tag:theconversation.com,2011:/au/topics/maths-and-science-education-5910/articlesMaths and science education – The Conversation2021-03-15T01:00:46Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1552162021-03-15T01:00:46Z2021-03-15T01:00:46ZIt’s not lack of confidence that’s holding back women in STEM<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/389162/original/file-20210311-13-hyxovu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5380%2C3583&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/two-female-college-students-building-machine-1339572893">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) professions are still heavily male-dominated. Across all sectors, just over <a href="http://www.professionalsaustralia.org.au/professional-women/wp-content/uploads/sites/48/2018/08/2018-Women-in-STEM-Survey-Report_web.pdf">one in four STEM workers are women</a>. </p>
<p>The gender gap is even wider among students in post-secondary STEM courses. The <a href="https://www.industry.gov.au/data-and-publications/stem-equity-monitor/higher-education">STEM Equity Monitor</a> reports:</p>
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<p><em>When considering university and VET together, in 2018 women comprised only 21% of total STEM course enrolments and 23% of total STEM course completions. In comparison, women comprised 60% of total non-STEM course enrolments and 61% of total non-STEM course completions in 2018.</em></p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/389194/original/file-20210312-21-1f85lie.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="chart showing proportions of female students in STEM courses" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/389194/original/file-20210312-21-1f85lie.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/389194/original/file-20210312-21-1f85lie.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=287&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/389194/original/file-20210312-21-1f85lie.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=287&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/389194/original/file-20210312-21-1f85lie.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=287&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/389194/original/file-20210312-21-1f85lie.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/389194/original/file-20210312-21-1f85lie.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/389194/original/file-20210312-21-1f85lie.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.industry.gov.au/data-and-publications/stem-equity-monitor/higher-education">STEM Equity Monitor/DISER</a></span>
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<p>One explanation commonly offered for this gender gap is a lack of confidence among girls and women in their technical skills and STEM career prospects. However, <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13603108.2020.1871090?journalCode=tpsp20">our research</a>, including a survey of thousands of Australian university students, has found women in STEM courses are often more confident than men. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/348582877_Gendered_differences_in_perceived_employability_among_higher_education_students_in_STEM_and_non-STEM_disciplines">Our findings</a> counter assumptions that STEM women lack confidence and that this translates into limited career success.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/chief-scientist-women-in-stem-are-still-far-short-of-workplace-equity-covid-19-risks-undoing-even-these-modest-gains-143092">Chief Scientist: women in STEM are still far short of workplace equity. COVID-19 risks undoing even these modest gains</a>
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<p>We need to look for other reasons for the failure to attract and retain more women in STEM professions, despite many attempts to do so. A succession of Australian government <a href="https://www.dese.gov.au/women-stem-cadetships-and-advanced-apprenticeships">policies</a> and <a href="https://www.voced.edu.au/content/ngv%3A32134">reviews</a> have aimed to increase the number of STEM-qualified people to meet <a href="https://www.chiefscientist.gov.au/sites/default/files/2020-07/australias_stem_workforce_-_final.pdf">increasing demand</a> for their skills.</p>
<p>STEM skills are considered <a href="https://www.minister.industry.gov.au/ministers/karenandrews/media-releases/vision-gender-equity-australia">critical</a> for creating a <a href="https://www.wa.gov.au/sites/default/files/2020-10/2019-20_-annual-report-web-small.pdf">stronger Australian economy</a>. There are <a href="https://acola.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/saf02-stem-country-comparisons.pdf">skills shortages</a> in Australia and other countries such as the <a href="https://stem.ucdavis.edu/stem-and-us-job-market/">United States</a>. </p>
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<img alt="Woman engineer working with technical drawings on a computer screen" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/389165/original/file-20210311-22-4rzwno.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/389165/original/file-20210311-22-4rzwno.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/389165/original/file-20210311-22-4rzwno.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/389165/original/file-20210311-22-4rzwno.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/389165/original/file-20210311-22-4rzwno.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/389165/original/file-20210311-22-4rzwno.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/389165/original/file-20210311-22-4rzwno.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">To overcome the STEM skills shortage, Australia needs to close the gender gap.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/factory-female-mechanical-engineer-designs-3d-1335833930">Shutterstock</a></span>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/industry-cadetships-a-good-but-small-step-to-tap-the-talents-of-women-in-stem-148170">Industry cadetships: a good but small step to tap the talents of women in STEM</a>
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<h2>What did the research find?</h2>
<p>The gender gap in STEM has often been associated with <a href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7430030">low technical confidence among women</a>. Female school students have been shown to <a href="https://www.ypulse.com/article/2018/04/12/teen-girls-are-less-confident-than-boys-its-affecting-their-futures/">lack confidence</a> about their prospects in fields such as maths and sciences. In the professions, STEM women are more likely to <a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1964782">underestimate their abilities</a> despite performing as well as men.</p>
<p>We wanted to find out whether Australian female STEM students are more or less confident in their study and career thinking. We used Bennett’s <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03075079.2021.1888079">employABILITY</a> measure to <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13603108.2020.1871090?journalCode=tpsp20">assess the confidence</a> of 12,708 STEM and non-STEM students at an Australian university.</p>
<p>We found the women students in STEM are equally if not more confident than men in their problem-solving and decision-making, goal-directed behaviour, self-esteem, career exploration and career awareness. They were also more likely to have a “plan B” for their careers. </p>
<p>The women in STEM also reported higher confidence than women in non-STEM courses. The female STEM students were more confident in their problem-solving and decision-making, goal-directed behaviour and occupational mobility.</p>
<p>Further to our reported study, we discussed the findings with four final-year STEM and non-STEM students. They voiced what we had suspected: STEM women’s confidence as students could be the result of the challenges they had overcome in choosing a traditionally male profession.</p>
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<p><em>“Women are more confident […] especially in STEM as they know what they are getting into and what they want from the choice they have made.”</em> – Female student</p>
<p><em>“To be a woman in STEM, they have to be quite strong. There is a special something about them and they believe they are destined to do great things.”</em> – Male student</p>
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<h2>Key is to maintain confidence into career</h2>
<p>Our finding that women in STEM are no less confident than men has implications for education and policy. </p>
<p>Policies such as the <a href="https://www.science.org.au/files/userfiles/support/reports-and-plans/2019/gender-diversity-stem/women-in-STEM-decadal-plan-final.pdf">Women in STEM Decadal Plan</a> and <a href="https://www.dese.gov.au/australian-curriculum/support-science-technology-engineering-and-mathematics-stem/national-stem-school-education-strategy-2016-2026">National STEM School Education Strategy</a> have focused on attracting women into STEM through programs in schools. These programs have increased female enrolments, with the notable <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03043797.2017.1397604">exception of engineering</a>.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/girls-score-the-same-in-maths-and-science-as-boys-but-higher-in-arts-this-may-be-why-they-are-less-likely-to-pick-stem-careers-131563">Girls score the same in maths and science as boys, but higher in arts – this may be why they are less likely to pick STEM careers</a>
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<p>Our study suggests women enter STEM programs with a great deal of confidence. And yet neither increased enrolments nor their confidence as students is carried through into the STEM professions. </p>
<p>The fact remains that in addition to men dominating STEM professions such as <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320932778_Investigation_of_students'_experiences_of_gendered_cultures_in_engineering_workplaces">engineering</a>, many <a href="http://www.professionalsaustralia.org.au/professional-women/wp-content/uploads/sites/48/2018/08/2018-Women-in-STEM-Survey-Report_web.pdf">women working in these industries</a> enjoy <a href="https://bcec.edu.au/assets/2019/06/AJLE212dockery.pdf">less career success</a>. Their <a href="https://www.chiefscientist.gov.au/sites/default/files/2020-07/australias_stem_workforce_-_final.pdf">attrition rate</a> far outweighs that of men.</p>
<p>It is important to understand what happens in these professions and to consider how <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/03043797.2017.1397604">gendered behaviour</a> and the <a href="http://www.professionalsaustralia.org.au/professional-women/wp-content/uploads/sites/48/2014/03/2015-Women-in-the-STEM-Professions-Survey-Report.pdf">inflexibility of work</a> might be overcome.</p>
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<img alt="Older male engineer and young male and female engineers discuss a project" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/389168/original/file-20210312-19-lcw2he.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/389168/original/file-20210312-19-lcw2he.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/389168/original/file-20210312-19-lcw2he.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/389168/original/file-20210312-19-lcw2he.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/389168/original/file-20210312-19-lcw2he.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/389168/original/file-20210312-19-lcw2he.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/389168/original/file-20210312-19-lcw2he.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">The confidence women have as STEM students isn’t translating into progress in the workplace.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/instructor-young-people-engineering-training-1022251501">Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p><em>“What drives those women towards STEM industries? They have passion for it, a motivation to go against the odds.”</em> – Female student</p>
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<p><a href="https://doi.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fcou0000119">Career theory</a> can help <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0001879109001249">inform</a> the solutions. In particular, self-esteem and self-efficacy predict resilience, goal-setting and persistence. These traits are critical for workers in competitive and gendered environments, and women STEM students are confident in both.</p>
<p>Positive educational and professional experiences, including gender-neutral experiences and role models, bolster students’ motivation and their commitment to study and career. </p>
<p>More student and graduate programs in industry, providing industry experience in each year of study, might reduce gendered attrition. It might also help to explain attrition among students and new professionals. </p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australia-has-hundreds-of-programs-to-get-women-into-science-but-are-they-working-time-to-find-out-133061">Australia has hundreds of programs to get women into science, but are they working? Time to find out</a>
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<p>Raising awareness of gendered behaviour and gender-neutral workplaces among all students can foster generational change. Increased flexibility within science workplaces could help to retain talented women. </p>
<p>The higher education sector also needs to monitor the confidence of STEM women across their studies. The focus should be on <a href="https://doi.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fcou0000119">social cognitive changes</a> caused by any <a href="https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1115817.pdf">gender stereotyping and discrimination</a>.</p>
<p>The gender gap in STEM careers, the high rate of attrition among STEM career women and the difficulty of attracting women to STEM courses are all well documented. Reducing the gender gap requires a concerted effort from governments, education systems and industry. We emphasise the need to focus on career transition and support prior to, during and beyond the student life cycle so early career confidence translates into longer-term career success.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/155216/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Subramaniam Ananthram receives funding from the Australia Business Dean's Council (ABDC) for research into employability of university students.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dawn Bennett has received funding from state and federal governments, industry peak bodies and competitive funding bodies including the Australian Research Council. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sherry Bawa has received funding from state and federal governments in the past. </span></em></p>Women enrolled in STEM courses are often more confident than men, but it hasn’t translated into career success and they are still very much a minority. More needs to be done in workplaces and schools.Subramaniam Ananthram, Associate Professor, International Business, Curtin UniversityDawn Bennett, Incoming Assistant Provost and Director, Transformation CoLab, Bond UniversitySherry Bawa, Senior Lecturer in Economics, Curtin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1563872021-03-08T19:05:24Z2021-03-08T19:05:24ZSenior maths and science are super popular with Islamic-school students, but that could limit their career options<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/387674/original/file-20210304-20-e7uaav.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/muslim-education-activities-classroom-school-happy-1216998334">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>More Islamic-school students in years 11 to 12 are enrolled in science and maths than other students in Australia.</p>
<p>In our <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2077-1444/11/12/663">study of Islamic-school students’ career aspirations</a>, about 28% of our sample were enrolled in science compared to the national enrolment rate of about 18%. Maths enrolment rates were at around 26% for the Islamic senior students in our sample, a little higher than the national average of about 25%.</p>
<p>But the difference was higher for Islamic-school girls, 27% of whom were enrolled in maths (compared to about 25% of male students).</p>
<p>We also found while courses in Arabic and Islamic studies are fundamental to the ethos of Islamic schools, the majority of students we surveyed didn’t take these subjects. Enrolment rates in Arabic and Islamic studies were about 2% and 6% respectively. </p>
<p>Our study drew attention to the general lack of vocational courses offered in Islamic schools, while confirming anecdotal evidence the courses on offer are heavily weighted to science and maths.</p>
<p>Islamic-school students need more course options and alternative career pathways (such as vocational education and training). The currently traditional pathways on offer may restrict their future prospects.</p>
<h2>Maths and science the most popular courses</h2>
<p>There are <a href="https://isa.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/20208-ISCA-2020-Snapshot-A4_v4_FINAL.pdf">around 46 Islamic schools</a> in Australia, with 38,300 students. </p>
<p>We collected data from nine schools in South Australia, Victoria and NSW as these are the states with the highest concentration of Islamic schools. A total of 146 year 11 and 12 students responded to our questionnaire about the courses they took and career aspirations — 68 girls and 78 boys.</p>
<p>While this number of students may seem low, if we exclude primary schools, this equates to a participation rate of around 20% senior school students in Islamic Schools across Australia.</p>
<p>We also collected data from <a href="https://www.acara.edu.au/contact-us/acara-data-access">The Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority</a> to calculate the subject participation rates among senior school students nationally.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/students-are-more-than-a-number-why-a-learner-profile-makes-more-sense-than-the-atar-143539">Students are more than a number: why a learner profile makes more sense than the ATAR</a>
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<p>Like other Australian schools, Islamic-school students can choose a combination of courses from <a href="https://www.acara.edu.au/curriculum/foundation-year-10/learning-areas-subjects">eight core learning areas</a> prescribed in the Australian curriculum: English; mathematics; science; humanities and social sciences; arts; health and physical education; technologies; and languages.</p>
<p>In our survey, more Islamic-school students were enrolled in maths and science than any other course. </p>
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<p>But only about 4% students in our sample were enrolled in information and communications technology compared to 12% nationally. </p>
<p>And fewer than 1% were enrolled in art — versus almost 10% of students nationally. More Islamic-school females were enrolled in art and Arabic (languages), which align with national trends. None of the males in our sample took an art subject.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/fewer-australians-are-taking-advanced-maths-in-year-12-we-can-learn-from-countries-doing-it-better-149148">Fewer Australians are taking advanced maths in Year 12. We can learn from countries doing it better</a>
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<p>In relation to humanities and social sciences — which includes business, accounting and legal studies — female participation (more than 26%) was almost equal to male participation (27%) in our sample. </p>
<p>More males in our sample were studying accounting (about 4% in comparison to about 1% of famales) and business management (about 6% versus 4%).</p>
<p>Enrolment rates in physical education among the Islamic-school girls (more than 6%) were more than double those of boys (3%). This finding was somewhat surprising. </p>
<h2>What they want to study at uni</h2>
<p>Most students who filled out our questionnaire wanted to study medicine, followed by business, engineering, law, teaching and other — in that order. </p>
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<p>Interest in medicine was about 35% among females compared to about 28% among males. Desire for engineering among males (more than 16%) was almost three times that of females (about 6%). </p>
<p>Most Islamic schools in Australia are located in middle- to lower-socioeconomic areas with varying levels of educational advantages and disadvantage.</p>
<p>Because courses like medicine and law are costly and competitive, only a minority of these students will get into their desired courses and many will need to plan for alternative options. This may include doing a vocational education and training (VET) course.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/most-young-people-who-do-vet-after-school-are-in-full-time-work-by-the-age-of-25-133060">Most young people who do VET after school are in full-time work by the age of 25</a>
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<p>Islamic schools need to offer courses that take into account the preferences of their students as well as the realities of university entry. Students need alternative pathways to courses that straddle their fields of interest — such as nursing, childhood education, electrotechnology and building design.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/156387/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A higher proportion of Islamic-school students in years 11 to 12 are enrolled in science and maths than other students in Australia. But they may not all get the careers they want.Mahmood Nathie, Lecturer and researcher, University of South AustraliaMohamad Abdalla, Founding Director of the Centre for Islamic Thought and Education, University of South AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1502752020-12-08T09:02:34Z2020-12-08T09:02:34ZAustralia lifts to be among top ten countries in maths and science<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/373484/original/file-20201208-19-t5es3d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/genius-girl-red-glasses-near-blackboard-178739876">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Results from the longest running large-scale international assessment of maths and science show <a href="https://research.acer.edu.au/timss_2019/1/">Australia has significantly improved</a> in Year 8 maths and science, and Year 4 science.</p>
<p>More than 580,000 students from 64 countries participated in the latest Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (<a href="https://timssandpirls.bc.edu/timss2019/index.html">TIMSS</a>). This includes 14,950 Australian students from 571 Australian schools. </p>
<p><strong>In Year 8 maths</strong>, Australia came in equal seventh place in the 2019 assessment cycle (up from equal 13th in 2015), along with a number of countries including Ireland, the United States and England. We came behind Chinese Taipei (Taiwan), Korea, Japan, Hong Kong and Ireland. </p>
<p><strong>In Year 8 science</strong>, Australia also came in equal seventh (up from equal 15th in 2015) along with countries such as Lithuania, Ireland and the US. We were behind Singapore, Chinese Taipei, Japan, Korea, Russia and Finland. </p>
<p><strong>In Year 4 science</strong>, Australia came equal ninth (up from equal 18th in 2015) along with countries including the US, England, Hong Kong and Ireland. Australia was behind Singapore, Korea, Russia, Japan, Chinese Taipei, Finland, Latvia and Norway.</p>
<p><strong>In Year 4 maths</strong>, however, achievement has not changed since 2007. Australia was outperformed by 22 countries in 2019, similar to 2015. It came equal 23rd along with countries such as Germany, Poland and Canada; and behind Singapore, the US, England and Ireland.</p>
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<h2>Not just the rankings</h2>
<p>This is the seventh time the TIMSS test has been administered. Along with completing tests in maths and science, Year 4 and 8 students involved in TIMSS answer questionnaires on their background and experiences in learning maths and science at school.</p>
<p>Participating in TIMSS allows Australia to measure its progress towards national educational goals, which in 2019 included the Melbourne Declaration on Educational Goals for Young Australians (now the Mparntwe Education Declaration). </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australia-hasnt-performed-well-at-maths-and-science-recently-were-about-to-find-out-if-weve-improved-150274">Australia hasn't performed well at maths and science recently. We're about to find out if we've improved</a>
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<p>In Year 4 maths, Australian students achieved an average score of 516 points. Singapore’s students scored the highest with 625 points, while England achieved 556, Canada 512 and New Zealand 487 points.</p>
<p>Australia’s average score in Year 8 maths was 517 points. This was compared to the highest score of 616 points for Singapore. Australia’s score was not significantly different to that of the US and England, which both achieved 515 points.</p>
<p>Australia not only improved in Year 8 maths and science, and Year 4 science relative to other countries, but also in an absolute sense. Compared to 2015, Australia’s mean score increased by 12 points in Year 8 maths; 16 points in Year 8 science and nine points in Year 4 science. </p>
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<p>The TIMSS intermediate international benchmark is the nationally agreed proficient standard for maths and science achievement, which is 475 score points. In 2019 between 68% and 78% of Australian students achieved the required proficiency benchmark in maths and science at both year levels. In Singapore, more than 90% of students achieved this benchmark in both subject areas at both year levels. </p>
<p>Since 2015, the proportion of Australian students achieving this standard improved by five percentage points in Year 8 science. It did not change significantly in Year 4 maths and science, or Year 8 maths.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/aussie-students-are-a-year-behind-students-10-years-ago-in-science-maths-and-reading-127013">Aussie students are a year behind students 10 years ago in science, maths and reading</a>
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<p>TIMSS results also provide a measure of Australia’s progress towards the United Nations 2030 Sustainable Development Goal for universal quality education. The TIMSS low international benchmark is an agreed global indicator of minimum proficiency in maths at the end of lower secondary schooling. </p>
<p>In the 2019 study, 90% of Australian Year 8 students achieved this benchmark, which was similar to 2015 and slightly higher than the 2019 international median of 87%. Meanwhile, 98% of students in Singapore and Chinese Taipei, and 99% of students in Japan achieved minimum proficiency in Year 8 maths.</p>
<h2>Differences between groups</h2>
<p>While of course these findings are positive, there are cautions evident when making comparisons among demographic groups.</p>
<p>There was no significant difference between the average performance of Australian girls and boys in Year 8 maths, Year 4 science or Year 8 science. </p>
<p>But boys outperformed girls in Year 4 maths in 27 of the 58 participating countries, including Australia. </p>
<p>The proportion of students who attained the national proficient standard was about the same for boys and girls (69% for girls, 70% for boys). But the proportion of boys who achieved the advanced benchmark (12%) was significantly higher than the proportion of girls (8%) who achieved at this level.</p>
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<p>While the achievement of First Nations Australian students and other Australian students has converged slightly in Year 4 and Year 8 science since 1995, the gaps are glaringly wide in both subject areas, but particularly in maths. </p>
<p>At Year 4 level in maths, 42% of First Nations students achieved the national proficient standard, compared to 72% of other Australian students. And 25% of First Nations students did not achieve the low benchmark, compared to 8% of other Australian students. </p>
<p>In Year 8 maths, 39% of First Nations students compared to 70% of other Australian students achieved the National Proficient standard, while 29% of First Nations students compared to 8% of other Australian students did not achieve the Low benchmark.</p>
<h2>Student socioeconomic background</h2>
<p>The largest gaps in achievement at school are often those defined by a students’ socioeconomic background. In TIMSS, several measures are used to define socioeconomic background, but the common method for Year 4 and Year 8 is simple but effective. Students are asked to estimate the number of books in their home within five categories. These are then collapsed into three:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>0-10: few books</p></li>
<li><p>11-200: average number of books</p></li>
<li><p>more than 200: many books. </p></li>
</ul>
<p><a href="https://kathyhirshpasek.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/9/2018/04/Pace-et-al.-2017.pdf">Analysis</a> has shown living in a home with many books influences academic achievement (or by implication, having a home environment that values literacy, the acquisition of knowledge and general academic support) in a positive manner.</p>
<p>In Year 4, 17% of students identified as living in a home with many books, and 28% with few books. In Year 8, 20% of students said their home had many books and 31% few books.</p>
<p>The differences between students with many books and those with few books is large at both year levels and for both subject areas. For example:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>in Year 8 maths, 83% of students living in a home with many books achieved the national proficient standard, compared to 48% of those from homes with few books </p></li>
<li><p>in Year 8 science, 90% of students from homes with many books achieved the standard, compared to 52% of those from homes with few books</p></li>
<li><p>in Year 8 maths and science, around 3% of students from homes with many books compared to around 20% of students from homes with few books did not achieve the low benchmark.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Acknowledging the primary underlying factor behind poor achievement is socioeconomic background, and finding ways of redressing the imbalance in opportunities and resources available to these students, will help lift achievement for all Australian students.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/one-quarter-of-australian-11-12-year-olds-dont-have-the-literacy-and-numeracy-skills-they-need-148912">One quarter of Australian 11-12 year olds don't have the literacy and numeracy skills they need</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/150275/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sue Thomson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Results from the world’s longest running large-scale international assessment of maths and science show Australia has significantly improved in Year 8 maths and science, and Year 4 science.Sue Thomson, Deputy CEO (Research), Australian Council for Educational ResearchLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1502742020-12-06T18:54:36Z2020-12-06T18:54:36ZAustralia hasn’t performed well at maths and science recently. We’re about to find out if we’ve improved<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/372972/original/file-20201204-23-vbzt81.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/vector-cartoon-illustratioon-hands-holding-banners-1386828638">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Every four years, the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (<a href="https://www.iea.nl/node/1580">IEA</a>) releases data on how effective countries are in teaching mathematics and science in Years 4 and 8. Called TIMSS, (<a href="https://timssandpirls.bc.edu/timss2019/international-results/">Trends in International Mathematics and Science</a>), the 2019 results will be released tomorrow evening. </p>
<p>This is the seventh time the TIMSS test has been administered. Over the years, the results have attracted considerable attention from <a href="https://www.chiefscientist.gov.au/sites/default/files/2-Science-and-Maths-in-Australian-Secondary-Schools-datasheet-Web.pdf">governments</a> and those <a href="https://www.afr.com/policy/health-and-education/wakeup-call-as-aussie-kids-outgunned-in-maths-by-us-canada-england-20161129-gszla2#ixzz4RRT1WSrr">interested in education</a>.</p>
<p>The first TIMSS test was in 1995. Results from the last cycle, <a href="https://research.acer.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1002&context=timss_2015">TIMSS 2015</a>, showed the maths and science achievement of Australia’s Years 4 and 8 students had flatlined. But many other countries had improved — including the United States and England. </p>
<h2>What is TIMSS?</h2>
<p>What many are wondering about the results tomorrow include:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>how does Australia’s education system compare internationally – which countries are doing better than we are and which are doing worse?</p></li>
<li><p>how are we doing internally — across states and territories, between girls and boys, or children from different socioeconomic and cultural backgrounds?</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Year 4 and Year 8 students involved in TIMSS complete tests in maths and science. They also answer questionnaires on their background and experiences in learning maths and science at school. </p>
<p>School principals and the students’ maths and science teachers also complete detailed <a href="https://timssandpirls.bc.edu/timss2019/frameworks/framework-chapters/context-questionnaire-framework/">questionnaires</a>. </p>
<p>This information helps to paint a picture of what happens in schools and classrooms and what might influence student learning.</p>
<p>TIMSS is a <a href="https://timssandpirls.bc.edu/timss2019/methods/chapter-3.html">sample assessment</a>. It’s not possible to test every Year 4 or Year 8 student (that would take too long and cost too much). </p>
<p>So a representative random sample is drawn from all schools in each system being tested. One class from each school is then randomly selected to complete the paper-based or online assessment of maths and science. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australian-schools-continue-to-fall-behind-other-countries-in-maths-and-science-69341">Australian schools continue to fall behind other countries in maths and science</a>
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<p>TIMSS was not designed to provide scores for individual students or schools — students don’t even complete the same test as all of the other students in the room. In TIMSS 2019, for example, there were more than <a href="https://timssandpirls.bc.edu/timss2019/frameworks/framework-chapters/assessment-design/">14 different test forms</a>, covering different parts of the assessment. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/372973/original/file-20201204-17-183vwjn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An illustration of the earth rotating on its axis in relation to the sun." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/372973/original/file-20201204-17-183vwjn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/372973/original/file-20201204-17-183vwjn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/372973/original/file-20201204-17-183vwjn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/372973/original/file-20201204-17-183vwjn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/372973/original/file-20201204-17-183vwjn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=535&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/372973/original/file-20201204-17-183vwjn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=535&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/372973/original/file-20201204-17-183vwjn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=535&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">TIMSS tests maths and science concepts, like the effect of the earth rotating on its axis.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/24-hours-day-night-cycle-diagram-1216358518">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Those test scores are then put together statistically to form an overall picture of achievement.</p>
<p>In Australia, 571 schools and 14,950 students participated in TIMSS 2019.</p>
<h2>What the test looks like</h2>
<p>TIMSS looks at how well Year 4 and Year 8 students have mastered the factual and procedural knowledge taught in school <a href="https://timssandpirls.bc.edu/timss2019/frameworks/">maths and science curricula</a>. </p>
<p>For example, do students know: </p>
<ul>
<li><p>how many legs an insect has </p></li>
<li><p>what causes rust</p></li>
<li><p>what happens when light passes through a prism</p></li>
<li><p>what is the sum of the angles of a triangle </p></li>
<li><p>how to convert ¾ to a decimal</p></li>
<li><p>how to calculate an average. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>Test questions can either be “constructed response” or “multiple-choice”.</p>
<p>For “constructed response” questions, students are asked to give a written response that could be as short as a single word or number, or as long as a couple of sentences. </p>
<p>Here’s an example of a constructed response question from Year 4 mathematics: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>Hanif starts to write a number pattern: 6, 13, 20, 27 …
He adds the same number each time to get the next number.
