tag:theconversation.com,2011:/au/topics/reproduction-116/articlesReproduction – The Conversation2024-02-29T13:40:25Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2244762024-02-29T13:40:25Z2024-02-29T13:40:25ZWhat is IVF? A nurse explains the evolving science and legality of in vitro fertilization<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578412/original/file-20240227-28-67xx7p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C1024%2C683&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Some of the eggs and sperm in these tubes stored in liquid nitrogen may go on to form an embryo.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/january-2024-berlin-eggs-and-sperm-are-stored-in-a-liquid-news-photo/1954098470">Jens Kalaene/picture alliance via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>Since the <a href="https://www.npr.org/2022/06/24/1102305878/supreme-court-abortion-roe-v-wade-decision-overturn">overturning of Roe v. Wade in June 2022</a> ended the federal right to abortion, legislative attention has extended to many other aspects of reproductive rights, including access to assisted reproductive technologies such as in vitro fertilization, or IVF, after an Alabama Supreme Court ruling in February 2024.</em></p>
<p><em>University of Massachusetts Lowell associate professor and department chair of the school of nursing <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=6rrHhmUAAAAJ&hl=en">Heidi Collins Fantasia</a> explains how this decades-old procedure works and what its tenuous legal status means for prospective parents.</em></p>
<h2>What is IVF?</h2>
<p>IVF is a type of artificial reproductive technology that allows people with a range of fertility issues to conceive a child. It involves fertilizing an egg with sperm <a href="https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/007279.htm">outside the body</a> to form an embryo that is then transferred into the uterus to develop.</p>
<p>IVF is used as a treatment <a href="https://asrmcongress.org/asrm-publishes-a-new-more-inclusive-definition-of-infertility/">for infertility</a>, which the <a href="https://asrmcongress.org/asrm-publishes-a-new-more-inclusive-definition-of-infertility/">American Society for Reproductive Medicine</a> defines as an inability to achieve pregnancy “based on a patient’s medical, sexual, and reproductive history, age, physical findings, diagnostic testing” or the “need for medical intervention.” </p>
<p>While originally developed as a fertility treatment for <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK562266/">blocked fallopian tubes</a>, IVF is currently used for other conditions such as low sperm count or when the cause for infertility can’t be determined. <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/money/2023/06/13/ivf-cost-higher-for-lgbtq-couples/11135417002/">LGBTQ people</a> and <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/05/parenting/single-moms-by-choice-photos.html">single parents</a> can also use IVF and other reproductive technologies to grow their families.</p>
<h2>How does IVF work?</h2>
<p>Typically during IVF, a patient takes hormones to stimulate the ovaries to produce eggs. Once a health professional retrieves the eggs using an ultrasound and a thin needle, they either incubate the sperm with the egg or <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK562266/">inject the sperm into the egg</a> in the lab to fertilize it. Which specific type of IVF procedure a patient undergoes is determined on an individual basis with a health care provider.</p>
<p>Scientists began to develop IVF in the 1930s, beginning with the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1387/ijdb.180364mj">live birth of rabbits and mice</a> through the procedure. This research eventually led to the birth of the <a href="https://time.com/5344145/louise-brown-test-tube-baby/">first “test-tube baby”</a> in 1978. Physiologist Robert Edwards received the <a href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/2010/press-release/">2010 Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine</a> for his research on IVF.</p>
<p>The technology has rapidly expanded since the first live human birth from IVF. The <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbagen.2011.05.001">development of cryopreservation</a>, or the freezing of human eggs and embryos, has enabled people to pursue pregnancy later in life. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbagen.2011.05.001">Genetic screening</a> of cells from a developing embryo can identify genetic diseases and abnormalities.</p>
<p>The chance of a successful live birth through assisted reproductive technologies varies. <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/art/artdata/index.html">Success rates</a> depend on many factors, such as underlying cause of infertility, age and type of technology used.</p>
<h2>Who currently has access to IVF?</h2>
<p>Use of IVF has steadily increased since it was first introduced. In 2015, about <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.ss6703a1">2% of all infants</a> in the U.S. were conceived as a result of IVF, and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10815-022-02687-7">public support for IVF is high</a> overall.</p>
<p>Approximately <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2023/09/14/a-growing-share-of-americans-say-theyve-had-fertility-treatments-or-know-someone-who-has/">10% of women in the U.S.</a> have used some type of <a href="https://www.kff.org/womens-health-policy/issue-brief/coverage-and-use-of-fertility-services-in-the-u-s/">fertility service</a> to achieve a pregnancy. This includes fertility advice, medications to increase ovulation, fertility testing, surgery and IVF. </p>
<p>Because infertility increases with age, <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/infertility.htm">women older than 35</a> typically use these services more often than younger women. Women in the U.S. who <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2019.04.044">access infertility care the least</a> are often non-U.S. citizens and uninsured, and they typically have lower income and less education than women who do.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578418/original/file-20240227-26-7ak5sq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Clear batches of containers of eggs and embryos in a large, frozen circular container" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578418/original/file-20240227-26-7ak5sq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578418/original/file-20240227-26-7ak5sq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578418/original/file-20240227-26-7ak5sq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578418/original/file-20240227-26-7ak5sq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578418/original/file-20240227-26-7ak5sq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578418/original/file-20240227-26-7ak5sq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578418/original/file-20240227-26-7ak5sq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cryopreservation gives prospective parents more time to pursue pregnancy.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/frozen-embryos-and-eggs-in-nitrogen-cooled-royalty-free-image/520157312">Ted Horowitz Photography/The Image Bank via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://www.cdc.gov/art/state-specific-surveillance/2021/figures.html#figure5">Differences in geography</a> also affect IVF access. In 2021, over 5% of all infants in Massachusetts were conceived from IVF, but this dropped to less than 1% in New Mexico, Arkansas and Mississippi.</p>
<p>Service availability and insurance coverage for IVF procedures differ by state, which could account for some of the differences in use. Only a <a href="https://resolve.org/learn/financial-resources-for-family-building/insurance-coverage/insurance-coverage-by-state/">small number of states</a> mandate that private insurers cover IVF. <a href="https://reproductiverights.org/fact-sheet-infertility-and-ivf-access-in-the-united-states-a-human-rights-based-policy-approach/">Public insurance coverage</a> for infertility services is even lower. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s12958-022-00984-5">cost of IVF</a> has been the greatest barrier to infertility care. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s12958-022-00984-5">Out-of-pocket costs</a> for people without insurance coverage can range from over US$10,000 to $25,000 per cycle, with rising costs per cycle.</p>
<h2>How do debates about when life begins affect IVF?</h2>
<p>Political views vary around reproductive rights, and <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/republicans-senate-ivf-alabama-ruling/">access to IVF</a> is likely to become an issue in upcoming election cycles.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2024/02/20/alabama-supreme-court-ivf-embryos/">Alabama Supreme Court ruled</a> in February 2024 that frozen embryos created during the process of IVF were people. While the ruling currently applies only to Alabama, it has caused <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/society/2024/feb/23/fertility-doctors-reaction-alabama-embryo-ruling">shock, confusion and concern</a> among health care providers. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/OsbGVgnHLBM?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Clinicians and people relying on IVF to expand their families are concerned about U.S. legislation around reproduction.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As a result of the ruling, two major <a href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/health/a-2nd-alabama-ivf-provider-pauses-parts-of-its-program-after-court-ruling-on-frozen-embryos">IVF providers in Alabama</a> have paused infertility care because of potential legal risk to health care providers. The main concern is whether providers can be held <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2024/02/24/health/alabama-ivf-roe-v-wade/index.html">liable for wrongful death</a> if frozen embryos don’t survive the thawing process. </p>
<p>Since the elimination of federal protection of abortion in 2022 with the overturning of Roe v. Wade, individual states have made their <a href="https://www.americanprogress.org/article/a-year-after-the-supreme-court-overturned-roe-v-wade-trends-in-state-abortion-laws-have-emerged/">own laws regarding abortion access</a>. Many patients, health care providers, researchers and legislators see the Alabama decision regarding IVF as a continuation of the increasing <a href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/how-an-alabama-supreme-court-ruling-that-frozen-embryos-are-children-impacts-ivf">erosion of women’s reproductive rights</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/224476/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Heidi Collins Fantasia is the editor for Nursing for Women's Health. </span></em></p>IVF is a decades-old procedure that has allowed increasing numbers of prospective parents to have children. Evolving legislation may put it under threat.Heidi Collins Fantasia, Associate Professor of Nursing, UMass LowellLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1766622024-02-15T13:53:50Z2024-02-15T13:53:50ZChildren are expensive – not just for parents, but the environment – so how many is too many?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573356/original/file-20240205-19-6s8ovc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=16%2C6%2C2120%2C1390&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Protecting the planet for future children might mean having fewer children.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/people-with-placards-and-posters-on-global-strike-royalty-free-image/1181043800?phrase=climate+protest+kid&adppopup=true">Halfpoint/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>People born in the future stand to inherit a planet in the midst of a global ecological crisis. <a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2020/11/201106093027.htm">Natural habitats are being decimated</a>, the world <a href="https://theconversation.com/arctic-report-card-2023-from-wildfires-to-melting-sea-ice-the-warmest-summer-on-record-had-cascading-impacts-across-the-arctic-218872">is growing hotter</a>, and scientists fear we are experiencing <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nature09678">the sixth mass extinction event in Earth’s history</a>. </p>
<p>Under such circumstances, is it reasonable to bring a child into the world?</p>
<p><a href="https://philosophy.arizona.edu/person/trevor-hedberg">My philosophical research</a> deals with environmental and procreative ethics – the ethics of choosing how many children to have or whether to have them at all. Recently, my work has explored <a href="https://www.routledge.com/The-Environmental-Impact-of-Overpopulation-The-Ethics-of-Procreation/Hedberg/p/book/9781032236766">questions where these two fields intersect</a>, such as how climate change should affect <a href="https://www.pdcnet.org/eip/content/eip_2019_0020_0001_0042_0065">decision-making about having a family</a>.</p>
<p>Procreation is often viewed as a personal or private choice that should not be scrutinized. However, it is a choice that affects others: the parents, the children themselves and the people who will inhabit the world alongside those children in the future. Thus, it is an appropriate topic for moral reflection.</p>
<h2>A lifelong footprint</h2>
<p>Let’s start by thinking about why it might be wrong to have a large family.</p>
<p>Many people who care about the environment believe they are obligated to try to reduce their impact: driving fuel-efficient vehicles, recycling and purchasing food locally, for example.</p>
<p>But the decision to have a child – to create another person who will most likely adopt a similar lifestyle to your own – vastly outweighs the impact of these activities. Based on the average distance a car travels each year, people in developed countries can save the equivalent of 2.4 metric tons of CO2 emissions each year by living without a vehicle, according to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aa7541">one literature review</a>. For comparison, having one fewer child saves 58.6 metric tons each year.</p>
<p>So, if you think you are obligated to do other activities to reduce your impact on the environment, you should limit your family size, too.</p>
<p>In response, however, some people may argue that adding a single person to a planet of 8 billion <a href="https://doi.org/10.5840/enviroethics201133326">cannot make a meaningful difference</a>. According to this argument, one new person would constitute such a tiny percentage of the overall contribution to climate change and other environmental problems that the impact would be morally negligible.</p>
<h2>Crunching the numbers</h2>
<p>Environmental ethicists debate how to quantify an individual’s impact on the environment, especially their lifetime carbon emissions.</p>
<p>For example, <a href="https://stat.oregonstate.edu/directory/paul-murtaugh">statistician Paul Murtaugh</a> and scientist <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Michael-G-Schlax-5771424">Michael Schlax</a> attempted to <a href="https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/programs/population_and_sustainability/pdfs/OSUCarbonStudy.pdf">estimate the “carbon legacy</a>” tied to a couple’s choice to procreate. They estimated the total lifetime emissions of individuals living in the world’s most populous 11 countries. They also assumed a parent was responsible for all emissions tied to their genetic lineage: all of their own emissions, half their children’s emissions, one-quarter of their grandchildren’s emissions, and so on. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575665/original/file-20240214-18-llni5m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A camera in the back of a minivan captures two adults riding in the front seat and two brunette children sitting in the back row." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575665/original/file-20240214-18-llni5m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575665/original/file-20240214-18-llni5m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575665/original/file-20240214-18-llni5m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575665/original/file-20240214-18-llni5m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575665/original/file-20240214-18-llni5m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575665/original/file-20240214-18-llni5m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575665/original/file-20240214-18-llni5m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Calculating how many emissions an average person is responsible for is tricky – but for the average American lifestyle, it’s high.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/family-riding-together-in-car-royalty-free-image/103058683?phrase=minivan+kids&adppopup=true">PhotoAlto/Ale Ventura/PhotoAlto Agency RF Collections via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>If emissions stayed similar to 2005 levels for several generations, an American couple having one fewer child <a href="https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/programs/population_and_sustainability/pdfs/OSUCarbonStudy.pdf">would save 9,441 metric tons of CO2-equivalent</a>, according to their calculations. Driving a more fuel-efficient car, on the other hand – getting 10 more miles to the gallon – would save only 148 metric tons of CO2-equivalent.</p>
<p>Philosopher <a href="https://web.utk.edu/%7Enolt/">John Nolt</a> has attempted to estimate <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/21550085.2011.561584">how much harm</a> the average American causes over their lifetime in terms of greenhouse gas emissions. He found that the average American contributes roughly one two-billionth of the total greenhouse gases that cause climate change. But since climate change may harm billions of people over the next millennium, this person may be responsible for the severe suffering, or even death, of one or two future people.</p>
<h2>Collective toll</h2>
<p>Such estimates are, at best, imprecise. Nevertheless, even if one assumes that each individual child’s impact on the environment is relatively insignificant on the global scale, that does not necessarily mean that procreators are off the moral hook.</p>
<p>One common thought in ethics is that people should avoid participating in enterprises that involve collective wrongdoing. In other words, we should avoid contributing to institutions and practices that cause bad outcomes, even if our own individual contribution to that outcome is tiny. </p>
