jhe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/258553/original/file-20190212-174857-1e44jhe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/258553/original/file-20190212-174857-1e44jhe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/258553/original/file-20190212-174857-1e44jhe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/258553/original/file-20190212-174857-1e44jhe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/258553/original/file-20190212-174857-1e44jhe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Nurdles – colourful, ubiquitous and deadly for wildlife.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Amy Osborne</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>An ocean of mermaid tears</h2>
<p>“Mermaid tears” is an appropriate nickname when we consider the potential harm that nurdles have on marine life. Their small size, round shape and array of colours make them attractive food – easily mistaken for fish eggs and small prey. This “food” has an extra problem – it comes with a side of noxious chemicals. </p>
<p>The large surface area to size ratio and polymer composition of the nurdle pellets allow persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in seawater to build up on their surfaces. These toxins then transfer to the tissue of organisms which eat them. The problem is in the name – POPs are “persistent”, meaning they don’t go away easily and can remain on the surface of nurdles for years.</p>
<p>Nurdles can also be colonised by microbes that are dangerous to humans. A study investigating nurdles on bathing beaches in East Lothian, Scotland, found that <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X19300116">all five beaches tested</a> had nurdles that were covered with <em>E. coli</em> – the bacterium responsible for food poisoning. </p>
<p>Nurdles can be so noxious that people cleaning beaches or recording pellets in scientific surveys are advised not to touch them with their bare skin – which makes sun bathing on many beaches in the summer an unattractive prospect.</p>
<p>So how many nurdles are out there in the ocean and on coastlines? It’s estimated that <a href="https://www.nurdlehunt.org.uk/images/Leaflets/Report_briefing.pdf">up to 53 billion nurdles</a> are released annually in the UK from the plastic industry. That’s the same amount of nurdles that it would take to make <a href="https://phys.org/news/2018-04-fuss-nurdles.html">88m plastic bottles</a>. So why are nurdles rarely discussed in the plastic pollution debate?</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/258768/original/file-20190213-181597-fhlei1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/258768/original/file-20190213-181597-fhlei1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/258768/original/file-20190213-181597-fhlei1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/258768/original/file-20190213-181597-fhlei1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/258768/original/file-20190213-181597-fhlei1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/258768/original/file-20190213-181597-fhlei1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/258768/original/file-20190213-181597-fhlei1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Nurdles are the feedstock for most of the single-use plastic products we use every day.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/single-use-disposable-plastic-including-cutlery-1125384845">Sarah2/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The Nurdle hunting</h2>
<p>Luckily, there are organisations raising awareness of nurdles and their prevalence in marine pollution. <a href="https://www.nurdlehunt.org.uk/">The Great Global Nurdle Hunt</a> started by <a href="https://www.fidra.org.uk/">Fidra</a> – a charity based in Scotland that addresses environmental issues – and the <a href="https://www.mcsuk.org/news/what-are-nurdles">Marine Conservation Society</a> encourages people to become citizen scientists and gather data on how common these pellets are on beaches around the world. </p>
<p>Data collection helps identify the main sources of this pollution from the plastic industry, which can use the information to improve management of the problem. As there are so many nurdles present in the environment, it takes an army of people to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X19300335">gather information about them</a>. <a href="https://www.nurdlehunt.org.uk/take-part.html">The Hunt</a> takes place over ten days in February each year. </p>
<p>Citizen scientists log their nurdle findings onto a <a href="https://www.nurdlehunt.org.uk/take-part/nurdle-map.html">global map</a> that shows the extent of nurdle pollution worldwide and how it’s changed over time. Since 2012, the number of beaches being searched has reached 1610 across six continents, 18 countries and with over 60 organisations involved.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/259054/original/file-20190214-1748-12bunt7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/259054/original/file-20190214-1748-12bunt7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/259054/original/file-20190214-1748-12bunt7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/259054/original/file-20190214-1748-12bunt7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/259054/original/file-20190214-1748-12bunt7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/259054/original/file-20190214-1748-12bunt7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/259054/original/file-20190214-1748-12bunt7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Volunteers survey the beach for nurdles.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Claire Gwinnett</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This year, Staffordshire University’s Microplastic and Forensic Fibre Research Group <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1470160X15003878">took part in efforts to estimate</a> the concentration of nurdles on Hightown beach in Liverpool, UK. An average of 139.8 nurdles per square metre were found. That’s around 140,000 nurdles over 1km of hightide line. </p>
<p>If you’d like to become a citizen scientist and collect nurdle data at your local beach, there are a few useful tips. Have a look at one of the <a href="https://www.nurdlehunt.org.uk/images/Leaflets/Nurdles-ID-chart_final.pdf">online nurdle ID guides</a> online so that you don’t mistake a polystyrene ball, BB gun pellet or ancient fossil for a nurdle.</p>
<p>Make sure to check seaweed and other marine debris when on the beach – these act like large nurdle nets. Once you’ve collected data, don’t forget to submit your findings to a suitable survey so that that they can be used to fight the pollution problem.</p>
<p>And if you don’t live near the coast, don’t worry – nurdles have been found in most environments, including rivers, lakes and even far inland and away from water. We even found them in soil in our campus. So let’s get nurdle hunting – but don’t forget your gloves.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/111687/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Claire Gwinnett is affiliated with the UK Microplastic Group.</span></em></p>Nurdles are a raw feedstock used to make most of the plastic products we use everyday, but they’re flooding the ocean as “mermaid tears”.Claire Gwinnett, Associate Professor in Forensic and Crime Science, Staffordshire UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1007682018-09-13T13:34:43Z2018-09-13T13:34:43ZHow much plastic does it take to kill a turtle? Typically just 14 pieces<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/236139/original/file-20180913-133877-1l7r55a.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Plastic bags, balloons, and rope fragments were among more than 100 pieces of plastic in the gut of a single turtle.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Qamar Schuyler</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>We know there is <a href="https://theconversation.com/eight-million-tonnes-of-plastic-are-going-into-the-ocean-each-year-37521">a lot of plastic in the ocean</a>, and that turtles (and other endangered species) <a href="https://theconversation.com/australian-endangered-species-leatherback-turtle-17041">are eating it</a>. It is not uncommon to find stranded dead turtles with guts full of plastic.</p>
<p>But we weren’t really sure whether plastic eaten by turtles actually kills them, or if they just happen to have plastic inside them when they die. Another way to look at it would be to ask: how much is too much plastic for turtles? </p>
<p>This is a really important question. Just because there’s a lot of plastic in the ocean, we can’t necessarily presume that animals are <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/environment/plastic-oceans-pollution-microplastics-evidence-harm-recycling-dumping-waste-a8275416.html">dying</a> from eating it. Even if a few animals do, that doesn’t mean that every animal that eats plastic is going to die. If we can estimate how much plastic it takes to kill a turtle, we can start to answer the question of exactly how turtle populations are affected by eating plastic debris.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/eight-million-tonnes-of-plastic-are-going-into-the-ocean-each-year-37521">Eight million tonnes of plastic are going into the ocean each year</a>
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<p>In our research, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-30038-z">published today in Nature Scientific Reports</a>, we looked at nearly 1,000 turtles that had died and washed up on beaches around Australia or were found in nets. About 260 of them we examined ourselves; the others were reported to the <a href="https://www.ehp.qld.gov.au/wildlife/caring-for-wildlife/marine-strandings-data.html">Queensland Turtle Stranding Database</a>. We carefully investigated why the turtles died, and for the ones we examined, we counted how many pieces of plastic they had eaten. </p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/JIklRSR0ov4?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
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<p>Some turtles died of causes that were nothing to do with plastic. They may have been killed by a boat strike, or become entangled in fishing lines or <a href="https://theconversation.com/ghostnets-fish-on-marine-rubbish-threatens-northern-australian-turtles-11585">derelict nets</a>. Turtles have even been known to die after accidentally eating a <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24391271">blue-ringed octopus</a>. Others definitely died from eating plastic, with the plastic either puncturing or blocking their gut. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/236023/original/file-20180912-133877-p43xum.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/236023/original/file-20180912-133877-p43xum.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=592&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/236023/original/file-20180912-133877-p43xum.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=592&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/236023/original/file-20180912-133877-p43xum.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=592&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/236023/original/file-20180912-133877-p43xum.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=744&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/236023/original/file-20180912-133877-p43xum.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=744&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/236023/original/file-20180912-133877-p43xum.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=744&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">One of the first meals eaten by this sea turtle post-hatchling turned out to be deadly. It died from consuming more than 20 tiny pieces of plastic, many of which were about the same size as a grain of rice.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Kathy Townsend</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Some turtles that were killed by things like boat strikes or fishing nets nevertheless had large amounts of plastic in their guts, despite not having been killed by eating plastic. These turtles allow us to see how much plastic an animal can eat and still be alive and functioning. </p>
<p>The chart below sets out this idea. If an animal drowned in a fishing net, its chance of being killed by plastic is zero – and it falls in the lower left of the graph. If a turtle’s gut was blocked by a plastic bag, its chance of being killed by plastic is 100%, and it’s in the upper right. </p>
<p>The animals that were dead with plastic in their gut, but had other possible causes of death have a chance of death due to plastic somewhere between 0 and 100% – we just don’t know, and they can fall anywhere in the graph. Once we have all the animals in the plot, then we can ask whether we see an increase in the chance of death due to plastic as the amount of plastic in an animal goes up. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/230193/original/file-20180801-136664-107ew9m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/230193/original/file-20180801-136664-107ew9m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/230193/original/file-20180801-136664-107ew9m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=449&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230193/original/file-20180801-136664-107ew9m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=449&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230193/original/file-20180801-136664-107ew9m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=449&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230193/original/file-20180801-136664-107ew9m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230193/original/file-20180801-136664-107ew9m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230193/original/file-20180801-136664-107ew9m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Conceptual framework for estimating the probability of death due to plastic debris ingestion. Figure provided by the authors.</span>
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<p><a href="https://cdn.theconversation.com/static_files/files/281/Fig1.pdf?1536817078"></a></p>
<p>We tested this idea using our turtle samples. We looked at the relationship between the likelihood of death due to plastic as determined by a turtle autopsy, and the number of pieces of plastic found inside the animals. </p>