What is the next number he should write in his pattern? </p>
<p>Answer = 34.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>For multiple-choice questions, students select the correct answer from a selection of pre-written options. Here’s a multiple-choice question from Year 8 science: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>Earth rotates on its axis. What does this cause?</p>
</blockquote>
<ul>
<li><em>A. the seasons</em></li>
<li><em>B. a solar eclipse</em></li>
<li><em>C. day and night</em></li>
<li><em>D. high and low tides</em></li>
</ul>
<blockquote>
<p>Answer = C. day and night.</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>TIMSS is different to other international tests</h2>
<p>TIMSS is not the only international assessment Australia participates in.</p>
<p>In December 2019, results from the <a href="https://www.oecd.org/pisa/">OECD’s PISA</a> (Programme for International Student Assessment) made headlines as Australia’s PISA scores in maths and science were the lowest they had ever been.</p>
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<p>While both TIMSS and PISA test maths and science, they are very different in terms of <a href="https://www.iea.nl/publications/series-journals/iea-compass-briefs-education-series/september-2020-international-large">who they test and what the test is like</a>. There are three main differences:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>TIMSS tests students in middle primary and lower secondary. PISA tests 15 year olds, who are usually in Years 9, 10 or 11 in Australia and nearing the end of their compulsory schooling in many countries</p></li>
<li><p>TIMSS focuses on how well students have learnt the content of a defined curriculum. PISA focuses on how well students can apply reading, maths, science skills to real-life situations</p></li>
<li><p>TIMSS assessment content is jointly developed by participating countries based on a detailed analysis of national curricula. PISA assessment content is developed by OECD-selected experts based on the skills they think students should have mastered.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Testing at Year 4 and Year 8, rather than at the end of school, allows countries to see how well students are doing early in their education journey and where more effort might be needed. Focusing on a defined curriculum can help find where gaps in a country’s own curriculum might lie.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-pisa-world-education-test-results-are-about-to-drop-is-australia-getting-worse-127011">The PISA world education test results are about to drop. Is Australia getting worse?</a>
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<p>TIMSS also provides a lot of contextual information collected through questionnaires from school principals, teachers and students. The questionnaire examine what is intended to be taught in science and maths (the intended curriculum) and how these things are actually taught (the implemented curriculum). While the assessment describes what students have learned (the attained curriculum).</p>
<p>Together, information from TIMSS can help improve Australia’s maths and science curricula and, ultimately, the educational outcomes of all Australian students.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/150274/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sue Thomson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Data are about to be released on how well countries teach Year 4 and 8 maths and science Results from the last cycle of testing in 2015 showed Australia’s students achievement had flatlined.Sue Thomson, Deputy CEO (Research), Australian Council for Educational ResearchLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/904072018-02-14T16:28:01Z2018-02-14T16:28:01ZDesign thinking can make kids see science - and themselves - differently<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/205469/original/file-20180208-180816-1dzlz97.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Design thinking workshop.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">HPI at UCT</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>One of South Africa’s many complex challenges involves <a href="https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21713858-why-it-bottom-class-south-africa-has-one-worlds-worst-education">fixing and improving</a> its education system. As part of this, the government has come up with a <a href="https://www.westerncape.gov.za/text/2003/strategy_math_science_fet.pdf">national strategy</a> for three crucial teaching and learning areas: mathematics, science and technology. The aim is to strengthen how the subjects are taught using curricular methods and learning support materials.</p>
<p>The establishment of science centres for young people is one of many initiatives that it’s hoped will contribute to the strategy. The <a href="http://gh.mydpwebsite.co.za/News/Article/General/youth-centre-nears-completion-20170809">Inkcubeko youth and science centre</a> in the Southern Cape town of George is one such space. It <a href="http://gh.mydpwebsite.co.za/News/Article/General/youth-centre-nears-completion-20170809">aims to</a> provide a “safe, supportive learning and play environment for the youth and children of Thembalethu [the area’s largest township] and the greater George area”.</p>
<p>Traditionally, these kinds of projects are designed by architects who barely engage with the people who’ll eventually use the space. Everything from the way the centre looks to the programmes it offers is developed without consulting the end users. This approach neglects the local context and the needs of the people who will actually spend their time in such a centre.</p>
<p>Inkcubeko is funded by the Hasso Plattner Trust, which also established the <a href="http://www.ched.uct.ac.za/d-school-hasso-platner-institute-design-thinking">Hasso Plattner Institute of Design Thinking</a> at the University of Cape Town, where I work. So when it came to creating the new centre, we decided to try something different. We applied design thinking to what it would look like and how it would operate. </p>
<p>This approach encourages critical thinking, creativity, collaboration and <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-learning-empathy-can-help-build-better-community-projects-in-africa-75900">empathy</a>. It also means that possible solutions are prototyped and tested with the users – the young people who will spend time playing and learning at Inkcubeko.</p>
<p>What we’ve been able to achieve is powerful evidence that developmental strategies in Africa need to be driven by designing “with”, rather than “for” people. Involving the users from the beginning ensures there is a shared understanding of the problem and that the solution is relevant to the context. This applies whether you’re creating a science centre in South Africa or a community hall in Malawi.</p>
<h2>Getting kids thinking about design</h2>
<p>We brought together 117 kids from 16 different schools in Thembalethu and surrounding areas. Their ages ranged from 7 to 18, and we put them in teams of five or six that reflected their diverse backgrounds and the kinds of schools they attend. The project lasted over four days and involved all-day intensive workshops.</p>
<p>Each team created its own charter, which clarified norms and values. It also established basic etiquette for working together, like respect and helping each other. This was developed after each team member had shared what they valued, such as listening to each other and being heard.</p>
<p>Then we assigned different tasks to each team. Ultimately, the idea was for the youngsters to really immerse themselves in imagining what a science centre in their community could look like. </p>
<p>The teams were asked to create a shared understanding of what science is, and what things they associate with science.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/205526/original/file-20180208-180844-14fgvy9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/205526/original/file-20180208-180844-14fgvy9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205526/original/file-20180208-180844-14fgvy9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205526/original/file-20180208-180844-14fgvy9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205526/original/file-20180208-180844-14fgvy9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=609&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205526/original/file-20180208-180844-14fgvy9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=609&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205526/original/file-20180208-180844-14fgvy9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=609&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Unpacking science.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">HPI at UCT</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This section proved very interesting. The children surprised themselves: they realised they knew more about science than they thought, and found it exciting to visualise their thoughts and understanding. They also mapped out the stakeholders who operate in the systems in which science exists. This helped us as facilitators to see who they viewed as being important within the science education space.</p>
<p>The children were also asked to interview other young people to gauge their ideas about “science” and what a science centre might look like. The facilitators then helped the teams to make sense of the information they’d gathered so they could identify specific needs. Some of these included wanting to feel safe, wanting to learn more about different aspects of science and wanting to find mentors.</p>
<p>Identifying real needs allowed them to transition from finding problems to finding solutions.</p>
<h2>Bringing the centre to life</h2>
<p>Now it was time for the children to prototype an idea. Each team developed their own prototype; these will be synthesised by those who will actually run the science centre. In this way, their ideas will be incorporated into the eventual science centre, making it a real community space.</p>
<p>Prototyping is one of the key components of design thinking. It is a simple experimental model of a proposed solution – a way for the teams to make their idea tangible. Some were common to all teams, like ensuring the science centre was a “safe space”. Other ideas included different spaces – one for watching experts conduct science experiments; one for reading; another for watching science videos.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/205344/original/file-20180207-74501-4a92h7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/205344/original/file-20180207-74501-4a92h7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205344/original/file-20180207-74501-4a92h7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205344/original/file-20180207-74501-4a92h7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205344/original/file-20180207-74501-4a92h7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205344/original/file-20180207-74501-4a92h7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205344/original/file-20180207-74501-4a92h7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Prototyping different components of the science centre.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">HPI at UCT</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>. </p>
<p>The children loved how active all of these workshops were. This kept them engaged throughout the process, and showed how creative teaching and learning strategies – like those exemplified in design thinking – could trigger more interest in science.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/90407/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Keneilwe Munyai does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The establishment of science centres for young people is one of many initiatives hoped to fix South Africa’s education system.Keneilwe Munyai, Programme Manager, University of Cape TownLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/880172017-12-03T19:17:53Z2017-12-03T19:17:53ZSTEM education in primary schools will fall flat unless serious issues are addressed<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/196638/original/file-20171128-2025-v4edym.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Not all schools have access to enough equipment for their students, which means they waste time building, un-building and re-building their projects.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s been two years since Prime Minister Turnbull <a href="http://www.minister.industry.gov.au/ministers/pyne/media-releases/national-innovation-and-science-agenda">announced his innovation agenda for schools</a> and the allocation of funds to boost science, technology, engineering and maths (STEM) education. But there’s a growing gap between what was promised and the reality of what all schools can access. </p>
<p>STEM education in Australia won’t realise its full potential unless we address issues of resources, equity, teacher professional learning, the needs of students who speak English as an additional language and may have low literacy and numeracy skills, and ageing school facilities. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/want-to-solve-our-stem-skills-problem-bring-in-the-professionals-87513">Want to solve our STEM skills problem? Bring in the professionals</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Building teacher confidence and capacity</h2>
<p>Two recent Australian <a href="https://www.academia.edu/4891119/Exploring_technology_integration_in_teachers_classrooms_in_NSW_public_schools">studies</a> involving nearly 1,000 primary school students sought to determine whether a <a href="https://www.academia.edu/34736745/Switching_Middle_School_Teachers_onto_STEM_Using_a_Pedagogical_Framework_for_Technology_Integration_The_Case_for_High_Possibility_Classrooms_in_Australia">new teaching model</a> would build teacher confidence and capacity in STEM. Data was collected from surveys, teaching plans, observations in classrooms, interviews with teachers and principals and focus groups with students. </p>
<p>The studies found the ten week units of inquiry-based learning using the new model are effective. Teachers, regardless of how much science or maths they’ve studied, are prepared to step up and tackle teaching more difficult concepts like computational thinking, laws of motion and light conduction. For example, one early career teacher said: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>I feel like I am in my element. Teaching simple coding has been really great. Primary school teachers have the ability to teach really relevant concepts for the future and be excited by it. Students pick up on your excitement. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Having children do experiments, finding problems, using authentic equipment, like a digital heat thermometer or circuit boards, and hands-on learning were priorities in most classrooms. This includes co-teaching large groups of students with a team of colleagues. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/S6jOloXrG2E?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">A Year 3 student from one of the two studies explaining hydraulics.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>One mid-stage career teacher said: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>Having students work in a small teams with their peers is powerful, they are in the tasks and want to find detailed solutions to scientific problems. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Project-based learning and experiences where students designed and tested prototypes (like the hydraulic pump) were common and teachers <a href="https://research.acer.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1010&context=professional_dev">reported</a> significant growth in their confidence and capacity across both studies. Only time will tell whether momentum is sustained after the studies conclude.</p>
<h2>Five emerging concerns in STEM education</h2>
<p>The studies succeeded in building teacher capacity and confidence, but also brought to light five concerns about STEM that current education policies and programs do not adequately address. </p>
<p><strong>Resources</strong> </p>
<p>Hands on materials for STEM often cost money. For example, the simple circuits, boards and connecting wires needed in the electricity topic. Most classes in the research shared materials, and this could mean building a circuit then pulling it apart for the next class to reuse the same equipment. This might be a good scientific exercise, but it wastes time and causes frustration. One student said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>We do a lot of building, unbuilding and rebuilding because we don’t have enough wires to go around. It’s annoying to have to start all over again each lesson. </p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/technology-in-the-classroom-can-improve-primary-mathematics-83431">Technology in the classroom can improve primary mathematics</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p><strong>Equity</strong></p>
<p>There is <a href="https://www.ncsehe.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/Southgate_Fair-connection-to-professional-careers.pdf">a rising STEM equity gap</a>. Most of the schools had very old hardware – so the “T” in STEM was left hanging. Technology was not well connected and software needed urgent upgrading. I have conducted research across school sectors in different states, both rural and urban, and the gaps between who has and who has not in STEM are stark. This brings into focus the necessity to fast forward the <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-05-02/malcolm-turnbull-announces-schools-funding-boost/8489806">Gonski 2.0 recommendations</a> for needs-based funding. </p>
<p><strong>Teacher professional development</strong></p>
<p>Teacher learning in STEM education must continue to be supported with targeted funds for teachers to plan units of work together for their continuous professional development is necessary. The default of hiring outside organisations to teach coding and conduct experiments often means teachers stand back while others work with their students. This does little to build personal professional capacity and confidence. </p>
<p><strong>Literacy and numeracy levels</strong></p>
<p>Students need proficiency in <a href="http://www.educationcouncil.edu.au/site/DefaultSite/filesystem/documents/National%20STEM%20School%20Education%20Strategy.pdf">literacy and numeracy</a> for effective STEM learning in primary school education. Low literacy and numeracy levels of students who spoke English as an additional language in Year 6 at some schools made STEM hard. An experienced teacher said: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>We only have 10 students who can read the content of lessons without help. So 45 students can’t successfully make meaning from instructions or video footage they are given. How do these students access the language they need for STEM?</p>
</blockquote>
<p><strong>Ageing classrooms</strong></p>
<p>Ageing physical spaces with small classrooms were common in most primary schools. These schools had meagre classrooms with lots of students, cramped spaces and no storage space for large STEM constructions. </p>
<h2>Current hive of STEM activity</h2>
<p>The <a href="http://www.chiefscientist.gov.au/2016/01/spi-2016-stem-programme-index-2016-2/">good news</a> is there’s plenty of excellent STEM activity in Australian schools right now. Some examples are <a href="http://www.youngscientists.com.au/">early childhood discovery programs</a>, coding clubs, <a href="https://www.csiro.au/en/Education/Community-engagement/National-Science-Week-2017/Celebrating-STEM-in-Schools-2017">CSIRO resources</a>, <a href="https://csermoocs.adelaide.edu.au/">online courses</a> to support application of the digital technologies curriculum, <a href="https://education.nsw.gov.au/teaching-and-learning/curriculum/learning-for-the-future/future-focused-learning-and-teaching">classroom re-design</a> and <a href="https://maas.museum/event/future-park/">museums</a> that offer interactive STEM experiences for teachers and students.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.education.gov.au/support-science-technology-engineering-and-mathematics">Early Learning STEM Australia pilot</a> is one measure planned for pre-schools in disadvantaged communities in 2018. Increased attention to the five big issues with STEM will support the pilot’s impact for teachers and students in more vulnerable primary schools. Access and equity must be made priorities.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/88017/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jane Louise Hunter receives funding from the NSW Department of Education. </span></em></p>We need to address issues like access to resources, teacher professional development and ageing classrooms to get the full benefit of STEM education in primary schools.Jane Louise Hunter, Senior Lecturer, School of Education; Associate Member, STEM Education Futures, University of Technology SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/796032017-06-24T03:14:42Z2017-06-24T03:14:42Z30 years after Edwards v. Aguillard: Why creationism lingers in public schools<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175281/original/file-20170622-27875-xlu8v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">In 2013, pro-science supporters rallied before a Texas Board of Education public hearing on proposed new science textbooks.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">AP Photo/Eric Gay</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>This month marks the 30th anniversary of the U.S. Supreme Court’s decision in <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/482/578">Edwards v. Aguillard</a>, a groundbreaking case that ruled it unconstitutional to require creationism to be taught in public schools.</p>
<p>Though much has changed in 30 years, the broad questions raised by this case remain timely. Who gets to decide what knowledge will be transmitted to the next generation – parents? Elected officials? Academic experts? What role (if any) should the courts play in policing such decisions?</p>
<p>As a scholar of education law and First Amendment law, I’ve seen these very questions animate curricular controversies over climate change, American history, and more.</p>
<p>While recent debates seem to share a common structure with controversies about the teaching of evolution, there’s a key difference: Edwards v. Aguillard stands not for the broad idea that it’s unconstitutional for public schools to teach “bad science,” but for the narrower idea that it’s unconstitutional for them to teach religion as truth.</p>
<h2>A century of science and religion</h2>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175287/original/file-20170622-27922-5lupr6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175287/original/file-20170622-27922-5lupr6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175287/original/file-20170622-27922-5lupr6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=941&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175287/original/file-20170622-27922-5lupr6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=941&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175287/original/file-20170622-27922-5lupr6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=941&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175287/original/file-20170622-27922-5lupr6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1182&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175287/original/file-20170622-27922-5lupr6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1182&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175287/original/file-20170622-27922-5lupr6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1182&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In 1883, illustrator Joseph Ferdinand Keppler envisioned a future where religion and science were one.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2012645438">Puck, via Library of Congress</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Some conservative religious believers – <a href="http://www.pewforum.org/2013/12/30/publics-views-on-human-evolution#differences-by-religious-group">mainly fundamentalist or evangelical Protestants</a> – have long viewed Darwin’s ideas as <a href="http://www.pewforum.org/2009/02/04/the-social-and-legal-dimensions-of-the-evolution-debate-in-the-us/">incompatible with their faith</a>. Consequently, they’ve resisted the undiluted teaching of evolutionary theory in public schools. </p>
<p>Early resistance took the form of statutes criminalizing the teaching of evolution, most famously the Tennessee ban at the heart of the famous “<a href="http://www.npr.org/2005/07/05/4723956/timeline-remembering-the-scopes-monkey-trial">Scopes Monkey Trial</a>” of 1925.</p>
<p>In the next four decades, the legal playing field changed dramatically. The Supreme Court applied the Constitution’s <a href="http://constitution.findlaw.com/amendment1.html">Establishment Clause</a> to the states in <a href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/330/1/case.html">1947</a>, initially reading the clause to require the “<a href="http://americanhistory.oxfordre.com/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.001.0001/acrefore-9780199329175-e-29">separation of church and state</a>.” In the early 1960s, cases banning school-sponsored <a href="http://supreme.nolo.com/us/370/421/case.html">classroom prayer</a> and <a href="http://supreme.nolo.com/us/374/203/case.html">devotional Bible reading</a> interpreted the separation of church and state to mean that schools could teach about religion, but they couldn’t constitutionally teach religion as true. </p>
<p>It followed that teaching the biblical creation story as a true account of human origins was out of the question. The Supreme Court put a categorical end to Tennessee-style “monkey laws” in its 1968 decision in <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/393/97">Epperson v. Arkansas</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175283/original/file-20170622-27907-1rnf59r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175283/original/file-20170622-27907-1rnf59r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175283/original/file-20170622-27907-1rnf59r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175283/original/file-20170622-27907-1rnf59r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175283/original/file-20170622-27907-1rnf59r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175283/original/file-20170622-27907-1rnf59r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=520&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175283/original/file-20170622-27907-1rnf59r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=520&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175283/original/file-20170622-27907-1rnf59r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=520&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Biology teacher Susan Epperson challenged Arkansas’ ban on the teaching of the theory of evolution. Little Rock Central High School, Arkansas, Aug. 13, 1966.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">AP Photo</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In 1971’s <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/411/192">Lemon v. Kurtzman</a>, the Supreme Court solidified its views on church-state separation by adopting a three-prong “test” to determine whether laws violated the Establishment Clause. To be constitutional:</p>
<ol>
<li>A law must have a secular legislative purpose.</li>
<li>Its primary effect must neither advance nor inhibit religion.</li>
<li>It must not foster excessive government entanglement with religion.</li>