<p>Suppose someone considers making a small donation to an organization that they learn is engaged in immoral activities, such as polluting a local river. Even if the potential donation is only a few dollars – too small to make any difference to the organization’s operations – that money would express a degree of complicity in that behavior, or perhaps even an endorsement. The morally right thing to do is avoid supporting the organization when possible.</p>
<p>We could reason the same way about procreation: Overpopulation is a collective problem that is <a href="http://www.mlcfoundation.org.in/#assets/ijpd/2023-1/V_3_1_7.pdf">degrading the environment and causing harm</a>, so individuals should <a href="https://www.routledge.com/The-Environmental-Impact-of-Overpopulation-The-Ethics-of-Procreation/Hedberg/p/book/9781032236766">reduce their contribution to it</a> when they can.</p>
<h2>Moral gray zone</h2>
<p>But perhaps having children warrants an exception. Parenthood is often a crucial part of people’s life plans and makes their lives far more meaningful, even if it does come at a cost to the planet. Some people believe <a href="https://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691036656/children-of-choice">reproductive freedom is so important</a> that no one should feel moral pressure to restrict the size of their family.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575662/original/file-20240214-28-63i1r3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Three women, one of whom has white hair, stand smiling around a baby in a blue outfit and a pacifier." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575662/original/file-20240214-28-63i1r3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575662/original/file-20240214-28-63i1r3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575662/original/file-20240214-28-63i1r3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575662/original/file-20240214-28-63i1r3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575662/original/file-20240214-28-63i1r3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575662/original/file-20240214-28-63i1r3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575662/original/file-20240214-28-63i1r3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Having children feels like an essential part of many people’s life plans.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/grandmother-looking-at-her-newborn-grandson-in-the-royalty-free-image/1444230309?phrase=newborn&adppopup=true">Abraham Gonzalez Fernandez/Moment via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>One point of general consensus among ethicists, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9930.1993.tb00093.x">following the lead</a> of <a href="https://www.merton.ox.ac.uk/people/professor-henry-shue">philosopher Henry Shue</a>, is that there is a moral difference between emissions tied to crucial interests and those that are tied to convenience and luxury. Emissions connected to basic human needs are usually regarded as permissible. It isn’t wrong for me to emit carbon to drive to the grocery store, for example, if I have no other safe or reliable transportation available. Getting to the store is important to my survival and well-being. Driving purely for recreation, in contrast, is harder to justify.</p>
<p>Reproduction occupies the messy conceptual space between these two activities. For most people today, having their own biological children is not essential to health or survival. Yet it is also far more important to most people and their broader life plans than a frivolous joyride. Is there a way to balance the varied and competing moral considerations in play here?</p>
<p><a href="https://www.pdcnet.org/eip/content/eip_2019_0020_0001_0042_0065">In prior work</a>, I have argued the proper way to balance these competing moral considerations is for each couple to have no more than two biological children. I believe this allows a couple an appropriate amount of reproductive freedom while also recognizing the moral significance of the environmental problems linked to population growth. </p>
<p>Some authors reason about this issue differently, though. Philosopher <a href="https://www.bowdoin.edu/profiles/faculty/sconly/">Sarah Conly</a> argues that it is permissible for couples <a href="https://academic.oup.com/book/7760">to have only one biological child</a>. In large part, her position rests on her argument that all the fundamental interests tied to child-rearing can be satisfied with just one child. Bioethicist <a href="https://bioethics.jhu.edu/people/profile/travis-rieder/">Travis Reider</a> <a href="https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-319-33871-2">argues in favor of having a small family</a>, but without a specific numerical limit. It is also possible, as ethicist <a href="https://www.umu.se/en/staff/kalle-grill/">Kalle Grill</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.5840/enviroethics20238860">has argued</a>, that none of these positions gets the moral calculus exactly right.</p>
<p>Regardless, it is clear that prospective parents should reflect on the moral dimensions of procreation and its importance to their life plans.</p>
<p>For some, adoption may be the best way of experiencing parenthood without creating a new person. And there are many other ways for prospective parents to do their part in mitigating environmental problems. Carbon offsets or donations to environmental organizations, for example, are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/21550085.2023.2223805">hardly perfect substitutes</a> for limiting procreation – but they certainly may be more appealing to many prospective parents.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/176662/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Trevor Hedberg does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>You can donate to environmental charities and even purchase carbon offsets, but not having an additional child typically has a much greater impact.Trevor Hedberg, Assistant Professor of Practice, W.A. Franke Honors College / Philosophy Department, University of ArizonaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2225332024-02-14T16:55:57Z2024-02-14T16:55:57ZMen become less fertile with age, but the same isn’t true for all animals – new study<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573049/original/file-20240202-27-wscv4y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C34%2C5833%2C3938&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/colorful-balloons-spermatozoid-shape-on-blue-1100465771">olliulli/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>We take it for granted that humans find it <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.3109/09513590.2010.501889">more difficult to conceive</a> as they grow older. But <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-44768-4">our recent study</a>, which analysed data from 157 animal species, found that male reproductive ageing seems to be a lot less common in other male animals. </p>
<p>With fertility in men <a href="https://www.bmj.com/content/305/6854/609">declining worldwide</a>, understanding ageing of sperm in other animals could give new insights into our own fertility. </p>
<p>Human fertility declines with age because sperm and eggs of older people are <a href="https://academic.oup.com/humupd/article/11/3/261/759255">more deteriorated</a> or fewer in number than those of young people. Reproducing at an older age not only affects your fertility, but can also <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nrurol.2013.18">reduce the fertility</a>, survival rate and physical and cognitive performance of the children you conceive.</p>
<h2>Humans versus other animals</h2>
<p>Humans <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00239-019-09896-2">live considerably longer</a> than we did just a century ago. This <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.0909606106">recent, rapid extension</a> in our longevity might be one reason why humans reproductively age at faster rates than other animals. Our reproductive ageing rate hasn’t slowed down yet to match our longer lifespans. </p>
<p>Animals might also face greater evolutionary pressure to maximise their reproductive potential at all ages, because most animals reproduce throughout their lives. But this isn’t the case for humans. We rarely <a href="https://academic.oup.com/humrep/article/29/6/1304/625687">reproduce</a> in our late life. </p>
<p>Additionally, we have <a href="https://academic.oup.com/humrep/article/37/4/629/6515525">fewer offspring</a> compared to our ancestors. This makes it harder for natural selection to select genes that improve human reproduction due to less variation in the population’s fecundity. </p>
<h2>Females versus males</h2>
<p>Males and females in many species age reproductively at different rates. </p>
<p>For instance, in red wolves, male reproductive success declines with age but it <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00265-016-2241-9">does not</a> for females. Yet female killifish show stronger decline in fertility with age <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/1365-2656.13382">than males</a>. Despite the fact human females live longer than males, they tend to become infertile <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/abs/10.1126/science.3755843">earlier than men</a>, and go through menopause. </p>
<p>In some species, including humans, where females help raise their grand-offspring (such as humans and whales), females live <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982218316828?via%3Dihub">much beyond the age</a> of reproduction. An <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rsos.191972">evolutionary explanation</a> for this is that older females can better pass on their genes by helping their relatives survive and rear young than by reproducing themselves.</p>
<p>There are some hypotheses that try to explain these <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/acel.13542">sex-specific differences</a> in reproductive ageing. </p>
<p>Sperm are continuously produced in males, but eggs in many species, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8769179/">including humans</a>, are produced early in the life of females. This might lead eggs to <a href="https://academic.oup.com/humupd/article/6/6/532/616993">accumulate more damage</a> due to being stored for longer durations inside older females than sperm are stored in old males. </p>
<p>Another hypothesis suggests that males might age faster because sperm DNA <a href="https://elifesciences.org/articles/80008">accumulate more</a> mutations than egg DNA. Sperm have poorer DNA repair machinery than eggs, causing males to <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-05752-y">pass on more mutations</a> to the next generation than females with advancing age, a pattern observed across vertebrate animals.</p>
<p>Sexes also face different environmental pressures. For instance, in many mammals, males, <a href="https://theconversation.com/of-mice-and-matriarchs-the-female-led-societies-of-the-animal-kingdom-186875">but not females</a>, disperse away from the family group when they mature. This sort of environmental pressure leads to differences in the strategies males and females use to pass on their genes, which can create differences in <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/acel.13542">rates of reproductive ageing</a> between the sexes. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Humpback whale mother with her calf" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573052/original/file-20240202-19-valjo5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573052/original/file-20240202-19-valjo5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573052/original/file-20240202-19-valjo5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573052/original/file-20240202-19-valjo5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573052/original/file-20240202-19-valjo5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573052/original/file-20240202-19-valjo5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573052/original/file-20240202-19-valjo5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Female whales live long after their reproductive window.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/humpback-whale-mother-calf-on-tonga-1907017690">Tomas Kotouc/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Patterns of reproductive ageing in animals</h2>
<p>In our study, we showed that reproductive ageing rates in males <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-44768-4">vary vastly</a> across the animal kingdom. We found invertebrates such as crustacea and insects have some of the slowest rates of reproductive ageing, compared to lab rodents who had some of the fastest rates.
Generally though, male animals showed few signs of age-related declines in their ejaculate traits (such as sperm quality and quantity). </p>
<p>We also found that different ejaculate traits, such as sperm viability, number, motility or velocity, aged at different rates.</p>
<p>In species that grow throughout their lives, such as some fish and crustacea, old animals have a lower mortality risk and larger gonads than young males. This can cause old males <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rspb.2021.2146">in such species</a> to age at slower rates, with older males producing larger ejaculates than younger males.</p>
<p>In animals such as lab rodents, who have some genetic lines selected for accelerated ageing, reproductive ageing was universal across ejaculate traits. Lab rodents are generally kept in highly controlled environments where ageing is easier to detect – due to fewer confounding effects that could mask ageing. This suggests that a lot of the variation in male reproductive ageing between different species could be due to their environment. </p>
<p>We also discovered that closely related species showed similar rates of decline in ejaculates with age, suggested that ageing is also shaped by an animal’s evolutionary history. </p>
<p>Some of the patterns we mention above also reflected methodological differences between studies. For example, when studies kept male animals as virgins, old males can <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.2009053117">accumulate more sperm</a> than young males, leading to old males producing larger ejaculates. </p>
<p>Additionally, studies that only sampled young to middle-aged males showed an increase in sperm quality and quantity with age, compared to studies that sampled middle-aged to old males, suggesting that fertility peaks around middle age in male animals generally.</p>
<h2>Reproductive ageing</h2>
<p>Reproductive ageing occurs because as individuals grow older, their sperm and eggs <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nrurol.2013.18">accumulate damage</a>. Organisms have evolved to reproduce earlier in life rather than when old, which leads to a <a href="https://academic.oup.com/genetics/article/156/3/927/6051413">weaker ability of natural selection</a> to weed out bad genes that are expressed in old but not young organisms, in turn promoting ageing.</p>
<p>There are however, opposing forces that determine whether old individuals will leave more copies of their genes to successive lineages compared to young animals, and reproductive ageing is only one process determining this. </p>
<p><a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/bies.201100157">An alternative hypothesis</a> is that parents who conceive at an older age would have more gene variants for longer lifespans which could benefit their offspring. This could lead to longer lived offspring from older conceiving parents. However evidence for this hypothesis is still limited. </p>
<p>While most scientists accept that at least some reproductive traits decline with age, biologists are still uncovering what the exact mechanisms and evolutionary reasons for these declines are. But by looking at other species to investigate the drivers of reproductive ageing, we can understand and perhaps even seek to alleviate our own reproductive decline with age.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222533/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Krish Sanghvi receives funding from Society for the study of evolution (Rosemary grant award).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Irem Sepil receives funding from the Royal Society, BBSRC and Wellcome Trust. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Regina Vega-Trejo receives funding from Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council.</span></em></p>Understanding how the ageing of sperm works in other animals is more important than ever as human male fertility is in decline.Krish Sanghvi, PhD student at the department of Biology, University of Oxford, University of OxfordIrem Sepil, Lecturer in Evolutionary Biology, University of OxfordRegina Vega-Trejo, Postdoctoral Research Assistant in Evolutionary Biology, University of OxfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2207612024-01-10T13:30:13Z2024-01-10T13:30:13ZPope Francis called surrogacy ‘deplorable’ – but the reasons why women and parents choose surrogacy are complex and defy simple labels<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568467/original/file-20240109-17-1nw9j8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=137%2C31%2C6938%2C4678&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Pope Francis baptizes 16 infants in the Sistine Chapel on Jan. 7, 2024, in Vatican City.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/pope-francis-baptises-16-infants-in-the-sistine-chapel-on-news-photo/1914446578?adppopup=true">Vatican Media via Vatican Pool/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Pope Francis made headlines on Jan. 8, 2024, when he called for a global surrogacy ban, <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2024/01/08/world/europe/pope-francis-surrogacy-ban.html">stating</a>, “I deem deplorable the practice of so-called surrogate motherhood, which represents a grave violation of the dignity of the woman and the child, based on the exploitation of situations of the mother’s material needs.”</p>
<p>The use of surrogacy, in which a woman carries and delivers a child for someone else, has grown exponentially in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2016.03.050">recent years</a> and is expected to <a href="https://www.gminsights.com/industry-analysis/surrogacy-market">continue to do so</a>. While headlines often surface when celebrities like <a href="https://www.vanityfair.com/style/paris-hilton-on-why-she-chose-surrogacy-for-her-children">Paris Hilton</a> grow their family using the technology, it also gets attention on the rare occasion a surrogate <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1356176/Surrogate-mother-wins-case-baby-giving-birth.html">refuses to relinquish the child they carried</a>, or when <a href="https://www.harpercollins.com/products/the-red-market-scott-carney?variant=32123686453282">surrogates experience exploitation</a>.</p>