<p>Unsurprisingly, we found that the more plastic pieces a turtle had inside it, the more likely it was to have been killed by plastic. We calculated that for an average-sized turtle (about 45cm long), eating 14 plastic items equates to a 50% chance of being fatal.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/pristine-paradise-to-rubbish-dump-the-same-pacific-island-23-years-apart-80811">Pristine paradise to rubbish dump: the same Pacific island, 23 years apart</a>
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<p>That’s not to say that a turtle can eat 13 pieces of plastic without harm. Even a single piece can potentially kill a turtle. Two of the turtles we studied had eaten just one piece of plastic, which was enough to kill them. In one case, the gut was punctured, and in the other, the soft plastic had clogged the turtle’s gut. Our analyses suggest that a turtle has a 22% chance of dying if it eats just one piece of plastic.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/230116/original/file-20180731-136670-sn09he.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/230116/original/file-20180731-136670-sn09he.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/230116/original/file-20180731-136670-sn09he.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230116/original/file-20180731-136670-sn09he.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230116/original/file-20180731-136670-sn09he.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230116/original/file-20180731-136670-sn09he.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230116/original/file-20180731-136670-sn09he.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/230116/original/file-20180731-136670-sn09he.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A green sea turtle that died after consuming 13 pieces of soft plastic and balloons, which blocked its gastrointestinal system.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Kathy Townsend</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>A few other factors also affected the animals’ chance of being killed by plastic. Juveniles <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0040884">eat more debris than adults</a>, and the rate also varies between different turtle species. </p>
<p>Now that we know how much is too much plastic, the next step is to apply this to global estimates of debris ingestion rates by turtles, and figure out just how much of a threat plastic is to endangered sea turtle populations.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/100768/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Britta Denise Hardesty currently receives philanthropic funding and support from CSIRO Oceans and Atmosphere for plastics research. Previously she was supported by an ARC linkage grant. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Chris Wilcox receives funding from CSIRO and several philanthropic organizations for plastics related research. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kathy Townsend receives funding from University of the Sunshine Coast as well as several private donors. This previous work was supported by the University of Queensland and an ARC linkage grant.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Qamar Schuyler receives funding from CSIRO as well as several private donors. This previous work was supported by the University of Queensland and an ARC linkage grant.</span></em></p>Autopsies of 1,000 turtles washed up on Australian beaches paint a grim picture of the impact of plastic debris. Even a single piece can be deadly, and on average 14 pieces equals a 50% fatality rate.Britta Denise Hardesty, Principal Research Scientist, Oceans and Atmosphere Flagship, CSIROChris Wilcox, Senior Research Scientist, CSIROKathy Ann Townsend, Lecturer in Animal Ecology, University of the Sunshine CoastQamar Schuyler, Research Scientist, Oceans and Atmospheres, CSIROLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/994882018-07-11T23:08:07Z2018-07-11T23:08:07ZNot all marine fish eat plastics<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/227183/original/file-20180711-27018-19ewdiy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A whale shark moves towards a piece of plastic in the ocean. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The Gulf Stream, which curves along the southern shore of Newfoundland, is saturated with plastics. Fish that feed from the surface waters, where plastics tend to accumulate, are in an ideal position to ingest plastics. </p>
<p>But what about the bigger fish that eat these fish, especially when we eat those predators? </p>
<p>In 2016, our laboratory collected 134 <a href="http://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/species-especes/profiles-profils/silver-hake-merlu-argente-eng.html">silver hake</a> to check the rate at which they ate plastics. Since silver hake are predators that eat fish that feed from the surface waters where plastics tend to accumulate, we were prepared to see a lot of plastic. </p>
<p>To our surprise, when we opened their digestive tracts, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.04.007">we found zero plastics</a>. </p>
<p>It turns out this is normal. </p>
<h2>Some fish don’t eat plastics</h2>
<p>At first, we wondered if our results were a statistical anomaly. Most scientific literature reports ingestion rates well over our finding of zero. The ranges run from one per cent to 100 per cent, with an average of around 30 per cent.</p>
<p>When we took a closer look at other studies, we found that most of them averaged ingestion rates across all fish species. </p>
<p>But fish feeding habits are highly variable. Different species, ages and feeding grounds make some species more or less likely to ingest plastics than others. Some fish species eat from the middle of the water column, where there are fewer plastics, for example. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/beyond-our-oceans-microplastics-pollute-rivers-and-lakes-too-94559">Beyond our oceans: Microplastics pollute rivers and lakes too</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>We untangled the results of these studies to see what the data said about each species. </p>
<p>We found that 41 per cent of all species studied do not ingest plastics! Silver hake and their zero per cent ingestion rates were not an anomaly at all.</p>
<h2>No one loves a zero</h2>
<p>Why didn’t we, a group of experts, know that there was a good chance we wouldn’t find plastics in a fish species?</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/227218/original/file-20180711-27027-1p1jins.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/227218/original/file-20180711-27027-1p1jins.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=223&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/227218/original/file-20180711-27027-1p1jins.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=223&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/227218/original/file-20180711-27027-1p1jins.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=223&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/227218/original/file-20180711-27027-1p1jins.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=280&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/227218/original/file-20180711-27027-1p1jins.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=280&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/227218/original/file-20180711-27027-1p1jins.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=280&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Silver hake is also known as whiting, Atlantic hake and New England hake.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Freshwater and Marine Image Bank)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There are two potential reasons that this kind of knowledge doesn’t circulate. </p>
<p>First, in science, it’s hard to get a zero published. The studies averaged the ingestion rate across species, obfuscating any zeros. </p>
<p>Second, many ingestion studies seem to include all the fish in a region. Scientists often use a trawl to catch a variety of fish in a region, and then report the ingestion rate for all species in that area, rather than focus on one species’ ingestion rate. </p>
<h2>Zero impacts justice</h2>
<p>Erasing these zero results with broad-brush claims that equalize risk across all people, all landscapes or all fish overlooks crucial differences in practices, exposures and futures that do not apply equally to everyone and everything. </p>
<p>If we are invested in addressing the problems of plastic pollution, then our interventions must reflect these uneven distributions. For example, we might start with species that ingest the most plastics or that suffer most from plastics.</p>
<p>It is hard to address a problem like marine plastics without this kind of nuance.</p>
<p>Consider a parallel example. Predatory aquatic animals like <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0308814695001158">lake trout</a> or <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-39738582">killer whales </a> can <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160412007000025">accumulate chemicals such as PCBs</a>. When we eat these fish, the chemicals have <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1519860/">a greater effect on a growing fetus</a> than an adult.</p>
<p>This is why <a href="https://www.epa.gov/choose-fish-and-shellfish-wisely/fish-and-shellfish-advisories-and-safe-eating-guidelines">fish consumption advisories</a> are different if you are pregnant than if you are not. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/227186/original/file-20180711-27027-cqv61p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/227186/original/file-20180711-27027-cqv61p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/227186/original/file-20180711-27027-cqv61p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/227186/original/file-20180711-27027-cqv61p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/227186/original/file-20180711-27027-cqv61p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/227186/original/file-20180711-27027-cqv61p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/227186/original/file-20180711-27027-cqv61p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Some of the fish we eat may contain plastics. Others may not. Knowing which do is important to understanding how we address the issue of plastics in our oceans.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Averaging harm and creating universal advisories put some people at more risk than others. Identifying differences is a basic principle of pollution work in both science and activism. It’s why knowing the prevalence of species that do not ingest plastics is significant to both public health and environmental justice work. </p>
<h2>Thin numbers on plastics</h2>
<p>As it turns out, the dearth of zero ingestion rates isn’t the only thin number describing plastic pollution. A lot of the numbers that circulate about marine plastic pollution are <a href="http://marinelitter.no/">speculative at best and unverifiable at worst</a>.</p>
<p>For example, the oft-quoted statistic that “<a href="https://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/publications/the-new-plastics-economy-rethinking-the-future-of-plastics">there will more plastic than fish in the oceans by 2050</a>” is cinematic, but given the acute problems with estimating both the weight of global fish stocks for all species and all marine plastics in all environments, the number “<a href="http://marinelitter.no/">is a useful illustration but it is not verifiable</a>”, meaning that we can’t know if the number is correct or not.</p>
<p>Likewise, tests for estimating how long plastics take to degrade are “<a href="http://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlehtml/2015/em/c5em00207a">conducted at non-environmentally relevant conditions</a>,” leaving the media to <a href="https://futurism.com/plastic-decomposition/">report ranges of 10 to 10,000 years</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-future-of-plastics-reusing-the-bad-and-encouraging-the-good-87001">The future of plastics: reusing the bad and encouraging the good</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Those figures identify time periods that are longer than plastics have been on the planet. (Plastic was invented about 150 years ago.) And the laboratory conditions that led to those those estimates don’t exist in nature. </p>
<p>Nor do we know how many plastics from land enter the oceans, or how many straws end up in the environment. Although we have <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/content/347/6223/768.full">some estimates</a>, the exact numbers are proving to be a less than ideal source for describing the problem of plastic pollution.</p>
<h2>A better discussion</h2>
<p>The good news is that numbers don’t have to, and perhaps shouldn’t, be the main way we describe marine plastic pollution.</p>
<p>Counting plastics that are already in fish (or not) looks at the end of the pipe, instead of how plastics get into the pipe. Rather than asking “how much,” we can turn to the “why” and the “how.” </p>
<p>Instead of focusing on harm — the effects of plastics — we can look at violence — the cause of these potential harms by polluters.</p>
<p>When we <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29886947">first published our silver hake results</a>, I received a lot of hate mail. </p>
<p>Social media posts accused me of working for the plastics industry, which I don’t. The public concern was that our zero result implied that there was no problem with pollution. Nothing could be farther from the truth.</p>
<p>But just because we see uneven harm (to the fish) does not mean there is uneven environmental violence. The plastic industry is still the only source of plastic waste, regardless of which species of fish tend to ingest plastics or not. Harm focuses only on effects, but violence captures causes of multiple and uneven effects. </p>
<p>Regardless of whether we find plastics in one fish species but not another, the pipeline moving plastics into waterways remains the same.</p>
<p>As a scientist, I want to warn against conflating “how much” harm with why harm occurs. I also want to highlight the “how” and “why” questions about violence over the “how much” question of harm. </p>
<p>Science is not in a position to say what is right or wrong, but only to quantify the occurrence of harm. It can say nothing about the “how,” the “why” or the “what now.” That is for us to consider.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/99488/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Max Liboiron receives funding from The Marine Environmental Observation Prediction and Response Network (MEOPAR), Canada's Social Science and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC), and Memorial University of Newfoundland.