</ol>
<p>Lemon’s support on today’s Supreme Court is <a href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=2491538">much weaker than it was 40 years ago</a>, but it has been the dominant test employed in the case law on creationism and evolution.</p>
<h2>Can we teach a bit of each?</h2>
<p>Why, then, didn’t the Supreme Court’s adoption of the Lemon test close the book on creationist teaching once and for all? The answer, in a nutshell, is that creationism went underground.</p>
<p>Once the state could neither teach biblical creationism nor categorically forbid the teaching of evolution, creationists turned to new strategies.</p>
<p>The first post-Epperson wave of resistance involved a number of state legislatures that required the “balanced treatment” of both evolution and “<a href="http://www.plts.edu/faculty-staff/documents/ite_evol_fighting.pdf#page=6">scientific creationism</a>” in the science classroom. Students would be presented with two “scientific” accounts side by side and could make up their own minds. </p>
<p>Yet, for this strategy to succeed, proponents needed to convince courts that “scientific creationism” was more than just Sunday school in disguise. In <a href="http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/mclean-v-arkansas.html">McLean v. Arkansas</a> (1982), a federal district court struck down Arkansas’s balanced treatment law, ruling that it merely omitted biblical references without actually changing the religious purpose of the law. The court also developed a definition of “science” and concluded that “creation science” did not satisfy it.</p>
<h2>Edwards v. Aguillard</h2>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175448/original/file-20170623-12623-1wnmgtx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175448/original/file-20170623-12623-1wnmgtx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175448/original/file-20170623-12623-1wnmgtx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=797&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175448/original/file-20170623-12623-1wnmgtx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=797&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175448/original/file-20170623-12623-1wnmgtx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=797&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175448/original/file-20170623-12623-1wnmgtx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1002&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175448/original/file-20170623-12623-1wnmgtx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1002&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175448/original/file-20170623-12623-1wnmgtx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1002&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Supreme Court Justice Antonin Scalia wrote the dissenting opinion in Edwards v. Aguillard. Today’s court is likely more sympathetic to Scalia’s views of the Establishment Clause.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">AP Photo/Lana Harris</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In 1981, Louisiana passed the “<a href="http://rationalwiki.org/wiki/Text_of_Louisiana_Balanced_Treatment_for_Creation-Science_and_Evolution-Science_Act">Balanced Treatment for Creation-Science and Evolution-Science in Public School Instruction Act</a>.” Though similar to the law struck down in McLean v. Arkansas, Louisiana lawmakers took extra steps to attempt to <a href="https://ncse.com/library-resource/rise-fall-louisiana-creationism-law">cleanse religion from their law</a> after Arkansas’s balanced treatment act had been challenged in court. </p>
<p>Under the law’s terms, no school was required to teach either evolution or creation science, but if one were taught, the other had to be taught as well. The declared purpose of the law was protecting “academic freedom.” </p>
<p>On June 19, 1987, the Supreme Court ruled 7-2 in the case of <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/482/578">Edwards v. Aguillard</a> that the Louisiana law was unconstitutional. Writing for the court, Justice Brennan explained that the act had no secular purpose – and thus violated the first prong of the “Lemon test.” Further, Brennan rejected the act’s purported purpose of protecting academic freedom: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“The Act actually serves to diminish academic freedom by removing the flexibility to teach evolution without also teaching creation science, even if teachers determine that such curriculum results in less effective and comprehensive science instruction.”</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>‘Teaching the controversy’</h2>
<p>Like Epperson v. Arkansas, the Edwards case was a decisive Supreme Court defeat for anti-evolution forces. </p>
<p>As creationists came to understand that the Supreme Court would not approve laws with religious agendas so close to the surface, many shifted their focus to more subtle tactics, which involved some version of “teaching the controversy” regarding evolution. One strategy was to adopt disclaimers explaining to students that evolution was a “<a href="http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/cobb/selman-v-cobb.html">theory, not a fact</a>” or that teaching evolution was “<a href="http://caselaw.findlaw.com/us-5th-circuit/1279474.html">not intended to influence or dissuade the Biblical version of Creation</a>.” Courts uniformly ruled against these disclaimers.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/dover/kitzmiller_v_dover_decision.html">Kitzmiller v. Dover School District</a> (2005), the <a href="http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/evolution/intelligent-design-trial.html">best-known</a> post-Edwards case, addressed the strategy of substituting “intelligent design theory” for “scientific creationism.” A Pennsylvania school district’s evolution disclaimer included the suggestion that students consider the theory of “intelligent design” as developed in the textbook, “<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Of_Pandas_and_People">Of Pandas and People.</a>”</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175430/original/file-20170623-12636-w1s6l2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175430/original/file-20170623-12636-w1s6l2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175430/original/file-20170623-12636-w1s6l2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175430/original/file-20170623-12636-w1s6l2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175430/original/file-20170623-12636-w1s6l2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175430/original/file-20170623-12636-w1s6l2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=479&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175430/original/file-20170623-12636-w1s6l2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=479&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175430/original/file-20170623-12636-w1s6l2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=479&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A federal judge barred the Dover, Pennsylvania school district from teaching ‘intelligent design’ in biology class, saying the concept is creationism in disguise.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">AP Photo/Bradley C Bower</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Intelligent design proponents argue that mutation and natural selection cannot adequately explain the emergence of “irreducibly complex” biological structures; such structures must have been designed. Officially, the “designer” could have been anyone – a space alien, perhaps – thus “intelligent design” is claimed <a href="http://www.intelligentdesign.org/whatisid.php">not to be religious in character</a>.</p>
<p>The district court, however, soundly rejected these arguments. As had the court in McLean v. Arkansas, the Kitzmiller court discussed the nature of science and concluded that intelligent design was not science.</p>
<h2>The legacy of Edwards today</h2>
<p>Courts have been remarkably consistent in rejecting creationist efforts to undermine the teaching of evolution. It’s tempting to see these cases as a sign that courts will protect the integrity of science and of academic judgments generally. (One might think, for example, that courts would just as readily step in when political actors reject the teaching of mainstream climate science in public schools.) But the cases don’t sweep so broadly.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175431/original/file-20170623-12623-1nmon66.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175431/original/file-20170623-12623-1nmon66.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175431/original/file-20170623-12623-1nmon66.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=893&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175431/original/file-20170623-12623-1nmon66.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=893&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175431/original/file-20170623-12623-1nmon66.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=893&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175431/original/file-20170623-12623-1nmon66.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1122&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175431/original/file-20170623-12623-1nmon66.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1122&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175431/original/file-20170623-12623-1nmon66.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1122&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In 2011, Joe Zamecki protests outside a building where the Texas Board of Education was considering how the next round of science textbooks should address issues of creationism and climate change.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">AP Photo/Eric Gay</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Even in cases where courts explicitly state that creationism/intelligent design is not science, they make this point only as a step toward the critical point that creationism is religion. In other words, courts do not weigh in on whether science lessons must be supported by mainstream scientific experts, only that religious views can’t be taught as science.</p>
<p>Respect for academic expertise is incredibly important. One might argue, <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt5vkzhz">as Robert Post has done</a>, that the expertise fostered by academic disciplines deserves First Amendment protection. But the courts aren’t there yet.</p>
<p>Recent efforts to undermine the teaching of evolution have mainly taken the form of so-called “academic freedom” or “science education” bills, which have been proposed in a number of states and have passed in <a href="https://ncse.com/library-resource/louisiana-2008-sb-561-sb-733">Louisiana</a> (2008) and <a href="http://rationalwiki.org/wiki/Text_of_Tennessee_House_Bill_368">Tennessee</a> (2012).</p>
<p>These bills exploit an opening left by Edwards v. Aguillard: Teachers are not required to teach creation alongside evolution; rather, they’re given the “academic freedom” to emphasize critiques while teaching evolution in their science classes. The bills downplay religion by not mentioning the topic of evolution or by mentioning it alongside other controversial topics like climate change. </p>
<p>Legal precedent would not allow public school teachers to explicitly use this “academic freedom” to <a href="http://www.slate.com/articles/health_and_science/science/2015/04/creationism_in_louisiana_public_school_science_classes_school_boards_and.html">undermine science education in favor of religion</a>. However, it’s difficult to know how many teachers are choosing to do so – and whether those choices have anything to do with the legislation.</p>
<p>Edwards v. Aguillard struck an important blow for science education, and it fundamentally reshaped the tactics available to creationists. Its influence on these fronts has been significant and laudable, but its reasoning is heavily reliant on historical links to old-school creationism and on a conception of the separation of church and state that’s stricter than the likely views of current Supreme Court justices. These points limit the case’s ability to speak to the full range of curricular problems we confront today.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/79603/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>John E. Taylor does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Thirty years after the Supreme Court ruled that creationism cannot be required in schools, ‘creation science’ is still taught in some schools. What are the implications for climate education?John E. Taylor, Professor of Law, West Virginia UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/670222016-11-16T16:04:50Z2016-11-16T16:04:50ZThe school science curriculum needs input from real, working scientists<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/145975/original/image-20161115-30777-1fuf0ku.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Science teaching needs to engage all pupils, whether they're future scientists or not.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>School science education is important for those who want to pursue a career in the sciences – and for those who don’t. Sadly, the first category seems to have been the main target for those designing science curricula. Their aim has been quite narrow: to lay a foundation for pupils so that they keep studying with the goal of becoming professional scientists. </p>
<p>But increasingly the second category of students – who aren’t interested in becoming professional scientists – has become more important in the eyes of curriculum designers. This shift has been encouraged by the recognition of science’s increasing influence on everyone’s lives. Many jobs now require science as a knowledge area. For example, technicians who monitor the quality of a town’s water supply may be trained in routine chemical analysis but they also need an understanding of chemistry when the instruments show readings that are not in the manual.</p>
<p>The trend towards educating science-literate citizens is well illustrated by the recommendation in a 2006 report on <a href="http://hub.mspnet.org/index.cfm/15065">science education in Europe </a> which stated:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>The primary goal of science education across the EU should be to educate students both about the major explanations of the material world that science offers and about the way science works. Science courses whose basic aim is to provide a foundational education for future scientists and engineers should be optional. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>The distinction that’s being made here is between “normal science education” and “science education for all”. This is the difference between preparing a minority of pupils for tertiary-level science and educating all pupils to deal confidently with a society that runs on applications of science knowledge and the steady flow of science information in the media.</p>
<h2>“Normal science education”</h2>
<p>“Normal science education” characterises <a href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/thomas-kuhn/">normal science</a> as puzzle-solving within a framework of established paradigms. This leads to school science curricula that support “normal science” and which, according to Dutch university chemistry teacher Bernard van Berkel tend to <a href="http://dspace.library.uu.nl/bitstream/handle/1874/8093/?sequence=13">be isolated</a> from common sense, everyday life and society. </p>
<p>These curricula are also removed from the history and philosophy of science, other sciences, technology and contemporary research. </p>
<p>This suboptimal state of affairs is reflected in surveys of learners’ views about the relevance of science education. In one, the <a href="http://roseproject.no/network/countries/norway/eng/nor-Sjoberg-Schreiner-overview-2010.pdf">Relevance of Science Education project</a>, there’s a general recognition among participants that science has great benefits for society. This view is held particularly strongly among learners in developing countries. Six countries in the survey were from Africa: Ghana, Zimbabwe, Uganda, Lesotho, Botswana and Swaziland.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/145974/original/image-20161115-30782-13b4ylj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/145974/original/image-20161115-30782-13b4ylj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/145974/original/image-20161115-30782-13b4ylj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/145974/original/image-20161115-30782-13b4ylj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/145974/original/image-20161115-30782-13b4ylj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/145974/original/image-20161115-30782-13b4ylj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=527&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/145974/original/image-20161115-30782-13b4ylj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=527&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/145974/original/image-20161115-30782-13b4ylj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=527&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Children in Cameroon get to grips with a science lesson.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wits School of Education</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In response to the statement “I would like to become a scientist” less than 40% of learners in developed countries agreed, while 70% of those from developing countries did. </p>
<p>The survey report notes that in poor countries <a href="http://roseproject.no/network/countries/norway/eng/nor-Sjoberg-Schreiner-overview-2010.pdf">“everybody” wants to become a scientist</a> or to work with technology. But very few get the opportunity. </p>
<h2>Science education for all</h2>
<p>The idea of “science education for all” is linked to the concept of scientific literacy and public understanding of science. The aim is to prepare future citizens to function more effectively in an increasingly science-driven future. </p>
<p>Examples of how several countries are moving in this direction can be found in their <a href="http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/twenty-first-century-science">science curriculum documents</a>, even though some of their existing science curricula remain firmly “normal”.</p>
<p>The challenge is to develop curricula that are suited to the goal of scientific literacy. One way of <a href="https://www.oecd.org/pisa/pisaproducts">expressing</a> this is: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>The capacity to use scientific knowledge, to identify questions and to draw evidence-based conclusions in order to understand and help make decisions about the natural world and the changes made to it through human activity. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>School curricula have been developed for this purpose in the <a href="http://ngss.nsta.org/applying-knowledge-in-context.aspx">US</a> and <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09500690600702512?journalCode=tsed20">Germany</a>, for example. Science that students learn in context – rather than science as isolated knowledge items – can deliver both scientific literacy and positive learner interest. </p>
<p>It is evident that the contexts must have relevance to national circumstances. They cannot be taken thoughtlessly from Europe or the US. But some contexts – water and the hydrosphere, or mining and mineral processing – can suit many countries.</p>
<h2>Challenges and opportunities in Africa</h2>
<p>Berhanu Abegaz, the executive director of the <a href="http://aasciences.ac.ke/">African Academy of Sciences</a>, has highlighted the lack of relevance of most teaching materials, the need to encourage critical thinking and to equip learners to tackle complex issues such as environmental, energy-based and economic questions. </p>
<p>Abegaz has focused on the challenging character of <a href="http://www.readcube.com/articles/10.1038/nchem.2533">chemistry education</a> and research in Africa. But his insights can be applied to other sciences too. </p>
<p>There is clearly a case for school science curricula that provide science education for all and recognise that scientific awareness in rapidly developing societies depends on being <strong>practically</strong> involved with science.</p>
<p>Abegaz remains optimistic despite the challenges. He notes that Africa has <a href="http://www.economist.com/news/briefing/21679781-fertility-rates-falling-more-slowly-anywhere-else-africa-faces-population">youth on its side</a>. This “makes investment crucial: to provide good-quality, relevant education which will lead to employment opportunities”. </p>
<p>Many scientists in Africa are interested in improving school science. They may not have pedagogical expertise. But this is input that educators can provide. Scientists have something different to contribute – up-to-date school science for budding professionals. They can also get involved by encouraging and advising on science curricula for a wider range of pupils.</p>
<p><em>This is an edited version of an article that first appeared in Science Policy Africa, the <a href="http://aasciences.ac.ke/updates/publications/science-/sciencepolicyafrica-vol-20-no-3-september-2016/">newsletter</a> of the African Academy of Sciences.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/67022/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Science that students learn in context - rather than science as isolated knowledge items - can deliver both scientific literacy and positive learner interest.John D Bradley, Honorary Professor, University of the WitwatersrandPeter Moodie, Visiting Lecturer, University of the WitwatersrandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/642722016-10-04T10:10:46Z2016-10-04T10:10:46ZScience is key to U.S. standing, but presidential candidates largely ignore it<p>Aside from Hillary Clinton’s brief mentions of the need to focus on developing technology and clean energy jobs and addressing climate change, science issues were absent from the <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/27/us/politics/transcript-debate.html">first presidential debate</a>.</p>
<p>Unfortunately, this is indicative of how things have gone throughout the 2016 campaign. Amid all the talk from our leading presidential candidates about how crucial this election is to our nation’s future, science education and research funding – issues directly tied to our economic standing in the world and to national security – have received <a href="http://sciencedebate.org/20questions/">scant attention from either of the two major candidates</a>. </p>
<p>Science and engineering have driven the U.S. economy since World War II and contributed <a href="http://www.sciencecoalition.org/federal_investment">significantly to American growth</a> during that time. <a href="http://www.sciencecoalition.org/downloads/1383053868sparkingeconomicgrowthfinal10-21-13.pdf">Progress in research paves the way</a> for advancements in health, economic prosperity and national security.</p>
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<figcaption>
<span class="caption">NOAA researcher sampling the atmosphere using an innovative, tethered weather balloon.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Patrick Cullis/NOAA-CIRES</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Researchers make life-changing discoveries daily. A <a href="https://www.bu.edu/today/2014/eng-profs-bionic-pancreas-takes-a-big-step-forward/">Boston University engineer</a> is developing a wearable bionic pancreas that could help millions of people with type 1 diabetes (thanks to National Institutes of Health support). <a href="http://research.noaa.gov/News/NewsArchive/LatestNews/TabId/684/ArtMID/1768/ArticleID/11878/NOAA-%E2%80%9Creels-in%E2%80%9D-data-on-Utah%E2%80%99s-winter-ozone-problem.aspx">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration researchers</a> are figuring out how quickly the sun converts oil and gas facility emissions to ozone pollution that harms human health. A <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/content/350/6266/1357">collaborative group of scientists</a>, including those here at the University of Kansas-based Center for Remote Sensing of the Ice Sheets, discovered a vast ice sheet in Greenland was melting faster than believed, with implications for global sea level rise for decades to come. </p>
<p>These are successes – and there are thousands more to point to in fields ranging from biotech to medical research to clean energy. Without such advancement, we risk stagnation in all these areas, threatening our nation’s well-being and our international standing, while eroding our role as global leaders in innovation. But recent low levels of federal funding impede the pace of scientific discovery.</p>
<p><a href="https://chancellor.ku.edu">As chancellor of a public research university</a>, my hope is that by Election Day the candidates will give us substantive plans that would prioritize science and the contributions it can make toward helping the United States stay on top. </p>
<h2>A decades-long decline</h2>
<p>Years of neglect and unstable funding pushed a 2005 National Academies commission led by retired Lockheed Martin CEO Norman Augustine to recommend increased investments in research and innovation and enhancement of STEM education from elementary to graduate levels. Their seminal report, <a href="https://www.nap.edu/read/11463/chapter/1">Rising Above the Gathering Storm</a>, was a wake-up call for policymakers that <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK259112/">spurred new ideas</a> and <a href="http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2016/05/qa-will-senate-competes-bill-narrow-partisan-gap-congress-over-us-research-policy">new legislation</a>. Five years later, despite some progress, a <a href="http://www8.nationalacademies.org/onpinews/newsitem.aspx?RecordID=12999">National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine special report</a> echoed many of Augustine’s findings and showed the United States lost even more ground. That trend continues unabated today.</p>
<p>Numerous statistics illustrate this decline. In 2014, the United States had <a href="https://data.oecd.org/rd/gross-domestic-spending-on-r-d.htm">slipped to 10th in research and development investment rankings</a>. Although we still spend more than any other country on research, our relative investment has declined. If current trends persist, China will likely surpass the United States in percentage of GDP investment in R&D within eight years and will <a href="http://www.oecd.org/newsroom/china-headed-to-overtake-eu-us-in-science-technology-spending.htm">outpace U.S. research spending in a decade</a>. </p>