<p>Such human rights violations appear to be the reason that Francis condemned the practice. But in so doing, I argue, the pope is failing to recognize how varied and nuanced the experiences of intended parents, surrogates and children are.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.baylorpress.com/9781481310567/conceiving-family/">I have researched surrogacy</a> <a href="https://candler.emory.edu/faculty-profiles/danielle-tumminio-hansen/">for over a decade</a> and have learned many things: Some women indeed become surrogates out of desperation and <a href="https://cup.columbia.edu/book/wombs-in-labor/9780231169905">are abused in the process</a>, as the pope says. But others, like the Christian ethicist <a href="https://www.sup.org/books/title/?id=31699">Grace Kao</a>, are thriving professionals who make the choice for altruistic reasons and never accept remuneration.</p>
<p>The complex reasons why women become surrogates and why parents choose to create families in this way <a href="https://oneill.law.georgetown.edu/a-lack-of-consensus-around-surrogacy-regulation-at-the-national-level/">make it nearly impossible</a> to issue a universal conclusion about it. Instead, like many technologies, surrogacy’s ethical value is dependent upon the people and systems who use it. </p>
<h2>Catholicism and surrogacy</h2>
<p>While the pope framed his condemnation of surrogacy as a human rights abuse, the Catholic tradition has <a href="https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_19870222_respect-for-human-life_en.html">consistently opposed</a> <a href="https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_20081208_dignitas-personae_en.html">surrogacy, in vitro fertilization</a> and <a href="https://www.usccb.org/issues-and-action/human-life-and-dignity/abortion/respect-for-unborn-human-life">abortion</a> on the grounds that they violate natural law. </p>
<p>Natural law is a philosophy that states there are certain unchangeable parts of human nature that God endows. Catholic theologians who support this basic view extrapolate that intercourse within heterosexual marriage is the only acceptable way to reproduce, that life begins at conception, and that an embryo has a right to life from conception until natural death.</p>
<p>Hence, the Roman Catholic Church only encourages reproduction within the confines of heterosexual marriage, and when a heterosexual couple cannot conceive via intercourse, they are encouraged to adopt or remain childless.</p>
<p>The church has consistently condemned IVF because conception takes place outside of heterosexual intercourse. IVF results in the destruction of embryos and involves conception via a test tube. The church likewise has never supported surrogacy, so the pope’s recent assessment of surrogacy as “despicable” is consistent with the church’s overall views of reproduction.</p>
<p>Nonetheless, surrogacy is the only form of assisted reproduction documented in the Bible, unless one considers Mary’s conception of Jesus to be a form of assisted reproduction. In the <a href="https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis%2016-18&version=NRSVUE">Book of Genesis</a>, the wife of Abraham begs her husband to have sex with <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301577539_Hagar_the_Egyptian_Wife_Handmaid_and_Concubine">her slave Hagar</a> in order to procreate. Sarah abuses the slave and orchestrates both sex and procreation without Hagar’s consent. </p>
<p>Hagar eventually bears a son <a href="https://www.usnews.com/news/religion/articles/2008/01/25/why-scholars-just-cant-stop-talking-about-sarah-and-hagar">named Ishmael</a>. Later, Sarah demands that both Hagar and Ishmael be cast out into the wilderness. Muslims regard Ishmael as a prophet and believe he and Abraham built <a href="https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ap-art-history/introduction-cultures-religions-apah/islam-apah/a/the-kaaba">the Kaaba</a> in Mecca, Saudi Arabia.</p>
<h2>Myths and fears</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Four women standing together wearing masks, with two of them holding new-born babies." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/424528/original/file-20211004-13-1ggnsgp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=47%2C31%2C5176%2C3554&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/424528/original/file-20211004-13-1ggnsgp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/424528/original/file-20211004-13-1ggnsgp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/424528/original/file-20211004-13-1ggnsgp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/424528/original/file-20211004-13-1ggnsgp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=516&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/424528/original/file-20211004-13-1ggnsgp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=516&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/424528/original/file-20211004-13-1ggnsgp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=516&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Nurses with babies born to Ukrainian surrogate mothers in Kyiv.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/nurses-hold-babies-as-foreign-couples-gather-to-collect-news-photo/1219071333?adppopup=true">Sergei Supinsky/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Fast forward to modern times, and surrogacy is now performed predominantly in high-priced in vitro fertilization centers in one of two ways. In “traditional surrogacy,” the fertilized egg belongs to the surrogate. In “gestational surrogacy,” which is <a href="https://surrogate.com/about-surrogacy/types-of-surrogacy/what-is-traditional-surrogacy/">more common today</a>, the fertilized egg comes from either the intended mother or a donor.</p>
<p>In both cases, that egg combines with a sperm to become an embryo that grows in the surrogate’s womb and not the intended mother’s.</p>
<p>Gestational surrogacy may be preferable because it allows intended mothers to maintain a genetic connection with their child. Others may prefer it because of fears that a surrogate could lay claim to the child with whom <a href="https://www.americansurrogacy.com/blog/the-legal-and-emotional-risks-of-traditional-surrogacy/">she had a biological connection</a>.</p>
<p>The concern that a surrogate will try to steal or adopt a child is one of many legal and ethical fears surrounding surrogacy. In the 1980s, the <a href="https://law.justia.com/cases/new-jersey/supreme-court/1988/109-n-j-396-1.html">Baby M Case</a> in the United States attracted much media attention because it tapped into these fears. In this situation, the surrogate, named Mary Beth Whitehead, attempted to retain custody of the baby she birthed. </p>
<p>The case <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/humrep/deu339">fueled a stereotype</a> of surrogates as emotionally unstable, defying the reality that surrogates undergo psychological testing before participating in a procedure.</p>
<p>Documented instances of surrogates retaining children are also rare. Research shows that surrogates often experience pregnancy and birth differently than they did with their <a href="https://academic.oup.com/humrep/article/33/4/646/4941810">own children</a>. They also often see themselves as <a href="https://academic.oup.com/california-scholarship-online/book/17848">heroes or gift givers</a> instead of mothers. </p>
<p>If the public perceives surrogates negatively, intended parents often fare no better. They are often categorized as selfish, desperate and rich, especially when they choose surrogacy <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2019/may/25/having-a-child-doesnt-fit-womens-schedule-the-future-of-surrogacy">without a medical reason</a>. </p>
<p>Those popular images of intended parents fail to account for the <a href="https://www.apa.org/pubs/books/reproductive-trauma-second-edition">reproductive trauma</a> many of them experience prior to turning to surrogacy. The decision to hire a surrogate is <a href="https://syndicate.network/symposia/theology/conceiving-family/#:%7E:text=In%20Conceiving%20Family%3A%20A%20Practical,class%20and%20are%20often%20white">often the last option</a> for parents who have tried everything else and are, as <a href="https://www.baylorpress.com/9781481310567/conceiving-family/">I’ve proposed in my own research</a>, attempting to write a happy ending to the story of their reproductive lives.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.filia.org.uk/latest-news/2023/4/19/dont-buy-adopt-stop-surrogacy-now">Critics</a> counter that individuals who use surrogates should be turning to adoption instead. However, this logic fails to recognize that adoption can be traumatic <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2021.105309">for the child</a> and <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2276293/">the birth mother</a>. Adoption, therefore, isn’t a cure-all for individuals who can’t conceive via heterosexual intercourse.</p>
<h2>Ethical concerns about surrogacy</h2>
<p>It is true that surrogacy is expensive, at least in the U.S., where use of the technology routinely costs over <a href="https://money.usnews.com/money/personal-finance/family-finance/articles/how-much-surrogacy-costs-and-how-to-pay-for-it">US$100,000</a>. The cost is so extreme because intended parents pay health care fees for both themselves and the surrogate, many of which aren’t covered by insurance. </p>
<p>They also have to pay legal and agency fees and compensate the surrogate, which alone can range from <a href="https://www.westcoastsurrogacy.com/become-a-surrogate-mother/surrogate-mother-compensation">$45,000 to $75,000</a>. Contrast that price tag to the one in India prior to its ban on international surrogacy in 2015: Couples who traveled there could expect to spend <a href="https://www.motherjones.com/politics/2010/04/surrogacy-tourism-india-nayna-patel/">$15,000 to $20,000</a> in total for their surrogacy journey. The extreme costs of surrogacy in the U.S. also limit its availability to the wealthy. </p>
<p>In addition, feminists are divided on how surrogacy affects women. Some feminists feel that surrogates have a right to <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3174860">choose what to do with their bodies</a>. Others object to surrogacy on the grounds that systemic oppression drives women into surrogacy, or that it’s unethical for people to <a href="https://cup.columbia.edu/book/wombs-in-labor/9780231169905">buy women’s bodies</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.motherjones.com/politics/2010/04/surrogacy-tourism-india-nayna-patel/">Cases documented in India</a> support these concerns. Investigative journalist <a href="https://www.harpercollins.com/products/the-red-market-scott-carney?variant=32123686453282">Scott Carney</a> found one prominent Indian surrogacy clinic where surrogates were kept in crowded bedrooms on restricted diets and forced to have Cesarean sections in order to streamline the labor and delivery process. </p>
<p>Scholars also worry about surrogacy’s <a href="https://cbc-network.org/issues/making-life/surrogacy/?fbclid=IwAR13wlHiYvqQ_crLOiatzk6XpkFvp0WKXBWOYfi4BURgMLm00aY4EZDC9Sk">impact on children</a>.
Extensive research hasn’t been conducted with children of surrogates, but research by social scientists studying children born via egg and sperm donation largely mirrors the findings of adoption research: Children have questions about their identity, and they find answers from individuals who are <a href="https://academic.oup.com/humrep/article/15/9/2041/2915461">part of their birth story</a>.</p>
<p>Yet agencies and governments rarely regulate how surrogates, intended parents and children interact following the baby’s birth. </p>
<h2>The case for surrogacy</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A woman in a green shirt stands in front of colorful red and orange flowers." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/424575/original/file-20211004-12705-rfkwei.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/424575/original/file-20211004-12705-rfkwei.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/424575/original/file-20211004-12705-rfkwei.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/424575/original/file-20211004-12705-rfkwei.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/424575/original/file-20211004-12705-rfkwei.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/424575/original/file-20211004-12705-rfkwei.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/424575/original/file-20211004-12705-rfkwei.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Actress Gabrielle Union has talked openly about her surrogacy journey.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/gabrielle-union-attends-the-veuve-clicquot-polo-classic-at-news-photo/1344504189?adppopup=true">Frazer Harrison/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Such objections might lead to the conclusion that there is never a reason to hire a surrogate. But this might be too simplistic. Even with the documented struggles on the parts of both intended parents and surrogates, many are profoundly grateful for the technology.</p>
<p>Intended parents often feel surrogates are “<a href="https://www.ucpress.edu/book/9780520259645/birthing-a-mother">gifts from God</a>” who help them reach their dream of parenthood. Meanwhile, some surrogates believe their powers of procreation provide them with a unique opportunity to help others. Many surrogates see their ability to create life as a source of power, a profound act of altruism that is part of their legacy.</p>
<p>When I spoke with a group of surrogates in Austin, Texas, while conducting research for my book, I found that their stories aligned with <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Surrogate-Motherhood-Conception-In-The-Heart/Ragone/p/book/9780367289249">the findings of other researchers</a> who discovered that many surrogates had positive experiences in which they <a href="https://www.ucpress.edu/book/9780520259645/birthing-a-mother">experienced themselves as heroes</a>. These women felt empowered because they helped infertile heterosexual couples and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rbms.2018.10.019">gay couples</a> create families. Without surrogacy, these individuals would have no way to have a genetic connection with their children. </p>
<p>The surrogates acknowledged that sometimes intended parents could be difficult, that pregnancy and labor could be challenging, and that it could be confusing when a checkout clerk at the grocery store asked what they were planning to name the baby.</p>
<p>Becoming a parent through surrogacy can be awkward and humbling, confusing and miraculous all at the same time.</p>
<p>But when surrogates and intended parents can act freely, with <a href="https://www.ucpress.edu/book/9780520259645/birthing-a-mother">appropriate regulations and the support of society</a>, there is the potential for them to discover that family is not just biological but also social and relational. In those encounters, many experience the technology as life-giving, both metaphorically and literally.</p>
<p><em>This is an updated version of an <a href="https://theconversation.com/becoming-a-parent-through-surrogacy-can-have-ethical-challenges-but-it-is-a-positive-experience-for-some-167760">article first published on Oct. 6, 2021</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/220761/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Danielle Tumminio Hansen does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Surrogacy can exploit women, but others may choose to be involved for altruistic reasons. A scholar points out that surrogacy’s ethical value is dependent upon the people and systems who use it.Danielle Tumminio Hansen, Assistant Professor of Practical Theology & Spiritual Care, Emory UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2190052023-12-14T19:19:48Z2023-12-14T19:19:48ZEggs from men, sperm from women: how stem cell science may change how we reproduce<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564442/original/file-20231208-17-22yb4u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C1000%2C748&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/morula-early-stage-embryo-consisting-cells-776035219">nobeastsofierce/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>It may soon be possible to coax human skin cells into becoming functional eggs and sperm using a technique known as “in vitro gametogenesis”. This involves the creation (genesis) of eggs and sperm (gametes) outside the human body (in vitro). </p>
<p>In theory, a skin cell from a man could be turned into an egg and a skin cell from a woman can become a sperm. Then there’s the possibility of a child having multiple genetically-related parents, or only one.</p>
<p>Some scientists believe human applications of in vitro gametogenesis are a <a href="https://www.statnews.com/2023/10/02/ivg-ivf-replacement-reproductive-technology-hype/">long way off</a>. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1708819232077533218"}"></div></p>
<p>However, scientists who work on human stem cells are <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10579208/">actively working</a> on overcoming the barriers. <a href="https://www.statnews.com/2023/04/08/ivf-eggs-hormones-gameto-reproductive-fertilo/">New</a> <a href="https://www.technologyreview.com/2021/10/28/1038172/conception-eggs-reproduction-vitro-gametogenesis/">biotechnology</a> <a href="https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2023/04/24/the-future-of-fertility">start-ups</a> are also seeking to commercialise this technology.</p>
<p>Here’s what we know about the prospect of human in vitro gametogenesis and why we need to start talking about this now.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-what-are-stem-cells-14391">Explainer: what are stem cells?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Is the technology available?</h2>
<p>In vitro gametogenesis begins with “pluripotent stem cells”, a kind of cell that can develop into many different cell types. The aim is to persuade these stem cells to become eggs or sperm.</p>
<p>These techniques could use stem cells taken from early embryos. But scientists have also worked out how to <a href="https://www.eurostemcell.org/stemcellshorts-what-are-induced-pluripotent-stem-cells">revert adult cells</a> to a pluripotent state. This opens up the possibility of creating eggs or sperm that “belong to” an existing human adult.</p>
<p>Animal studies have been promising. In <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/490146b">2012</a>, scientists created live-born baby mice using eggs that began their life as skin cells on a mouse tail.</p>