Liboiron directs Civic Laboratory for Environmental Action Research (CLEAR), and is a member of the Endocrine Disruptors Action Group (EDAction), both of which are research groups that aim to make social and policy change through science. </span></em></p>If we are truly invested in addressing the issue of marine plastic and offsetting the potential harms, we have to understand which fish eat plastic and which ones don’t.Max Liboiron, Professor of Geography and Environmental Science, Memorial University of NewfoundlandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/964562018-05-22T21:01:17Z2018-05-22T21:01:17ZWhy you may never eat raw oysters again<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/219516/original/file-20180517-26286-f3sb76.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Eating raw oysters can put you at risk of food-borne illnesses, such as norovirus, hepatitis A and salmonella. And, sadly, hot sauce, lemon juice and alcohol do not reduce the risks.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock))</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Many people look forward to raw oysters, and raw oyster bars are popular at some trendy restaurants. However, they (along with other under-cooked seafood) can put you at risk for food-borne illnesses.</p>
<p>Recently, <a href="http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/norovirus-oysters-april-2018-1.4649715">many people became ill in British Columbia, Alberta and Ontario</a> after eating raw oysters harvested from B.C. farms. </p>
<p>Although the actual causes of the contamination are still unknown, <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/public-health-notices/2017/public-health-notice-ongoing-outbreak-norovirus-gastrointestinal-illnesses-linked-undercooked-oysters-british-columbia.html">human sewage in the marine environment is the likely culprit</a> in this outbreak. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.cdph.ca.gov/Programs/OPA/Pages/NR18-027.aspx">People in the United States have also become sick</a> from eating these Canadian raw oysters. </p>
<p>Norovirus is actually the most common cause of food-borne illness caused by the consumption of bivalve shellfish contaminated with human fecal matter. In fact, some recent research done in the United Kingdom found that <a href="http://www.foodsafetynews.com/2018/05/norovirus-found-in-almost-70-percent-of-oysters-for-sale-in-uk/#.Wv19O4iUubg">almost 70 per cent of the raw oysters sold in the U.K. contain norovirus</a>, although it is uncertain if all of the virus is actually infectious. </p>
<p>Oyster-associated norovirus outbreaks commonly result from contamination at the source in the growing waters. Oyster beds themselves can become contaminated due to land-based sewage outflow or sewage disposal from oyster harvesters.</p>
<h2>Can you tell if a raw oyster is bad?</h2>
<p>No, an oyster that contains harmful bacteria or viruses does not look, smell or even taste different from any other oyster.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/219517/original/file-20180517-26286-13mmrjl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/219517/original/file-20180517-26286-13mmrjl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/219517/original/file-20180517-26286-13mmrjl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/219517/original/file-20180517-26286-13mmrjl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/219517/original/file-20180517-26286-13mmrjl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/219517/original/file-20180517-26286-13mmrjl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/219517/original/file-20180517-26286-13mmrjl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The safest way to eat oysters is to cook them until they reach an internal temperature of 90˚C.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Besides norovirus, there are a number of other bacteria and viruses that we need to be concerned with in raw oysters. </p>
<p>The most important bacteria are two in the genus Vibrio. One is called <a href="https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa051594">Vibrio parahaemolyticus</a> and the other Vibrio vulnificus. The latter bacterium can cause more severe illness, but are more often a problem in the U.S. than in Canada. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.dx.doi.org/10.1128/AEM.71.2.893-897.2005">Salmonella has also been found in raw oysters</a>. And, when it comes to viruses, hepatitis A can be found in raw oysters and cause illness, although norovirus is the one that has caused most of the problems of late.</p>
<h2>How do raw oysters become contaminated?</h2>
<p>Human sewage in the marine environment is believed to be the most probable cause of oyster contamination with norovirus. </p>
<p>But Vibrio bacteria are believed to be a natural part of the marine environment where oysters live. It is only when water temperatures rise that these bacteria can become a problem. </p>
<p>In fact, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4772208/pdf/ijerph-13-00188.pdf">global warming is thought by some to be responsible for some outbreaks linked to Vibrio species</a>. </p>
<p>Because oysters feed by filtering water, both bacteria and viruses can actually concentrate themselves in the tissues of the oysters before they are eaten by consumers.</p>
<h2>Who is most at risk of infection?</h2>
<p>Acute gastrointestinal illnesses such as norovirus and vibriosis are common in North America, and can affect all age groups. </p>
<p>However, pregnant women, people with compromised immune systems, young children and the elderly are at risk for developing more serious complications. </p>
<p>For a certain type of Vibrio bacteria, which is more common in the U.S., <a href="https://www.fda.gov/Food/ResourcesForYou/HealthEducators/ucm085365.htm">people with underlying health conditions, such as liver disease, are at a higher risk of more serious complications or even death</a>. </p>
<h2>How to purchase oysters safely</h2>
<p>First, shop from reliable sources and choose fresh oysters with intact shells and without abnormal odour. When the shell is tapped, it should close tightly. Throw away any oysters with shells already opened.</p>
<p>Check the expiry date of pre-packaged shucked oysters. Ensure they are stored properly at 4˚C or below for chilled products, or at -18˚C or below for frozen products.</p>
<p>It is best to place raw, store-bought oysters into a cold thermos bag when transporting them home. This will minimize the time that the oysters are exposed to room temperature, which favours the growth of bacterial pathogens such as Vibrio. </p>
<p>Chilled oysters should be consumed within one to two days. Oysters in the shell should be placed in containers with a cover to prevent cross-contamination in the refrigerator.</p>
<h2>How to cook oysters at home</h2>
<p>To protect yourself, do not eat oysters raw or under-cooked. The safest way is to <a href="https://www.seafoodhealthfacts.org/seafood-safety/general-information-patients-and-consumers/seafood-safety-issues-specific-products-0">cook your oysters</a> until they reach an internal temperature of 90˚C.</p>
<p>In the shell: After the shells open, you should boil the live oysters for another three to five minutes. Also, do not cook too many oysters in the same pot because the ones in the middle may not get fully cooked. Finally, discard any oysters that do not open during cooking.</p>
<p>In a steamer: Add oysters to water that is already steaming and cook the live oysters for four to nine minutes.</p>
<p>Shucked products should be boiled for three minutes, fried at 375°F for at least three minutes or baked at 232°C (450°F) for 10 minutes.</p>
<p>Be sure to wash your hands, utensils and surfaces well with hot water and soap after you have handled raw oysters. You do not want to cross-contaminate other ready-to-eat foods in your kitchen. </p>
<h2>A few oyster myths</h2>
<p><strong>1. You only get sick from eating oysters during the warmer months of the year.</strong></p>
<p>While it is true that most vibriosis cases occur during the warmer months of the year, when the water temperatures are higher and there is a better chance of the Vibrio bacteria growing more rapidly, cases have been reported all year round. </p>
<p>For norovirus, a number of studies have found that you can actually find higher levels in commercially harvested shellfish during the winter. <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jid/article/181/Supplement_2/S284/1023787">Some studies have shown that there is a cold weather peak in relation to the number of norovirus gastroenteritis cases that occur</a>.</p>
<p><strong>2. If you avoid eating raw oysters from polluted waters, you will be safe.</strong></p>
<p>False. Vibrio bacteria are not a result of pollution as they are natural inhabitants of the marine environment. So, although oysters should always be obtained from reputable sources, eating oysters from “clean” waters or in reputable restaurants with a high turnover does not guarantee that you will not get sick.</p>
<p><strong>3. Eating raw oysters with hot sauce and lemon juice will kill the bacteria and viruses that can cause food-borne illness.</strong></p>
<p>No, this is false. Hot sauce and/or lemon juice will not significantly affect any of the food-borne pathogens.</p>
<p><strong>4. Eating raw oysters while drinking alcohol will kill the bacteria and viruses that can cause food-borne illness.</strong></p>
<p>Again, this is false.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/96456/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jeffrey M. Farber does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>In the wake of a norovirus outbreak traced to raw oysters from British Columbia, our expert explains how to eat this culinary delicacy safely.Jeffrey M. Farber, Professor of Food Safety, University of GuelphLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/958752018-05-02T20:22:21Z2018-05-02T20:22:21Z$500 million for the Great Barrier Reef is welcome, but we need a sea change in tactics too<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/217181/original/file-20180502-153891-v767up.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The new funding is focused on measures that are already in the foreground.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Robert Linsdell/Flickr</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The federal government’s <a href="http://www.joshfrydenberg.com.au/guest/mediaReleasesDetails.aspx?id=563">announcement</a> of more than A$500 million in funding for the Great Barrier Reef is good news. It appears to show a significant commitment to the reef’s preservation – something that has been <a href="https://theconversation.com/60-million-to-save-the-great-barrier-reef-is-a-drop-in-the-ocean-but-we-have-to-try-90534">lacking</a> in recent years.</p>
<p>The new A$444 million package, which comes in the wake of the <a href="https://theconversation.com/60-million-to-save-the-great-barrier-reef-is-a-drop-in-the-ocean-but-we-have-to-try-90534">A$60 million previously announced in January</a>, includes:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>A$201 million to improve water quality by cutting fertiliser use and adopting new technologies and practices</p></li>
<li><p>A$100 million for research on coral resilience and adaptation</p></li>
<li><p>A$58 million to continue fighting crown-of-thorns starfish</p></li>
<li><p>A$45 million for community engagement, particularly among Traditional Owners</p></li>
<li><p>A$40 million to enhance monitoring and management on the GBR.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>A spokesperson for federal environment minister Josh Frydenberg said the funding would be available immediately to the <a href="https://www.barrierreef.org/">Great Barrier Reef Foundation</a>, and that there was no predetermined time frame for the spending.</p>
<p>But one concern with the package is that it seems to give greatest weight to the strategies that are already being tried – and which have so far fallen a long way short of success.</p>
<h2>Water quality</h2>
<p>The government has not yet announced the timelines for rollout of the program. But if we assume that the A$201 million is funding for the next two years, this matches the current rate of water quality management funding - A$100 million a year, which has been <a href="https://theconversation.com/this-election-is-our-last-chance-to-save-the-great-barrier-reef-59381">in place since 2008</a>. </p>
<p>Yet it is already clear that this existing funding is not reducing pollution loads on the GBR by the required extent. The federal and Queensland governments’ own annual report cards for <a href="https://www.reefplan.qld.gov.au/measuring-success/report-cards/2015/link">2015</a> and <a href="https://www.reefplan.qld.gov.au/measuring-success/report-cards/2016/">2016</a> reveal limited success in improving water quality. It is also known from joint Australian and Queensland government analyses that the required funding to meet water quality targets is of the order of <a href="http://www.alluvium.com.au/Blog/June-2016-(1)/Costing-water-quality-management-for-the-Great-Bar.aspx">A$1 billion per year over the next 10 years</a>.</p>
<p>In the region’s main industries, such as sugarcane cultivation and beef grazing, most land is still managed using methods that are well below best practice for water quality, such as fertiliser rates of application in sugarcane cultivation. According to the <a href="https://www.reefplan.qld.gov.au/about/assets/2017-scientific-consensus-statement-summary-chap05.pdf">2017 Scientific Consensus Statement</a> on the GBR’s water quality, very limited progress has been made so far.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/217166/original/file-20180502-153888-1ltfbl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/217166/original/file-20180502-153888-1ltfbl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/217166/original/file-20180502-153888-1ltfbl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=255&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/217166/original/file-20180502-153888-1ltfbl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=255&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/217166/original/file-20180502-153888-1ltfbl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=255&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/217166/original/file-20180502-153888-1ltfbl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=321&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/217166/original/file-20180502-153888-1ltfbl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=321&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/217166/original/file-20180502-153888-1ltfbl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=321&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Progress towards targets and assigned scores in the 2015 Great Barrier Reef Report Card.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.reefplan.qld.gov.au/about/assets/2017-scientific-consensus-statement-summary-chap04.pdf">2017 Scientific Consensus Statement</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The respective <a href="https://www.reefplan.qld.gov.au/about/targets/">load reduction targets</a> set for 2018 and 2025 are highly unlikely to be met at current funding levels. For example, shown below are the current projections for levels of dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN).</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/217169/original/file-20180502-153869-ya23g8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/217169/original/file-20180502-153869-ya23g8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/217169/original/file-20180502-153869-ya23g8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=312&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/217169/original/file-20180502-153869-ya23g8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=312&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/217169/original/file-20180502-153869-ya23g8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=312&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/217169/original/file-20180502-153869-ya23g8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/217169/original/file-20180502-153869-ya23g8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/217169/original/file-20180502-153869-ya23g8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Progress on reducing total GBR wide dissolved inorganic nitrogen loads and trajectories towards targets.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">CREDIT</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This likely failure to meet any of the targets was noted by UNESCO in <a href="http://whc.unesco.org/en/decisions/6216">2015</a> and again in <a href="http://whc.unesco.org/en/decisions/7027">2017</a> as a major concern, amid deliberations on whether to put the GBR on the <a href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/danger/">World Heritage in Danger list</a>. The UNESCO report criticised Australia’s lack of progress towards achieving its 2050 water quality targets and failure to pass land clearing legislation.</p>