<p>In 2009, for the first time, non-U.S. companies <a href="http://www.ificlaims.com/index.php?page=news&type=view&id=ifi-claims%2Famerican-companies_2">received more than half of the U.S. patents awarded</a>. In <a href="http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/TX.VAL.TECH.MF.ZS?name_desc=false">high-tech exports</a> – think aircraft, computers, pharmaceuticals – <a href="http://thomsonreuters.com/en/articles/2014/china-emerges-as-world-patent-leader.html">China bypassed the United States as the world leader in patents</a> and is gaining ground as the <a href="https://www.fic.nih.gov/News/GlobalHealthMatters/january-february-2014/Pages/spending-investment-biomedical-research-development.aspx">second-leading publisher of biomedical research journal articles</a>. While increased research and innovation in other countries partially account for some of this trend, many observers also point to real declines in U.S. productivity. For example, the <a href="https://www.nap.edu/read/12999/chapter/2#10">United States approved 157 new drugs</a> from 1996 to 1999, but <a href="http://www.nature.com/nrd/journal/v6/n2/fig_tab/nrd2247_F1.html">only 74</a> from <a href="http://www.mmm-online.com/channel/fda-bla-approvals-rose-in-2009-while-nmes-stumbled/article/160496/">2006 to 2009</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/139485/original/image-20160927-30435-13588rq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/139485/original/image-20160927-30435-13588rq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/139485/original/image-20160927-30435-13588rq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139485/original/image-20160927-30435-13588rq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139485/original/image-20160927-30435-13588rq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139485/original/image-20160927-30435-13588rq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=579&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139485/original/image-20160927-30435-13588rq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=579&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139485/original/image-20160927-30435-13588rq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=579&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In the 1960s, the Kennedy administration encouraged scientists to reach for the stars.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Seamans,_von_Braun_and_President_Kennedy_at_Cape_Canaveral_-_GPN-2000-001843.jpg">NASA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Prioritizing science means funding it</h2>
<p>Despite its crucial role in driving economic growth, research and development in the STEM fields accounts for only a <a href="http://www.aaas.org/sites/default/files/Budget%3B.jpg">small portion of the federal budget</a> – currently less than 4 percent. That’s down from nearly 12 percent in 1965, during the height of the Space Race. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.aau.edu/uploadedFiles/AAU_Publications/AAU_Reports/Top%20Four%20Three-pager.pdf">Association of American Universities</a> and National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine have called for <a href="https://www.amacad.org/pdfs/InnovationAmericanImperativeCalltoAction.pdf">sustained 4 percent annual increases</a> in research funding for key federal agencies, including the NSF, DOE, NIH, NASA and the DOD. The ultimate goal should be a return to investing around 12 percent of the federal budget in research. </p>
<p>This type of aggressive and sustained growth in research funding provides a second benefit: It sends a signal that the U.S. is serious about holding on to its status as a leader in scientific and engineering innovation. More funding lays the groundwork for long-term stability in the field, especially as the next generation of scientists and engineers make their career-path choices. </p>
<p>Increasing investment and strengthening our pipeline of future scientists and engineers won’t matter, however, if we don’t translate their work into products and services that improve lives. Our next president should prioritize interdisciplinary research and connecting university research with the marketplace in a way that creates new products, technologies and services.</p>
<h2>Future scientists must be trained</h2>
<p>Uncertain funding opportunities discourage potential scientists and academic researchers – people think twice about signing on to careers that demand decades of training with no guarantee the necessary resources for conducting research will be waiting at the finish line. Adequate and sustained investment in research would address this problem. But another factor has played a major role in the research innovation gap we face: the inadequacy of our basic science and math education.</p>
<p>U.S. students have slipped to <a href="http://www.amacad.org/content/innovationimperative/progress.aspx">27th in math and 20th in science</a> in the ranking of 34 nations in the <a href="http://www.oecd.org/">Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development</a>. To catch up will take time and investment.</p>
<p>Industry already feels the repercussions of this underinvestment in science and engineering. American manufacturers have voiced concern about a <a href="http://www2.deloitte.com/us/en/pages/manufacturing/articles/boiling-point-the-skills-gap-in-us-manufacturing.html">skills gap in the coming decade</a>. They expect to have 3.5 million jobs to fill, but estimates suggest only about 1.5 million workers are prepared to step in for example with electrical and mechanical technical skills to maintain complex machines for production.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/administration/eop/ostp/pcast">President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology</a> has <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/microsites/ostp/pcast-executive-report-final_2-13-12.pdf">called for improved STEM education</a> programs. <a href="https://www.nms.org/Portals/0/Docs/STEM%20Crisis%20Page%20Stats%20and%20References.pdf">Math intervention programs</a> and expanded recruitment and training programs <a href="https://www.aip.org/fyi/2016/fy17-appropriations-bills-stem-education">for STEM teachers</a> can help. We still have a way to go, but steps like these and strengthening standards even on the K-12 level take us in the right direction. Federal leadership – and funding – can keep improving STEM education on the national agenda.</p>
<h2>Eliminate inefficient regulation</h2>
<p>Federal support for research is key. But there are also some obstacles posed by current federal regulations. The next president’s leadership could help clear away some of these well-intentioned but burdensome regulations that can hinder or undercut R&D efforts. </p>
<p>The next president should work with Congress to <a href="https://www.acenet.edu/news-room/Pages/Task-Force-on-Government-Regulation-of-Higher-Education-Main.aspx">streamline</a> and <a href="http://sites.nationalacademies.org/PGA/stl/researchregs/index.htm%3Futm_source%3DCSTL%2BMailing%2BList%26utm_campaign%3Daf1df78538-University_Research_Regulations_Announcement%26utm_medium%3Demail%26utm_term%3D0_36510203a8-af1df78538-127923941">eliminate</a> redundant regulations and reporting requirements that even the <a href="http://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-16-573?utm_medium=email&utm_source=govdelivery">federal government has already identified as problematic</a>. <a href="http://sites.nationalacademies.org/cs/groups/pgasite/documents/webpage/pga_087823.pdf">Studies</a> have found <a href="http://sites.nationalacademies.org/cs/groups/pgasite/documents/webpage/pga_054586.pdf">around 40 percent</a> of time faculty spend on research goes to administrative duties instead of the actual research. </p>
<p>We need to ensure that the most talented foreign-born, U.S.-educated individuals, especially in STEM fields, have the opportunity to become American citizens and contribute to our economy. In addition, with all the talk in this campaign about immigration policy, the candidates should expand their platforms to phase out the <a href="https://www.uscis.gov/tools/glossary/country-limit">7 percent cap per country</a> that limits employment-based green cards. I’d argue to replace it with a first-come, first-served system for <a href="http://www.forbes.com/sites/rahuldi/2016/03/19/24month-stem-opt-extension-universities-colleges-students/#36e5bf7036e2">qualified highly skilled immigrants</a>. </p>
<p>Other forms of regulation can also be costly. Politically motivated intrusions into research funding, such as the <a href="http://thehill.com/policy/healthcare/286847-gop-blocks-dem-attempts-to-allow-federal-gun-research">ban on federal support for gun violence research</a>, mean we miss the opportunity to address major issues facing our society.</p>
<h2>Gearing up for a new golden age of research</h2>
<p>Trump and Clinton said little about science and engineering research in their first debate. But science and engineering issues are vital to our prosperity, our well-being, our status as a global leader and our national security. My hope is that in the final weeks of the campaign, voters and media can somehow force the candidates to address these crucial issues – and in essence, determine whether we can avoid the “gathering storm.”</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/64272/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>As Chancellor, Bernadette Gray-Little oversees a university that receives roughly $238.8 million in external research funding annually. This includes expenditures at all KU campuses for research and development, capital, training and service. Federal agencies such as the National Institutes of Health, the Department of Education and the National Science Foundation account for more than 85 percent of KU’s total research funding. The rest comes from industry, private foundations and state sources. Gray-Little is also the 2016 chair of the Association of Public and Land-grant Universities Board of Directors.</span></em></p>Neither major party has made science and engineering issues a big part of its platform. But research – and its funding – are crucial if the U.S. wants to maintain status as a global leader.Bernadette Gray-Little, Chancellor, University of KansasLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/588892016-06-01T10:10:44Z2016-06-01T10:10:44ZMaths anxiety is creating a shortage of young scientists … here’s a solution<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/123758/original/image-20160524-11017-1c2ucf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">If we don’t change the way we teach science and maths, we might come to regret it. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">wavebreakmedia/www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Does the thought of doing long division, or solving a bit of algebra give you the shivers? You’re likely to have maths anxiety. In <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0153857">our recent research</a>, my colleagues and I found that in 80% of countries, girls have more negative feelings towards maths than boys. </p>
<p>But this higher level of maths anxiety in girls is not justified by their actual level of performance and may put them off continuing a career in maths-related subjects, such as physics and computer science.</p>
<p>Our research showed that there are considerable international differences in the degree to which boys and girls suffer from maths anxiety. The figure below shows maths anxiety scores in ten countries from the 2012 Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), which tests performance in maths, reading and science in 15-year-olds around the world. Higher scores on the graph indicate higher levels of mathematics anxiety. Girls in the countries on the left side of the figure have a higher level of mathematics anxiety than boys. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/124587/original/image-20160531-1933-la3vlk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/124587/original/image-20160531-1933-la3vlk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/124587/original/image-20160531-1933-la3vlk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=539&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124587/original/image-20160531-1933-la3vlk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=539&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124587/original/image-20160531-1933-la3vlk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=539&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124587/original/image-20160531-1933-la3vlk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=677&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124587/original/image-20160531-1933-la3vlk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=677&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/124587/original/image-20160531-1933-la3vlk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=677&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Examples of countries with a large gender gap (left) and a countries with no statistically significant gender gap (right) in mathematics anxiety. Red bars indicate data of girls and blue of boys in the OECD’s 2012 PISA.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Gijsbert Stoet</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In the UK and other gender-equal developed countries, the gender difference is relative high. Paradoxically, we cannot really learn much from countries such as Albania, Bulgaria, Indonesia, Romania or Turkey, where this gender difference is nonexistent or small. This is because these countries have lower overall maths scores, they have higher overall maths anxiety, and they typically score lower on <a href="http://reports.weforum.org/global-gender-gap-report-2015/rankings/">gender equality</a> and <a href="http://hdr.undp.org/en">human development</a>. </p>
<p>Fortunately, we know at the very least that general improvements in maths performance will be associated with lower levels of maths anxiety. Gender differences in maths anxiety are hard to eradicate, yet a good start can be made by creating a well-planned and well-supported educational system, including highly qualified, well-paid and respected teachers, and well-maintained school facilities. With this investment, maths anxiety can possibly be reduced to levels where it might no longer form a psychological barrier for further study of science, mathematics, engineering or technology (STEM) subjects.</p>
<h2>Skills shortage</h2>
<p>But there is still an overall general shortage of students in these subjects. Not only is there a labour shortage among computer programmers and engineers, there is also a severe shortage among teachers in those subjects. This problem is so severe that in 2015 the <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/education/2015/mar/11/15000-teaching-bursaries-maths-and-physics-graduates-students-david-cameron">UK government created financial incentives</a> for students to become teachers in maths and physics. The situation in other Western countries is similar: <a href="https://phystec.physics.cornell.edu/content/crisis-physics-education">52% of New York schools</a> cannot offer physics due to the teacher shortage, while <a href="http://www.nw.de/lokal/kreis_herford/herford/herford/20717073_Wachstumsformel-fuer-Physiklehrer-Nachwuchs-gesucht.html">Germany</a> reports general difficulties with recruiting physics teachers.</p>
<p>I believe that one of the main reasons for the low enrolment in non-organic STEM subjects – the study of non-living matter, such as physics or computing – is that children are allowed to drop these subjects too early, well before they have experienced the subjects sufficiently to make informed and rational decisions about their future career track. </p>
<p>Other researchers have also raised this issue, arguing that 14-year olds are <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/educationnews/10658289/Schoolchildren-not-ready-to-choose-their-GCSEs-at-14.html">simply not mature</a> enough to make life-determining choices about which GCSE subjects to take. A <a href="http://www.heraldscotland.com/news/13768124.Half_of_girls_aged_12_think_science_and_maths_are_too_tough/">recent Scottish survey</a> among 12-year old Scottish girls confirmed that they are often misguided about what STEM subjects can mean.</p>
<h2>Change the curriculum</h2>
<p>Instead of giving children the option to drop difficult but important subjects such as maths and physics, in England and Wales we should make the GCSE subjects physics, engineering, and computing compulsory until age 16 and make mathematics compulsory at A-Level – the exams most students take when the leave school or college at 18-years-old. Currently, maths is compulsory in the UK until age 16 while physics is optional.</p>
<p>The good thing is that the government has already taken some steps in the right direction. For example, <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/education-23925033">since 2013</a>, students in England who did not perform well in maths in the GSCEs need to study it until age 18 so that they will end up with at least a reasonable GCSE-level maths skill. Nonetheless, internationally, the UK has relatively few 16-18 year olds choosing maths at A-Level, and <a href="http://www.furthermaths.org.uk/docs/Towards_universal_participation_in_post_16_maths_v_FINAL.pdf">there is a lot we can learn from other countries</a>.</p>
<p>In China, physics is compulsory until age 16 and maths all the way through secondary education. The Chinese do an impressive job in training their children and they lead the <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/10490225/OECD-education-report-Shanghais-formula-is-world-beating.html">international education league tables</a> (even though not all of China is included).</p>
<p>The Chinese educational system surely has its own challenges, such as a gap in educational opportunities between <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2014/09/05/opinion/sunday/chinas-education-gap.html">those in rural and urban areas </a>. Nevertheless, Chinese girls are excellent in maths and science – and the Chinese generally are <a href="http://www.nature.com/nature/supplements/nature-index-2015-china/">rapidly expanding</a> their role in the science and technology sector.</p>
<p>If the UK and other Western nations don’t copy the Chinese approach to education, we might well come to regret it soon. A lack of investment in teaching the subjects that will be essential in a technology-driven world, means we risk losing the capacity to play a leading role in the development and production of cutting edge technology.</p>
<p>Unfortunately, even in the current system, the UK does not have enough qualified physics teachers, so it will be impossible to make the subject compulsory immediately – that is how far behind we and other Western nations are. We better get working on this now, before it is too late.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/58889/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gijsbert Stoet does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>It’s a mistake to allow teenagers to drop maths – it should be made compulsory at A-Level.Gijsbert Stoet, Reader in Psychology, University of GlasgowLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/552372016-02-26T04:02:58Z2016-02-26T04:02:58ZMaths and science are the keys to unlocking Africa’s potential<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/112511/original/image-20160223-16447-11f8azp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">It's time for Africa to produce the technology it needs, rather than being largely a consumer.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">EPA/Nic Bothma</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Angelina Lutambi was born into a peasant family in Tanzania’s <a href="http://dthd.org/who-we-are/about-tanzania/">Dodoma region</a>, where HIV/AIDS has decimated much of the population. Her future could easily have been bleak – but Angelina had a keen aptitude for maths. She financed her own schooling by selling cold drinks with her siblings and was awarded a grant to study at the University of Dar Es Salaam.</p>
<p>In 2004 she went to the South African <a href="https://www.aims.ac.za/en/about/about-aims">centre</a> of the African Institute for Mathematical Sciences <a href="http://www.nexteinstein.org">(AIMS)</a>. Since then, Angelina has obtained her PhD in epidemiology from the University of Basel in Switzerland. </p>
<p>Today Angelina is a senior research scientist at the Ifakara Health Institute in her native Tanzania. There, she devises mathematical, statistical and computational models to inform and advise public health decisions on HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis and other major diseases.</p>
<p>Africa has many other deep-rooted problems, including poverty, corruption and war. Could these also be tackled through the sort of work that Angelina and her colleagues are doing? Could Africa’s problems be solved through mathematical science?</p>
<h2>Africa must produce its own technology</h2>
<p>Such a proposal might sound outlandish while so many people still lack basic necessities like food, clean water and medicine. In the long view of history, however, mathematics and science have served as the foundation of modern society because they underlie every technology – from plumbing to telecommunications, medicine to satellites. </p>
<p>But the continent has another problem. It is largely a consumer rather than a producer of the technologies it needs. If this doesn’t change, Africa will remain dependent and subject to outside control, its economies dominated by others’ exploitation of its natural resources. Africa will never escape from its reliance on international aid until it builds the capacity to develop itself.</p>
<p>Computers, mobile communications, and medical technologies are the modern engines of commerce, prosperity and public health. Africa will remain sidelined in these areas unless it nurtures its own experts, pioneers, and innovators. </p>
<h2>Attitudes towards maths in Africa</h2>
<p>This is the motivation behind AIMS, a network of training centres across the continent created to empower brilliant young Africans to become agents of change through advanced maths and science.</p>
<p>Our slogan – that the next Einstein should be African – is a signal of how high we are aiming. </p>
<p>It is not an easy task. As a native South African, I have travelled widely in many parts of the continent. Across Africa, maths is often viewed as an ivory tower pursuit, an impractical study with little connection to the real world. University maths departments are often the shabbiest on campus. </p>
<p>Many students only take the subject as a second choice. From primary school onwards, maths is all too often taught by rote learning and memorisation. But it is critical analysis, independent thinking and creativity that are the <a href="http://www.ascd.org/ASCD/pdf/journals/ed_lead/el_196010_mallinson.pdf">real keys</a> to maths and science excellence.</p>
<p>These attitudes linger even beyond school and university. Elsewhere in the world, the most successful companies – Google and Facebook, for example – recruit top maths graduates straight out of university to write the complex codes that define our experience of the digital world. From big data to artificial intelligence to intelligent cities and communities, the gears of prosperity are increasingly powered by mathematical algorithms. </p>
<h2>Bringing African scientists together</h2>
<p>AIMS is a pan-African initiative. There are five centres so far, in Senegal, Cameroon, Ghana, Tanzania and South Africa. Ten more are planned over the next decade, creating a powerful network that will span the continent. </p>
<p>Every centre has a fantastic, highly motivated, pan-African student body. AIMS’ classes are incredibly diverse – a mosaic of languages, ethnicities, languages and religions. More than 30% of the students are women.</p>
<p>Through their common interest in maths, science and the future of Africa, the students are able to transcend the cultural and other differences that have historically divided them. </p>
<p>Over the past decade, AIMS has graduated a thousand students at Masters and PhD level. But its centres don’t just train brilliant young Africans in Africa. They also serve as a magnet attracting those who have studied abroad back to Africa, to work as scientific researchers. </p>
<p>Wilfred Ndifon from Cameroon is one: he took his PhD at Princeton but has returned to AIMS as a junior research chair. Wilfred has just <a href="https://theconversation.com/africas-answer-to-70-year-old-problem-of-how-to-beat-repeat-infections-50920">solved</a> a 70-year-old immunological puzzle called original antigenic sin, which has implications for improving vaccines. </p>
<p>AIMS also brings top international scientists to Africa to share and propagate their knowledge. This international reach is important, because the whole globe has a stake in Africa’s future. </p>
<p>Our globalised, interconnected world means that Africa’s challenges – whether starvation-driven migration or diseases like <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-africa-cant-afford-to-have-an-outbreak-of-the-zika-virus-53738">Zika</a> or <a href="http://www.cdc.gov/chikungunya/">Chikungunya</a> or terrorism – quickly become challenges to all. These problems will only worsen with climate change, population growth, unemployment and insecurity unless Africans are encouraged and empowered to improve their countries’ conditions.</p>
<p>In March 2016, more than 500 bright scientific minds and international leaders will gather in Senegal for the inaugural <a href="http://nef.org/">Next Einstein Forum</a>, organised by AIMS. The three-day summit will highlight emerging scientific and technical talent in Africa and elsewhere, and fuel collaboration which puts this talent to work in the cause of human development. </p>
<p>The summit’s theme is “Connecting Science to Humanity”. It will be an occasion for the most enlightened African and international scientists and leaders to strengthen their commitment to helping young people help Africa.</p>
<p>The problems facing Africa are complex and there are no easy answers. But one of the lessons we’ve learned in science is that the hardest problems are the ones that eventually yield the most important – and the most wonderful – solutions.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/55237/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Neil Turok is affiliated with AIMS – serving as the Chair of its Board of Trustees.</span></em></p>Africa has deep-rooted problems: poverty, disease, corruption and war. Could these be solved through mathematical science?Neil Turok, Director and Niels Bohr Chair, Perimeter Institute for Theoretical PhysicsLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/425422015-05-29T02:21:24Z2015-05-29T02:21:24ZCompulsory science and maths is great but there’s more to be done<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/83311/original/image-20150529-24247-d4bo18.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C12%2C2733%2C2102&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">We need to start teaching maths and science as early as possible to get the most benefit.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/matsurika27/6654080347/in/photolist-b8ZUge-6bTUqJ-daAjSU-9kiXKA-4UUkLE-eyFFik-6ohCwy-9gVWDo-gnpZxX-Gu5qY-6bU4ZA-9gSTkK-9gVYEQ-9gVWR3-97aGY8-9gSTwn-9gVYRm-7rfZZy-8wZQvt-682ozp-88bgji-97dMdh-4KgiQw-8ML3xv-8MPazf-drdN2F-aF2sq9-e1ovo8-8ML5hB-6tSFn3-97aGaD-7MMSrV-pnUqgS-5dikgj-8MKZnr-e1uaHf-6h7niN-9LWkFY-gntarD-gnsugL-gnsuvJ-gnsMfr-9gVYzu-4a8NLi-5sidGk-pxABq-6Db85p-9gVYr1-9gSRFe-9gVYV1">JJ Losier/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Federal Education and Training Minister Christopher Pyne today <a href="http://www.9news.com.au/national/2015/05/29/06/58/education-ministers-headed-for-showdown">met with his state counterparts</a> to confirm his proposal to make <a href="http://www.smh.com.au/federal-politics/political-news/christopher-pyne-pushes-for-maths-or-science-to-be-compulsory-for-year-11-and-12-students-20150525-gh9kjv.html">science and maths compulsory for year 11 and 12</a> students. This is to be applauded by the scientific community as a step in the right direction, as it will produce a more scientifically literate society at a time of rapid technological change. </p>
<p>It will enable Australia to remain highly competitive in the areas of science and technology in an environment where rapid technological change and development is taking place in the East Asian nations, who are our competitors in the international high technology markets.</p>
<h2>Steady decline</h2>