<p>More recently, the technique has been used to facilitate same-sex reproduction. Earlier this year, scientists created mouse pups with <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-023-00717-7">two genetic fathers</a> after transforming skin cells from male mice into eggs. Mouse pups with <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-018-06999-6">two genetic mothers</a> have also been created.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/1ocWjHJgKcc?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">How scientists bred mice with two fathers.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Scientists have not yet managed to adapt these techniques to create human gametes. Perhaps because the technology is still in its infancy, Australia’s legal and regulatory systems do not address whether and how the technology should be used. </p>
<p>For example, the National Health and Medical Research Council’s <a href="https://www.nhmrc.gov.au/about-us/publications/art">assisted reproduction guidelines</a>, which were updated in 2023, do not include specific guidance for in vitro-derived gametes. These guidelines will need to be updated if in vitro gametogenesis becomes viable in humans.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-future-of-stem-cells-tackling-hype-versus-hope-72052">The future of stem cells: tackling hype versus hope</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>The potential</h2>
<p>There are three distinct clinical applications of this technology.</p>
<p>First, in vitro gametogenesis could streamline IVF. Egg retrieval currently involves repeated hormone injections, a minor surgical procedure, and the <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/ovarian-hyperstimulation-syndrome-ohss/symptoms-causes/syc-20354697">risk</a> of overstimulating the ovaries. In vitro gametogenesis could eliminate these problems.</p>
<p>Second, the technology could circumvent some forms of medical infertility. For example, it could be used to generate eggs for women born without functioning ovaries or following early menopause.</p>
<p>Third, the technology could allow same-sex couples to have children who are genetically related to both parents.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/promising-assisted-reproductive-technologies-come-with-ethical-legal-and-social-challenges-a-developmental-biologist-and-a-bioethicist-discuss-ivf-abortion-and-the-mice-with-two-dads-208276">Promising assisted reproductive technologies come with ethical, legal and social challenges – a developmental biologist and a bioethicist discuss IVF, abortion and the mice with two dads</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Legal, regulatory and ethical issues</h2>
<p>If the technology becomes viable, in vitro gametogenesis will alter the dynamics of how we create families in unprecedented ways. How we should respond requires careful consideration.</p>
<p><strong>1. Is it safe?</strong></p>
<p>Careful trials, rigorous monitoring, and follow-up of any children born will be essential – as it has been for other <a href="https://theconversation.com/maeves-law-would-let-ivf-parents-access-technology-to-prevent-mitochondrial-disease-heres-what-the-senate-is-debating-176668">reproductive</a> <a href="https://theconversation.com/rest-assured-ivf-babies-grow-into-healthy-adults-23432">technologies</a>, including IVF.</p>
<p><strong>2. Is it equitable?</strong></p>
<p>Other issues relate to access. It might seem unjust if the technology is only available to the wealthy. Public funding could help – but whether this is appropriate depends on whether the state <a href="https://theconversation.com/ideas-for-australia-rethinking-funding-and-priorities-in-ivf-should-the-state-pay-for-people-to-have-babies-57036">ought to support</a> people’s reproductive projects.</p>
<p><strong>3. Should we restrict access?</strong></p>
<p>For instance, pregnancy is rare in older women, largely because egg count and quality <a href="https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/age-and-fertility">decline with age</a>. In vitro gametogenesis would theoretically provide “fresh” eggs for women of any age. But helping older women become parents is <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5566409/">controversial</a>, due to physical, psychological and other factors associated with having babies later in life.</p>
<p><strong>4. We’d still need surrogates</strong></p>
<p>If we took skin cells from each male partner and created an embryo, that embryo would still need a surrogate to carry the pregnancy. Unfortunately, Australia has a shortfall of surrogates. International surrogacy provides an alternative, but carries <a href="https://theconversation.com/its-hard-to-find-a-surrogate-in-australia-but-heading-overseas-comes-with-risks-206182">legal, ethical and practical difficulties</a>. Unless access to surrogacy is improved domestically, benefits to male couples will be limited. </p>
<p><strong>5. Who are the legal parents?</strong></p>
<p>In vitro gametogenesis also raises questions about who are the future child’s legal parents. We already see related legal debates surrounding non-traditional families formed through surrogacy, egg donation and sperm donation. </p>
<p>In vitro gametogenesis could theoretically also be used to create children with more than two genetic parents, or with only one. These possibilities likewise require us to update our current understandings of parenthood.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-may-one-day-grow-babies-outside-the-womb-but-there-are-many-things-to-consider-first-125709">We may one day grow babies outside the womb, but there are many things to consider first</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>How far is too far?</h2>
<p>Of the potential uses already mentioned, same-sex reproduction is the most controversial. The reproductive limitations imposed by being in a same-sex relationship are sometimes seen as a “social” form of infertility the medical profession is not obligated to fix.</p>
<p>The moral stakes, however, are virtually identical regardless of whether in vitro gametogenesis is used by same-sex or opposite-sex couples. Both uses of the technology fulfil exactly the same goal: helping couples fulfil their desire to have a child genetically related to both parents. It would be unjust to deny access to only one of these groups.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564457/original/file-20231208-21-83z5z9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Same-sex female couple cooking in kitchen, one feeding the other fruit" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564457/original/file-20231208-21-83z5z9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564457/original/file-20231208-21-83z5z9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564457/original/file-20231208-21-83z5z9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564457/original/file-20231208-21-83z5z9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564457/original/file-20231208-21-83z5z9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564457/original/file-20231208-21-83z5z9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564457/original/file-20231208-21-83z5z9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Who should have access to this technology? How about same-sex couples?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/lesbian-couple-cooking-kitchen-together-1071305168">Rawpixel.com/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But same-sex reproduction is only the tip of the iceberg. In vitro gametogenesis could theoretically facilitate “<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6973109/">solo reproduction</a>” by deriving both eggs and sperm from the same individual. Interestingly, a child created this way would not be a clone of its parent, since the process of gamete formation would shuffle the parent’s genetic material and create a genetically distinct individual.</p>
<p>Or people could engage in “<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4215291/">multiplex parenting</a>” combining genetic material from more than two individuals. Imagine, for example, that two couples create embryos via IVF. In vitro gametogenesis could then be used to derive eggs and sperm from each of these two separate embryos, which could subsequently be used to conceive a single child that is genetically related to all four adults.</p>
<p>Finally, in vitro gametogenesis could revolutionise prenatal genetic selection. We’d have <a href="https://rmanetwork.com/blog/number-of-eggs-good-ivf-in-vitro-fertilization/">many more embryos</a> than available during regular IVF to screen for genetic diseases and traits.</p>
<p>So it would be urgent to discuss “designer babies”, eugenics, and whether we have a <a href="https://bioedge.org/bioethics-d75/savulescu-interviewed-on-procreative-beneficence/">moral obligation</a> to conceive children with the best chance of a good life.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/worlds-first-synthetic-embryo-why-this-research-is-more-important-than-you-think-188217">World's first 'synthetic embryo': why this research is more important than you think</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>We need to start talking about this now</h2>
<p>Both law and ethics can lag behind new technologies, particularly when their implications are as profound and far-reaching as the implications of in vitro gametogenesis.</p>
<p>We need to discuss how this technology should be regulated before it is rolled out. Given how rapidly the science is developing, we should begin this discussion now. </p>
<hr>
<p><em>Laura Smith, a masters student from Monash University, contributed to this article.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/219005/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Julian Koplin receives research funding from Ferring Pharmaceuticals for an unrelated project.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Neera Bhatia receives funding from UKRI Arts and Humanities Research Council for an unrelated project.</span></em></p>The technology may be here sooner than we think. But we have so much to discuss first.Julian Koplin, Lecturer in Bioethics, Monash University & Honorary fellow, Melbourne Law School, Monash UniversityNeera Bhatia, Associate Professor in Law, Deakin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2182812023-11-24T17:18:21Z2023-11-24T17:18:21ZClimate crisis: what to consider if you’re questioning whether to have children<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/561533/original/file-20231124-21-m6quk8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C8%2C5437%2C3825&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/content-young-woman-taken-idea-having-1020513205">pathdoc/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The warnings about the disastrous impact we are having on our planet are becoming more dire. The UN Environment Programme’s most recent <a href="https://www.unep.org/resources/emissions-gap-report-2023">emissions gap report</a>, which tracks our progress in limiting global warming, revealed that the world is on course for a “hellish” 3°C of global heating before the end of this century.</p>
<p>How can you plan for a family when the outlook is so bleak? A recent <a href="https://journals.plos.org/climate/article?id=10.1371/journal.pclm.0000236">study</a>, conducted by Hope Dillarstone, Laura Brown and Elaine Flores from University College London, has reviewed existing evidence to shed light on how the climate crisis is shaping decisions about whether to have children or not. </p>
<p>Analysing research published between 2012 and 2022, the researchers found that people who were concerned about the climate crisis typically wanted to have few children or no children at all. Concerns about overpopulation and overconsumption, uncertainty about the future, and worries about meeting their family’s needs were among the factors driving people’s desire for smaller families.</p>
<hr>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/should-i-have-children-148388?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=InArticleTop&utm_campaign=Parenting2023">Should I have children?</a> The pieces in this series will help you answer this tough question – exploring fertility, climate change, the cost of living and social pressure.</em></p>
<p><em>We’ll keep the discussion going at a live event in London on November 30. <a href="https://www.waterstones.com/events/the-conversation-should-i-have-children/london-tottenham-court-road">Click here</a> for more information and tickets.</em></p>
<hr>
<h2>Overpopulation and overconsumption</h2>
<p>Do you feel guilty about your potential child’s carbon footprint? Perhaps you’re frustrated by the materialistic values of modern society and the inevitability of overconsumption? These issues also came up in several of the reviewed studies.</p>
<p>There is a long, problematic, and very political history behind the idea of overpopulation. In various forms, the idea has been floating around since at least the late 18th century. It has led to <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00324728.2021.2009013">unethical “population control” measures</a> in some countries. </p>
<p>Some (such as Paul Ehrlich, author of the controversial 1960’s book “The Population Bomb”) argue that there are already too many people living on our planet, and that the sheer number of people is causing our current environmental crisis. But what overpopulation arguments frequently miss is that it’s not just about how many people are on the planet, but also how sustainably we live <a href="https://theconversation.com/global-population-hits-8-billion-but-per-capita-consumption-is-still-the-main-problem-194568">that matters</a>. Numbers cannot tell the full story.</p>
<p>The urgency with which we need to tackle the climate crisis also implies that opting not to have children for the sake of the climate would now prove insufficient and ineffective. Even with reduced fertility, the population will continue to grow because of <a href="https://theconversation.com/8-billion-people-why-trying-to-control-the-population-is-often-futile-and-harmful-194369">population momentum</a>. Even if the fertility rate is declining, there is still a large number of people of reproductive age in the global population, resulting in more births than deaths.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/8-billion-people-why-trying-to-control-the-population-is-often-futile-and-harmful-194369">8 billion people: why trying to control the population is often futile – and harmful</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The participants of several studies pointed out that more structural solutions, such as drastic reductions in carbon emissions, are urgently needed and promise to be more effective than reducing family size. </p>
<h2>Uncertainty about the future</h2>
<p>Are you worried your future children may not be able to enjoy nature due to damaged ecosystems? Perhaps you’re concerned about a more catastrophic outcome, such as full societal collapse? The review shows that these are major themes influencing people’s decision to have fewer children, particularly for those living in the US, Canada, Europe and New Zealand. </p>
<p>These concerns are understandable. The UN’s recent <a href="https://www.unep.org/resources/emissions-gap-report-2023">emissions gap report</a> concluded that there is only a 14% chance that the world will limit global warming to the maximum 1.5°C rise that is being called for by climate scientists.</p>
<p>At the same time, hundreds of millions of people around the globe are already experiencing the catastrophic consequences of climate change in their everyday lives. In Zambia and Ethiopia, for example, climate change concerns are having much more immediate impacts on childbearing.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A baby holds on to his mother and looks at the camera in Liliachi, Zambia." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/561429/original/file-20231123-15-nutmf2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/561429/original/file-20231123-15-nutmf2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=435&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561429/original/file-20231123-15-nutmf2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=435&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561429/original/file-20231123-15-nutmf2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=435&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561429/original/file-20231123-15-nutmf2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=546&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561429/original/file-20231123-15-nutmf2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=546&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561429/original/file-20231123-15-nutmf2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=546&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">in Zambia and Ethiopia, people desired fewer children to meet subsistence needs during periods of declining agricultural productivity.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/liliachi-zambia-circa-2017-unidentified-african-789944029">violent_strings/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In a <a href="https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12889-021-11560-8">study</a> from 2021, which explored the impact of droughts on Zambian women’s social and financial wellbeing and their reproductive lives, one participant said: “The six children I desire to have may not have enough food to eat.” But in order to have fewer children, people require access to contraception, the supply of which can be disrupted, particularly in times of crisis. </p>
<p>In parallel, other respondents in Zambia reported that they are considering having more children to provide financial and labour support. This highlights how the climate crisis is already and very directly impeding <a href="https://www.sistersong.net/">reproductive justice</a> – the right to have children, to not have children, and to parent in safe and healthy environments – especially in the global south (lower income countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America).</p>
<h2>Childbearing as a political choice</h2>
<p>Ultimately, the climate crisis is a collective, and therefore political, crisis. We are much more likely to avoid the worst climate outcomes if we mandate our governments to drastically reduce the emissions generated by industry and consumers than if we concentrate on changing our own individual behaviours.</p>