<p>As the <a href="https://www.reefplan.qld.gov.au/about/reef-science/scientific-consensus-statement/">2017 Scientific Consensus Statement</a> also pointed out, improvements to land management oversight are “urgently needed”. Continued government spending on the same programs, at the same levels, and with no federal legislation to mandate improvements, is unlikely to bring water pollution to acceptable levels or offer significant protection to the GBR.</p>
<p>In contrast to the federal government, the Queensland government is taking what are likely to be more effective measures to manage water quality. These include regulations such as the revised <a href="https://dnrme.qld.gov.au/land-water/initiatives/vegetation-management-laws">Vegetation Management Act</a>, which is likely to be passed by the parliament in the next few weeks; and the updated <a href="https://www.qld.gov.au/environment/agriculture/sustainable-farming/reef-regulations">Reef Protection Act</a>, currently out for review. Queensland is also directing funds towards pollution hotspots under the <a href="https://www.qld.gov.au/environment/agriculture/sustainable-farming/reef-major-projects">Major Integrated Projects framework</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/cloudy-issue-we-need-to-fix-the-barrier-reefs-murky-waters-39380">Cloudy issue: we need to fix the Barrier Reef's murky waters</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Crown-of-thorns starfish</h2>
<p>The government’s new package has pledged A$58 million for further culling of this coral-eating animal. Yet the current culling program has faced <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/environment/serious-case-of-negligence-scientists-blast-controls-on-coraleating-starfish-20180117-h0jpfo.html">serious criticism</a> over its effectiveness.</p>
<p>Udo Engelhardt, director of consultancy Reefcare International, and a pioneer in the control of crown-of-thorns starfish, has claimed that his analysis of the culling carried out in 2013-15 in reef areas off Cairns and to the south of Cairns, reveals a “widespread and consistent failure” to protect coral cover.</p>
<p>Nor does there seem to have been a major independent review of the program since these findings came to light. Without one, it seems a shaky bet to assume that we will expect any more success simply by continuing to fund it.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/217189/original/file-20180502-153878-1yep9h9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/217189/original/file-20180502-153878-1yep9h9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/217189/original/file-20180502-153878-1yep9h9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/217189/original/file-20180502-153878-1yep9h9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/217189/original/file-20180502-153878-1yep9h9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/217189/original/file-20180502-153878-1yep9h9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/217189/original/file-20180502-153878-1yep9h9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/217189/original/file-20180502-153878-1yep9h9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Overcoming crown-of-thorns starfish might take some more creative thinking.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Crown-of-thorns_starfish_Acanthaster_planci_(7504786886).jpg">Paul Asman/Jill Lenoble/Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Reef restoration</h2>
<p>Similar question marks hover over the A$100 million being provided to harness the best science to help restore and protect the reef, and to study the most resilient corals. Like other aspects of the package, the government has not yet promised a timeline on which to roll out the funds.</p>
<p>While reef restoration may be significant for the long-term (decades to centuries) status of the GBR, it is hard to believe that these studies will help within the coming few decades. And even long-term success will hinge either on our ability to stabilise the climate, or on science’s ability to keep pace with the rate of future change.</p>
<p>In the meantime, reef restoration seems at best to be a band-aid that could preserve select tourism sites, but is inconceivable on the scale of the entire GBR.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/not-out-of-hot-water-yet-what-the-world-thinks-about-the-great-barrier-reef-42945">Not out of hot water yet: what the world thinks about the Great Barrier Reef</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Herein lies the most significant criticism of the new funding package. It avoids any mention of reducing Australia’s greenhouse gas emissions, or of working closely with the international community to help deliver significant global reductions. Yet climate change is <a href="https://theconversation.com/coal-and-climate-change-a-death-sentence-for-the-great-barrier-reef-39252">routinely described as the biggest threat to the reef</a>.</p>
<p>The new announcement dodges that issue, while providing a moderate amount of funding for the continuation of largely unsuccessful programs. Given that the new funding is to be managed by the <a href="https://www.barrierreef.org/">Great Barrier Reef Foundation</a> – which is a charity rather than a statutory management body – we can only hope that the foundation finds new and innovative ways to improve greatly on the current efforts.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/95875/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jon Brodie currently receives funding from the Australian Government through the NESP, from the Queensland Government through various project funding, and small grants from the United Nations and WWF. </span></em></p>The federal government’s new $500 million funding package for the Great Barrier Reef seems predominantly focused on the tactics that are already being tried, without much success.Jon Brodie, Professorial Fellow, ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/938772018-03-26T08:32:54Z2018-03-26T08:32:54ZPlastics in oceans are mounting, but evidence on harm is surprisingly weak<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/211756/original/file-20180323-54887-16osuob.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Making waves. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/garbage-on-beach-left-by-tourist-546198529?src=NIABluVT83ko1NH1vDgWcQ-8-43">armando constantino</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Plastics in the world’s oceans are <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/environment/plastic-pollution-sea-increase-government-scientists-uk-oceans-a8266356.html">set to</a> treble in the next ten years, according to a new <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/693129/future-of-the-sea-report.pdf">UK government report</a>. They <a href="https://edition.cnn.com/2018/03/23/world/plastic-great-pacific-garbage-patch-intl/index.html">are also</a> contributing to a rubbish heap in the Pacific Ocean that is as big as France. These are the latest instalments of one of the most prominent environmental concerns of recent years. </p>
<p>It’s not surprising this has become a cause célèbre. Unlike many other human pollutants in the environment, plastic debris is very visible. Images of birds or fish entangled in plastic are highly emotive – as is the idea that we could be harming ourselves by eating seafood containing tiny pieces of the stuff. </p>
<p>To be sure, this is a big problem. Plastics degrade the environment and we are certainly finding them in increasingly large quantities in our seas and oceans. This may indeed harm marine life and their ecosystems, but when you look closely at the evidence, it turns out that we are far less sure than it might appear. </p>
<h2>Plastic paranoia?</h2>
<p>There are important gaps in our understanding about plastics. It’s not unreasonable for people to fill these with speculation to some extent – funding for research is limited and we cannot wait for scientific research to provide complete answers before taking action. On the other hand, unsupported speculation can lead to scarce resources being misdirected when they could be better spent on other environmental issues. </p>
<p>Certainly we produce large amounts of plastics each year. They continually end up as waste in the environment, and the polymers they comprise decompose extremely slowly. Large particles fragment into smaller pieces known as <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/content/304/5672/838">microplastics</a> – technically 5mm in diameter or less. These <a href="http://ec.europa.eu/environment/marine/good-environmental-status/descriptor-10/index_en.htm">are now</a> recognised as one of the most prevalent human-made pollutants in marine environments across the world.</p>
<p>Microplastics could be accumulating in some places to levels that somehow compromise ecosystems. Deep-sea regions are a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X17307166?via%3Dihub#f0010">likely candidate</a>, for example, though they are also the areas where we have the least information about quantities and effects. We need to do more work to say with confidence whether this is a serious problem. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/211730/original/file-20180323-54903-1yci68n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/211730/original/file-20180323-54903-1yci68n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/211730/original/file-20180323-54903-1yci68n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=547&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/211730/original/file-20180323-54903-1yci68n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=547&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/211730/original/file-20180323-54903-1yci68n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=547&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/211730/original/file-20180323-54903-1yci68n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=687&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/211730/original/file-20180323-54903-1yci68n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=687&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/211730/original/file-20180323-54903-1yci68n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=687&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Lovely.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/plastic-bottles-water-backlight-216897304?src=NIABluVT83ko1NH1vDgWcQ-2-11">mobomobo</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>On the question of how much damage microplastics cause to marine life, we certainly know these particles are <a href="http://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/11/1/014006">readily transported</a> throughout our seas and oceans and there is considerable evidence that organisms <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0269749117320456?via%3Dihub">ingest</a> them. However, the polymers that make up plastics are of minimal toxicity to marine life. </p>
<p>The question is whether they may cause harm in other ways. It could be that organisms absorb these particles and they accumulate in internal tissues, though it’s not clear whether or not that might be harmful to them. Microplastics may also accumulate in the gut and potentially interfere with processes like nutrient uptake or the passage of waste – or they may just be <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0269749117323941?via%3Dihub">expelled</a> without any negative effects. </p>
<p>A few studies <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/es800249a">have shown</a> microplastics being absorbed by marine life in very small amounts, but other studies <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0269749117323941?via%3Dihub">have found</a> the opposite. We don’t even know whether very small nanoplastics with diameters of less than 1,000 nanometres can be absorbed. The studies that do exist on nanoparticles <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0269749113003709?via%3Dihub">suggest that</a> such absorption is minimal. In short, the jury is still out on absorption. </p>
<p>If microplastics are not appreciably absorbed, their potential to accumulate in tissues and cause problems is very low. It would also mean they can’t be passed on in any significant way to a predator who eats that organism. If so, it puts microplastics in a different category to toxic substances that end up in the food chain after accumulating in the internal tissues of fish – mercury, say. </p>
<p>There is considerable evidence to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969718307630">suggest that</a> plastic particles are readily released from the gut of organisms without negative effects – and note that researchers have tended to test for concentrations in considerably higher amounts than are found in the environment. </p>
<p>Certainly, questions do remain. Perhaps of greatest importance is whether specific shapes of microplastics – fibres, for example – present particular difficulties for waste moving through the guts of some organisms. </p>
<h2>All aboard</h2>
<p>Another concern is around <a href="http://chm.pops.int/TheConvention/ThePOPs/The12InitialPOPs/tabid/296/Default.aspx">toxic substances</a> like DDT or hexachlorobenzene sticking to microplastics and potentially ending up in places they wouldn’t otherwise reach. Scientists <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/es303700s">have already found</a> considerable evidence of this. Some people are <a href="http://www.pelletwatch.org/">alarmed that</a> these substances could end up being ingested by marine organisms and harming them as a result. </p>
<p>Yet most studies have <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.5b06069">shown that</a> toxicants associated with plastics are either at concentrations too low to be toxic – or that the substances stick too strongly to the plastics to be released into organisms and cause problems. </p>
<p>In <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/acs.est.5b04663">one study</a>, the levels of toxic substances in the tissues of marine birds were actually lower when they had ingested plastics. The investigators suggested the toxic substances already present within the bird tissues were sticking to the plastics and being removed. If so, toxic substances attached to plastics might be less of a concern for toxicity to marine organisms than is feared.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/211729/original/file-20180323-54903-wx4dcr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/211729/original/file-20180323-54903-wx4dcr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/211729/original/file-20180323-54903-wx4dcr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/211729/original/file-20180323-54903-wx4dcr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/211729/original/file-20180323-54903-wx4dcr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/211729/original/file-20180323-54903-wx4dcr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/211729/original/file-20180323-54903-wx4dcr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/211729/original/file-20180323-54903-wx4dcr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Pecking plastics.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/big-seagull-plastic-bag-on-old-582111901?src=3OZnRo4Y_xDxqGh-uD4uBQ-1-63">Unkas Photo</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Then there are microplastics and the human food <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0269749115300658">chain</a>. We were intrigued by this possibility and <a href="https://authors.elsevier.com/tracking/article/details.do?aid=10815&jid=ENPO&surname=Catarino">conducted</a> an experiment to check. While we cooked in our kitchens, we left open petri dishes with sticky tape to collect dust fallout in the surrounding air. </p>
<p>We compared the amounts of plastic fibres in this dust with the quantities we found in mussels collected around the Scottish coast. The results suggest that while a regular UK consumer might ingest 100 plastic particles a year from eating mussels, their average exposure to plastic particles during meals from household dust is well over 10,000 per year. </p>
<p>In sum, the evidence about the dangers of plastics and microplastics in the marine environment is far from conclusive. There are important gaps in scientists’ knowledge that need filled, particularly where plastic particles are likely to accumulate in large amounts over long periods and how this potentially affects ecosystems. </p>