<p>Australian policy makers and governments have to be worried since the picture that has emerged in the international comparisons of science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) studies are not very flattering. The <a href="http://www.chiefscientist.gov.au/2014/12/benchmarking-australian-science-technology-engineering-mathematics/">Benchmarking Australian Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics</a> report, released by Chief Scientist Ian Chubb in November 2014, revealed a decline in the participation rates of Australian year 12 students in the major scientific disciplines: physics, chemistry and biology. </p>
<p>What is even more worrying is the <a href="http://amsi.org.au/publications/participation-year-12-mathematics-2004-2013/">decline in Advanced and Intermediate Mathematics</a>, which underpins university studies in the physical sciences, engineering and medicine. </p>
<p>Instead, students have embraced Entry Mathematics (a much lower level mathematics program) in droves. The percentage of year 12 students doing Entry Mathematics has <a href="http://eprints.qut.edu.au/73153/1/Continuing_decline_of_science_proof.pdf">jumped from 40% to 48%</a> in the period 1992 to 2012. </p>
<p>On the teaching side of the equation, only about 57% of the teachers in physics (years 11-12) and 67% in chemistry (years 11-12) have methodology training in these two subjects. The statistics for mathematics teachers (years 11-12) are much better. However, <a href="http://www.chiefscientist.gov.au/2014/12/benchmarking-australian-science-technology-engineering-mathematics/">only 76% of mathematics teachers</a> have methodology training in mathematics. These statistics do not augur well for the scientific estate.</p>
<h2>Teaching the teachers</h2>
<p>The issue facing Pyne at the moment is not the question of making mathematics compulsory for years 11 and 12 but ensuring that 100% of the teachers have the necessary qualifications and expertise in mathematics, physics and chemistry. </p>
<p>Unless the issue is solved we will be on a perpetual merry-go-round for the next ten years. Depending on the university, there is between 20 to 30% of HSC students enrolling in science and engineering programs without proper mathematics, physics and chemistry backgrounds. </p>
<p>This places a tremendous strain on university resources to get these students up to speed so that they can continue their studies and thus allow the universities to keep their retention rates high.</p>
<p>However, it is a job that can be done more cheaply in schools and thus save taxpayers’ money.</p>
<h2>Lasting legacy</h2>
<p>Another quite alarming statistic that emerges from the <a href="http://www.chiefscientist.gov.au/wp-content/uploads/BenchmarkingAustralianSTEM_Web_Nov2014.pdf">Chief Scientist’s report</a> is the low level of formal time that is spent on teaching science in primary schools across the country. In 2011 the average time spent on science was a paltry 5.7%. This is well below the OECD average of 7.4%. In fact, Finland spends over 10.5% of the time on science, while Japan spends over 8.4%.</p>
<p>If Pyne is serious about STEM, he should be having a closer look at what goes on in science teaching in primary schools and get the formal time spent on science up to at least 10%. Primary schools must lay the foundation for STEM studies. </p>
<p>He should place a greater emphasis on the training of primary school teachers in basic science so that they can inspire young boys and girls to engage in the exciting wonderland of science. There are already sufficient science teaching materials produced by the <a href="https://www.science.org.au/curriculum-resources">Australian Academy of Science</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.primaryconnections.org.au/">Primary Connections</a> follows the scientific method that has been used very successfully in hands-on science centres in our competitor countries, such as the US, Korea and Singapore.</p>
<p>Pyne’s priorities should be that science and maths in schools work at a higher efficiency, thereby enhancing the teaching and learning of these subjects in both primary and HSC classes. </p>
<p>If he is successful, it will be his lasting legacy to the scientific estate in Australia and it will place Australia among the top nations in the teaching and learning of science and benefit long term economic growth.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/42542/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ragbir Bhathal does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Compulsory maths and science in years 11 and 12 will have a lasting benefit, but we need to boost the skills of teachers and start teaching science even earlier.Ragbir Bhathal, Lecturer in physics, Western Sydney UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/393732015-03-27T01:38:11Z2015-03-27T01:38:11ZA science centre in Western Sydney will inspire more than just kids<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/76095/original/image-20150326-30359-1ojhsyp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Western Sydney needs a science centre such as Questacon to help engage young people with science, technology and engineering.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Questacon</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The Greater Western Sydney (GWS) region is the <a href="http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Products/3218.0%7E2011-12%7EMain+Features%7ENew+South+Wales?OpenDocument">fastest growing region in Sydney</a>. It has a population of <a href="http://www.parracity.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0016/115432/Greater_Western_Sydney_summary_statistics_November_2012_FINAL.pdf">more than two million people</a> and more than <a href="http://www.schools.nsw.edu.au/media/downloads/news/greatteaching/submissions/uni-western-sydney.pdf">240,000 businesses</a>.</p>
<p>It also has a large student population in both primary and secondary schools of over 300,000 students, and a <a href="http://www.uws.edu.au/">university</a> that is going from strength to strength in the areas of research and innovative blended teaching and learning, and up-to-date <a href="http://wsi.tafensw.edu.au/">TAFE Colleges</a>.</p>
<p>What it doesn’t have is a science centre, such as <a href="https://www.questacon.edu.au/">Questacon</a>: somewhere people – particularly young people – can go to engage with science. Building such a centre in Western Sydney would have tremendous benefits not only for students but also for the public awareness of science and Australia’s future prosperity.</p>
<h2>Falling behind</h2>
<p>The 2012 OECD Program for International Student Assessment (<a href="http://www.oecd.org/pisa/">PISA</a>) report <a href="http://www.oecd.org/pisa/keyfindings/pisa-2012-results.htm">assessed the competencies</a> of 15 year olds in reading, writing and science in 65 countries and economies. It placed the East Asian nations – China, Singapore and Hong Kong – at the top three spots, while Australia was ranked number 19. </p>
<p>Both Hong Kong and Singapore established science centres in the early 1970s. They are now reaping the benefits of their investment in involving youngsters at a very early age in science through a hands on science experience. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/76192/original/image-20150327-8682-1f0mjqy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/76192/original/image-20150327-8682-1f0mjqy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/76192/original/image-20150327-8682-1f0mjqy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=355&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76192/original/image-20150327-8682-1f0mjqy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=355&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76192/original/image-20150327-8682-1f0mjqy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=355&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76192/original/image-20150327-8682-1f0mjqy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76192/original/image-20150327-8682-1f0mjqy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76192/original/image-20150327-8682-1f0mjqy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Year 12 participation rates in mathematics, biology, chemistry and physics, 1992-2010.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Office of the Chief Scientist</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>If Western Sydney wishes to compete in the international science and technology market, it needs to urgently establish a hands on science centre to entice more young people into taking up careers in science and engineering, which are the drivers of economic growth. Otherwise it will remain in the <a href="https://theconversation.com/aspiring-to-something-magnificent-with-science-in-australia-39248">backwaters of the digital age</a> that is engulfing world economies. </p>
<p>Australia’s Chief Scientist, Ian Chubb, has already noted that there has been a <a href="http://www.chiefscientist.gov.au/wp-content/uploads/Office-of-the-Chief-Scientist-MES-Report-8-May-2012.pdf">serious decline</a> in the number of Year 12 students doing biology, physics, chemistry and mathematics.</p>
<p>In fact, in the period 1992 to 2010, the proportion of year 12 students in biology fell from 35% to 24%. In physics it fell from 21% to 14%, and chemistry from 24% to 16%. </p>
<p>This is serious for the nation, but more so for a Western Sydney that wants to compete in the international science and engineering markets. And according to Chubb, if we fail to act, “a decline in our productivity growth relative to our region’s leading economies would put us at a growing disadvantage in maintaining our national wealth and security”. </p>
<h2>Getting ahead</h2>
<p>The closest up-to-date hands-on science centre for teachers, students and the public to visit is in <a href="https://www.questacon.edu.au/">Canberra</a>. This is about four hours away from Western Sydney. Added to this is the high cost of visiting this centre. </p>
<p>As a consequence a very large fraction of the schools in Western Sydney do not use this facility to expose their students to a hands-on enquiry based science experience, which is a teaching and learning strategy strongly advocated by the <a href="https://www.science.org.au/science-by-doing">Australian Academy of Science</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/primary-school-science-education-is-there-a-winning-formula-5449">eminent science educators</a>. </p>
<p>A science centre in Western Sydney will be of immense value to science teachers in exposing their students to the latest developments in science and engineering, which is doubling every 18 months according to the <a href="https://www.td.org/">American Society of Training and Documentation</a>. </p>
<p>Science teachers will also be able to use specialised scientific equipment which is normally not available in their schools. It will also assist them in explaining difficult scientific concepts in a hands-on environment. </p>
<p>Science programs run by the science centre for teachers will keep them up-to-date with the latest developments in science. If attendance at other Australian cultural institutions is anything to go by, a science centre could attract over 180,000 visitors per year.</p>
<p>The University of Western Sydney is one of largest universities in Australia and is one of the <a href="http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/world-university-rankings/2014/one-hundred-under-fifty/institution/university-of-western-sydney">top 100</a> newly emerging universities in the world. </p>
<p>It is well placed to provide training for the scientific and technical manpower for the industries in the Western Sydney region. It can do this in a more efficient and productive way by getting more young people engaged in science and engineering activities when they are young and their minds are most plastic to absorb the new concepts of science and engineering.</p>
<p>With the location of <a href="https://theconversation.com/abbott-confirms-badgerys-creek-for-sydneys-second-airport-25661">Badgery’s Creek Airport</a> in Western Sydney, this becomes even more important for the economic growth of the region. The science centre will become a crucial institution for attracting young people to consider careers in science and engineering which will support the new high-tech industries that will be built in and around the airport. </p>
<p>It will also help to redress the shortage of skilled scientists, technicians and engineers which has been affecting the region into growing into the technological powerhouse for NSW. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/76097/original/image-20150326-30367-13h06yw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/76097/original/image-20150326-30367-13h06yw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/76097/original/image-20150326-30367-13h06yw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76097/original/image-20150326-30367-13h06yw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76097/original/image-20150326-30367-13h06yw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76097/original/image-20150326-30367-13h06yw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76097/original/image-20150326-30367-13h06yw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76097/original/image-20150326-30367-13h06yw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A science centre can not only wow, but also teach.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Questacon</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Embracing STEM</h2>
<p>The establishment cost of a science centre is estimated to be between <a href="https://www.rawlhouse.com/australian-construction-handbook.php">A$15 million and A$20 million</a>, depending on the design, exhibits space and architectural layout of the building. </p>
<p>This is a modest sum when one considers that the NSW government has been subsiding the city’s cultural institutions, such as the Power House Museum, Art Gallery of NSW, the Australian Museum and the Historic Houses Trust, to the tune of several million dollars for the last ten years. It spent over A$80 million in the Financial Year 2012-2013, excluding the capital works grants that the government has been providing these institutions. </p>
<p>The <a href="http://www.parracity.nsw.gov.au/your_council/news/media/2015/february_2015/lord_mayor_welcomes_visionary_relocation_of_powerhouse_museum_to_parramatta2">relocation of the Powerhouse Museum</a> to Western Sydney is not going to solve the problem of attracting young people to embrace the new technologies that are coming online at an exponential rate. By the time the relocation of the museum is completed it is estimated that it will cost the NSW taxpayer over A$60 million. </p>
<p>This money could be much more wisely spent on building a hands-on science centre for the youth and citizens of Western Sydney. A science centre by definition is a hands-on enquiry based institution which provides interactive exhibits that illustrate the concepts, principles and applications of science and engineering which are focused on the latest advances in science and engineering. The Powerhouse Museum is a great institution which serves its purpose of showcasing nostalgic 19th century technology and the applied arts. </p>
<p>The benefits a science centre will provide for Western Sydney are manifold: </p>
<ul>
<li><p>a highly educational hands-on science experience for primary and secondary school students, including Indigenous youth</p></li>
<li><p>an innovative and up-to-date resource for science teachers</p></li>
<li><p>research-led programs on the latest developments in science, medicine and engineering through refresher courses for teachers</p></li>
<li><p>information on the latest developments in science, engineering and medicine to the public so as to enable them to participate actively in science policy issues, such as climate change, sustainable energy, etc</p></li>
<li><p>a venue for industry to showcase their new inventions and products and promote high-tech industry to locate in Western Sydney and</p></li>
<li><p>an exciting and innovative attraction for tourists visiting Western Sydney. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>The leaders and citizens of Western Sydney need to grasp the idea of a hands-on science centre if they wish not only to compete with the East Asian nations in the coming years but also give the young people in schools today the scientific and technological expertise to compete in the digital age which is raising ahead at an exponential rate.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/39373/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ragbir Bhathal does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A science centre in Western Sydney would help young people engage with science and promote STEM in Sydney’s fastest growing region.Ragbir Bhathal, Lecturer in physics, Western Sydney UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/358052015-02-09T12:23:55Z2015-02-09T12:23:55ZCan schemes to inspire tomorrow’s scientists close the poverty attainment gap?<p>Science and mathematics subjects have <a href="http://www.kcl.ac.uk/sspp/departments/education/research/aspires/ASPIRES-final-report-December-2013.pdf">traditionally been seen</a> as the forte of high-achieving, white, middle-class pupils. And, in an effort to boost the number of scientists and engineers in the UK, over the last decade the government has backed a range of school initiatives aimed at getting more young people to study these subjects at university. </p>
<p>My initial research findings from a national evaluation show that school performances have been improving slowly and steadily. But up to now, efforts have not been able to completely eliminate the attainment gap in maths and science GCSE results. What seems to matter most when it comes to how well a school does in these subjects is not how many visits they have had from science ambassadors or other interventions, but their pre-existing share of disadvantaged or low-attaining pupils.</p>
<p>In 2012, the <a href="https://royalsociety.org/%7E/media/Royal_Society_Content/education/policy/state-of-nation/2011_02_15-SR4-Fullreport.pdf">Royal Society</a> expressed serious concern over the insufficient numbers of 16 to 19-year-olds studying science and mathematics at school – and the even smaller percentage of these pupils going on to study these subjects at university. </p>
<p>There has been <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00071005.2011.578567?mobileUi=0&#.VKv1vnveIZ9">some debate</a> over where the evidence lies to support claims of a serious skills shortage in science, technology, engineering and maths (STEM) subjects. The number of graduates in these subjects has actually been rising and was at <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/higher-education-network/blog/2014/apr/10/more-students-accepted-onto-stem-courses-hefce-report">an all-time high</a> in 2014. Yet there is <a href="http://www.wherestemcantakeyou.co.uk/docs/Why_STEM_Careers.pdf">consensus</a> that more and more people studying and working in STEM professions are required at all levels.</p>
<h2>Diversity matters</h2>
<p>It is important to make sure the scientists of tomorrow do not come from one social background. A diverse intake for science and maths courses in terms of class, ethnicity, gender and background <a href="https://royalsociety.org/%7E/media/Royal_Society_Content/education/policy/state-of-nation/2011_02_15-SR4-Fullreport.pdf">is expected to lead</a> to a more innovative and responsive STEM workforce. </p>
<p>It could help narrow the socio-economic divide as people in scientific occupations <a href="http://www.wherestemcantakeyou.co.uk/docs/Why_STEM_Careers.pdf">earn almost 30% more</a> than those working in other fields. And a more diverse intake would also help boost social justice – the onus on universities to maintain fair access to all, irrespective of socio-economic status, gender or race. </p>
<p>In order to address the STEM skills gaps, schools have been encouraged to retain more students in science and maths. The government has <a href="http://www.hefce.ac.uk/whatwedo/crosscutting/sivs/">funded</a> a number of STEM-enhancement and enrichment activities over the past decade to inspire, enthuse and motivate young minds to pursue science and maths beyond compulsory education in England. </p>
<p>There have been a huge number of these programmes – 470 science initiatives were found in the 2004 <a href="https://www.nationalstemcentre.org.uk/res/documents/page/stem_programme_report_2006.pdf">STEM Mapping Review</a>. The variety and number of these schemes has grown substantially over the past decade. In 2006, when analysing 70 ongoing government-funded initiatives, the <a href="https://www.nationalstemcentre.org.uk/res/documents/page/stem_programme_report_2006.pdf">STEM Cross-Cutting Programme</a> advised: “The need to rationalise government-supported initiatives and build on the best ones so as to achieve better results for the same amount of money.”</p>
<p>The <a href="http://www.stemdirectories.org.uk/schemes/">student-focused schemes</a> have provided hands-on experience in STEM subjects, as well as enlightening pupils through role models and mentors and suggesting future pathways to help them make informed choices. They also often provide financial motivation in the form of scholarships and bursaries. These schemes often work on the theoretical assumption that pupils who achieve better results in science and maths are more likely to continue to engage in these subjects. </p>
<p>Other activities operate in the form of ambassador visits to schools, hands-on programmes delivered at state-of-the-art laboratories and centres, career guidance and counselling in schools, faculty mentoring programmes and STEM summer schools. </p>
<h2>Has it worked?</h2>
<p>My <a href="https://www.dur.ac.uk/education/staff/profile/?mode=pdetail&id=11773&sid=11773&pdetail=93113">continuing research</a> has attempted to understand whether participation in these initiatives has helped reduce gaps in attainment in maths and science between schools with varying shares of disadvantaged pupils. </p>
<p>GCSE science and maths results were tracked between 2007 and 2012 for 300 English state secondary schools known to register pupils for practical science and maths activities, ambassador visits and outreach programmes each year. The common objective shared by all these programmes was to improve an understanding of the subject through hands-on activities and raise attitudes towards science and maths.</p>
<p>Across England, initial analysis of data from the <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/national-pupil-database">National Pupil Database</a> shows that GCSE results in science and maths have been gradually improving between 2007 and 2012 for all schools. The graphic below shows the percentage of pupils achieving A* to C in maths GCSE at the different schools. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/70136/original/image-20150127-17561-el92pg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/70136/original/image-20150127-17561-el92pg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/70136/original/image-20150127-17561-el92pg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/70136/original/image-20150127-17561-el92pg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/70136/original/image-20150127-17561-el92pg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/70136/original/image-20150127-17561-el92pg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/70136/original/image-20150127-17561-el92pg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/70136/original/image-20150127-17561-el92pg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="attribution"><a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
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<p>It is clear that the schools with a higher proportion of disadvantaged pupils who did a STEM programme, still fall behind. But those who took part in an intervention did have a steeper increase in GCSE maths scores. Intervention schools with a higher proportion of disadvantaged pupils had a 12.4 percentage point increase in GCSE attainment between 2007 and 2012. Those with a lower proportion of disadvantaged pupils experienced a 4.7 percentage point increase in GCSE scores, while the comparator group of all other schools in the country (excluding those who had a STEM intervnention) had a 9.9 percentage point increase in attainment. </p>
<h2>Poverty still the biggest driver</h2>
<p>Among the various factors considered such as ethnicity, gender and poverty, a school’s percentage of disadvantaged pupils still has the most impact on school maths and science achievement. This means that despite participation in STEM activities, the higher the number of pupils eligible for free school meals at a school, the more likely that school is to have poor maths and science GCSE results. </p>
<p>This suggests that the STEM initiatives administered in the schools tracked from 2007 to 2012 have not been able to break free from the effects of socio-economic status. More rigorous evaluations are required to understand what works in order to build on the best initiatives to achieve better results by spending the same amount of money.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/35805/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Pallavi Amitava Banerjee receives funding from Durham University via its Norman Richardson Award and the Faculty of social sciences and Health.</span></em></p>Science and mathematics subjects have traditionally been seen as the forte of high-achieving, white, middle-class pupils. And, in an effort to boost the number of scientists and engineers in the UK, over…Pallavi Amitava Banerjee, PhD student, Durham UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/360782015-01-21T06:14:11Z2015-01-21T06:14:11ZIncreasing diversity in science could be one way to fight inequality<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/69526/original/image-20150120-24450-cdez6h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Come on board.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Science_express_bio_diversity_special_4.jpg">Kannanshanmugam</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>I am a scientist. I am also white, male and middle-class. There are a lot of scientists like me in the UK, and this lack of diversity within the scientific community is a concern.</p>
<p>There are compelling reasons, beyond basic equality, for tackling the under-representation of different ethnic groups, women and those from low-income backgrounds in science. I want to focus on the latter – a group that has received relatively little attention in debates concerning diversity in science.</p>
<h2>STEM skills gap</h2>
<p>A strong economic case can be made on the basis of a growing <a href="http://www.smf.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/Publication-In-The-Balance-The-STEM-human-capital-crunch.pdf">science, technology, engineering and maths (STEM) skills gap in the UK</a>, with demand for workers with STEM skills outstripping supply. This gap is also expected to widen owing to shifting employment requirements (further increasing demand) coupled with political pressure to reduce migration (further reducing supply). There is, therefore, a pressing economic need to increase the domestic supply of STEM-skilled workers. </p>
<p>Part of the solution to this will be to increase the levels of STEM participation in those from low-income backgrounds. Interventions in schools may be particularly effective. Indeed, it has been <a href="http://www.smf.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/Publication-In-The-Balance-The-STEM-human-capital-crunch.pdf">estimated</a> that if GCSE science results for pupils on free school meals were to improve to the same level as the rest of their cohort, the numbers of students going on to take A Level science would increase by 3,000-4,000 per year. </p>