<p>One <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/09644016.2021.1902700">study</a> included in the review made this point by analysing how environmental activists approached childbearing decisions. Some decided not to have children as a means of exerting political pressure and advocacy, for example, through the former <a href="https://birthstrikemovement.org/about/">BirthStrike movement</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/too-afraid-to-have-kids-how-birthstrike-for-climate-lost-control-of-its-political-message-181198">'Too afraid to have kids' – how BirthStrike for Climate lost control of its political message</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>For others, not having children was a choice made to free up time and energy for political and advocacy activities centring on the climate crisis. Some people instead saw having children as a way of raising future activists.</p>
<p>In the end, the choice is deeply personal. The only “right” answer is the one that is best for you. But we can all do more to make sure policies help everyone enact their own choices.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong><em>Don’t have time to read about climate change as much as you’d like?</em></strong>
<br><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/newsletters/imagine-57?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=Imagine&utm_content=DontHaveTimeTop">Get a weekly roundup in your inbox instead.</a> Every Wednesday, The Conversation’s environment editor writes Imagine, a short email that goes a little deeper into just one climate issue. <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/newsletters/imagine-57?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=Imagine&utm_content=DontHaveTimeBottom">Join the 20,000+ readers who’ve subscribed so far.</a></em></p>
<hr><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/218281/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jasmine Fledderjohann is a member of the British Society for Population Studies and receives funding from UKRI in the form of a Future Leaders Fellowship (grant number MR/T021950/1).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Laura Sochas consults for Options Consultancy Services. She is funded through a Leverhulme Early Career Fellowship. She is affiliated with the British Society of Population Studies and the Universities and Colleges Union.</span></em></p>Is the disastrous impact we’re having on the planet affecting our decision about having children of our own?Jasmine Fledderjohann, Senior Lecturer in Sociology, Lancaster UniversityLaura Sochas, Leverhulme Early Career Fellow, School of Social and Political Science, The University of EdinburghLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2146902023-10-23T12:25:17Z2023-10-23T12:25:17ZBiological sex is far from binary − this college course examines the science of sex diversity in people, fungi and across the animal kingdom<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554094/original/file-20231016-21-1wrv5k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C2169%2C1382&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Biological sex comes in many more forms than just male or female.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/watercolour-illustration-of-male-and-female-symbols-royalty-free-image/1209433697">Yifei Fang/Moment via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Text saying: Uncommon Courses, from The Conversation" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/499014/original/file-20221205-17-kcwec8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/499014/original/file-20221205-17-kcwec8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499014/original/file-20221205-17-kcwec8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499014/original/file-20221205-17-kcwec8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499014/original/file-20221205-17-kcwec8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499014/original/file-20221205-17-kcwec8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499014/original/file-20221205-17-kcwec8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/topics/uncommon-courses-130908">Uncommon Courses</a> is an occasional series from The Conversation U.S. highlighting unconventional approaches to teaching.</em> </p>
<h2>Title of course:</h2>
<p>Diversity of Biological Sex Characteristics</p>
<h2>What prompted the idea for the course?</h2>
<p>Most people view biological sex, or the physical features related to reproduction, as <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/2022/06/28/americans-complex-views-on-gender-identity-and-transgender-issues/">simple and binary</a> – either male or female. Even those who recognize that gender – referring to cultural norms around biological sex, or a person’s internal feeling of being masculine, feminine or both – can be complex and nuanced don’t see biological sex in the same way. Many also regard variability in sex and gender as exclusive to people – not found in nonhuman animals.</p>
<p>I am a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=OaEmJXAAAAAJ&hl=en">behavioral neurobiologist</a> who has been teaching human physiology since 1998. Over the past several years, I have <a href="https://theconversation.com/brain-scientists-havent-been-able-to-find-major-differences-between-womens-and-mens-brains-despite-over-a-century-of-searching-143516">focused my reading and writing</a> <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/governing-behavior">on the biology of sex</a>. It struck me that many of my students had misguided assumptions about sex characteristics, including that all people are physically either 100% male or 100% female. </p>
<p>A <a href="https://ari.oucreate.com/4873-5873_syllabus.pdf">course on biological sexual diversity</a> in both nonhuman animals and people could challenge these assumptions.</p>
<h2>What does the course explore?</h2>
<p>First, we examine <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/dvg.1020150303">why sexual reproduction evolved</a> in any species. This question is <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-did-sex-evolve-researchers-edge-closer-to-solving-longstanding-mystery-55407">still hotly debated among biologists</a> because sex is inefficient. It requires time and energy to find a suitable mate and unite your sex cells, plus it allows you to pass on only half your genes to your offspring.</p>
<p>In comparison, <a href="https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e/pages/32-3-asexual-reproduction">asexual reproduction</a> – essentially cloning yourself – is much more efficient. You don’t have to find a mate, and everyone can produce offspring themselves because there are no males. In biology, “male” refers to an individual that makes small sex cells like sperm, and “female” refers to an individual that makes large sex cells like eggs.</p>
<p>Next, we explore <a href="https://www.ucpress.edu/book/9780520280458/evolutions-rainbow">nonhuman sexual diversity</a>, including fungi that have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbr.2015.08.002">thousands of sexes</a> and aphids that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-5347(01)02331-X">reproduce asexually most of the year</a> but sexually once each fall. Among many others, we also learn about fish that are male or female at <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-800049-6.00160-8">different times of their lives</a>; <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2020.101652">intersex crayfish</a>; and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2005.07.013">female spotted hyenas</a> that have a penis.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/Jxs2yHP6K2E?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Sex characteristics manifest in different ways across the animal kingdom.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We then transition from nonhuman animals to people, via the brain. We learn about <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1073858419867298">a few small</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00359-019-01376-8">brain structures in vertebrates</a> that likely have reproductive functions and are differently sized in females versus males on average. We also learn that most people have some brain structures that are more typically male, others that are more typically female and still others that are intermediate – in other words, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1509654112">most people are mosaics</a> of female-typical and male-typical brain sex characteristics.</p>
<p>Finally, we focus on the biological sex characteristics of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/518288a">intersex people</a>. The <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nrendo.2014.130">chromosomes and reproductive organs</a> of intersex people have <a href="https://www.ted.com/talks/emily_quinn_the_way_we_think_about_biological_sex_is_wrong#t-781094">some typically female and some typically male characteristics</a> or are intermediate between them.</p>
<p>Students then build on their knowledge of the diversity of biological sex characteristics to discuss whether intersex infants should have <a href="https://aeon.co/essays/people-born-intersex-have-a-right-to-genital-integrity">surgery to “correct” their genitals</a>, as well as <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/03/magazine/the-humiliating-practice-of-sex-testing-female-athletes.html">who should be allowed</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2012.680533">to compete in</a> <a href="https://theconversation.com/striking-a-balance-between-fairness-in-competition-and-the-rights-of-transgender-athletes-159685">girls and women’s athletics</a>.</p>
<h2>Why is this course relevant now?</h2>
<p>Perhaps more than ever, there is a debate about how to treat people who do not fit neatly into a female or a male box. Many assume that biological sex is binary and regard transgender and nonbinary people as mistaken or confused. In addition, for many decades, <a href="https://theconversation.com/gender-affirming-care-has-a-long-history-in-the-us-and-not-just-for-transgender-people-201752">intersex infants</a> have undergone surgical procedures to make them appear more typically male or female. Even those who support transgender, nonbinary and intersex people often assume that biological sex is binary. But this assumption is not anchored in evidence.</p>
<h2>What will the course prepare students to do?</h2>
<p>Students often say that before they took this course, they had no idea biological sex characteristics could be so diverse, despite having taken several biology courses. </p>
<p>An improved awareness of the complexity of biological sex may help shape the research and teaching of future biologists. This will help them design experiments that take account of the diversity of their subjects and be more <a href="https://theconversation.com/trans-students-benefit-from-gender-inclusive-classrooms-research-shows-and-so-do-the-other-students-and-science-itself-204777">inclusive in their teaching</a>. It may also help all students ask better questions and make better judgments about social and political issues related to sex and gender.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/214690/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ari Berkowitz receives funding from the Oklahoma Center for the Advancement of Science and Technology and has received funding from the National Science Foundation and the National Institutes of Health.</span></em></p>Spanning evolutionary biology, genetics, development, neurobiology, endocrinology and psychology, as well as current events and sports, students explore the complexities of the biology of sex.Ari Berkowitz, Presidential Professor and Director of Graduate Studies, Biology; Director, Cellular & Behavioral Neurobiology Graduate Program, University of OklahomaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2131402023-10-15T12:27:54Z2023-10-15T12:27:54ZHow climate change-induced stress is altering fish hormones — with huge repercussions for reproduction<p>In <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.213.4507.577">1981, scientists discovered that female fish exposed to high temperatures developed testes instead of ovaries</a>. Since then, over 1,100 studies on different animal species, including 400 on freshwater fish, have found similar results.</p>
<p>This raises several questions.</p>
<p>Why does this happen? How can this be explained, and does it harm long-term fish populations? Our research has shown that a key factor in explaining this is the over-production of stress hormones as a result of higher temperatures.</p>
<h2>No time to adapt</h2>
<p>Fish reproductive organs are highly adaptable to environmental changes as, unlike mammals, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0044-8486(02)00057-1">they have simple structures</a>. Remarkably, even slight changes in water conditions can directly and significantly <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1132-4">impact fish metabolism and physiology</a>.</p>
<p>Fish use this to their advantage by using environmental cues to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00018-020-03532-9">align their reproductive success with seasonal conditions</a>. For example, several fish species, like the <a href="https://www.alberta.ca/lake-sturgeon">yellow sturgeon, breed in the springtime cued by the warmer water temperatures</a>.</p>
<p>However, sudden environmental changes brought about by climate change are drastically affecting fish populations and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2880135/pdf/rstb20100055.pdf">pushing some of them to move to more suitable breeding habitats</a>.</p>
<h2>Temperature can change female to male fish</h2>
<p>Studying how female fish become male (or are masculinized) through temperature change has led to a significant breakthrough. When fish are exposed to temperatures outside their normal range, they become stressed and experience a high level of the <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/22187-cortisol">stress hormone called cortisol</a>. This is the case for several fish species, such as the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8649.2010.02780.x">Argentinian silverside</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1159/000100035">medaka</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1609411114">zebrafish</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/if-we-protect-mangroves-we-protect-our-fisheries-our-towns-and-ourselves-214390">If we protect mangroves, we protect our fisheries, our towns and ourselves</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Interestingly, the same enzyme that generates cortisol is also in charge of producing the most potent male hormone in fish called <a href="https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2016-2311">11-ketotestosterone</a>. The role of this male hormone is to trigger the development of male sexual characteristics in fish. </p>
<p>If fish experience stress — i.e., an increase in cortisol — from high temperatures, it can tilt the hormonal balance in fish larva and result in testes development. The overproduction of androgens results in more males developing than females under high temperatures.</p>
<h2>Not just stress</h2>
<p>In <a href="https://doi.org/10.1242/dev.172866">2019</a>, our research group demonstrated that blocking stress receptors through <a href="https://www.nih.gov/news-events/gene-editing-digital-press-kit">gene editing tools</a> completely suppressed fish masculinization induced by high temperatures. These results reveal, for the first time, that the brain acts as a driver of masculinization induced by thermal stress. </p>
<p>In our new study published in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00018-023-04913-6"><em>Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences</em></a> in 2023, we further demonstrated that thyroid hormones, in addition to stress hormones, are involved in fish masculinization. Once again, through gene editing, we were able to block stress receptors and show that the thyroid hormone pathway is affected when fish experience stress. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Two fish larvae seen close-up." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553544/original/file-20231012-25-xn0fir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553544/original/file-20231012-25-xn0fir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553544/original/file-20231012-25-xn0fir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553544/original/file-20231012-25-xn0fir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553544/original/file-20231012-25-xn0fir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553544/original/file-20231012-25-xn0fir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553544/original/file-20231012-25-xn0fir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The larvae of the fish species Centrarchid. Warming temperatures are causing fish larvae to disproportionately develop male sex organs.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Wikimedia Commons)</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It was observed that when cortisol and thyroid hormone production were suppressed through the combined use of chemical drugs, no females were masculinized. Understanding the molecular mechanisms behind fish sex determination helps predict how climate change-induced temperature can affect fish populations in the future.</p>
<h2>Role of pollution</h2>
<p>Several environmental contaminants, like pesticides and plasticizers, are known to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2022.112849">upset the balance of hormones in animals</a>. These contaminants — known as endocrine-disrupting chemicals — <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2021.112584">can lead to sex organs developing abnormally in fish</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/five-options-for-restoring-global-biodiversity-after-the-un-agreement-196835">Five options for restoring global biodiversity after the UN agreement</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>With climate change, environmental factors that affect sexual development are now a major issue. Lately, temperatures have been fluctuating drastically, both low and high, exceeding the acceptable range for most fish species. Such changes cause high temperature events, acidification, and hypoxia <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2011.0529">that can distort fish sex ratio</a> by skewing it towards males, and even resulting in all-male fish populations. </p>
<p>In rivers and lakes, the inter-annual events of El Niño or La Niña can also be altered by climate change, which can cause severe periods of flood or drought. This can exacerbate stresses to fish and too few females in a fish population can cause it to collapse, with dire consequences in biodiversity for us all.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/213140/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Valérie S. Langlois has received funding from the Canada Research Chair Program to conduct this work.