<p>We must avoid undue speculation and overstating risks, and instead engage with the actual evidence. Otherwise it will detract from our ability to manage plastic pollution in the most effective way and have a clear sense of the right priorities.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/93877/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ted Henry is principal investigator on RealRiskNano, which is funded by NERC, and also receives funding from various other public granting agencies in UK and abroad. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ana Catarino is a postdoctoral research associate on RealRiskNano, which receives funding from NERC. </span></em></p>Plastics and microplastics in the marine environment are one of the great cause célèbre of our era. Here’s what we know and don’t know.Ted Henry, Professor of Environmental Toxicology, Heriot-Watt UniversityAna Catarino, NERC Research Associate, Heriot-Watt UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/927162018-03-05T20:15:10Z2018-03-05T20:15:10ZCutting pollution in the Chesapeake Bay has helped underwater grasses rebound<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/208924/original/file-20180305-146700-osn6fj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Healthy aquatic vegetation in the Chesapeake Bay.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Cassie Gurbisz/University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Seagrasses are the “coastal canaries” of oceans and bays. When these underwater flowering plants are sick or dying, it means the ecosystem is in big trouble – typically due to pollution that reduces water quality. But when they are thriving and expanding, it is a sign that the ecosystem is becoming healthier. </p>
<p>We have collaborated on seagrass research for three decades in the Chesapeake Bay and beyond. One of us (Bob “JJ” Orth) has mapped and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=bVEVdsEAAAAJ&hl=en">studied</a> the bay’s submerged aquatic vegetation since the 1980s. And the other (Bill Dennison) <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=NfbBjykAAAAJ&hl=en">studies</a> seagrass ecophysiology and has led efforts to make this science understandable and useful. </p>
<p>Seagrasses are critical to a healthy Chesapeake Bay. They provide habitat for fish and shellfish, stabilize sediments and help clarify the water. The bay’s grasses declined sharply in the 1970s, as pollution and development degraded its water quality. States around the bay have been working together since 2010 on a sweeping plan to clean it up and restore its ecosystems.</p>
<p>In a new <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1715798115">study</a>, we provide conclusive evidence that reducing discharges of nitrogen, phosphorus and other pollutants into the bay has produced the largest resurgence of underwater grasses ever recorded anywhere. This success shows that coastal ecosystems are resilient and that concerted efforts to reduce nutrient pollution can result in substantial improvements.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/208935/original/file-20180305-146661-ifomwk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/208935/original/file-20180305-146661-ifomwk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/208935/original/file-20180305-146661-ifomwk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=309&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208935/original/file-20180305-146661-ifomwk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=309&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208935/original/file-20180305-146661-ifomwk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=309&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208935/original/file-20180305-146661-ifomwk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=389&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208935/original/file-20180305-146661-ifomwk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=389&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208935/original/file-20180305-146661-ifomwk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=389&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Trends in acreage and density of submerged aquatic vegetation in the Chesapeake Bay.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Melissa Merritt/USEPA</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Cutting nutrient pollution boosts seagrasses</h2>
<p>Ten years ago we led an effort through the <a href="https://www.nceas.ucsb.edu/">National Center for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis</a> to understand the global trajectories of seagrasses. What we found was that seagrasses were being <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0905620106">lost at an alarming rate</a>, equivalent to a soccer field of seagrass every 30 minutes since 1980. </p>
<p>So when we began to observe net increases over the past few years in the abundance of multiple types of seagrasses (collectively known as submerged aquatic vegetation) in our beloved Chesapeake Bay, we knew this event was globally unique.</p>
<p>To discern what was happening, we partnered with the <a href="http://www.chesapeakebay.net/">Chesapeake Bay Program</a> to initiate what is called a synthesis effort. Synthesis science brings together diverse teams of experts from different fields to pull new insights out of existing data.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/208808/original/file-20180304-65529-eczkeu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/208808/original/file-20180304-65529-eczkeu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/208808/original/file-20180304-65529-eczkeu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=690&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208808/original/file-20180304-65529-eczkeu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=690&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208808/original/file-20180304-65529-eczkeu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=690&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208808/original/file-20180304-65529-eczkeu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=867&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208808/original/file-20180304-65529-eczkeu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=867&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208808/original/file-20180304-65529-eczkeu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=867&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Pollution sources throughout the Bay’s watershed affect its water quality.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/Chesapeake_Bay_Watershed.png">USGS</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We had access to 30 years of annual surveys of underwater grasses that JJ Orth personally oversees, plus a 30-year water quality data set collected by the Chesapeake Bay Program. Scientists from the <a href="http://www.vims.edu">Virginia Institute of Marine Science</a>, <a href="https://www.umces.edu">University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science</a>, <a href="https://www.bigelow.org/">Bigelow Laboratory for Ocean Sciences</a>, the <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/">U.S. Geological Survey</a>, the <a href="https://www.sesync.org/">National Socio-Environmental Synthesis Center</a>, <a href="http://www.smcm.edu/">St. Mary’s College of Maryland</a>, the <a href="https://serc.si.edu/">Smithsonian Environmental Research Center</a>, the <a href="http://dnr.maryland.gov/Pages/default.aspx">Maryland Department of Natural Resources</a>, <a href="https://www.tamucc.edu/">Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi</a> and the <a href="https://www.epa.gov/">U.S. Environmental Protection Agency</a> provided analytical firepower to help assess this complex information.</p>
<p>We started by identifying ways in which activities on land could affect trends in water quality and underwater grass abundance. Then we tested our hypothesized linkages using structural equation models that analyzed data in two different ways. </p>
<p>One approach focused on the cascade of nitrogen and phosphorus moving from sources on land, such as wastewater discharge and stormwater runoff, into waterways. The other showed what happened to underwater grasses once these nutrients entered in the water. Nutrients overfertilize the bay, creating huge blooms of algae that die and deplete oxygen from the water. This produces “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/biosci/bix048">dead zones</a>” that cannot support fish or plant life.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/208936/original/file-20180305-146675-1oy2crf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/208936/original/file-20180305-146675-1oy2crf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/208936/original/file-20180305-146675-1oy2crf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=181&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208936/original/file-20180305-146675-1oy2crf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=181&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208936/original/file-20180305-146675-1oy2crf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=181&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208936/original/file-20180305-146675-1oy2crf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=228&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208936/original/file-20180305-146675-1oy2crf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=228&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208936/original/file-20180305-146675-1oy2crf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=228&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Historic photos show water quality declining and underwater grasses disappearing off Solomons, Maryland.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Chesapeake Biological Laboratory/University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In our analysis, we found conclusive evidence that reductions of excess nitrogen and phosphorus caused the underwater grass recovery in the Chesapeake Bay. Since 1984, the quantity of nitrogen entering the bay has decreased by 23 percent and phosphorus has fallen by 8 percent, thanks to a “<a href="https://www.epa.gov/chesapeake-bay-tmdl">pollution diet</a>” that the EPA <a href="https://theconversation.com/supreme-court-sides-with-epa-on-cleaning-chesapeake-bay-and-perhaps-other-waterways-55678">established in 2010</a>. The plan, formally called a Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL), requires states in the bay’s 64,000-square mile watershed to reduce specific pollutants entering the bay to target levels on a fixed schedule.</p>
<p>As a result, underwater grasses have increased by over 300 percent and have reappeared in some locations around the bay where they had not been observed for decades.</p>
<h2>A healthier Chesapeake Bay</h2>
<p>For the past 12 years, we have been using underwater grasses and other water quality data to produce an annual <a href="https://ecoreportcard.org/report-cards/chesapeake-bay/">Chesapeake Bay report card</a>. Our 2017 report card describes progress across the board, with 7 out of 15 reporting regions around the bay showing significant improvement and the rest holding steady. </p>
<p>We attribute these improvements to the TMDL plan. In particular, <a href="http://ian.umces.edu/pdfs/ian_report_438.pdf">upgrades at area wastewater treatment facilities</a> have reduced nitrogen and phosphorus inputs into the bay. <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es4028748">Catalytic converters on automobiles and smokestack scrubbers in power plants</a> have reduced atmospheric nitrogen emissions and subsequent deposition that finds its way into bay waters. It appears that these management actions are beginning to pay off, although there is more to do – especially reducing nutrient pollution from agriculture.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/z3-XhBU08xM?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Seagrasses in the Chesapeake Bay’s Susquehanna Flats are rebounding.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Progress at risk</h2>
<p>The Chesapeake Bay Program is a partnership between six states (New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Delaware, West Virginia, Virginia), the District of Columbia and the federal government, represented by the EPA. It heavily leverages federal funding by engaging community groups, local municipalities and nongovernmental organizations to carry out actions that help reduce pollution entering the bay. Examples include re-engineering urban surfaces to reduce stormwater runoff and subsidizing farmers to grow winter cover crops that help retain nutrients on fields. </p>
<p>When EPA Administrator Scott Pruitt was Oklahoma’s attorney general, he joined other states in a lawsuit to block the Chesapeake Bay cleanup, calling it a federal overreach. Now, however, Pruitt has <a href="http://www.baltimoresun.com/news/maryland/politics/bs-md-scott-pruitt-20170118-story.html">pledged to support the program</a>, which was upheld by a federal court in <a href="https://www.epa.gov/chesapeake-bay-tmdl/chesapeake-bay-tmdl-court-decisions">2013</a> and sustained on appeal in 2015. </p>
<p>But President Trump’s 2017 budget called for eliminating the Chesapeake Bay Program completely. Congress enacted only small cuts, but Trump’s 2018 budget request cuts the program’s funding by 90 percent – ironically, just when we are finally starting to reverse degradation from past decades. </p>
<p>The Chesapeake Bay is arguably the best-studied estuary on the planet, and the fact that our study connects management actions to a huge resurgence of underwater grasses is a tribute to this rich history. Ongoing efforts to restore the bay have produced lessons about how pollution abatement can lead to ecosystem recovery. </p>
<p>These insights can and should be applied to <a href="https://theconversation.com/nutrient-pollution-voluntary-steps-are-failing-to-shrink-algae-blooms-and-dead-zones-81249">other water bodies affected by nutrient pollution</a>. We hope the story of the Chesapeake Bay’s recovery inspires similar actions in many other places.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/92716/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bill Dennison receives funding from the Chesapeake Bay Program. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Robert J. Orth receives funding from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the Virginia Department of Environmental Quality, the Virginia Coastal Zone Management Program and the Maryland Department of Natural Resources. He serves as a district representative on the Gloucester County, Virginia Board of Supervisors, to which he was elected as an Independent.</span></em></p>An ambitious plan to cut the flow of nutrients into the Chesapeake Bay has produced historic regrowth of underwater seagrasses. These results offer hope for other polluted water bodies.Bill Dennison, Professor of Marine Science and Vice President for Science Applications, University of Maryland Center for Environmental ScienceRobert J. Orth, Professor of Marine Science, Virginia Institute of Marine ScienceLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/909902018-02-08T22:41:02Z2018-02-08T22:41:02ZAn international plastics treaty could avert a ‘Silent Spring’ for our seas<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/205569/original/file-20180208-180841-sxk7nf.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A seal trapped in a mat of plastic pollution.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Nels Israelson/Flickr)</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Global problems — like our <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0111913">plastic-choked seas</a> — need global solutions.</p>
<p>It was welcome news when <a href="https://ipolitics.ca/2018/01/25/canada-will-push-g7-partners-sign-no-plastics-pledge-save-oceans/">Prime Minister Justin Trudeau announced</a> that Canada will use its year-long G7 presidency to turn the global spotlight on ocean plastics and pollution. </p>
<p>Environment Minister Catherine McKenna has said plastics will be a main theme of June’s summit when leaders from Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Japan and the United States join Trudeau in Charlevoix, Quebec.</p>
<p>But can Canada move these nations to establish enforceable rules?</p>