<p>As a consequence we would see more individuals with STEM skills filtering into the workforce. Although this is not enough in itself to eliminate the disparity between supply and demand, it shows how addressing under-performance in science among low-income pupils would be beneficial here. </p>
<h2>Science and social mobility</h2>
<p>Beyond the economic arguments, there are also compelling social reasons why this diversity issue is important. We live in an age of great scientific and technological advancement. This affects us in various ways, from altering the nature of our social interactions to altering the employment landscape by opening up new career opportunities. </p>
<p>Because the reach of science and technology is so pervasive, it is becoming increasingly important to <a href="http://www.kcl.ac.uk/sspp/departments/education/research/aspires/ASPIRES-final-report-December-2013.pdf">improve science literacy in those from low-income backgrounds</a>. That is, we need to ensure that individuals across the social spectrum have a sound understanding of science (as well as technology, maths, and engineering). Without this there is a danger that individuals from low-income backgrounds will be prevented from full and active participation in society, and as a result, will be further disadvantaged. </p>
<p>Linked to this issue of inequality is the potential role of science careers in promoting social mobility. Although tackling this issue has been on the UK’s political agenda for some time, little progress (if any) has been made. <a href="http://www.oecd.org/tax/public-finance/chapter%205%20gfg%202010.pdf">Some data</a> suggests that the UK is one of the worst performers in the developed world when it comes to social mobility. </p>
<p>Those with a first degree in a STEM subject earn around 4.5% more than those with first degrees in other subjects. This would suggest that a career in science could be an effective vehicle for social mobility, adding further weight to the case for tackling the under-representation of individuals from low-income backgrounds in science.</p>
<h2>Diversity for scientific endeavour</h2>
<p>Science itself also stands to benefit from improving diversity. The importance of the human in the scientific endeavour is often overlooked: the individuals that make up the scientific community heavily influence the way science is done. The lack of diversity within the scientific community will, therefore, result in a narrowing of the kinds of questions we ask, the kinds of problems we think worth tackling and the ways in which we go about doing our work. A healthy science – and one working to its full potential – will be one that embraces diversity. </p>
<p>Finding effective solutions to this diversity issue will not be easy. Moreover, it will require efforts at all levels. Government clearly has a role to play, in both encouraging individuals from low-income backgrounds to study science and doing more to help them then pursue science careers. </p>
<p>But we scientists can also do our bit by doing more to engage with students from low-income backgrounds. Although this is not an easy issue to address, it should be clear that it is in all our interests to ensure that those from low-income backgrounds are better represented within the scientific community.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/36078/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>James Moore does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>I am a scientist. I am also white, male and middle-class. There are a lot of scientists like me in the UK, and this lack of diversity within the scientific community is a concern. There are compelling…James Moore, Senior Lecturer, Goldsmiths, University of LondonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/297252014-08-15T11:30:52Z2014-08-15T11:30:52ZArguing over whether girls can’t or won’t study science stops us fixing the problem<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/56425/original/vb836d6z-1407943935.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Yes we can!</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/pixbymaia/9662665997/sizes/l">pixbymaia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>After the expressions of joy or despair have faded away, <a href="https://theconversation.com/permanent-revolution-of-a-level-exams-helps-nobody-30488">A Level results</a> day often serves to emphasise the startling gender gap in students studying science subjects. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.jcq.org.uk/media-centre/news-releases">Data released</a> about the 2014 exams showed that 7.6% of boys took physics A Level, compared with just 1.7% of girls, while maths A Level was taken by 14.3% of boys compared with just 7.6% of girls. </p>
<p>But girls are doing just as well, if not better than boys in some of these subjects. In physics, 34.7% of girls got A* or A grade, compared with 29.5% of boys, while in maths the numbers were almost the same: 41.8% of girls achieved the top two grades, compared with 42.2% of boys. </p>
<p>If, like me, you have recently sat through numerous graduation ceremonies, watching hordes of male engineering and computer science students troop across the stage with only a few women among them, you have to ask yourself the question: why are there so few women studying science, technology, engineering and maths (STEM) subjects? </p>
<h2>Blaming the brain</h2>
<p>The answer is commonly couched in terms of “can’t” or “don’t”. Explanations for girls’ avoidance of science subjects are often based on women’s biology. In the 19th century it was because of their reproductive systems, in the 20th century their hormones and now, in the 21st century, it’s their brains. </p>
<p>The “can’t” brigade suggest that the under-representation of women studying STEM subjects is a reflection of biologically determined deficits in key skills such as numeracy and spatial cognition. But they suffered a pretty severe setback <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2005/02/18/education/18harvard.html?_r=1&">following a backlash</a> in 2005 when Larry Summers, then president of Harvard, <a href="http://www.harvard.edu/president/speeches/summers_2005/nber.php">suggested that a</a> different availability of “aptitude at the high end” was underlying the imbalance. </p>
<p>Sadly, this form of biological determinism never fully goes away. A <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2709031/Female-brains-really-ARE-different-male-minds-women-possessing-better-recall-men-excelling-maths.html">recent headline in the Daily Mail</a> proclaimed that: “Female brains really ARE different to male minds with women possessing better recall and men excelling at maths.” The <a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2014/07/24/1319538111">study</a> was also reported on by Tom Stafford here on <a href="https://theconversation.com/are-women-and-men-forever-destined-to-think-differently-29921">The Conversation</a>. The researchers found “a general increase in women’s cognitive performance over time, associated with societal improvements in living conditions and educational opportunities”. </p>
<p>The main finding is that sex and gender differences in key cognitive skills are diminishing as women are given increased social and educational opportunities. No reference to “brains” or “biology” at all. But that didn’t stop the Daily Mail using these words in their report. The “blame the brain” brigade will now use this as “evidence” that women can’t engage with STEM subjects because of innate biological deficits.</p>
<h2>People vs things</h2>
<p>What of the “don’t” brigade – those who push the idea that although women could engage and excel at STEM careers, <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/bul/135/6/859/">they don’t</a>. Among other aspects, they say this is because the work is related to “things” and is not “people” oriented. </p>
<p>A recent talk to the British Association Studies Association conference by psychologist Gisbert Stoet attracted startling headlines: “<a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/educationnews/10961555/Give-up-on-gender-equality-in-the-sciences-at-school.html">Give Up on Gender Equality in the Sciences at School</a>” wrote the Telegraph, while the Huffington Post reported that the Glasgow professor had said: “<a href="http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/2014/07/12/girls-science_n_5580119.html">We Should Give Up Encouraging Girls To Do Science</a>”. </p>
<p>Stoet says these headlines <a href="http://volition.gla.ac.uk/%7Estoet/">were unrepresentative</a> of what he actually said. His argument is that it will be impossible to change the subject choices or vocational interests of girls because we are ignoring the power of biological factors in determining them. </p>
<p>He <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0018506X11001292">quotes a study</a> showing that girls’ interests in “people” and boys’ in “things” are biologically determined, possibly even prenatally. </p>
<p>So both the “can’t” and the “don’t” brigades are marshalling biological arguments in support of maintaining the status quo and urging those politicians and lobbyists aiming to address the STEM gender imbalance to stop wasting their time (and our money).</p>
<h2>Our brains change</h2>
<p>But a fundamental flaw in their arguments is to ignore what we now know about how changeable brains are, not just during the early years of development but <a href="http://www.cell.com/trends/cognitive-sciences/abstract/S1364-6613%2811%2900170-7?cc=y?cc=y">throughout our lives</a>. The patterns of change are not just a pre-determined unfolding of nerve cells and networks but an acutely responsive reflection of very subtle environmental factors. </p>
<p>Brain development is <a href="http://books.google.co.uk/books/about/Delusions_of_Gender_How_Our_Minds_Societ.html?id=s2ZtdAx83yMC">almost inseparably entangled</a> with its environment. It can be affected not only by major physical events but also by <a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs12152-011-9134-4#">more subtle factors</a> such as expectations and attitudes, <a href="http://journal.frontiersin.org/Journal/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00650/abstract">including gendered ones</a>.</p>
<p>Researchers’ <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-nature-nurture-and-neuroplasticity-10734">increasing understanding of the brain’s plasticity</a> is the basis of increased optimism about being able to overcome many forms of brain damage and deterioration, even in ageing. So why is there an underlying acceptance in research into particular kinds of cognitive abilities that sex and gender differences are immutable, and that this will determine people’s abilities, successes and <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364661313002015">career choices</a>?</p>
<h2>A more flexible curriculum</h2>
<p>If there is genuinely a “people vs. thing” issue underlying subject choice this should be used to inform the curriculum. We need to do more to show how physics can be applied in people-oriented professions such as medicine – this is not helped by the fact that “medical physics” is only optional in the A Level syllabus. <a href="http://scan.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2006/01/01/scan.nsl041.1.full">We know</a> that girls’ performance on spatial cognition tasks can be improved if the problems are framed differently, and even that this difference is reflected in their brain activation patterns. But these sort of findings are rarely used to inform how subjects such as physics are taught.</p>
<p>We really cannot afford to sit back and accept the “essentialist” view that girls are not going to be interested in science subjects. We need more trained scientists and engineers but 50% of our pool of talent is not engaging. People who could study these subjects or <a href="https://theconversation.com/stopping-the-brain-drain-of-women-scientists-22802">do these jobs are choosing not to</a>. This must not be explained away by misguided and misleading explanations in terms of unchangeable biological characteristics, or references to “the natural order of things”.</p>
<p>If STEM subjects were commercial products or an item in an election manifesto, then the marketing gurus would be pulling out all the stops to make the products more accessible, more attractive, more “choosable” – not blaming the consumers.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/29725/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gina Rippon is affiliated with ScienceGrrl.</span></em></p>After the expressions of joy or despair have faded away, A Level results day often serves to emphasise the startling gender gap in students studying science subjects. Data released about the 2014 exams…Gina Rippon, Professor of Cognitive Neuroimaging, Aston UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/299312014-07-31T15:03:01Z2014-07-31T15:03:01ZThe Ebacc effect pushes pupils into more academic subjects – that’s a good thing<p>Teenagers across England are waiting nervously for their GCSE, AS and A Level results. Now new figures have shown more of them are choosing to take more “academic” subjects, such as the humanities, languages and sciences, until the end of school – an effect attributed to the new <a href="https://www.gov.uk/english-baccalaureate-information-for-schools">English Baccalaureate</a> (Ebacc) of five core subjects introduced in 2010 by Michael Gove, the former secretary of state for education. </p>
<p>The Joint Council for Qualification has <a href="http://www.jcq.org.uk/media-centre/news-releases/a-level-and-as-entry-data-2014">published an analysis</a> of the subjects UK teenagers chose to take at A level and AS level in 2014. Its analysis points to some dramatic changes both for GCSE qualifications taken by 16-year-olds in 2013 and AS level qualifications taken by 17-year-olds in 2014. </p>
<p>GCSE entries for geography, history, French, German and Spanish all increased markedly from 2012 to 2013 – up 19.2%, 16.7%, 9.4%, 15.5% and 25.8% respectively. AS entries in geography, history and Spanish – all Ebacc subjects – increased significantly between 2013 and 2014, as the graph shows. AS science entries increased as well, albeit less dramatically.</p>
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<h2>The EBacc effect</h2>
<p>These increases are chalked up to the first signs of the “EBacc effect”. This is the fallout from the policy to include a measure on school league tables showing the proportion of 16-year-old students at each school who achieved good grades (A star to C) across <a href="https://www.gov.uk/english-baccalaureate-information-for-schools">five core subjects</a>. These subjects are English, mathematics, science, a language other than English and history or geography. </p>
<p>The EBacc effect is real, and to my mind, mostly a good thing. Since its inception, state schools have been entering more and more students onto these GCSEs. In 2013, government figures showed <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/news/thousands-more-pupils-studying-rigorous-subjects">35% of state school students</a> were entered on programmes that could lead to an EBacc up from 23% in 2012 (in independent schools the figures are much higher). Of those students, 23% achieved the EBacc goal in 2013, up from 16% in 2012. Language entries, which had decreased sharply since 2004, increased to 48% of students.</p>
<p>This “Ebacc effect” has now been shown to continue on to AS Level, because students are likely to continue with these subjects they did at GCSE. Given the uptick in parallel AS subject choice, more students will fit the profile that selective universities are looking for: students who choose “facilitating” subjects, which largely parallel EBacc subjects. </p>
<p>This means that more and more students are enrolled on courses that will give them the most flexibility in choosing their futures, taking subjects that have both the breadth and depth to prepare students to progress in further or higher education, for work, for family life and for social and civic participation.</p>
<h2>Driven by pressure on schools</h2>
<p>So why have I qualified my enthusiasm? It’s because these increases are largely due to the perceived (and, <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/287489/2016_KS4_Publication_list_revised_March14.pdf">starting in 2016</a>, real) accountability pressures schools perceive themselves to be under, rather than a fundamental philosophical shift towards providing all of our students with the curriculum provision they deserve. </p>
<p>Because schools are accountable for their students’ performance on qualifications, the notion of a broad and balanced education (to use a somewhat hackneyed phrase) only seems to apply to higher achievers. In England, there seems to be a policy consensus that lower achievers need a skills-based rather than a subject or knowledge-based curriculum. </p>
<p>The underlying assumption, unfortunately shared across the political spectrum, seems to be that up to 50% of children have a “style of learning” that is simply not compatible with the academic grind of GCSEs and A levels. Consequently – in the conventional wisdom – such students need more applied or vocational qualifications. </p>
<p>But if there’s a worthwhile set of knowledge, skills and understandings enshrined in EBacc subjects, then shouldn’t all students be pursuing them? Michael Young at the Institute of Education has <a href="http://www.goete.eu/news/events/101-reflection-keynote-lecture-at-the-goete-kick-off-meeting-by-michael-young">pointed out</a> that until quite recently, government policy on education systematically marginalised knowledge. He argues instead for a curriculum for all that is built around substantive content but is based on the understanding of important concepts and universal values that all students should be treated equally and “not just members of different social classes, different ethnic groups or as boys or girls”.</p>
<h2>The right direction</h2>
<p>The EBacc effect may be a pull in the right direction. The new accountability measures for 2016 that <a href="https://theconversation.com/new-look-gcse-league-tables-reconfirm-wide-disparities-between-schools-22793">feature the best eight GCSE</a> subjects could be a further incentive, but these are still high-stakes measures that will provoke some schools, understandably, to try to game the system. The unintended consequences could be that schools pay less attention than they already do to lower achievers in their efforts to chase their slice of an already cut pie. </p>
<p>For now, I’m reserving judgement because; a) I think the shift to base accountability on the best eight GCSEs is going in the right direction and; b) we don’t really know how schools will change their students’ subject entry patterns. And so many other changes are happening simultaneously. </p>
<p>For both GCSEs and A levels the level of demand has increased, examinations have reverted to being linear rather than modular and the way the <a href="https://theconversation.com/new-look-exams-from-gove-same-old-political-ambition-19785">GCSEs will be graded has changed</a>. At the moment, we cannot predict if these changes will also have an effect on which subjects schools offer all of their students, not simply the top half.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/29931/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tina Isaacs does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Teenagers across England are waiting nervously for their GCSE, AS and A Level results. Now new figures have shown more of them are choosing to take more “academic” subjects, such as the humanities, languages…Tina Isaacs, Programme Leader, MA in Educational Assessment, UCLLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/285682014-06-27T14:36:37Z2014-06-27T14:36:37ZMake science and maths compulsory to 18 and stop political meddling in curriculum<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/52457/original/ff29r4kj-1403870452.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Extending the science sphere of influence.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Royal Society</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Our world is changing at a greater pace than ever witnessed before. Our economies are changing and our understanding of the world around us is changing. Our education systems must also change too because, as they stand, they will not meet the needs of our economy and our culture in 20 years time. </p>
<p>While there are many examples of excellent teaching, the curriculum taught in schools in the UK and the qualifications offered to students are not equipping them to live successfully in the future. We must act now to ensure that our education systems remain innovative and world-leading in the years to come, so that all young people can take advantage of the opportunities that come their way.</p>
<p>That is why I am leading calls to make science and mathematics compulsory up to age 18 as part of a baccalaureate, and to create an independent body – no longer a political football – responsible for overseeing the curriculum.</p>
<p>The Royal Society has <a href="https://royalsociety.org/%7E/media/education/policy/vision/reports/vision-full-report-20140625.pdf">published a report</a> that sets out ways to start solving these important issues. As a “vision for science and mathematics education”, it has two goals: to raise the general level of mathematical and scientific knowledge and confidence in the population, and to ensure that education systems link people’s learning and skills to the current and future needs of the economy.</p>
<h2>Why science and mathematics education is important</h2>
<p>We can only have a democratic society if people are capable of balancing the benefits and risks of new science and are able to reason mathematically. </p>
<p>Science, engineering and technology drive economic growth across the world, and governments of emerging countries increasingly emphasise the teaching and learning of these subjects. Yet employers in the United Kingdom <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/science-news/10696388/STEM-Awards-businesses-facing-major-skills-shortage.html">report significant difficulties in recruiting young people</a> with the appropriate mathematical and scientific skills they need.</p>
<p>The roots of scientific and mathematical literacy lie in an excellent science and mathematics education gained early in life. This is why our report addresses specific issues relating to the ongoing and <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/education-23588850">persistent shortages of specialist science and mathematics teachers</a> and the poor progression rates of students to post-16 science and maths across much of the UK.</p>
<h2>Studying mathematics and science until 18</h2>
<p>Young people are not served well by the narrowing of the current curriculum at 16 and 18. Only a <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/news/new-maths-qualifications-to-boost-numbers-studying-maths-to-age-18">fifth of young people in the UK study mathematics</a> beyond 16 and it has been estimated that at least one in four economically active adults is functionally innumerate. </p>
<p>We need a new approach to science and mathematics education, with all young people studying science and mathematics to the age of 18, alongside the arts and humanities, as part of a new baccalaureate-style framework that provides a broad education. </p>
<p>Of course we are not suggesting all young people study A-levels in chemistry, physics, biology and mathematics. It is important to create new and rigorous post-16 courses and qualifications to engage students who are not specialising in the sciences.</p>
<p>Inspirational science and mathematics teachers must be celebrated. We will need many more of them – and for the status of the profession to be raised – if the reforms we propose are to happen.</p>
<h2>A stable curriculum</h2>
<p>Teachers need stability so they can concentrate on teaching. Change is important – but education has become a political football with <a href="https://theconversation.com/would-you-admit-to-being-a-teacher-today-22413">too many reforms</a> taking place – which is often to the detriment of excellent science and mathematics education. </p>
<p>We propose the creation of new, independent expert curriculum bodies in England and Wales and greater support for those in existence in Northern Ireland and Scotland. These bodies would draw on the expertise of those working in the science, mathematics and engineering professions to create dynamic and high quality curricula for the subjects. These should evolve over time but do not require frequent, radical change. </p>
<p>This focus on the expertise of subjects and the involvement of these experts from academia and industry would make these bodies different to any anything which has existed before. </p>
<p>Bringing these ideas to life will, of course, require public and political will and a concerted effort by those people working as science, technology, engineering and mathematics professionals. Without these people, this Vision could not have been developed, and will not be able to be taken forward.</p>
<p>The UK is fortunate that many of these individuals belong to vibrant, strong communities – whether learned societies or professional bodies. These organisations have a strong infrastructure which will be vital in helping establish the new curriculum and assessment arrangements we want. This will also be important in order to create a science and mathematics teaching community which is highly trained, motivated and inspirational. And to assure access to high-quality teacher training and professional development. </p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/28568/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Martin Taylor is the chair of the Vision for science and mathematics education committee at the Royal Society. He has received grants from EPSRC.</span></em></p>Our world is changing at a greater pace than ever witnessed before. Our economies are changing and our understanding of the world around us is changing. Our education systems must also change too because…Martin Taylor, Warden of Merton College and Professor of Pure Mathematics, University of OxfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/256362014-04-16T05:19:35Z2014-04-16T05:19:35ZExplainer: what is the mastery model of teaching maths?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/46462/original/yztxmbzs-1397561599.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Mastered numbers? Let's make it harder. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/arenamontanus/1776038187/sizes/o/">Arenamontanus</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Ever-envious of Singapore’s <a href="http://www.oecd.org/newsroom/asian-countries-top-oecd-s-latest-pisa-survey-on-state-of-global-education.htm">much-heralded success</a> in teaching maths, politicians are keen to see its methodology arriving in UK classrooms. </p>
<p>Education minister Elizabeth Truss explained some of the background to the government’s current proposals for teaching maths in <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/elizabeth-truss-speaks-about-improving-teaching">a recent speech</a>. </p>
<p>She mentioned the term “mastery” and enthusiastically welcomed Singapore Maths, a series of textbooks following the “mastery model” by Marshall Cavendish Education, that <a href="https://global.oup.com/education/content/primary/news/primary_news_singapore_announcement?region=uk">will be published in the UK from 2015</a> by Oxford University Press. </p>