</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Diana Castaneda-Cortes received funding from Doctoral fellow of the CONICET, Argentine National Research Council, 2015-2020. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Juan Ignacio Fernandino has received funding from the Argentinean National Agency for the Promotion of Science and Technology (AGENCIA) to conduct this work.</span></em></p>Climate change is causing higher levels of stress in fish, and the resulting hormonal imbalances are fundamentally altering entire populations.Valérie S. Langlois, Professor/Professeure titulaire, Institut national de la recherche scientifique (INRS)Diana Castañeda-Cortés, Postdoctoral, Institut national de la recherche scientifique (INRS)Juan Ignacio Fernandino, Associate research scientist, Developmental Biology Laboratory, Instituto Tecnológico de Chascomús (CONICET-UNSAM), Universidad Nacional de San MartínLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2106472023-08-02T19:59:26Z2023-08-02T19:59:26ZIf the world were coming to an end, what would be the most ethical way to rebuild humanity ‘off planet’?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540634/original/file-20230802-25-uh2308.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=14%2C0%2C4977%2C3330&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">NASA/AP</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Last week, scientists announced that for the first time on record, Antarctic ice has failed to “substantially recover” over winter, in a “once in 7.5-million-year event”. Climate change is the <a href="https://theconversation.com/antarctica-is-missing-a-chunk-of-sea-ice-bigger-than-greenland-whats-going-on-210665">most likely culprit</a>. </p>
<p>Petra Heil, a sea ice physicist from the Australian Antarctic Division, <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-07-24/antarctic-sea-ice-levels-nosedive-five-sigma-event/102635204">told the ABC</a> it could tip the world into a new state. “That would be quite concerning to the sustainability of human conditions on Earth, I suspect.”</p>
<p>And in March, a senior United Nations disarmament official <a href="https://press.un.org/en/2023/sc15250.doc.htm">told the Security Council</a> the risk of nuclear weapons being used today is higher than at any time since the end of the Cold War.</p>
<p>Both warnings speak to concerns about Earth’s security. Will our planet be able to support human life in the future? And if not, will humanity have another chance at survival in space? </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/this-is-the-way-the-world-ends-nevil-shutes-on-the-beach-warned-us-of-nuclear-annihilation-its-still-a-hot-button-issue-209243">'This is the way the world ends': Nevil Shute's On the Beach warned us of nuclear annihilation. It's still a hot-button issue</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>‘Billionauts’ and how to choose who goes</h2>
<p>Over the past few years, we’ve witnessed the rise of the “billionaut”. The ultra-wealthy are engaged in a <a href="https://theconversation.com/billionaire-space-race-the-ultimate-symbol-of-capitalisms-flawed-obsession-with-growth-164511">private space race</a> costing billions of dollars, while <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/oliverwilliams1/2021/12/21/billionaire-space-race-turns-into-a-publicity-disaster/?sh=79056f7e5e4d">regular citizens often condemn</a> the wasted resources and contribution to global carbon emissions. </p>
<p>Space – described in the <a href="https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/introouterspacetreaty.html">Outer Space Treaty</a> as being the “province of all mankind” – risks instead becoming the playground of the elite few, as they try to escape the consequences of environmental destruction. </p>
<p>But if we have to select humans to send into space for a species survival mission, how do we choose who gets to go? </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540631/original/file-20230802-29-z9e4e7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540631/original/file-20230802-29-z9e4e7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540631/original/file-20230802-29-z9e4e7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540631/original/file-20230802-29-z9e4e7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540631/original/file-20230802-29-z9e4e7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540631/original/file-20230802-29-z9e4e7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540631/original/file-20230802-29-z9e4e7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540631/original/file-20230802-29-z9e4e7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">How should we choose who we include in a species survival mission?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Mikhail Nilov/Pexels</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In Montreal last month, the <a href="https://irg.space/irg-2023/">Interstellar Research Group</a> explored the question: how would you select a crew for the first interstellar mission? </p>
<p>A panel led by <a href="https://www.erikanesvold.com/">Erika Nesvold</a>, a co-editor of the new book <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/reclaiming-space-9780197604793?cc=au&lang=en&#">Reclaiming Space</a>, discussed the perspectives of gender minorities, people with disabilities and First Nations groups regarding the ideal composition for an off-world crew. </p>
<p>I was on the panel to discuss my contribution to the book, which explores how we can promote procreation in our new off-world society, without diminishing the reproductive liberty of survivors.</p>
<h2>The ultra-wealthy and reproductive slavery</h2>
<p>The first step in deciding how to allocate limited spaces on our “lifeboat” is identifying and rejecting options that are practically or ethically unacceptable. </p>
<p>The first option I rejected was a user-pay system, whereby the wealthy can purchase a seat on the lifeboat. A 2022 Oxfam report showed the investments of just 125 billionaires collectively contribute 393 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent per year: <a href="https://www.oxfam.org/en/press-releases/billionaire-emits-million-times-more-greenhouse-gases-average-person#:%7E:text=Recent%20data%20from%20Oxfam's%20research,%C2%B0C%20goal%20of%20the">a million times more</a> than the average for most global citizens.</p>
<p>If the ultra-wealthy are the only ones to survive an environmental apocalypse, there’s a risk they would just create another one, on another planet. This would undermine the species survival project.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540627/original/file-20230802-19-o2s08v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540627/original/file-20230802-19-o2s08v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540627/original/file-20230802-19-o2s08v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540627/original/file-20230802-19-o2s08v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540627/original/file-20230802-19-o2s08v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540627/original/file-20230802-19-o2s08v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540627/original/file-20230802-19-o2s08v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540627/original/file-20230802-19-o2s08v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Jeff Bezos (second from left), founder of Amazon and space tourism company Blue Origin.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Tony Guitierrez/AP</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The second option I rejected was allowing a reproductive slave class to develop, with some survivors compelled to populate the new community. This would disproportionately impact cis-gender women of reproductive capacity, demanding their gestational labour in exchange for a chance at survival. </p>
<p>Neither a user-pay system nor reproductive slave labour would achieve the goal of “saving humanity” in any meaningful way. </p>
<p>Many would argue preserving human values - including equality, reproductive liberty, and respect for diversity - is more important than saving human biology. If we lose what makes us unique as a species, that would be a kind of extinction anyway. </p>
<p>But if we want humanity to survive, we still need to build our population in our new home. So what other options do we have?</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/doomsday-bunkers-mars-and-the-mindset-the-tech-bros-trying-to-outsmart-the-end-of-the-world-188661">Doomsday bunkers, Mars and 'The Mindset': the tech bros trying to outsmart the end of the world</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Reproduction and diversity</h2>
<p>How can we avoid discrimination on the basis of reproductive capacity – including age, sexuality, <a href="https://theconversation.com/infertility-through-the-ages-and-how-ivf-changed-the-way-we-think-about-it-87128">fertility status</a> or personal preference? </p>
<p>We could avoid any questions about family planning when selecting our crew. This would align with <a href="https://www.seek.com.au/career-advice/article/illegal-interview-questions-what-employers-have-no-right-to-ask">equal opportunity policies</a> in other areas, like employment. But we would then have to hope enough candidates selected on other merits happen to be willing and able to procreate. </p>
<p>Alternatively, we could reserve a certain number of places for those who agree to contribute to population growth. Fertility would then become an inherent job requirement. This might be similar to taking on a role as a <a href="https://theconversation.com/surrogacy-laws-why-a-global-approach-is-needed-to-stop-exploitation-of-women-98966">surrogate</a>, in which reproductive capacity is essential. </p>
<p>But what if, after accepting such a position on the mission, someone changed their mind about wanting children? Would they be expected to provide some sort of compensation? Would they be vulnerable to retaliation? </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540635/original/file-20230802-10044-kwy7jj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540635/original/file-20230802-10044-kwy7jj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540635/original/file-20230802-10044-kwy7jj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540635/original/file-20230802-10044-kwy7jj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540635/original/file-20230802-10044-kwy7jj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540635/original/file-20230802-10044-kwy7jj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540635/original/file-20230802-10044-kwy7jj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540635/original/file-20230802-10044-kwy7jj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Fertility could potentially be a ‘job requirement’ for some space colonisers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Oleksandr Canary Islands/Pexels</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The more we focus on procreation, the less diversity we will preserve in the species as a whole – especially if we deliberately select against diverse sexualities, disabilities and older people. </p>
<p>A lack of diversity would also threaten the long-term viability of the new society. For example, even if we exclude all physiologically or socially infertile people from the initial crew, these traits will reappear in future generations.</p>
<p>The difference is: these children would be born into a less accepting community. Cooperation will be essential for the new human society – so promoting hostility would be counterproductive. </p>
<p>So, what options are left? Using a random global sample to select travellers might alleviate concerns about equity and fairness. But the ability of a random sample to maximise our survival as a species would depend on how large the sample can be. </p>
<p>A global sample would minimise bias. But there’s a risk it might yield a crew without doctors, engineers, farmers or other essential personnel. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/venus-the-trouble-with-sending-people-there-191534">Venus: the trouble with sending people there</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Random selection versus a points-based system</h2>
<p>The best balance between competing needs might be a stratified random sampling method, involving randomly selecting survivors from predetermined categories. Reproductive potential might be one category. Others might focus on other elements of practical usefulness or contribution to human diversity.</p>
<p>Another option is a points-based system, whereby different skills and characteristics are ranked in terms of their desirability. In this system, an elderly person who speaks multiple languages may score higher than a physiologically fertile young person, due to their ability to substantially contribute to language preservation and education. </p>
<p>This does not entirely eliminate the potential for discrimination, of course. Someone would need to decide which traits are most desirable and valuable to the new human society.</p>
<p>However we determine our lifeboat candidates, it should be carefully considered. In our attempt to “save humanity”, we must avoid sacrificing the very things that make us human. </p>
<hr>
<p><em>Evie Kendal is a contributor to <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/reclaiming-space-9780197604793?cc=au&lang=en&#">Reclaiming Space: Progressive and Multicultural Visions of Space Exploration</a> (Oxford University Press)</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/210647/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Evie Kendal does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Climate change and the nuclear threat are raising concerns about our planet’s future ability to support human life. If we launch a species survival mission, who should go?Evie Kendal, Senior lecturer of health promotion, Swinburne University of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2082762023-07-13T12:37:38Z2023-07-13T12:37:38ZPromising assisted reproductive technologies come with ethical, legal and social challenges – a developmental biologist and a bioethicist discuss IVF, abortion and the mice with two dads<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534595/original/file-20230628-23-se3fkd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C2000%2C1500&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A few days after successful fertilization, an embryo becomes a rapidly dividing ball of cells called a blastocyst.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/illustration/blastocyst-embryo-illustration-royalty-free-illustration/1498384521">Juan Gaertner/Science Photo Library via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>Assisted reproductive technologies are medical procedures that help people experiencing difficulty having or an inability to have biological children of their own. From in vitro fertilization to genetic screening to creation of viable eggs from the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-05834-x">skin cells of two male mice</a>, each new development speaks to the potential of reproductive technologies to expand access to the experience of pregnancy.</em> </p>
<p><em>Translating advances from the lab to the clinic, however, comes with challenges that go far beyond the purely technical.</em></p>
<p><em>Conversations around the ethics and implications of cutting-edge research often happen after the fact, when the science and technology have advanced beyond the point at which open dialogue could best protect affected groups. In the spirit of starting such cross-discipline conversations earlier, we invited developmental biologist <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=i6SghEMAAAAJ&hl=en">Keith Latham</a> of Michigan State University and bioethicist <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Mary-Faith-Marshall">Mary Faith Marshall</a> of the University of Virginia to discuss the ethical and technological potential of <a href="https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2023/05/27/1177191913/sperm-or-egg-in-lab-breakthrough-in-reproduction-designer-babies-ivg">in vitro gametogenesis</a> and assisted reproductive technology post-Roe.</em></p>
<h2>How new are the ethical considerations raised by assisted reproductive technologies?</h2>
<p><strong>Keith</strong></p>
<p>Every new technology raises many of the same questions, and likely new ones. On the safety and risk-benefit side of the ethical conversation, there’s nothing here that we haven’t dealt with since the 1970s with other reproductive technologies. But it’s important to keep asking questions, because the benefits are hugely dependent on the success rate. There are potential biological costs, but also possible social costs, financial costs, societal costs and many others.</p>
<p><strong>Mary Faith</strong> </p>
<p>It’s probably been that way even longer. One of my mentors, Joseph Francis Fletcher, a pioneering bioethicist and Episcopal priest, wrote a book called “<a href="https://press.princeton.edu/books/hardcover/9780691635224/morals-and-medicine">Morals and Medicine</a>” in 1954. It was the first non-Roman Catholic treatment of bioethics. And he raised a lot of these issues there, including the <a href="https://theconversation.com/jurassic-world-scientists-still-havent-learned-that-just-because-you-can-doesnt-mean-you-should-real-world-genetic-engineers-can-learn-from-the-cautionary-tale-184369">technological imperative</a> – the idea that because we can develop the technology to do something, we therefore should develop it.</p>
<p>Fletcher also said that the use of artifice, or human-made creations, is supremely human. That’s what we do: We figure out how things work and we develop new technologies like vaccines and heart-lung machines based on evolving scientific knowledge.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534596/original/file-20230628-30-nfjlun.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Microscopy image of mouse ovum being fertilized by mouse sperm" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534596/original/file-20230628-30-nfjlun.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534596/original/file-20230628-30-nfjlun.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534596/original/file-20230628-30-nfjlun.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534596/original/file-20230628-30-nfjlun.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534596/original/file-20230628-30-nfjlun.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=487&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534596/original/file-20230628-30-nfjlun.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=487&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534596/original/file-20230628-30-nfjlun.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=487&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Scientists were able to create a mouse egg from the skin cells of male mice.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/fertilization-of-mouse-ovum-royalty-free-image/523741410">Clouds Hill Imaging Ltd./Corbis Documentary via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>I think that in most cases, scientists should be involved in thinking about the implications of their work. But often, researchers focus more on the direct applications of their work than the potential indirect consequences. </p>
<p>Given the evolution of assisted reproductive technology, and the fact that its evolution is going to continue, I think one of the central questions to consider is, what are the goals of developing it? For assisted reproduction, it’s to help infertile people and people in nontraditional relationships have children.</p>
<h2>What are some recent developments in the field of assisted reproductive technology?</h2>
<p><strong>Keith</strong></p>
<p>One recent advance in assisted reproductive technology is the expansion of <a href="https://www.acog.org/clinical/clinical-guidance/committee-opinion/articles/2020/03/preimplantation-genetic-testing">pre-implantation genetic testing</a> methods, particularly DNA sequencing. Many genes come in different variants, or alleles, that can be inherited from each parent. Providers can determine whether an embryo bears a “bad” allele that may increase the risk of certain diseases and select embryos with “healthy” alleles.</p>
<p>Genetic screening <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2022.03.017">raises several ethical concerns</a>. For example, the parents’ genetic profiles could be unwillingly inferred from that of the embryo. This possibility may deter prospective parents from having children, and such knowledge may also have potential effects on any future child. The cost of screening and potential need for additional cycles of IVF may also increase disparities.</p>
<p>There are also considerations about the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2022.03.019">accuracy of screening predictions</a> without accounting for environmental effects, and what <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s12687-021-00573-w">level of genetic risk</a> is “serious” enough for an embryo to be excluded. More extensive screening also raises concerns about possible misuse for purposes other than disease prevention, such as production of “<a href="https://theconversation.com/an-american-company-will-test-your-embryos-for-genetic-defects-but-designer-babies-arent-here-just-yet-126833">designer babies</a>.”</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/uhb5gd5B-7g?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">In vitro gametogenesis involves making egg or sperm cells from other adult cells in the body.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>At a <a href="https://www.nationalacademies.org/news/2023/02/agenda-for-third-international-summit-on-human-genome-editing-march-6-8">genome-editing conference</a> in March 2023, researchers announced that they were able to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-05834-x">delete and duplicate whole chromosomes</a> from the skin cells of male mice to make eggs. This method is one potential way to make eggs that do not carry genetic abnormalities. </p>
<p>They were very upfront that this was done at 1% efficiency in mice, which could be lower in humans. That means something bad happened to 99% of the embryos. The biological world is not typically binary, so a portion of that surviving 1% could still be abnormal. Just because the mice survived doesn’t mean they’re OK. I would say at this point, it would be unethical to try this on people.</p>