<p>The G7 has raised the plastics issue before. The Germans launched an action plan to combat marine litter in 2015 and Japan <a href="http://www.g8.utoronto.ca/summit/2016shima/ise-shima-declaration-en.html#resource">reaffirmed the commitment</a> to address the problem in 2016. </p>
<p>During the World Economic Forum meeting in Davos later that year, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/business/2016/jan/19/more-plastic-than-fish-in-the-sea-by-2050-warns-ellen-macarthur">headlines blared</a> “More Plastic than Fish in the Sea by 2050” after the <a href="https://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/publications/the-new-plastics-economy-rethinking-the-future-of-plastics">release of a report</a> on global plastic waste. In 2017, Italy held a workshop on marine litter during its G7 presidency.</p>
<h2>Promises proliferate while plastic waste piles up</h2>
<p>But despite these promises, plastic production and waste <a href="http://wormlab.biology.dal.ca/publication/view/worm-b-et-al-2017-plastic-as-persistent-marine-pollutant/">continues to grow</a>. </p>
<p>Globally, millions of metric tonnes of plastic waste enter the ocean each year. In 2010, for example, between 4.8 million and 12.7 million metric tonnes of plastic hit the water. That’s equivalent to dumping a garbage truck of plastic into marine waters every minute.</p>
<p>Alarmingly, production of single-use plastic, like grocery bags, contributed nearly 40 per cent of total plastic production in 2015. Many end up in our oceans.</p>
<p>Boris Worm, a marine scientist at the Dalhousie University in Halifax, Nova Scotia, has warned that if current trends continue, we’ll face a <a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/112/38/11752">new “Silent Spring”</a> of the seas. Today, close to 90 per cent of seabirds have plastics in their guts, similar to the ubiquitous presence of the toxic chemical DDT in the 1960s, the focus of Rachel Carson’s book <em>Silent Spring</em>. </p>
<p>These voluntary international pledges are failing to stem the plastic tide. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/205572/original/file-20180208-180829-1q1zybf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/205572/original/file-20180208-180829-1q1zybf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=443&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205572/original/file-20180208-180829-1q1zybf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=443&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205572/original/file-20180208-180829-1q1zybf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=443&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205572/original/file-20180208-180829-1q1zybf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=557&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205572/original/file-20180208-180829-1q1zybf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=557&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205572/original/file-20180208-180829-1q1zybf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=557&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Controlling plastic pollution on land could limit what ends up in the sea.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Ingrid Taylar/Flickr)</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Most of the plastic in the sea comes from land. Most of it is not abandoned fishing gear, but plastic bags, milk and water bottles, and consumer goods like flip-flops dumped into waterways and washed out to sea. We’ve recognized this for years — more than 100 countries have <a href="http://web.unep.org/gpa/">endorsed efforts to reduce the impacts of marine litter worldwide</a> since 1995. But that was also a non-binding agreement.</p>
<p>Since then, promises to cut ocean plastics have proliferated, including the 2011 <a href="https://marinedebris.noaa.gov/solutions/honolulu-strategy">Honolulu Strategy</a> and “The Future We Want” <a href="https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/unsystem/index.php?page=view&type=5007&menu=32&nr=81&template=924">agreement</a> at the 2012 Rio+20 conference.</p>
<p>The 2015 <a href="https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdg14">Oceans Goal</a>, one of the UN’s 20 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), repeats the target of significant marine pollution reduction. </p>
<p>And last year, the United Nations Environmental Programme launched its “war on plastic” with the <a href="http://www.cleanseas.org/">Clean Seas</a> campaign, which aims to eliminate microplastics in cosmetics and the wasteful usage of single-use plastic by the year 2022.</p>
<h2>Law rules</h2>
<p>What we lack are binding rules for land-based sources of plastic pollution that apply to countries around the world. As the Center for International Environmental Law (CIEL) <a href="http://www.ciel.org/countries-tackle-pollution-source-unea-3/">noted</a>: “Current initiatives to tackle plastic pollution focus on the symptoms but not the root of the problem.”</p>
<p>At home, Trudeau can support the development of a coordinated national strategy to combat plastics pollution, backed up by law.</p>
<p>There’s plenty of evidence that voluntary actions aren’t enough. In 2000, Canada was the first country to act with a <a href="http://publications.gc.ca/collections/Collection/En21-204-2000-1E.pdf">National Plan of Action on land-based sources of marine pollution</a>. But with no legal mechanism to compel action, the national plan to keep plastic pollution from entering the sea has languished. </p>
<p>It would be a step forward even if the G7 only acknowledged the need for binding laws.</p>
<h2>G7 to the rescue?</h2>
<p>Still more can be done. Canada can start a race to the top to see who can put the best laws in place, and who can reap the gains from a new plastic economy. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/205573/original/file-20180208-180816-13cvo6i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/205573/original/file-20180208-180816-13cvo6i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205573/original/file-20180208-180816-13cvo6i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205573/original/file-20180208-180816-13cvo6i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205573/original/file-20180208-180816-13cvo6i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=620&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205573/original/file-20180208-180816-13cvo6i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=620&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205573/original/file-20180208-180816-13cvo6i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=620&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Plastic collected from the Pacific Ocean.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Chris Jordan/flickr)</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Trudeau can convince his fellow G7 leaders to emulate Canada’s <a href="https://www.ec.gc.ca/lcpe-cepa/eng/regulations/detailReg.cfm?intReg=238">new regulations</a> that prohibit the manufacture, import and sale of personal toiletry products that contain plastic microbeads. The G7 leaders can share their experiences on what’s worked well for them, whether it’s the European Union’s new <a href="http://ec.europa.eu/environment/circular-economy/pdf/plastics-strategy.pdf">Plastics Strategy</a> and legislative initiative on single-use plastics, <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2016/09/19/europe/france-bans-plastic-cups-plates/index.html">France’s ban</a> on plastic cups and plates, or the U.S. initiative called <a href="https://www.congress.gov/bill/115th-congress/senate-bill/756?q=%7B%22search%22%3A%5B%22s756%22%5D%7D&r=1">Save Our Seas Act</a>.</p>
<p>Canada could plan a “Plastic-Free Day” during the meeting, or host an ocean plastics art competition at the Charlevoix venue with entries from all G7 nations. It could help to bring industry on side by showcasing promising initiatives like the <a href="https://newplasticseconomy.org/">New Plastics Economy</a>, focused on increasing recapture, reuse and recycling of plastics. And it could screen a heart-wrenching film like <a href="https://bluethefilm.org/">Blue</a> for the world leaders. </p>
<p>A bold step forward would be a G7 agreement to fast-track an international plastics treaty.</p>
<h2>End game: A plastic pollution treaty</h2>
<p>Canada can build on its past leadership on environmental treaties, such as the <a href="https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/canada-celebrates-30th-anniversary-of-the-montreal-protocol-644711343.html">Montreal Protocol</a> that eliminated more than 99 per cent of ozone-depleting substances globally, to tackle marine plastic pollution. </p>
<p>During the G7 presidency, Trudeau can take the lead to initiate an international treaty that sets global reduction targets for the production and consumption of plastics, and regulates their production, consumption, disposal and clean-up.</p>
<p>At the <a href="http://web.unep.org/environmentassembly/">U.N. Environment Assembly</a> in December, nations failed to include any reductions targets or a timetable in their resolution on marine litter and microplastics. They did, however, establish a group to “further examine the barriers to, and options for, combating marine plastic litter and microplastics from all sources, especially land-based sources.” </p>
<p>This group can recommend the formation of a treaty. If the G7 were to endorse this idea, it might get the international treaty-making machinery moving even more quickly.</p>
<p>There are many proposals at hand. </p>
<p>One based on the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308597X16307096">Montreal Protocol</a> — widely regarded as one of the world’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/saving-the-ozone-layer-why-the-montreal-protocol-worked-9249">most successful</a> environmental agreements — would impose caps on plastics production and trade bans.</p>
<p>Another <a href="https://ensia.com/voices/we-need-a-global-treaty-on-plastics-heres-what-it-should-look-like/">points to the climate treaty</a>, with countries setting a binding plastics goal and then developing national action plans.</p>
<p>Alternatively, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5617320/">others call</a> for an agreement that institutes a waste hierarchy, where plastics are first reduced, then reused, re-purposed and finally recycled, and creates a global fund to help pay for better waste management practices and infrastructure. </p>
<p>But successful treaties need industry involvement — and commitment to change. A recent <a href="http://www.ciel.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/Fueling-Plastics-Plastic-Industry-Awareness-of-the-Ocean-Plastics-Problem.pdf">CIEL report</a> traces industry awareness of the ocean plastics problem back to the 1970s. There is no time for the kind of industry denial we’ve seen regarding climate change. </p>
<p>It’s an opportune time for Canada to use its G7 leadership to avert another Silent Spring and begin tackling the problem of plastics in the oceans.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/90990/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span> Linda Nowlan receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada, the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation, and Oceans5, a a sponsored project of Rockefeller Philanthropy Advisors, Inc. She works for West Coast Environmental Law. </span></em></p>Millions of tonnes of plastic garbage winds up in our oceans each year. Voluntary pledges haven’t worked. It’s time for Canada to advocate for an international plastics treaty.Linda Nowlan, Adjunct Professor, Allard School of Law, University of British ColumbiaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/906942018-01-25T19:12:55Z2018-01-25T19:12:55Z11 billion pieces of plastic bring disease threat to coral reefs<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/203389/original/file-20180125-107967-k398f2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A plastic bottle trapped on a coral reef.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Tane Sinclair-Taylor</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>There are more than 11 billion pieces of plastic debris on coral reefs across the Asia-Pacific, according to our new research, which also found that contact with plastic can make corals more than 20 times more susceptible to disease.</p>
<p>In our study, <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/cgi/doi/10.1126/science.aar3320">published today in Science</a>, we examined more than 124,000 reef-building corals and found that 89% of corals with trapped plastic had visual signs of disease - a marked increase from the 4% chance of a coral having disease without plastic.</p>
<p>Globally, more than 275 million people live within 30km of coral reefs, relying on them for food, coastal protection, tourism income, and cultural value.</p>
<p>With coral reefs already under pressure from climate change and mass <a href="https://theconversation.com/back-to-back-bleaching-has-now-hit-two-thirds-of-the-great-barrier-reef-76092">bleaching events</a>, our findings reveal another significant threat to the world’s corals and the ecosystems and livelihoods they support. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/this-south-pacific-island-of-rubbish-shows-why-we-need-to-quit-our-plastic-habit-77860">This South Pacific island of rubbish shows why we need to quit our plastic habit</a>
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<p>In collaboration with numerous experts and underwater surveyors across Indonesia, Myanmar, Thailand and Australia, we collected data from 159 coral reefs between 2010 and 2014. In so doing, we collected one of the most extensive datasets of coral health in this region and plastic waste levels on coral reefs globally.</p>
<p>There is a huge disparity between global estimates of plastic waste <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/content/347/6223/768">entering the oceans</a> and the amount that <a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/114/23/6052.abstract">washes up on beaches</a> or is found <a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/111/28/10239.full">floating on the surface</a>.</p>
<p>Our research provides one of the most comprehensive estimates of plastic waste on the seafloor, and its impact on one of the world’s most important ecosystems. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/203376/original/file-20180125-107974-cglsk5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/203376/original/file-20180125-107974-cglsk5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/203376/original/file-20180125-107974-cglsk5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/203376/original/file-20180125-107974-cglsk5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/203376/original/file-20180125-107974-cglsk5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/203376/original/file-20180125-107974-cglsk5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/203376/original/file-20180125-107974-cglsk5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/203376/original/file-20180125-107974-cglsk5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Plastic litter in a fishing village in Myanmar.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Kathryn Berry</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>The number of plastic items entangled on the reefs varied immensely among the different regions we surveyed - with the lowest levels found in Australia and the highest in Indonesia. </p>
<p>An estimated 80% of marine plastic debris originates from land. The variation of plastic we observed on reefs during our surveys corresponded to the estimated levels of plastic litter entering the ocean from the nearest coast. One-third of the reefs we surveyed had no derelict plastic waste, however others had up 26 pieces of plastic debris per 100 square metres.</p>
<p>We estimate that there are roughly 11.1 billion plastic items on coral reefs across the Asia-Pacific. What’s more, we forecast that this will increase 40% in the next seven years – equating to an estimated 15.7 billion plastic items by 2025. </p>
<p>This increase is set to happen much faster in developing countries than industrialised ones. According to our projections, between 2010 and 2025 the amount of plastic debris on Australian coral reefs will increase by only about 1%, whereas for Myanmar it will almost double.</p>
<h2>How can plastic waste cause disease?</h2>
<p>Although the mechanisms are not yet clear, the influence of plastic debris on disease development may differ among the three main global diseases we observed to increase when plastic was present. </p>
<p>Plastic debris can open wounds in coral tissues, potentially letting in pathogens such as <em>Halofolliculina corallasia</em>, the microbe that causes skeletal eroding band disease. </p>