<p>One might be tempted to assume Singapore Maths might have something to do with the Ministry of Education in Singapore. I am a huge admirer of the <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-is-singapores-school-system-so-successful-and-is-it-a-model-for-the-west-22917">education system in Singapore</a> and have even done some consultancy work for their ministry, but I doubt that the title reflects their direct involvement.</p>
<h2>Learning for mastery</h2>
<p>The mastery method has been around in educational circles for a while. The term <a href="http://programs.honolulu.hawaii.edu/intranet/sites/programs.honolulu.hawaii.edu.intranet/files/upstf-student-success-bloom-1968.pdf">“learning for mastery”</a> was introduced by American educational psychologist Benjamin Bloom in 1968. His idea was that a learning goal has to be broken down into a number of small learning objectives. </p>
<p>This is a methodology that predates computers, but it is often so protracted it needs computer power to be practical. It also relates to precision teaching, pioneered by another American pyschologist <a href="http://www.fluency.org/lindsley1991.pdf">Ogden Lindsley</a>, again where a goal is broken down into miniscule progressive steps. </p>
<p>So in a maths lesson, a goal for a student might be to: “carry out whole number addition”. One objective that would contribute to this goal could be to “add two three digit whole numbers with carrying in the tens”. In 1983, Robert Ashlock and his colleagues went further, <a href="http://www.amazon.co.uk/Guiding-Each-Childs-Learning-Mathematics/dp/0675200237">breaking down</a> addition into 23 objectives and subtraction into 24 objectives.</p>
<h2>Not for everybody</h2>
<p>I would argue that learning in this way might handicap understanding because the process can be so slow that learners forget the early stages when, and if, they reach the later stages. </p>
<p>Such methods are often prescribed for children who are having difficulty in learning maths. But they are usually inappropriate, particularly if it is the only methodology. It is inherent in the detailed nature of the structure that children who are lagging behind will not catch up by sole use of this methodology. The emphasis, for all learners, should be understanding maths concepts, which will then support memory.</p>
<p>There are other concerns about an over-emphasis on mastery, especially when it is closely linked to behavioural methods of teaching. The level of mastery has to be defined. If, as the word implies, it is a 100% performance, then many children will never achieve that level. If progression to the next topic is denied until mastery is achieved, then too many children will not progress.</p>
<p>All pupils learn differently, and so it <a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF00302376#page-1">may not be possible</a> to establish a strict hierarchy in the different components of arithmetic. In fact, Ann Dowker at Oxford has noted <a href="http://dera.ioe.ac.uk/2505/1/ma_difficulties_0008609.pdf">a child may perform well</a> at a difficult task while performing poorly at an apparently easier task. By limiting progression to an inappropriate hierarchy of steps, many children may be denied success in maths. </p>
<p>On an anecdotal note, an ex-student of mine, who was very dyslexic, never mastered recall of all his times tables. He did, however, achieve a degree in maths. When I asked him about times table knowledge in the third year of his degree, he assured me that such knowledge was not a huge component of his programme.</p>
<h2>Model students?</h2>
<p>In her speech, Truss said that, “The mastery model of learning places the emphasis on understanding core concepts.” Actually mastery is not often about understanding concepts, but instead is about what <a href="http://teaching.uncc.edu/sites/teaching.uncc.edu/files/media/files/file/GoalsAndObjectives/Bloom.pdf">Bloom’s Taxonomy</a> called “knowledge-remember” – remembering knowledge, not about understanding and higher levels of cognitive ability</p>
<p>I have concerns about exactly what the minister means by “core concepts”. A pre-school child might have mastered the accurate recitation of the core numbers, but they may not have acquired any underlying sense of number. </p>
<p>The mastery model, as with all models, will work for some children, but not for all. There is no data available on which profiles of children respond best to this teaching model. However, thirty years of experience of teaching children who have difficulties with maths tells me that it will rarely be appropriate for that population.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/25636/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Steve Chinn does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Ever-envious of Singapore’s much-heralded success in teaching maths, politicians are keen to see its methodology arriving in UK classrooms. Education minister Elizabeth Truss explained some of the background…Steve Chinn, Visiting professor, University of DerbyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/251052014-04-09T05:13:46Z2014-04-09T05:13:46ZGirls are kept out of science jobs by unhelpful stereotypes<p>The number of girls taking A-level physics has <a href="http://www.iop.org/education/teacher/support/girls_physics/page_41593.html">remained stagnant</a> for the past 20 years or more, and the UK has the <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/254885/bis-13-1269-professor-john-perkins-review-of-engineering-skills.pdf">lowest proportion</a> of female engineers in the EU. Progress on gender equality in science, technology, engineering and maths (STEM) is frustratingly slow. </p>
<p>And what’s even more worrying is that when questioned, Brits can’t think of current women scientists as role models. A recent <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/jobs/10735201/Lack-of-female-role-models-highlighted-as-one-in-10-name-man-when-asked-for-famous-women-engineer-or-scientist.html">YouGov poll of 3,000 people</a> done for ScienceGrrl, a not-for-profit of which I am a director that advocates for more women in science careers, found one in ten named Isambard Kingdom Brunel – a male engineer – when asked to think of a famous women scientist. Only about half could actually name a female scientist and of those that did, 68% named Marie Curie, who died in 1934.</p>
<p>In a new report called <a href="http://sciencegrrl.co.uk/resources/case-studies/">Through Both Eyes</a> also by ScienceGrrl, we set out the case for looking at the issue in light of the society we live in, and the legacy of inequalities between men and women.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/45867/original/g5rrj5pv-1396962998.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/45867/original/g5rrj5pv-1396962998.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=793&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/45867/original/g5rrj5pv-1396962998.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=793&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/45867/original/g5rrj5pv-1396962998.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=793&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/45867/original/g5rrj5pv-1396962998.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=996&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/45867/original/g5rrj5pv-1396962998.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=996&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/45867/original/g5rrj5pv-1396962998.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=996&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Anyone more recent than Marie Curie?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Portrait_of_Marie_Curie.jpg">Wikimedia Commons</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Lack of progress isn’t due to a lack of attention or awareness. The Institute of Physics has compiled a <a href="http://www.iop.org/education/teacher/support/girls_physics/page_41593.html">series of comprehensive reports</a> since 2004 and government frequently makes the economic case for diversity in science, technology, maths and engineering (STEM). </p>
<p>Deeply embedded cultural messages about women, attitudes, structures and norms manifest themselves as invisible hurdles that undermine girls’ participation and women’s progression in the workplace. These hurdles are invisible precisely because none of us knows what it looks like to live in an equal world.</p>
<h2>Science capital in the family</h2>
<p>We’ve explored what is known to propel somebody to choose a career in science. The <a href="http://sciencegrrl.co.uk/assets/SCIENCE-GRRL-Stem-Report_FINAL_WEBLINKS-1.pdf">literature is clear</a> that there are three key factors. Liking STEM isn’t enough, it has to be relevant to a person’s interests and goals. They also need to feel confident they can succeed, and have access to “<a href="http://www.kcl.ac.uk/sspp/departments/education/research/aspires/ASPIRES-final-report-December-2013.pdf">science capital</a>” – the opportunity to gain knowledge and experience of STEM through personal networks.</p>
<p>People receive messages about themselves and the opportunities available to them from wider society, family and friends, the classroom and the workplace. We are all exposed to these messages and their balance is crucial to informing the choices we make. </p>
<p>Professor Louise Archer says her research shows it is: “harder for girls to balance or reconcile their interest in science with femininity” because STEM is seen to be for those who are “white, middle class, brainy and male”. A <a href="http://www.ofsted.gov.uk/resources/girls-career-aspirations">2011 Ofsted report</a> showed that by around 7-8 years old, girls and boys spoke about jobs as being “for men” or “for women”. Cordelia Fine, in her book <a href="http://www.cordeliafine.com/delusions_of_gender.html">Delusions of Gender</a> suggests that children act as “gender detectives” from a much earlier age. </p>
<p>The “girls’ toys” that value physical perfection over adventure or intelligence, and the objectification of women in the media are just two examples of how the roles and capabilities of women are diminished in wider society. </p>
<p>Casual reliance on stereotypes leads to unconscious bias undermining <a href="http://girlsattitudes.girlguiding.org.uk/video/girls_attitudes_video.aspx">all areas</a> of girls’ lives. In STEM subjects, this is particularly true for confidence: <a href="http://www.aauw.org/research/why-so-few/">girls perform worse</a> in maths tests when their gender is made salient. This is known as “<a href="http://reducingstereotypethreat.org/">stereotype threat</a>” – the phenomenon that performance can be impaired by awareness of lower expectations for your particular social group. </p>
<p>Stereotypes also affect expectations of those with influence in girls’ lives. Students get most of their careers advice from <a href="http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/stellent/groups/corporatesite/@msh_grants/documents/web_document/wtp053113.pdf">family members</a>. But <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/engineering-skills-perkins-review">polling data</a> from Engineers Week in 2013 showed that parents are steering their daughters away from careers in engineering, with 3% encouraging it as a career, compared to 12% for their sons.</p>
<h2>Inspiring teachers</h2>
<p>Progress will require a whole community approach. Schools also play an important role. <a href="http://www.iop.org/education/teacher/support/girls_physics/closing-doors/page_62076.html">Evidence from the Institute of Physics</a> suggests that gender stereotypes undermine girls in the classroom. </p>
<p>But as Dr Vanessa Odgen, headteacher at <a href="http://www.mulberry.towerhamlets.sch.uk/">Mulberry School for Girls</a>, summarises: “girls’ uptake of science, technology and maths increases significantly when these subjects are taught by women who care passionately about STEM and when curriculum content promotes the achievements of women”. In short, when a whole school ethos means it is normal and expected for girls to succeed. </p>
<p>It is missing the point to say that girls aren’t “choosing” to study STEM. Many girls do not have real choice because of the low expectations placed on them and the lack of genuine opportunity. Girls are being kept out of rewarding careers. </p>
<p>We don’t need to change girls, we must place the responsibility on those with influence in our society. Showing the variety of directions STEM can lead, that it is creative and has social relevance it will appeal to a broader based talent pool, not just to more girls.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/25105/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anna Zecharia volunteers as a director for ScienceGrrl, a not-for-profit organisation advocating for women in science. Its Through Both Eyes report was sponsored by Arup, Airbus Group, BAE Systems, GKN Aerospace, Jaguar Land Rover, National Grid, but views and recommendations are those of ScienceGrrl.</span></em></p>The number of girls taking A-level physics has remained stagnant for the past 20 years or more, and the UK has the lowest proportion of female engineers in the EU. Progress on gender equality in science…Anna Zecharia, Postdoctoral neuroscientist, Imperial College LondonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/235452014-02-25T06:00:53Z2014-02-25T06:00:53ZWe’re letting down maths and students who need a better grasp of the subject<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/42374/original/q86vc9wp-1393242056.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Not as easy as 1,2,3. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Kolett/Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Education minister Elizabeth Truss has <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/education-26228234">travelled to Shanghai</a> to find out the secrets behind Chinese pupils’ mathematics success. I suspect she will find that it’s a cultural phenomenon, impossible to import to British ways of being, doing and thinking.</p>
<p>In 1982, the government of the day published a report into the teaching of mathematics in schools, <a href="http://www.educationengland.org.uk/documents/cockcroft/cockcroft1982.html">The Cockcroft Report</a>. It drew on a range of research, including an exploration by a TV team at Yorkshire Television who went out onto the streets and asked passers-by “How many 7p stamps can you buy for £1?” One of the replies was “Yer wot?” Another asked “Are you serious?” Most of those asked could not work out an acceptable answer.</p>
<p>To quote <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2014/feb/18/maths-more-pointless-than-latin-british-pupils-china">a recent column by the Guardian’s</a> Simon Jenkins, “It damns alike those who boast ‘I was never any good at maths’, and those who teach it so badly that millions loathe it.” And it appears not a lot has changed between 1982 and 2014.</p>
<h2>Not just for scientists</h2>
<p>Students in many subjects are arriving at university without the basic mathematical skills they need for their course. Loughborough University <a href="http://www.lboro.ac.uk/departments/mec/">Mathematics Education Centre</a> (MEC) runs two drop-in support centres to which any student in the university, any day in the week, can bring a mathematical problem or difficulty and get one-to-one help from a mathematician in the centre. </p>
<p>The students who afford themselves of this help come from mathematics, science and engineering studies, of course, but, perhaps more surprisingly from arts, humanities and social science programmes as well. </p>
<p>Students who are highly qualified (they have been accepted for an academic degree programme) and believe that they left mathematics behind after GCSE – breathing a big sigh of relief in many cases – find themselves needing number, symbolic and representational skills for use in their own subject areas. For many it is a shock.</p>
<p>These highly qualified students have been let down by a school system that has allowed them to escape with a paucity of mathematical expertise. For students who also have some kind of learning difference, such as dyslexia, dyscalculia or Asperger’s syndrome, it is a serious concern.</p>
<h2>Creativity in the classroom</h2>
<p>In his column, Jenkins wrote, “For Britain’s pupils, maths is even more pointless than Latin.” For these undergraduates it is certainly not pointless -– its lack is a severe deficiency. Jenkins continues, “Of course children need to be taught the rudiments of number, proportion and probability, as they do to read and write.” </p>
<p>He is right, but what a way of putting it. Better to say children need to know and understand and be able to use and apply number, proportion and probability as well as algebraic and spatial reasoning. I would add that all children have the right to enjoy learning number, proportion and probability, while they develop understanding of these concepts, and that the teaching should be skillful, knowledgeable and creative. </p>
<p>The words “need to be taught”, assume that such teaching is straightforward and unproblematic. It is not.</p>
<p>For teaching to be of the quality that pupils deserve, we have to fund the skillful, knowledgeable and creative education of teachers, not only prior to their work with pupils, but during their entire teaching career. </p>
<p>Loughborough is currently extending its mathematical work to offer a Postgraduate Certificate of Education in mathematics. This is at the same time <a href="https://theconversation.com/counting-the-costs-of-moving-teacher-training-out-of-universities-23157">as our government is running down many such programmes</a>, expecting that schools will take on this provision. </p>
<p>But schools in general are not qualified to teach teachers, they do not have the time, expertise or funding. A consequence of such moves is that over-stretched and underfunded schools will be blamed for yet more of the deficiencies of the British educational system.</p>
<p>Jenkins writes: “Schools should turn their attention to creativity and social and emotional capacities”. I agree. These aspects of education are just as important in mathematics as in any other subject area. But his argument that maths “is easy to test, and thus to measure, unlike vague, slippery humanities” is just plain wrong. </p>
<p>One of the problems that schools face in teaching mathematics effectively is that it is tested in a system that reduces it to what can be tallied and measured. It is such reductionism that turns pupils into rote handle-turners and teachers into “mind-trainers”. GH Hardy (quoted by Jenkins) is <a href="http://www.math.ualberta.ca/mss/misc/A%20Mathematician's%20Apology.pdf">famous for the words</a>: “A mathematician, like a painter or a poet, is a master of pattern”. In our educational system we need more of the likenesses to painters and poets to produce students confident in mathematics.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/42373/original/5svnp5jp-1393241507.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/42373/original/5svnp5jp-1393241507.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/42373/original/5svnp5jp-1393241507.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/42373/original/5svnp5jp-1393241507.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/42373/original/5svnp5jp-1393241507.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/42373/original/5svnp5jp-1393241507.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/42373/original/5svnp5jp-1393241507.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">France is going faster.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/kouks/889330876/sizes/o/"> KouK's</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
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<p>As an addendum, the next generation of high speed trains in France will travel at more 300 miles per hour. The French network is being expanded into the rest of mainland Europe. Thousands of engineers – mechanical, civil, electrical, materials, computer – will be involved in the design, development and production. There are massive technological challenges they are trying to overcome. All these engineers need much more than a very rudimentary knowledge of number, proportion and probability. </p>
<p>At Loughborough, we are highly skilled in the mathematics education of engineers. Elizabeth Truss and her colleagues could learn more about British culture and its educational mores related to mathematics by coming to talk to us, rather than taking a trip to China.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/23545/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Barbara Jaworski does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Education minister Elizabeth Truss has travelled to Shanghai to find out the secrets behind Chinese pupils’ mathematics success. I suspect she will find that it’s a cultural phenomenon, impossible to import…Barbara Jaworski, Head of Department, Mathematics Education Centre, Loughborough UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/224182014-02-18T14:29:24Z2014-02-18T14:29:24ZFailure can be productive for teaching children maths<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/41714/original/xbjh7cx4-1392654760.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C76%2C800%2C492&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Don't worry, it's better to fail first. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">demandaj</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Learning from mistakes, errors, and failure seems intuitive and compelling. Everyone can relate to it. But if failure is a powerful learning mechanism, why do we wait for it to happen? Why can’t we design for it, understand how and when it works? What if designing for failure while learning a new concept or skill could result in more robust learning? </p>
<p>Let me frame the question more concretely in the context of learning maths. When learning a new concept, should learners be first taught the concept and then solve problems, or solve problems first and then be taught the concept? </p>
<p>The first option is relatively straightforward and one that most of us can relate to: teach students the concept first, show them how it is applied to solve problems, and then get them to solve problems on their own. This method is commonly known as direct instruction, and is highly prevalent in schools all over the world. </p>
<p>The second option is not as simple. If students don’t even know the concept, what is the value of getting them to solve problems on that concept? Obviously, chances are they are not going to be able to solve the problem. </p>
<p>Why then design for them to fail at solving problems before they have learnt the concepts required to solve those problems? Unless of course, it is conceivable that under some conditions and for carefully designed problems, the process of generating sub-optimal or even incorrect solutions to problems can be productive in preparing students to learn better from the subsequent teaching that follows. I call this method “productive failure”. </p>
<p>By failure, I simply mean that students will typically not be able to generate or discover the standard or correct solution by themselves. By productive, I mean this failure can be turned into deep learning provided the teacher can build upon students’ ideas and solutions, and teach them the concept properly.</p>
<h2>Teach first, or fail first?</h2>
<p>So, which teaching method – direct instruction or productive failure – is better for learning a new maths concept? There are good reasons to believe in the effectiveness of both. </p>
<p>Direct instruction reduces our working memory load. This is important because we have a limited working memory capacity and if we strain or overload it while searching for solutions for which we don’t have the necessary conceptual knowledge, we are not going to learn anything.</p>
<p>Because direct instruction helps manage this capacity better by focusing students’ working memory resources on learning new information rather than searching for solutions, it should lead to better learning. From this perspective, productive failure would be an ill-advised method, because jumping right into problem solving without having learnt the required concepts is a sure-fire recipe for overloading your working memory. </p>
<p>Yet, there is a reason to believe in productive failure. When students generate sub-optimal or incorrect solutions, their prior knowledge is being activated. This is critical when learning something new because it allows us to integrate new knowledge with what we already know. And it should in turn lead to better learning.</p>
<h2>Where’s the evidence?</h2>
<p>So, how does one choose between the two methods? For the past ten years <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10508406.2011.591717#preview">I have been testing this</a>, both in randomised-controlled experiments as well as in noisy, messy classroom-based experiments, in India and Singapore. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/41713/original/p66tg9r6-1392653986.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/41713/original/p66tg9r6-1392653986.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/41713/original/p66tg9r6-1392653986.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/41713/original/p66tg9r6-1392653986.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/41713/original/p66tg9r6-1392653986.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/41713/original/p66tg9r6-1392653986.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/41713/original/p66tg9r6-1392653986.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Try, try and try again.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source"> GlobalPartnership for Education</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In several comparisons, I have found both methods to <a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11251-012-9209-6">lead to high levels of basic knowledge</a> about the targeted concept. This is the kind of knowledge that gets tested on standardised tests. But productive failure students invariably demonstrate significantly deeper conceptual understanding and ability to transfer what was learnt to novel problems than direct instruction students. </p>
<p>These findings have now been independently replicated by researchers in the USA, Canada, Germany, and Australia. Interestingly, in my research, I have also found evidence that the greater the number of sub-optimal or incorrect solutions students produce, the more they seem to learn. In other words, the more times they failed to produce the correct solution, the more they learnt when their teacher taught them the concept properly.</p>
<p>While these findings challenge the conventional wisdom and practice of direct instruction to teach new concepts, this is not to suggest that direct instruction is a poor form of teaching. Clearly, it is able to achieve high levels of basic knowledge and skills. </p>
<p>But if the aim of teaching and learning is to go beyond the basics and engender deeper conceptual understanding and ability to transfer knowledge flexibly to new situations, then it seems that designing for a certain level of failure in the initial learning phase as opposed to minimising it, may well be productive for learning in the longer run.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/22418/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Manu Kapur receives funding from the Ministry of Education of Singapore</span></em></p>Learning from mistakes, errors, and failure seems intuitive and compelling. Everyone can relate to it. But if failure is a powerful learning mechanism, why do we wait for it to happen? Why can’t we design…Manu Kapur, Head of Learning Sciences Lab, National Institute of Education of SingaporeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/226592014-02-02T22:25:47Z2014-02-02T22:25:47ZMichael Gove must stop fighting ‘The Blob’ and listen to the education experts<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/40340/original/f8w434sc-1391344481.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Under pressure over Ofsted.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Joe Giddens/PA Archive/Press Association Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>As the old saying goes, there is only one thing more useful in politics than having the right friends. That’s having the right enemies.</p>