<p>As with some forms of genetic screening, using this technique to reduce the risk of one disease could inadvertently increase the risk of another. Determining that it is absolutely safe to duplicate a chromosome would require knowing every allele of every gene on that chromosome, and what each allele could do to the health of a person. That’s a pretty tall order, as that could involve identifying hundreds to thousands of genes, and the effects of all their variants may not be known. </p>
<p><strong>Mary Faith</strong></p>
<p>That raises the issue of efficacy and costs to yet another order of magnitude.</p>
<p><strong>Keith</strong> </p>
<p>Genome editing with <a href="https://theconversation.com/human-genome-editing-offers-tantalizing-possibilities-but-without-clear-guidelines-many-ethical-questions-still-remain-200983">CRISPR technology</a> in people carries similar concerns. Because of potential limitations in how precise the technology can be, it may be difficult for researchers to say they are absolutely 100% certain there won’t be off-target changes in the genome. Proceeding without that full knowledge could be risky. </p>
<p>But that’s where bioethicists need to come into play. Researchers don’t know what the full risk is, so how do you make that risk-benefit calculation?</p>
<p><strong>Mary Faith</strong></p>
<p>There’s the option of a voluntary global moratorium on using these technologies on human embryos. But somebody somewhere is <a href="https://theconversation.com/did-he-jiankui-make-people-better-documentary-spurs-a-new-look-at-the-case-of-the-first-gene-edited-babies-196714">still going to do it</a>, because the technology is just sitting there, waiting to be moved forward.</p>
<h2>How will the legal landscape affect the development and implementation of assisted reproductive technologies?</h2>
<p><strong>Mary Faith</strong></p>
<p>Any research that involves human embryos is in some ways politicized. Not only because the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-020-00127-z">government provides funding</a> to the basic science labs that conduct this research, but because of the wide array of beliefs that members of the public at large have about <a href="https://theconversation.com/defining-when-human-life-begins-is-not-a-question-science-can-answer-its-a-question-of-politics-and-ethical-values-165514">when life begins</a> or <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-personhood-the-ethics-question-that-needs-a-closer-look-in-abortion-debates-182745">what personhood means</a>.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/roe-overturned-what-you-need-to-know-about-the-supreme-court-abortion-decision-184692">Dobbs decision</a>, which overturned the constitutional right to an abortion, has implications for assisted reproduction and beyond. Most people who are pregnant don’t even know they’re pregnant at the earliest stages, and somewhere around <a href="https://theconversation.com/most-human-embryos-naturally-die-after-conception-restrictive-abortion-laws-fail-to-take-this-embryo-loss-into-account-187904">60% of those pregnancies end naturally</a> because of genetic aberrations. Between 1973 and 2005, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1215/03616878-1966324">over 400 women were arrested for miscarriage in the U.S.</a>, and I think that number is going to grow. The implications for reproductive health care, and for assisted reproduction in the future, are challenging and frightening.</p>
<p>What will abortion restrictions mean for people who have <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/art/key-findings/multiple-births.html">multiple-gestation pregnancies</a>, in which they carry more than one embryo at the same time? In order to have one healthy child born from that process, the other embryos often need to be removed so they don’t all die. In the past 40 years, the number of twin births doubled and triplet and higher-order births quadrupled, primarily because of fertility treatments. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534477/original/file-20230628-27-v0r0uc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Needle touching eggs in petri dish under microscope in IVF" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534477/original/file-20230628-27-v0r0uc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534477/original/file-20230628-27-v0r0uc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534477/original/file-20230628-27-v0r0uc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534477/original/file-20230628-27-v0r0uc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534477/original/file-20230628-27-v0r0uc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534477/original/file-20230628-27-v0r0uc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534477/original/file-20230628-27-v0r0uc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">IVF may involve transferring more than one embryo at a time.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/in-vitro-fertilization-royalty-free-image/1272954210">Antonio Marquez lanza/Moment via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong>Keith</strong> </p>
<p>IVF may transfer one, two, or sometimes three embryos at a time. The <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2022.11.038">cost of care for preterm birth</a>, which is one possible outcome of multiple-gestation pregnancies, can be high. That’s in addition to the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2013.10.005">cost of delivery</a>. IVF clinics are increasingly transferring just one embryo to mitigate such concerns.</p>
<p>The life-at-conception bills that have been put forth in some U.S. state legislatures and Congress may contain language claiming they are not meant to prevent IVF. But the language of the bills could be extended to affect procedures such as IVF with pre-implantation genetic testing to detect chromosomal abnormalities, particularly when single-embryo transfer is the goal. Pre-implantation genetic testing has been increasing, with one study estimating that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2022.1892">over 40% of all IVF cycles</a> in the U.S. in 2018 involved genetic screening. </p>
<p>Could life-at-conception bills criminalize clinics that don’t transfer embryos known to be genetically abnormal? Freezing genetically abnormal embryos could avoid destroying them, but that raises questions of, to what end? Who would pay for the storage, and who would be responsible for those embryos?</p>
<h2>How can we determine whether the risks outweigh the benefits when so much is unknown?</h2>
<p><strong>Keith</strong></p>
<p>Conducting studies in animal models is an important first step. In some cases, it either hasn’t been done or hasn’t been done extensively. Even with animal studies, you have to recognize that mice, rabbits and monkeys are not human. Animal models may reduce some risks before a technology is used in people, but they won’t eliminate all risks, because of biological differences between species.</p>
<p><strong>Mary Faith</strong> </p>
<p>We could look to the example of <a href="https://www.genome.gov/25520302/online-education-kit-1972-first-recombinant-dna">early recombinant DNA research in the U.S.</a> The federal government created the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1089%2Fhum.2013.2524">Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee at the National Institutes of Health</a> to oversee animal and early-phase human research involving synthetic or hybrid genetic material. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.307.5712.1028b">death of Jesse Gelsinger</a>, who was a participant in a gene therapy clinical trial in 1999, led to a halt in all gene therapy clinical trials in the U.S. for a time. When the Food and Drug Administration investigated what went wrong, they found huge numbers of adverse events in both humans and animals that should have been reported to the advisory committee but weren’t. Notably, the principal investigator of the trial was also the <a href="https://sciencehistory.org/stories/magazine/the-death-of-jesse-gelsinger-20-years-later/">primary shareholder</a> of the biotech company that made the drug being tested. That raises questions about the reality of oversight.</p>
<p>I think something like that earlier NIH advisory committee but for reproductive technologies would still be advisable. But researchers, policymakers and regulators need to learn from the lessons of the past to try to ensure that – especially in early-phase research – we’re very thoughtful about the potential risks and that research participants really understand what the implications are for participation in research. That would be one model for translating research from the animal into the human.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534481/original/file-20230628-30590-2nwhy8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Child looking into a slip lamp microscope for an eye exam with a doctor" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534481/original/file-20230628-30590-2nwhy8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534481/original/file-20230628-30590-2nwhy8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534481/original/file-20230628-30590-2nwhy8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534481/original/file-20230628-30590-2nwhy8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534481/original/file-20230628-30590-2nwhy8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534481/original/file-20230628-30590-2nwhy8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534481/original/file-20230628-30590-2nwhy8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The FDA approved a gene therapy for a form of congenital vision loss in 2017. The child in this photo, then 8, first received gene therapy at age 4.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/BlindnessTreatmentPrice/c567cc3a2b244cac8afc2b5ae2c62ca3">Bill West/AP Photo</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong>Keith</strong></p>
<p>A process to make sure that the people conducting studies don’t have a conflict of interest, like having the potential to commercially profit from the technology, would be useful. </p>
<p>Caution, consensus and cooperation should not take second place to profit motives. Altering the human genome in a way that allows human-made genetic changes to be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1089/crispr.2020.0096">propagated throughout the population</a> has a potential to alter the genetics of the human species as a whole. </p>
<p><strong>Mary Faith</strong></p>
<p>That raises the question of how long it will take for long-term effects to show. It’s one thing for an implanted egg not to survive. But how long will it take to know whether there are effects that aren’t obvious at birth?</p>
<p><strong>Keith</strong> </p>
<p>We’re still collecting long-term outcome data for people born using different reproductive technologies. So far there have been no obviously horrible consequences. But some abnormalities could take decades to manifest, and there are many variables to contend with. </p>
<p>One can arguably say that there’s substantial good in helping couples have babies. There can be a benefit to their emotional well-being, and reproduction is a natural part of human health and biology. And a lot of really smart, dedicated people are putting a lot of energy into making sure that the risks are minimized. We can also look to some of the practices and approaches to oversight that have been used over the past several decades.</p>
<p><strong>Mary Faith</strong></p>
<p>And thinking about international guidelines, such as from the <a href="https://cioms.ch">Council for International Medical Science</a> and other groups, could provide guidance on protecting human research subjects.</p>
<p><strong>Keith</strong></p>
<p>You hate to advocate for a world where the automatic response to anything new is “no, don’t do that.” My response is, “Show me it’s safe before you do it.” I don’t think that’s unreasonable.</p>
<p>Some people have a view that scientists don’t think about the ethics of research and what’s right and wrong, advisable or inadvisable. But we do think about it. I co-direct a research training program that includes teaching scientists how to responsibly and ethically conduct research, including speakers who specifically address the ethics of reproductive technologies. It is valuable to have a dialogue between scientists and ethicists, because ethicists will often think about things from a different perspective. </p>
<p>As people go through their scientific careers and see new technologies unfold over time, these discussions can help them develop a deeper appreciation and understanding of the broader impact of their research. It becomes our job to make sure that each generation of scientists is motivated to think about these things. </p>
<p><strong>Mary Faith</strong></p>
<p>It’s also really important to include stakeholders – people who are nonscientists, people who experience barriers to reproduction and people who are opposed to the idea – so they have a voice at the table as well. That’s how you get good policies, right? You have everyone who should be at the table, at the table.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/208276/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Scientists can create viable eggs from two male mice. In the wake of CRISPR controversies and restrictive abortion laws, two experts start a dialogue on ethical research in reproductive biology.Keith Latham, Professor of Animal Science, Adjunct Professor of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Biology, Michigan State UniversityMary Faith Marshall, Professor of Biomedical Ethics, University of VirginiaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2054452023-05-18T14:58:27Z2023-05-18T14:58:27ZFrom bird poo frogs to alligator snapping turtles – here are nature’s masters of deception<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527014/original/file-20230518-29-mw819r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=34%2C11%2C3888%2C2572&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A young cuckoo being fed by its adoptive mother.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/common-cuckoo-cuculus-canorus-young-nest-1692541804">John Navajo/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In nature, there are winners and losers. The winners gain survival and reproduction, while the losers generally die. To gain an advantage, winners may adopt strategies that involve elements of dishonesty or deception.</p>
<p>Most people are aware of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/cuckoo">cuckoo</a>, a bird that is notorious for its deceptive nature, duping other species such as <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/reed-warbler-bird-species-Acrocephalus-scirpaceus">reed warblers</a> into raising their offspring. The cuckoo and reed warbler is an example of an <a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-the-evolutionary-arms-race-1224659">evolutionary arms race</a> – the species are evolving escalating adaptations to win the war. </p>
<p>Currently, the cuckoo is winning this particular battle. But there is evidence that the reed warblers are fighting back. Research suggests that reed warblers are evolving ways to <a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/01/160122083430.htm">recognise cuckoo eggs</a> and eject them from their nests. </p>
<p>In the natural world, deception has evolved in many species as a way to increase their success. Here are five species that are currently winning their evolutionary arms races. </p>
<h2>1. Bird poo frogs</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Litoria_naispela">bird poo frog</a> <em>Litoria naispela</em> is a tree frog that was <a href="https://www.mapress.com/zt/article/view/zootaxa.5263.2.1">recently discovered</a> in Papua New Guinea. This aptly named species is marked with white splatters that resemble bird poo. Unlike camouflage, where organisms blend in with their background, masquerading involves species evolving to look like something else – in this case, an inanimate object that very few things want to eat. </p>
<p>This is not the only species that has evolved to protect itself from predators by looking like poo. Plenty of other frogs and even <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-spider-that-looks-like-bird-poo-and-other-amazing-and-gross-tricks-animals-deploy-to-survive-179507#:%7E:text=And%20some%20spiders%20have%20taken,by%20looking%20like%20bird%20poo.">spiders</a> adopt the same tactic to avoid being eaten.</p>
<h2>2. Oriental pratincole</h2>
<p>Some species such as the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/hognose-snake">hognose snake</a> <a href="https://www.ndtv.com/offbeat/watch-snakes-dramatic-fake-death-leaves-internet-in-splits-called-a-drama-queen-3508318">often fake death</a> to avert the attention of predators. Others, like the <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/facts/mimic-octopus">mimic octopus</a>, can even impersonate several dangerous species. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/some-shape-shifting-animals-that-can-morph-to-fool-others-39616">Some shape-shifting animals that can morph to fool others</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>By contrast, some animals use themselves as a distraction to lure predators away from their vulnerable offspring. Oriental pratincoles (a bird species native to the warmer parts of south and south-east Asia) often feign a broken wing, presenting themselves as easy targets to tempt predators like birds of prey away from their nests before flying to safety at the last moment. </p>
<p>This deceptive behaviour was previously thought to be restricted to shore birds that nest on the ground. But recent research suggests that it’s more widespread – occurring in <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2022.0058">nearly 300 bird species</a>. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/2hiTB52_g2c?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Broken wing display of the Oriental pratincole.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>3. Nursery web spider</h2>
<p>Like many invertebrates, the female <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/nursery-web-spider">nursery web spider</a> – named so due to the silk nursery she spins to keep her spiderlings safe – often eats the male after mating to gain vital nutrition to produce eggs. But if the male can survive after mating, he can potentially go on to father more offspring with other females. </p>
<p>So the males often <a href="https://phys.org/news/2016-05-nursery-web-spiders-gift-potential.html">arrive with presents</a> of insects wrapped in silk. While the female is distracted by unwrapping and eating the tasty gift, the male is able to scurry away to safety – it’s a win-win situation. </p>
<p>However, these gifts take time and effort to acquire. So some sneaky <a href="https://bmcecolevol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2148-11-329">males have evolved to give fake gifts</a> of no nutritional value to the female like inedible plant seeds or empty insect exoskeletons. By the time she realises the scam, the male has gone.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Nursery web spider on a leaf carrying a webbed gift." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526993/original/file-20230518-25-q1aef2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526993/original/file-20230518-25-q1aef2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526993/original/file-20230518-25-q1aef2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526993/original/file-20230518-25-q1aef2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526993/original/file-20230518-25-q1aef2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526993/original/file-20230518-25-q1aef2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526993/original/file-20230518-25-q1aef2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A male nursery web spider carrying a gift wrapped in silk.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/nursery-web-spider-pisaura-mirabilis-male-85250980">Torsten Dietrich/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>4. Bee orchid</h2>
<p>Some species even go as far as tricking another species into finding a mate for them. Although some <a href="https://www.britannica.com/plant/Ophrys">bee orchids</a> are capable of self-fertilisation, reproducing with another plant promotes outbreeding and genetic variety, which is crucial for adapting to changing environments. But as bee orchids aren’t capable of moving across land themselves, they have evolved a tactic whereby one of their petals <a href="https://www.kew.org/read-and-watch/orchid-pollination-tricks">resembles the female</a> of a solitary bee species. </p>
<p>When the male bee lands on the orchid, believing it to be a female, he attempts to mate with it. During this process, pollen from the orchid <a href="https://youtu.be/hmI-rJuYAjw">gets passed to the male bee</a>. When the bee departs and is fooled again by another orchid, it passes on the pollen from the first plant. </p>
<p>Being specific about what insect visits you is beneficial for the orchid as the bee goes straight to another bee orchid, without stopping to visit other plants and potentially losing the pollen.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="The bee orchid looking like a female bee." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526998/original/file-20230518-17-yzymxx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526998/original/file-20230518-17-yzymxx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526998/original/file-20230518-17-yzymxx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526998/original/file-20230518-17-yzymxx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526998/original/file-20230518-17-yzymxx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526998/original/file-20230518-17-yzymxx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526998/original/file-20230518-17-yzymxx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The bee orchid.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/ophrys-minoa-var-candica-bee-on-1119533168">Viktor Loki/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>5. Alligator snapping turtle</h2>
<p>Perhaps the best deceptions have evolved in the fight to acquire food. Many predators are camouflaged so well with their surroundings that it is almost impossible to see them. </p>
<p>If you are a large and slow predator, sitting and waiting for prey is a good strategy. But it can often be futile. So some of the most novel trickery has involved the evolution of a fishing lure. </p>