<p>Plastic debris could also introduce pathogens directly. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) – a very common plastic used in children’s toys, building materials like pipes, and many other products – have been found carrying a family of bacteria called Rhodobacterales, which are associated with a suite of coral diseases. </p>
<p>Similarly, polypropylene – which is used to make bottle caps and toothbrushes – can be colonised by <em>Vibrio</em>, a potential pathogen linked to a globally devastating group of coral diseases known as white syndromes.</p>
<p>Finally, plastic debris overtopping corals can block out light and create low-oxygen conditions that favour the growth of microorganisms linked to black band disease. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/203378/original/file-20180125-107950-1ko3ghv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/203378/original/file-20180125-107950-1ko3ghv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/203378/original/file-20180125-107950-1ko3ghv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=601&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/203378/original/file-20180125-107950-1ko3ghv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=601&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/203378/original/file-20180125-107950-1ko3ghv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=601&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/203378/original/file-20180125-107950-1ko3ghv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=755&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/203378/original/file-20180125-107950-1ko3ghv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=755&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/203378/original/file-20180125-107950-1ko3ghv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=755&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Plastic debris floating over corals.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Kathryn Berry</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>Structurally complex corals are eight times more likely to be affected by plastic, particularly branching and tabular species. This has potentially dire implications for the numerous marine species that shelter under or within these corals, and in turn the fisheries that depend on them.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/eight-million-tonnes-of-plastic-are-going-into-the-ocean-each-year-37521">Eight million tonnes of plastic are going into the ocean each year</a>
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<p>Our study shows that reducing the amount of plastic debris entering the ocean can directly prevent disease and death among corals.</p>
<p>Once corals are already infected, it is logistically difficult to treat the resulting diseases. By far the easiest way to tackle the problem is by reducing the amount of mismanaged plastic on land that finds its way into the ocean.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/90694/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Joleah Lamb does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Coral reefs in the Asia-Pacific have been deluged with an estimated 11.1 billion pieces of plastic waste, increasing the risk of coral disease more than 20-fold.Joleah Lamb, Research fellow, Cornell UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/870012017-11-20T04:23:36Z2017-11-20T04:23:36ZThe future of plastics: reusing the bad and encouraging the good<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/194675/original/file-20171114-30034-1bbrxm6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Plastic pollution: discarded plastic bags are a hazard to marine life.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/plastic-pollution-discarded-rubbish-bags-floats-684897043">Richard Whitcombe/Shutterstock</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Plastics have got themselves a bad name, mainly for two reasons: most are made from petroleum and they end up as litter in the environment. </p>
<p>However, both of these are quite avoidable. An increased focus on bio-derived and degradable composites as well as recycling could lessen pollution and, in fact, plastics could make a positive contribution to the environment.</p>
<h2>Plastics for bad</h2>
<p>The durability of plastics makes them so useful, but at the same time, it turns them into a persistent (and <a href="http://advances.sciencemag.org/content/3/7/e1700782.full">increasingly big</a>) blot on the landscape, or more importantly the seascape, once discarded. </p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/this-south-pacific-island-of-rubbish-shows-why-we-need-to-quit-our-plastic-habit-77860">This South Pacific island of rubbish shows why we need to quit our plastic habit</a>
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<p>We’ve known for a while that <a href="https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2017/07/ocean-plastic-patch-south-pacific-spd/">bulk plastics are polluting the oceans</a>. Converging sea currents are accumulating plastic waste in a floating island known as the <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/garbagepatch.html">Great Pacific Garbage Patch</a>, which now covers an area larger than Greenland. The bigger bits of plastic are <a href="https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/09/15092-plastic-seabirds-albatross-australia/">life-threatening to marine life and sea birds</a>. They can strangle marine mammals or birds and build up in their stomachs and guts.</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/194683/original/file-20171114-30000-1tcpd02.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/194683/original/file-20171114-30000-1tcpd02.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/194683/original/file-20171114-30000-1tcpd02.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/194683/original/file-20171114-30000-1tcpd02.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/194683/original/file-20171114-30000-1tcpd02.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/194683/original/file-20171114-30000-1tcpd02.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/194683/original/file-20171114-30000-1tcpd02.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">A dolphin entangled in fishing line and plastic bags (Indian Ocean).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">from Shutterstock</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>More recently, awareness of microplastics has raised concern about their ubiquitous presence in the food chain. Commentators suggest that by 2050 there will be <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/business/2016/jan/19/more-plastic-than-fish-in-the-sea-by-2050-warns-ellen-macarthur">as much plastic in the sea as there is fish</a>. Who wants to go catch some plastic then?</p>
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<em>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-microplastics-make-their-way-up-the-ocean-food-chain-into-fish-69148">How microplastics make their way up the ocean food chain into fish</a>
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<p>Beyond that, plastic production currently relies on petroleum and that has raised issues about <a href="http://www.who.int/ipcs/features/benzene.pdf">health hazards</a>, generally associated with petroleum-based products during production, use and disposal. </p>
<h2>Plastics for good</h2>
<p>Plastics can contribute positively to the environment in the following ways:</p>
<ul>
<li><strong>Reduced food wastage</strong></li>
</ul>
<p>Between <a href="http://greenblue.org/sustainable-packagings-role-in-reducing-food-waste-a-sustainable-materials-management-perspective/">one-quarter and one-third of all food produced</a> is wasted through spoilage. But without plastic packaging, it would be considerably worse and have a larger carbon footprint. </p>
<p>Many of the recycling enthusiasts I know do not think about throwing out spoiled food that required energy in terms of planting, cultivating, harvesting and transporting and therefore will have added to greenhouse gas emissions.</p>
<ul>
<li><strong>Lightweight transport</strong></li>
</ul>
<p>The use of plastics in transportation (cars, trains and planes) will reduce fuel consumption. Their application (along with reinforcing fibres) in aerospace as alternatives to traditional metallic alloys has brought huge <a href="https://aviationbenefits.org/case-studies/boeing-787-dreamliner/">gains of fuel efficiency</a> over the last few decades. </p>
<p>Incorporation of fibre-reinforced plastics in the Boeing 787 Dreamliner, for example, has resulted in fuel efficiencies that are similar to a family car (when measured by kilometres travelled per person). By the way, carbon fibre, the aerospace fibre of choice, is produced from plastic.</p>
<p>There are good things about plastics including benefits for the environment, but is it possible to make use of the good aspects and avoid the bad? </p>
<h2>Future proofing plastics</h2>
<p>Plastics are, chemically speaking, long chains or large cross-linked structures most commonly made up of a framework of carbon atoms.</p>
<p>For a long time, we have been using bio-derived plastics - naturally occurring materials such as animal skins including leather, gut and wood. These forms of plastic are complicated chemical structures that can only be made in nature at this stage.</p>
<p>Some of the early synthesised plastics were made from naturally occurring materials such as casein (from dairy) that was used for simple items such as buttons. The development of petroleum-based plastics has been a major distraction from such materials. </p>
<p>However, in the last couple of decades, <a href="http://www.sustainableplastics.net/about">bio-derived plastics</a> have become available that provide good replacements. These include starch-based plastics such as polylactide (PLA), which is produced from corn starch, cassava roots or sugarcane and processed in the same way as petroleum-based plastics. Such plastics can be foamed or used to make drink bottles. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/194688/original/file-20171114-29990-1o8zwiv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/194688/original/file-20171114-29990-1o8zwiv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/194688/original/file-20171114-29990-1o8zwiv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/194688/original/file-20171114-29990-1o8zwiv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/194688/original/file-20171114-29990-1o8zwiv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/194688/original/file-20171114-29990-1o8zwiv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/194688/original/file-20171114-29990-1o8zwiv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Plastic bottles ready to be recycled.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">From Shutterstock</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
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<p>Recycling plastics is another essential step towards reducing the environmental load. Let’s face it: it is people who are doing the littering, not the plastics themselves. More effort could go into waste collection and a carrot/stick approach should include disincentives for littering and a <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/oct/06/eu-rules-out-tax-on-plastic-products-to-reduce-waste">plastic tax</a> which would exclude recycled plastics. </p>
<p>Incentives are also needed to encourage product development that takes account of the full life cycle. In Europe, for instance, legislation has made it <a href="http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/End-of-life_vehicle_statistics">compulsory in the automotive industry</a> for at least 85% of a car to be recycled. This has had a dramatic influence on the materials and design used in the industry.</p>
<p>Even with best efforts, it is unrealistic that we would capture all plastics for recycling. Biodegradable plastics could be a useful tool for preventing environmental damage. PLA (polylactide) is biodegradable, though slow to break down, and there are other forms available. </p>
<p>This highlights the need for more research into controlling biodegradability, taking into account different applications and the need for infrastructure to deal with biodegradable plastics at the end of their life. Obviously, we don’t want our planes biodegrading during their 20 years of service, but one-use water bottles should break down within a short time after use. </p>
<p>The planet doesn’t have to become a toxic rubbish dump. In the short term, this will need some government action to encourage bio-derived, recyclable and biodegradable plastics to allow them to compete with petroleum-based products. </p>
<p>There are signs of improvement: increasing awareness of the harm plastics cause and a willingness of consumers to pay for plastic bags or to ban them. We need to stop dumping in our own backyard and remember that the environment is where we live. We ignore it at our peril.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/87001/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kim Pickering receives funding from WRC and HCC (Waikato regional Council and Hamilton city council) to assess recycling in order to reduce landfill</span></em></p>Tonnes of plastic end up in the ocean each year, but a switch away from petroleum-based products to bio-derived and degradable composites could lessen marine pollution.Kim Pickering, Professor of materials science and engineering, University of WaikatoLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/832332017-09-01T05:27:55Z2017-09-01T05:27:55ZThe new Great Barrier Reef pollution plan is better, but still not good enough<p>The draft <a href="http://www.reefplan.qld.gov.au/about/assets/reef-2050-water-quality-improvement-plan-2017-draft.pdf">water quality improvement plan</a>, released by the federal and Queensland governments this week, aims to reduce the pollution flowing from water catchments to the Great Barrier Reef over the next five years. </p>
<p>It is part of the overarching <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/marine/gbr/long-term-sustainability-plan">Reef 2050 Long-Term Sustainability Plan</a> to protect and manage the reef until mid-century. </p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/cloudy-issue-we-need-to-fix-the-barrier-reefs-murky-waters-39380">Water quality</a> is one of the <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/great-barrier-reef-threats-series-17189">biggest threats to the reef’s health</a>, but the new guidelines still fall short of what’s required, given the available scientific evidence. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/cloudy-issue-we-need-to-fix-the-barrier-reefs-murky-waters-39380">Cloudy issue: we need to fix the Barrier Reef's murky waters</a>
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<p>The draft plan, which is open for comment until October, presents several important and commendable advances in the management of water quality on the Great Barrier Reef. It addresses all land-based sources of water pollution (agricultural, urban, public lands and industrial) and includes social, cultural and economic values for the first time. </p>
<p>The principal sources of pollution are nitrogen loss from fertiliser use on sugar cane lands, fine sediment loss from erosion on grazing lands, and pesticide losses from cropping lands. These are all major risk factors for the Great Barrier Reef. </p>
<p>The draft plan also presents updated water quality targets that call for reductions in run-off nutrients and fine sediments by 2025. Each of the 35 catchments that feeds onto the reef has <a href="http://www.reefplan.qld.gov.au/about/catchment-targets/">its own individual set of targets</a>, thus helping to prioritise pollution-reduction measures across a region almost as large as Sweden. </p>
<h2>The reef’s still suffering</h2>