<p>The education secretary, Michael Gove, has been highly skilled in defining his school reforms against what he calls <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/debate/article-2298146/I-refuse-surrender-Marxist-teachers-hell-bent-destroying-schools-Education-Secretary-berates-new-enemies-promise-opposing-plans.html">The Blob</a> – an amorphous, bloated education establishment opposing him at every turn; a mass of bureaucrats, unions and academics who eschew rigour for a left-wing, child-centred, progressive agenda.</p>
<p>But there is another truism in politics – don’t believe your own hype. Whitehall has a habit of isolating ministers. The day-to-day grind of policy battles, firefighting and political ding-dong can start to cut you off from outside ideas and thinking. The <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/education-25997102">row over Ofsted’s leadership</a> shows the importance of retaining, and being seen to retain, independent voices near the top – not simply “yes men”. The danger is that while The Blob is a useful political tool in the short-term, it simply might not be as deep-rooted as the education secretary believes.</p>
<p>Yes, the main teaching unions’ leaderships have played right into the government’s hands over the past four years. Their barrage of industrial action and <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/politics/2012/may/28/michael-gove-teacher-unions-analysis">knee-jerk opposition to any change</a>, has allowed the Education Secretary and his supporters to characterise them as cartoon-like bogeymen. The unions’ political naivety has been astonishing.</p>
<p>But there is a far wider group of non-Blobberati voices across the schools sector, higher education, industry and the voluntary sector, who offer an intelligent critique of where we are now. </p>
<p>These people have been broadly supportive of successive governments’ education reforms and, as a result, are not so easily dismissed. They believe in improving our education system but they also advocate sensible debate. They should be listened to by politicians of all parties.</p>
<h2>A-levels do not go far enough</h2>
<p>A good example of bringing together a range of voices was seen last week with the publication of <a href="http://uk.pearson.com/home/news/2014/january/business-and-highereducationappealforlongtermviewofeducationtosu.html">Making Education Work. </a>This was an independent review, strongly influenced by an advisory group, of which I was a member, consisting of senior business leaders, eminent scientists and leading academics. That’s a powerful alliance whose views deserve a hearing.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/40309/original/sxr7rw55-1391181089.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/40309/original/sxr7rw55-1391181089.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/40309/original/sxr7rw55-1391181089.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/40309/original/sxr7rw55-1391181089.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/40309/original/sxr7rw55-1391181089.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/40309/original/sxr7rw55-1391181089.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/40309/original/sxr7rw55-1391181089.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Time’s up for A-levels.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source"> Ben Birchall/PA Wire/Press Association Images</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We noted that the UK’s economy and society had changed out of all recognition in the last 60 years. Yet we are still wedded to a system where sixth formers specialise in three or four gold-standard A-level subjects. </p>
<p>Indeed, it could be argued that this has been entrenched further by a <a href="http://www.education.gov.uk/schools/teachingandlearning/qualifications/alevels">return to “pass or fail” final exams</a> after two years of study, alongside the introduction of more <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/news/new-tech-levels-to-raise-the-quality-of-vocational-qualifications">vocationally orientated Tech-Levels</a>.</p>
<p>For me, it is not being Blob-like at all to ask if that is good enough in the long-term.</p>
<p>I’m not one to join in the national self-flagellation around England’s position in the <a href="http://www.oecd.org/pisa/keyfindings/pisa-2012-results.htm">OECD’s PISA rankings</a> – they are one measure but not the only measure. </p>
<p>But it’s clear that globalised trade, communications, technology and employment means our young people now compete directly with their peers across the world. And everywhere, governments, employers and teachers are asking the same question: how do we ensure that they are highly educated, well-equipped to be good citizens and able to contribute to productive economic growth?</p>
<h2>The benefit of long-term thinking</h2>
<p>That’s why our review has made clear a secondary curriculum must be much more clearly linked to the UK’s economic and social strategy. And it puts forward a number of important recommendations to do this.</p>
<p>First, a permanent, independent strategic advisory body on curriculum, delivery and assessment. It’s time to end education policy being at the behest of five-year electoral cycles and three decades of changing policy priorities. If national infrastructure projects in areas such as energy and transport deserve long-term thinking, surely the same applies to education?</p>
<p>Second, widening the existing narrow choice of A-level subjects with a broader baccalaureate-style system – based on a core of English, mathematics, science and extended project work. </p>
<p>This won’t happen overnight. We stress it will require better specialist teaching and facilities; that it won’t be appropriate for all; and that top-class science, technology, engineering and maths (STEM) degrees will still require early specialisation. But given the demands of employers and society, the case for students to study as broadly as possible is a no-brainer.</p>
<p>Third, a much greater emphasis on non-cognitive, so-called “softer skills” is called for. These include clear communication in English and maths, STEM and digital competence, team working, personal and interpersonal skills. Such skills will help to embed codes of conduct, ethics, emotional maturity, and initiative and entrepreneurship, creativity and cultural awareness. This does not undermine rigour – it enhances it.</p>
<h2>New decade, same argument</h2>
<p>It seems particularly appropriate to be considering these ideas now. This year marks the tenth anniversary of the publication of the <a href="http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20050301194752/http:/www.dfes.gov.uk/14-19/documents/Final%20Report.pdf">Tomlinson Report</a> into 14-19 education.</p>
<p>It recommended radical reform, including phasing out GCSEs, A and AS-levels and vocational qualifications and replacing them with a new diploma. Too radical as it turned out, when the then-Labour government feared being seen as soft on standards in the run-in to the 2005 election. Tomlinson was ignored and in its place came a watered-down alternative vocational diploma – now discarded.</p>
<p>Yet, a decade later we’re still having the same argument. And without a mature consensus on education reform, we’ll be in the same position in a another decade’s time. I doubt the latest changes to A-levels are the answer on their own. Worse than that, the history of vocational reform suggests Tech-Levels risk being seen as second-rate, however unfairly.</p>
<p>Our report challenges all politicians to demonstrate long-term leadership. Forget fighting The Blob. Building consensus on the future direction of education in this country is a sign of strength, not weakness. Now who is up for the challenge?</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/22659/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sir David Bell is on the advisory board for the Making Education Better review. He is the Vice-Chancellor of the University of Reading and former Permanent Secretary of the Department for Education.</span></em></p>As the old saying goes, there is only one thing more useful in politics than having the right friends. That’s having the right enemies. The education secretary, Michael Gove, has been highly skilled in…David Bell, Vice-Chancellor, University of ReadingLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/197942013-11-07T06:17:54Z2013-11-07T06:17:54ZForget perfect pizzas, here are four things simple maths really can help you with<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/34266/original/qz9chc5t-1383418747.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">figdrag</span> </figcaption></figure><figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/34265/original/q73fvpxz-1383418711.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/34265/original/q73fvpxz-1383418711.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=354&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/34265/original/q73fvpxz-1383418711.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=354&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/34265/original/q73fvpxz-1383418711.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=354&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/34265/original/q73fvpxz-1383418711.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=445&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/34265/original/q73fvpxz-1383418711.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=445&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/34265/original/q73fvpxz-1383418711.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=445&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Perfect? Maybe, but it’s not really maths.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jon Sullivan</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Newspapers recently reported that a mathematician has created an equation for the <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2464404/Formula-perfect-PIZZA-revealed-Mathematician-creates-equation-ensure-dont-burn--undercook--margherita.html">perfect pizza</a>. It does not take much to spot that this was not exactly serious research. Not only was the study commissioned by Pizza Express, it is also the latest in a long line of such formula-based stories: ranging from the <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/howaboutthat/2158104/Today-is-the-happiest-day-of-the-year-according-to-Cliff-Arnalls-maths-formula.html">perfect day</a> to the <a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/3248822.stm">perfect piece of toast</a>.</p>
<p>I could spend rest of this piece explaining how these articles are mostly glorified PR exercises, funded by the companies that make the products. How they waste newspaper space that could go to interesting, genuine science stories. And how their authors, while often claiming that it is “just a bit of fun”, are instead helping media outlets spread the idea that maths has so little use in daily life, it is only worth covering if some number bod has come up with a funny formula.</p>
<p>But I won’t. Partly because you may well know all of that already, but also because if you did not, there are plenty of <a href="http://www.badscience.net/2008/12/transparent-excuse-for-printing-a-nice-pair-of-hooters/">good critiques</a>. Instead, I will share some proper examples of everyday maths that are both useful and ad-free.</p>
<h2>How many drinks can you have at lunchtime and still turn up to your 5pm meeting sober?</h2>
<p>It is lunchtime, and you fancy a drink. But you have a meeting (or date) at 5pm. Should you just have the one, or can you get away with a bit more and still turn up sober?</p>
<p>Sobriety (or lack thereof) is measured via the level of alcohol in the blood. One way to estimate blood alcohol content (BAC) is to use the <a href="http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2458/9/229">Widmark formula</a>, which was originally concocted by EMP Widmark, a Swedish doctor, in the 1930s.</p>
<p>If you weigh <em>W</em> kilos, and have consumed <em>A</em> units of alcohol at a lunch that started <em>T</em> hours before 5pm, your estimated blood alcohol content is:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>BAC = <em>(0.967 x A) / (W x C) - (0.017 x T)</em></p>
</blockquote>
<p>(Here 0.967 adjusts for the level of water in the blood, 0.017 represents the amount of alcohol you burn off over time and <em>C</em> adjusts for body composition – it equals 0.58 for the average man and 0.49 for a woman.)</p>
<p>So how much should you have? The drink driving limit in the UK is a <a href="https://www.drinkaware.co.uk/check-the-facts/alcohol-and-the-law/drink-driving">BAC of 0.08</a>. However, there is evidence that with this BAC, the alcohol <a href="http://www.cdc.gov/Motorvehiclesafety/Impaired_Driving/bac.html">could already have some effects</a>. Let’s be cautious, and say you want to turn up at 5pm with a BAC of less than 0.05. Rearranging the formula above, we have</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Maximum units = <em>(0.017 x T + 0.05) x 1.03 x C x W</em></p>
</blockquote>
<p>For example, if lunch is at 1pm and you are an average 75kg man, you probably should not have more than 5.3 units, which is a couple of pints.</p>
<h2>How long does it take for a debt (or investment) to double in size?</h2>
<p>With the rise of <a href="http://theconversation.com/politicians-go-wild-in-wongaland-but-there-are-bigger-fish-to-fry-19089">pay day lenders</a>, compound interest is back in the news. When interest rolls over again and again, the amount owed can balloon. But how long does it take for a debt to double in size?</p>
<p>Let us assume you pay a percentage <em>R</em> in interest per week. To find out how many weeks it will take for the debt to double in size – call this time <em>T</em> – you need to solve the following equation:</p>
<blockquote>
<p><em>(1+R/100)<sup>T=2</sup></em></p>
</blockquote>
<p>Clearly this is a bit of a hassle to calculate, but fortunately you can use the “rule of 72” instead. If you want to work out how many weeks it will take for a debt to double, you can get a pretty good estimate by simply dividing 72 by the interest rate:</p>
<blockquote>
<p><em>T=72/R</em></p>
</blockquote>
<p>So if you pay 5% interest per week, the debt will double in size in about 14 weeks.</p>
<h2>How fast will you go if you jump out of a plane?</h2>
<p>I went skydiving a few weeks ago. It is one of those activities best researched after the event: I did not particuarly want to know the probability of death (<a href="http://news.discovery.com/adventure/extreme-sports/how-common-are-skydiving-accidents.htm">around 0.0007%</a>) beforehand. Nor did I want to discover what speed I would be going. But afterwards, I decided to find out.</p>
<p>When you jump out of a plane, there are two forces acting on your body. Gravity increases your overall velocity and drag works against the acceleration. When the two forces are eventually equal, you have reached the somewhat unfortunately named “terminal velocity”.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/34266/original/qz9chc5t-1383418747.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/34266/original/qz9chc5t-1383418747.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/34266/original/qz9chc5t-1383418747.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/34266/original/qz9chc5t-1383418747.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/34266/original/qz9chc5t-1383418747.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/34266/original/qz9chc5t-1383418747.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/34266/original/qz9chc5t-1383418747.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ann W</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>During the average skydive, if you are in the standard jump pose – with arms and legs out – your terminal velocity will be <a href="http://hypertextbook.com/facts/JianHuang.shtml">around 124 miles per hour</a>.</p>
<p>When jumping from a lesser height, into a swimming pool for example, things are a bit different. Gravity will be the dominant force, so you will still be accelerating when you hit the water. Jump from 3 metres and you will be travelling <a href="http://adventure.howstuffworks.com/outdoor-activities/water-sports/cliff-diving1.htm">about 17mph</a> when you break the surface. From 15 metres you will reach a velocity of 38mph.</p>
<h2>How much can you expect to win if you buy up every possible combination of lottery numbers?</h2>
<p>The UK National Lottery recently increased its ticket price to £2. With 49 numbers to choose from, though, your chances of winning are tiny (1 in 13,983,816 to be exact). Unless, that is, you buy up every single possible combination of numbers. This is exactly what Stefan Mandel, a Romanian mathematician, did in 1992 when <a href="http://lifethroughamathematicianseyes.wordpress.com/2013/09/08/stefan-mandel/">he netted US$28m</a> in the Virginia State Lottery.</p>
<p>So how much can you expect to win if you buy up all possible National Lottery tickets? Well, you will get the jackpot (although you might have to share it). Plus you will receive about £50k for <a href="https://www.national-lottery.co.uk/player/p/help/aboutlotto/prizecalculation.ftl">matching 5 numbers plus the bonus ball</a>. There are 6 different ways you could do this, and you will have bought all of them, so that is £300k. You will also have <a href="http://lottery.merseyworld.com/Info/Chances.html">lots of tickets that match 3, 4 or 5 numbers</a>, which will win you £25, £100 and £1000 respectively. Subtracting the amount you’ll have spent on tickets, this works out as:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Profit = Jackpot + (£50,000 x 6 + £1,000 x 252 + £100 x 13,545 + £25 x 246,820) – (13,983,816 x £2)</p>
<p>Profit = Jackpot + £8m - £28m</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Ideally you want your profit to be positive, which means that this strategy is only worth considering if the jackpot is at least £20m. Given the amount of effort it would take to pull off, however, you might be better off spending your time on other activities. Like perfecting your pizza recipe.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/19794/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
Newspapers recently reported that a mathematician has created an equation for the perfect pizza. It does not take much to spot that this was not exactly serious research. Not only was the study commissioned…Adam Kucharski, Research Fellow in Mathematical Epidemiology, London School of Hygiene & Tropical MedicineLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/157682013-07-04T05:58:19Z2013-07-04T05:58:19ZAustralia’s Chief Scientist: we need a national ‘STEM’ strategy<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/26882/original/npxx72yx-1372917321.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption"></span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Alan Porritt/EPA</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Australia must have a strategy to ensure the country’s prosperity and boost its international standing in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM), Chief Scientist Professor Ian Chubb said at the <a href="https://theconversation.com/live-stream-maths-and-science-education-symposium-15204">Maths and Science Education symposium</a> last Wednesday, or we risk being left behind.</p>
<p>The symposium, organised by The Conversation and the <a href="http://www.olt.gov.au/">Office for Learning and Teaching</a> and held at the University of Canberra, featured five academic panel members as well as debate with policy advisers, academics, authors and students on the state of science and maths education in Australia.</p>
<p>In his address, Professor Chubb discussed the development of an overarching national strategy targeting education, social impact, knowledge, innovation and influence within the STEM sectors.</p>
<p>Professor Chubb spoke to The Conversation after the symposium about the <a href="http://www.chiefscientist.gov.au/2013/06/chief-scientist-prepares-a-strategy-for-a-better-australia/">outline of the STEM strategy</a>.</p>
<p><strong>What spurred development of the national STEM strategy?</strong></p>
<p>Basically, we need one and we don’t have one. We were interested in Australia’s performance in STEM areas so we looked at how the country, on average, compared to countries that outperform us, and what kind of characteristics those countries had. </p>
<p>The majority had some sort of national strategy which directed funding consistent with the strategy. We currently don’t have anything like that at all – but we do have lots of programs. We make the argument that we need one or we’ll be left behind - and when a nation has to make serious choices about spending, we need a framework to guide us effectively.</p>
<p><strong>Is there a country comparable to Australia we can look to as a good example of what the strategy should provide?</strong></p>
<p>If you look at the ACOLA [Australian Council of Learned Academies] <a href="http://www.acolasecretariat.org.au/ACOLA/PDF/SAF02Consultants/SAF02_STEM_%20FINAL.pdf">report on country comparisons</a>, which came out a couple of weeks ago, there are examples of nations which do better than we do. One of the points the report makes is:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Most nations are closely focused on advancing STEM and some have evolved dynamic, potent and productive strategies. In world terms Australia is positioned not far below the top group but lacks the national urgency found in the United States, East Asia and much of Western Europe, and runs the risk of being left behind.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The <a href="http://www.whitehouse.gov/administration/eop/ostp/nstc">National Science and Technology Council</a> in the US put out a <a href="http://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/microsites/ostp/stem_stratplan_2013.pdf">five-year plan for STEM</a> in May this year. The Council has a coordinating role in:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>interagency research and development strategies to form investment packages that are aimed at achieving multiple national goals.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>I think that really summarises what Australia needs. The Americans do it very well.</p>
<p><strong>The strategy mentions operating with a ‘social licence’ built upon a ‘compact’ with society. Why is this important?</strong></p>
<p>What we’re saying is that science will be most effective when it operates with a social licence. This would mean that it works in the community’s interests according to some rules - such as having a high level of ethics - and because the community wants it, it will be more likely that it is funded properly.</p>
<p>I think a strategy is a way of clarifying the end point - the reason for doing all this work. Surely, that is to make Australia a better place for everybody who lives here. If that is the end, what are the means?</p>
<p>I think that the “means” are research, innovation, education and so on. To get the maximum benefit from all of those “means”, their value has to be clear – whether that is understanding better the natural world, or a better product or service that comes from applying knowledge.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/26876/original/jrj4jftb-1372915052.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/26876/original/jrj4jftb-1372915052.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/26876/original/jrj4jftb-1372915052.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=328&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/26876/original/jrj4jftb-1372915052.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=328&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/26876/original/jrj4jftb-1372915052.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=328&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/26876/original/jrj4jftb-1372915052.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/26876/original/jrj4jftb-1372915052.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/26876/original/jrj4jftb-1372915052.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Maths and Science Education symposium panel members, from left: Merlin Crossley (UNSW), Jennifer Donovan (USQ), Darren Saunders (Garvan Institute), Rachel Grieve (UTAS), and Chris Tisdell (UNSW).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">The Conversation</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong>At the Maths and Science Education symposium we heard a wide range of topics from the panel, from <a href="https://theconversation.com/searching-for-scientific-mozarts-get-em-while-theyre-young-15006">getting kids into science early</a> to <a href="https://theconversation.com/boosting-the-status-of-science-teaching-what-can-we-do-15036">changing attitudes towards teachers</a>. What main points did you pick up from the day?</strong></p>
<p>I heard that there is a number of interesting things being done, from studies of primary school children and how they learn to <a href="https://theconversation.com/to-multiply-maths-students-take-away-classrooms-and-add-online-courses-15132">online learning</a>. But the question is: how do we get the inspiration displayed at the symposium implemented on a scale that it will make a real and enduring difference?</p>
<p>One of the things that we need to do is identify what we do really well and expand this. Part of our problem is we have lots of small programs, and while many of those programs have good outcomes, they impact a small number of people.</p>
<p>The message I got was great things are already in progress but the scale is still too small, and the question for government is how do we increase the scale to begin changing the culture of the country?</p>
<p>Speaking of changing our culture, there’s an opinion abroad that if someone studies science but doesn’t work in that discipline, something’s failed. That is ridiculous. A broad science education means a person has career options in multiple sectors of the economy and we should be really pleased if they go off and work in a non-science field. They will add value.</p>
<p>We need to change the attitudes of the educators and the attitudes of the employers. For example, a science graduate might be expected to approach a career in journalism differently from someone who has a degree in journalism. </p>
<p>The background of a science education means that they think about evidence, that they don’t take statements at face value, that they are constructively sceptical, they analyse evidence carefully, validate and replicate and then use it. </p>
<p>These are characteristics inherent in a science education. If people want to work in science that’s great, but if they decide to move to something else they have the skills and talents that acquired and honed as a consequence of an education in science. </p>
<p>And will be valuable members of the workforce wherever they choose to use their skills.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/15768/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
Australia must have a strategy to ensure the country’s prosperity and boost its international standing in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM), Chief Scientist Professor Ian Chubb said…Belinda Smith, EditorLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.