<p>The Great Barrier Reef suffered coral <a href="https://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v543/n7645/full/nature21707.html">bleaching</a> and <a href="http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/about-the-reef/reef-health">death</a> over vast areas in 2016, and again this year. The <a href="http://www.reefplan.qld.gov.au/about/scientific-consensus-statement/">2017 Scientific Consensus Statement</a>, released with the draft water quality plan (and on which one of us, Jon Brodie, was an author), reports:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Key Great Barrier Reef ecosystems continue to be in poor condition. This is largely due to the collective impact of land run-off associated with past and ongoing catchment development, coastal development activities, extreme weather events and climate change impacts such as the 2016 and 2017 coral bleaching events.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Stronger action on the local and regional causes of coral death are seen to be <a href="https://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v546/n7656/full/nature22901.html">essential for recovery</a> at locations where poor water quality is a major cause of reef decline. These areas include mid-shelf reefs in the <a href="https://theconversation.com/ecocheck-australias-wet-tropics-are-worth-billions-if-we-can-keep-out-the-invading-ants-56815">Wet Tropics region</a> damaged by crown of thorns starfish, and inner-shelf reefs where turbid waters stop light reaching coral and seagrass. Human-driven threats, especially land-based pollution, must be effectively managed to reduce the impacts on the Great Barrier Reef.</p>
<p>But although the draft plan provides improved targets and a framework for reducing land-based pollution, it still doesn’t reflect the severity of the situation. The 2017 Scientific Consensus Statement reports that “current initiatives will not meet the water quality targets” by 2025. </p>
<p>This is because the draft plan does not provide any major new funding, legislation or other initiatives to drive down land-based pollution any further. As the statement explains:</p>
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<p>To accelerate the change in on-ground management, improvements to governance, program design, delivery and evaluation systems are urgently needed. This will require greater incorporation of social and economic factors, better targeting and prioritisation, exploration of alternative management options and increased support and resources.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-great-barrier-reefs-safety-net-is-becoming-more-complex-but-less-effective-75053">The Great Barrier Reef's safety net is becoming more complex but less effective</a>
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<p>The draft plan calls on farmers to go “beyond minimum standards” for practices such as fertiliser use in sugar cane, and minimum pasture cover in cattle grazing lands. But even the minimum standards are unlikely to be widely adopted unless governments implement existing legislation to enforce the current standards.</p>
<p>The draft plan is also silent on the impact of <a href="https://theconversation.com/australia-needs-better-policy-to-end-the-alarming-increase-in-land-clearing-63507">land clearing</a> on water quality, and the conversion of grazing land to intensively farmed crops such as sugar cane, as proposed in the <a href="http://northernaustralia.gov.au/files/files/NAWP-FullReport.pdf">White Paper on Developing Northern Australia</a>.</p>
<p>The federal and Queensland governments have committed A$2 billion over ten years to protect the Great Barrier Reef. Under the draft plan, about half of this (A$100 million a year) will be spent on water quality management. This is not an increase in resourcing, but rather the same level of funding that has been provided for the <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0272771416301469">past seven years</a>.</p>
<h2>More than loose change</h2>
<p>There is a very strong business case for major increases in funding to protect the Great Barrier Reef. Even with conservative assumptions, the economics firm Jacobs has estimated that protecting the industries that depend on the reef will require <a href="https://www.qff.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/Jacobs-report-15-12-16.pdf">A$830 million in annual funding</a> – more than four times the current level. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/whats-the-economic-value-of-the-great-barrier-reef-its-priceless-80061">What's the economic value of the Great Barrier Reef? It's priceless</a>
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<p>The draft water quality plan acknowledges the need for a “step change” in reef management, and to “accelerate our collective efforts to improve the land use practices of everyone living and working in the catchments adjacent to the Reef”. </p>
<p>This need is echoed in many other reports, both government and scientific. For example, the <a href="http://www.reefplan.qld.gov.au/about/scientific-consensus-statement/">2017 Scientific Consensus Statement</a> makes several wide-ranging recommendations.</p>
<p>One of them is to make better use of <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.13262/abstract">existing legislation and policies</a>, including <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0272771416301469">both voluntary and regulatory approaches</a>, to improve water quality standards. </p>
<p>This recommendation applies to both Commonwealth and <a href="https://www.legislation.qld.gov.au/LEGISLTN/ACTS/2009/09AC042.pdf">Queensland</a> laws. These include the federal <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/C2016C00551">Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Act 1975</a>, which restricts or bans any activities that “may pollute water in a manner harmful to animals and plants in the Marine Park”, and the <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/epbc">Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999</a>, which prohibits any action, inside or outside the marine park, that affects the Great Barrier Reef’s World Heritage values.</p>
<p>Another recommendation is to rethink existing land-use plans. For instance, even the best practice in sugar cane farming is <a href="https://terrain.org.au/projects/water-quality-improvement-plan/">inconsistent with the nitrogen fertiliser run-off limits</a> needed to meet <a href="http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/managing-the-reef/how-the-reefs-managed/water-quality-in-the-great-barrier-reef/water-quality-guidelines-for-the-great-barrier-reef">water quality guidelines</a>. One option is to shift to less intensive land uses such as grazing in the Wet Tropics region – a <a href="http://www.reefplan.qld.gov.au/about/assets/2017-scientific-consensus-statement-summary-chap03.pdf">priority area</a> for nitrate fertiliser management because of its link to <a href="http://www.mdpi.com/1424-2818/9/1/17">crown of thorns starfish outbreaks</a>. This option is being explored in a <a href="http://nesptropical.edu.au/index.php/round-2-projects/project-2-1-2/">NESP project</a>. </p>
<p>These changes would require significantly increased funding to support catchment and coastal management and to meet the draft plan’s <a href="http://www.reefplan.qld.gov.au/about/catchment-targets/">targets</a>. Government commitment to this level of management is essential to support the resilience of the Great Barrier Reef to climate change.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/83233/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jon Brodie receives funding from the Australian Government; Queensland Government; UNEP; the Bay of Plenty Regional Council, NZ; Melbourne Water; NSW EPA. He was also an author of the 2017 Scientific Consensus Statement: Land Use Impacts on Great Barrier Reef Water Quality and Ecosystem Condition.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Laurence McCook is a Partner Investigator in the ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alana Grech does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The updated plan for improving water quality on the Great Barrier Reef still doesn’t address the need to curb intensively farmed crops such as sugar cane, and to enforce existing environmental laws.Jon Brodie, Professorial Fellow, ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook UniversityAlana Grech, Assistant Director, ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook UniversityLaurence McCook, Adjunct Principal Research Fellow, Partner Investigator, ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/808112017-07-17T04:34:27Z2017-07-17T04:34:27ZPristine paradise to rubbish dump: the same Pacific island, 23 years apart<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/178219/original/file-20170714-14306-wmgjzv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The same beach on Henderson Island, in 1992 and 2015.</span> </figcaption></figure><p>A few weeks ago, the world woke to the story of Henderson Island, the “<a href="https://theconversation.com/this-south-pacific-island-of-rubbish-shows-why-we-need-to-quit-our-plastic-habit-77860">South Pacific island of rubbish</a>”. Our research revealed it as a place littered with plastic garbage, washed there by ocean currents. </p>
<p>This was a story we had been waiting to tell for more than a year, keeping our discoveries under wraps while we worked our way through mountains of data and photographs. </p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/CKSTFOibgvQ?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Our May 2017 video story detailing the rubbish on Henderson Island.</span></figcaption>
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<p>Everyone wanted to know how the plastic got there, and fortunately that is a question that our understanding of ocean currents can <a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/114/23/6052.abstract">help us answer</a>. But the question we couldn’t answer was: when did it all start to go so wrong? </p>
<p>This is the million-dollar question for so many wild species and spaces – all too often we only notice a problem once it’s too big to deny, or perhaps even solve. So when did Henderson’s sad story start? The answer is: surprisingly recently.</p>
<h2>An eloquent photo</h2>
<p>During our research we had reached out to those who had previously worked on Henderson Island or in nearby areas, to gain a better understanding of what forces contributed to the enormous piles of rubbish that have floated to Henderson’s sandy beaches. </p>
<p>Then, after our research was published and the world was busy reading about 37 million plastic items washed up on a remote south Pacific island, we received an email from Professor Marshall Weisler from the University of Queensland, who had seen the news and got in touch.</p>
<p>In 1992, he had done archaeological surveys on Henderson Island. The photos he shared from that expedition provided a rare glimpse into the beginning of this chapter of Henderson Island’s story, before it became known as “garbage island”.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/178220/original/file-20170714-14254-10i1c3m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/178220/original/file-20170714-14254-10i1c3m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/178220/original/file-20170714-14254-10i1c3m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/178220/original/file-20170714-14254-10i1c3m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/178220/original/file-20170714-14254-10i1c3m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/178220/original/file-20170714-14254-10i1c3m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=518&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/178220/original/file-20170714-14254-10i1c3m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=518&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/178220/original/file-20170714-14254-10i1c3m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=518&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Henderson Island in happier times.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Marshall Weisler</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/178221/original/file-20170714-14287-8jwo9p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/178221/original/file-20170714-14287-8jwo9p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/178221/original/file-20170714-14287-8jwo9p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/178221/original/file-20170714-14287-8jwo9p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/178221/original/file-20170714-14287-8jwo9p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/178221/original/file-20170714-14287-8jwo9p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/178221/original/file-20170714-14287-8jwo9p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/178221/original/file-20170714-14287-8jwo9p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">The same stretch of beach in 2015.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jennifer Lavers</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
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<p>There are only 23 years between these two photos, and the transformation is terrifying – from pristine South Pacific gem to the final resting place for enormous quantities of the world’s waste. </p>
<p>Remember, this is not waste that was dumped directly by human hands. It was washed here on ocean currents, meaning that this is not just about one beach – it shows how much the pollution problem has grown in the entire ocean system in little more than two decades.</p>
<p>To us, Henderson Island was a brutal wake-up call, and there are undoubtedly other garbage islands out there, inundated and overwhelmed by the waste generated in the name of progress. Although the amount of trash on Henderson is staggering – an average of 3,570 new pieces arrive each day on one beach alone – it represents a minute fraction of the rubbish produced around the globe.</p>
<h2>Cleanup confounded</h2>
<p>In the wake of the story, the other big question we received (and one we should have seen coming) was: can I help you clean up Henderson Island? The answer is no, for a very long list of reasons – some obvious, some not.</p>
<p>To quote a brilliant colleague, what matters is this: if all we ever do is clean up, that is all we will ever do. With thousands of new plastic items washing up on Henderson Island every day, the answer is clear. </p>
<p>The solution doesn’t require travel to a remote island, only the courage to look within. We need to change our behaviour, to turn off the tap and stem the tide of trash in the ocean. Our oceans, our islands, and our planet demand, and deserve it.</p>
<p>However difficult those changes may be, what choice do we have?</p>
<h2>Prevention, not cure</h2>
<p>While grappling with the scale of the plastics issue can at times be overwhelming, there are <a href="https://www.jenniferlavers.org/tips-links">simple things you can do</a> to make a difference. The solutions aren’t always perfect, but each success will keep you, your family, and your community motivated to reduce plastic use. </p>
<p>First, ask yourself this: when did it become acceptable for something created from non-renewable petrochemicals, extracted from the depths of the Earth and shipped around the globe, to be referred to as “single use” or “disposable”? Your relationship with plastic begins with the language you use. </p>
<p>But don’t stop there: here are a couple of facts illustrating how you can challenge yourself and make a difference.</p>
<ul>
<li>Australians throw away an <a href="http://www.1millionwomen.com.au/blog/what-sustainable-alternative-plastic-toothbrushes/">estimated 30 million plastic toothbrushes</a> every year. </li>
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<p><strong>Challenge</strong>: switch to <a href="https://environmentaltoothbrush.com.au/">bamboo toothbrushes</a>, which cost just a few dollars each and are available from a range of online retailers or wholefood shops.</p>
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<li>A single bottle of typical exfoliating face or body scrub <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-01-07/coles-woolworths-support-ban-on-microbeads-in-australia/7073674">contains 300,000 plastic microbeads</a>.</li>
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<p><strong>Challenge</strong>: switch to products that use crushed apricot kernels, coconut shell, coffee grounds, or sea salts as natural exfoliants.</p>
<p>These are only small changes, and you can undoubtedly think of many more. But we need to start turning the tide if we are to stop more pristine places being deluged with our garbage.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/80811/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jennifer Lavers receives funding from Detached Foundation and RACAT Foundation.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alexander Bond receives funding from The David & Lucile Packard Foundation, and the Darwin Initiative.</span></em></p>After making worldwide headlines with the story of the Pacific “garbage island”, researchers were sent a photo of the same beach, white sand free of litter, as recently as 1992.Jennifer Lavers (Métis Nation ᓲᐊᐧᐦᑫᔨᐤ), Research Scientist, Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, University of TasmaniaAlexander Bond, Senior Conservation Scientist, Royal Society for the Protection of BirdsLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.