<p>The tongue of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/alligator-snapping-turtle">alligator snapping turtle</a>, a species that <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6ui8Jdco_QA">sits and waits for prey</a> in murky freshwater habitats in the US, has evolved to <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gC13oJjkwnM">mimic a wriggling worm</a>. It acts as bait to attract small fish that the turtle snaps its mouth shut on, then eats.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/gC13oJjkwnM?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Alligator snapping turtle tongue lure.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Humans condemn deception and view it as negative – people want to avoid being duped. But in nature, conning others is instead an essential strategy for organisms to exploit their environments and ensure their survival and reproduction. From the clever mimicry of bird poo frogs and bee orchids to the tactical feigning of injury by the oriental pratincole, these examples demonstrate the extraordinary lengths some species go to guarantee their success.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/205445/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Louise Gentle works for Nottingham Trent University. </span></em></p>The natural world is awash with liars – here are nature’s best.Louise Gentle, Principal Lecturer in Wildlife Conservation, Nottingham Trent UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1904472022-12-16T00:40:16Z2022-12-16T00:40:16ZCurious Kids: how are babies made?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498841/original/file-20221205-26-5mon89.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=131%2C23%2C5044%2C3088&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/photo-of-new-born-baby-covered-with-blue-blanket-3617844/">Pexels/Laura Garcia</a></span></figcaption></figure><blockquote>
<p>How are babies made? Giaan, age 8</p>
</blockquote>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/curious-kids-36782"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/291898/original/file-20190911-190031-enlxbk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=90&fit=crop&dpr=1" width="100%"></a></p>
<p>Thanks for your interesting question, Giaan! </p>
<p>Lots of kids your age wonder about how babies are made. It’s an important question because making babies allows the human species (and other animals) to continue.</p>
<h2>Knowing the body parts</h2>
<p>The first step in making a baby happens when a sperm from a man’s body joins with an egg from a woman’s body. </p>
<p>To understand how this happens, it is helpful to know the proper names for different body parts. These <a href="https://www.nationwidechildrens.org/family-resources-education/health-wellness-and-safety-resources/helping-hands/body-system-reproductive-female">pictures</a> <a href="https://www.nationwidechildrens.org/family-resources-education/health-wellness-and-safety-resources/helping-hands/body-system-reproductive-male">may help</a>.</p>
<p>When I say man, I’m referring to a person with a penis and testes (sometimes called testicles).</p>
<p>When I say woman, I’m referring to a person with a uterus (where the baby grows), vagina (the passage inside the vulva that leads to the uterus), and ovaries.</p>
<p>But sometimes, people are born with differences in these body parts. And sometimes these body parts don’t match how people think of themselves – as a man or woman or non-binary person.</p>
<h2>Where do the sperm and egg come from?</h2>
<p>Puberty is the time when your body begins to develop, and changes from child to adult, usually in later primary school and early high school years.</p>
<p>Sperm look a bit like tadpoles but are so small that you need a microscope to see them. They are made in the man’s testes and are released in a liquid called semen.</p>
<p>Once a boy goes through puberty, their testes can produce millions of sperm each day.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Scientist looks through a microscope" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498897/original/file-20221205-12013-hevoyr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498897/original/file-20221205-12013-hevoyr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=438&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498897/original/file-20221205-12013-hevoyr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=438&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498897/original/file-20221205-12013-hevoyr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=438&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498897/original/file-20221205-12013-hevoyr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=550&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498897/original/file-20221205-12013-hevoyr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=550&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498897/original/file-20221205-12013-hevoyr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=550&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sperm are so small you’d need a microscope to see them.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/woman-scientist-looking-through-microscope-laboratory-341424821">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Eggs are stored in the woman’s ovaries and after puberty there is usually one egg released per month. </p>
<p>An egg is just big enough to see – it’s about the size of a grain of sand (still pretty small!).</p>
<h2>How do the sperm and egg join?</h2>
<p>So how do the sperm and egg join to make a baby? This is called conception.</p>
<p>The most common way conception happens is when a woman and a man have sexual intercourse. This means that the man’s penis goes inside the woman’s vagina and semen squirts out. </p>
<p>Sperm come out of the penis and go up into the vagina and if one of the sperm connects with an egg, the two may combine to make a baby (actually, it’s called an embryo at this stage). </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Sexual reproduction graphic" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498869/original/file-20221205-17-4ytnw7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498869/original/file-20221205-17-4ytnw7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=331&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498869/original/file-20221205-17-4ytnw7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=331&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498869/original/file-20221205-17-4ytnw7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=331&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498869/original/file-20221205-17-4ytnw7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498869/original/file-20221205-17-4ytnw7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498869/original/file-20221205-17-4ytnw7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The sperm and egg combine to make an embryo, which grows into a baby.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/sexual-reproduction-stages-steps-levels-fertilization-1883185015">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The embryo makes its way to the uterus, where it will grow for the next nine months, until the baby is ready to be born.</p>
<h2>Babies can be conceived in other ways too</h2>
<p>Some families have two mums, and they may ask a man to provide sperm (called a sperm donor). The doctor places the sperm in the uterus of one of the mums.</p>
<p>There is also a process called IVF (in-vitro-fertilisation). For this, doctors take sperm from a man and an egg from a woman and combine them in a dish to form an embryo. </p>
<p>Then the embryo is put inside the woman’s uterus by the doctor and continues to grow there, just like other babies. </p>
<h2>OK, then what happens?</h2>
<p>After the egg and sperm join to make an embryo, the embryo attaches to the mother’s uterus. </p>
<p>An organ called the placenta forms to supply the growing baby with all the nutrition it needs. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Fetus and placenta in a uterus" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498834/original/file-20221205-26-iuc4zp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498834/original/file-20221205-26-iuc4zp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=443&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498834/original/file-20221205-26-iuc4zp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=443&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498834/original/file-20221205-26-iuc4zp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=443&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498834/original/file-20221205-26-iuc4zp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=556&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498834/original/file-20221205-26-iuc4zp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=556&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498834/original/file-20221205-26-iuc4zp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=556&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The placenta, shown here on the right, feeds the baby while it’s in its mother’s uterus.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/baby-womb-placenta-1093421162">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>When the baby is ready to be born, the muscles of the mum’s uterus start to contract and push the baby out through the vagina. </p>
<p>Some babies can’t be safely pushed out through the vagina and are delivered by an operation where a doctor removes the baby through a cut below the mum’s belly button (called a caesarean or c-section). During the operation, the doctor gives the mum a special injection in her back to take the pain away.</p>
<h2>Have more questions? Kids often do</h2>
<p>Often kids have more questions to ask about some of the things discussed in this article. Some kids want to know a lot more and others maybe just a couple of things. </p>
<p>If you have more questions, then have a chat with mum, dad, or another trusted adult, such as a teacher. <a href="https://www.healthywa.wa.gov.au/%7E/media/HWA/Documents/Healthy-living/Sexual-health/talk-soon-talk-often.pdf">Here is</a> a good resource for them to look at if they are unsure about how much to explain.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/190447/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bianca Cannon does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Lots of kids wonder about this. Here are some of the basics.Bianca Cannon, GP and Lecturer at Sydney Medical School, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1965532022-12-14T03:29:05Z2022-12-14T03:29:05ZSnakes have clitorises<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500911/original/file-20221214-14-cj88o9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=17%2C0%2C1904%2C1260&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Luke Allen</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Snakes have clitorises – and we have given a full anatomical description of them for the first time.</p>
<p>In <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2022.1702">research</a> published in Proceedings of the Royal Society B, we describe the size and shape of the snake clitoris (or hemiclitores) across nine species. </p>
<p>We also closely studied the cellular makeup of the clitoris in Australian death adders, finding it to be composed of erectile tissue and bundles of nerves.</p>
<p>The discovery of what appears to be a functional clitoris offers a new perspective on snake courtship and mating. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-sex-life-aquatic-how-moving-from-land-to-water-led-to-the-surprisingly-touchy-courtship-of-sea-snakes-159431">The sex life aquatic: how moving from land to water led to the surprisingly touchy courtship of sea snakes</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Finding the snake clitoris</h2>
<p>As part of her PhD research, our student Megan Folwell at the University of Adelaide had been dissecting snake specimens in museums. She came across a heart-shaped structure in the female tail, nestled between two scent glands, that she thought was the clitoris (or the hemiclitores, as it is called in snakes) and showed me.</p>
<p>I wasn’t sure what we were looking at, so we got in touch with Patricia Brennan at Mount Holyoke College in the US, who is an expert in how genitals have evolved in vertebrates. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500876/original/file-20221213-151-bqi4g7.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An animation showing a wireframe drawing of the lower half of a snake's body with the clitoris highlighted." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500876/original/file-20221213-151-bqi4g7.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500876/original/file-20221213-151-bqi4g7.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=323&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500876/original/file-20221213-151-bqi4g7.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=323&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500876/original/file-20221213-151-bqi4g7.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=323&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500876/original/file-20221213-151-bqi4g7.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500876/original/file-20221213-151-bqi4g7.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500876/original/file-20221213-151-bqi4g7.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The snake clitoris is a heart-shaped structure in the tail.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Folwell et al</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>On closer inspection, we found it was a structure full of red blood cells and nerve tissue, as we would expect for erectile tissue. This suggests it is indeed the clitoris, and may swell and become stimulated during mating.</p>
<p>We went on to examine nine different species of snakes representing the major branches of snake evolution. All had a clitoris, though their sizes and shapes varied.</p>
<h2>Why didn’t we know about this already?</h2>
<p>Across all species, researchers have given female genitalia <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35353194/">a lot</a> <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.1001851">less attention</a> compared to its male counterpart. </p>
<p>What’s more, it’s hard to get a good look at snake genitalia. It’s all internal to the snake’s tail, for the most part, though the snake penis (or hemipenes) inflates for mating. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500912/original/file-20221214-13-kq7mqq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500912/original/file-20221214-13-kq7mqq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500912/original/file-20221214-13-kq7mqq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=627&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500912/original/file-20221214-13-kq7mqq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=627&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500912/original/file-20221214-13-kq7mqq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=627&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500912/original/file-20221214-13-kq7mqq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=788&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500912/original/file-20221214-13-kq7mqq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=788&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500912/original/file-20221214-13-kq7mqq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=788&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The clitoris of an Australian death adder.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Folwell et al.</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There has been quite a bit of research into the snake penis, but the snake clitoris has been missed.</p>
<p>While there are earlier reports, most actually referred to lizards, or mistakenly described the penis or scent glands, or featured only vague descriptions without anatomical references. Studies of species in which intersex individuals are relatively common heightened this confusion.</p>
<p>However, we have shown that the snake clitoris, although it shares its developmental origins with the penis, is very different from the penis – and our detailed anatomical description should help prevent this kind of confusion occurring in future.</p>
<h2>A crucial piece of anatomy</h2>
<p>In other species, we know the clitoris has <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/articleSelectSinglePerm?Redirect=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS0065345420300012%3Fvia%253Dihub&key=22f7498e0cabf6da1cbf5bbec791b299065c7bd7">important functions</a> in reproduction. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/all-female-mammals-have-a-clitoris-were-starting-to-work-out-what-that-means-for-their-sex-lives-114916">All female mammals have a clitoris – we're starting to work out what that means for their sex lives</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Perhaps because many scientists assumed female snakes had no clitoris, and hence no capacity for arousal, it has generally been assumed that mating in snakes is largely a matter of males coercing females. </p>
<p>But a crucial piece of anatomy was missing from this conversation. Our discovery suggests female arousal – and something more like seduction – may play a role.</p>
<p>We still have a lot to learn. It may turn out that variation in the clitoris between species will be correlated with courtship and mating behaviours, and help us understand how females choose mates.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/196553/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jenna Crowe-Riddell does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The first description of the snake clitoris may change what we think we know about mating and courtship among the slithering reptiles.Jenna Crowe-Riddell, Postdoctoral Researcher in Neuroecology, La Trobe UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1919832022-11-09T13:39:42Z2022-11-09T13:39:42ZDung beetle mothers protect their offspring from a warming world by digging deeper<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/493591/original/file-20221104-11-c5yawz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=15%2C15%2C5028%2C3362&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A road sign in Bursa, Turkey, warns drivers of the presence of dung beetles, stating 'Attention! It may come out, don't crush it please!' </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/protection-measures-are-taken-for-the-dung-beetles-which-news-photo/1241220698">Ugur Ulu/Anadolu Agency via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>If the TV series “<a href="https://www.discovery.com/shows/dirty-jobs">Dirty Jobs</a>” covered animals as well as humans, it would probably start with <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/dung-beetle">dung beetles</a>. These hardworking critters are among the insect world’s most important recyclers. They eat and bury manure from many other species, recycling nutrients and improving soil as they go. </p>
<p>Dung beetles are found on <a href="https://animals.sandiegozoo.org/animals/dung-beetle">every continent except Antarctica</a>, in forests, grasslands, prairies and deserts. And now, like many other species, they are coping with the effects of climate change.</p>
<p>I am an <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=XBb0FNQAAAAJ&view_op=list_works&sortby=pubdate">ecologist</a> who has spent nearly 20 years studying dung beetles. My research spans tropical and temperate ecosystems, and focuses on how these beneficial animals respond to temperature changes. </p>
<p>Insects don’t use internally generated heat to maintain their body temperature. Adults can take actions such as moving to warmer or colder areas. However, earlier life stages such as larvae are often less mobile, so they can be strongly affected by changing temperatures. </p>
<p>But dung beetles appear to have a defense: I have found that adult dung beetles modify their nesting behaviors in response to temperature changes by burying their brood balls deeper in the soil, which protects their developing offspring.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/I1RHmSm36aE?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Without dung beetles, the world would be messier and smellier.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Champion recyclers</h2>
<p>It’s easy to joke about these busy insects, but by collecting and burying manure, dung beetles provide many ecological benefits. They recycle nutrients, aerate soil, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/srep18140">lessen greenhouse gas emissions from cattle farming</a> and reduce pest and parasite populations that harm livestock. </p>
<p>Dung beetles are also important secondary seed dispersers. Dung from other animals, such as bears and monkeys, contains seeds that the beetles bury underground. This protects the seeds from being eaten, makes them more likely to germinate and improves plant growth.</p>
<p>There are roughly <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/the-humble-dung-beetle-180967781/">6,000 species of dung beetles around the world</a>. Most feed exclusively on dung, though some will feed on dead animals, decaying fruit and fungi. </p>
<p>Some species use stars and even <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2012.12.034">the Milky Way to navigate along straight paths</a>. One species, the bull-headed dung beetle (<em>Onthophagus taurus</em>), is the <a href="https://www.science.org/content/article/scienceshot-worlds-strongest-insect">world’s strongest insect</a>, able to pull over 1,000 times its own body weight. </p>
<p>That strength comes in handy for dung beetles’ best-known behavior: gathering manure. </p>
<h2>Rolling and tunneling</h2>
<p>Most popular images of dung beetles show them collecting manure and rolling it into balls to spirit away. In fact, some species are rollers and others are <a href="https://kids.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/frym.2021.583675">tunnelers</a> that dig into the ground under a dung pat, bring dung down into the tunnel and pack it into a clump or sphere, called a brood ball. The female then lays an egg in each brood ball and backfills the tunnel with soil. Rollers do the same once they get their dung ball safely away from the competition.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/493590/original/file-20221104-14-7dvawf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two human fingers grasp a pingpong ball-size dung ball with a fingernail-size egg embedded in the surface" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/493590/original/file-20221104-14-7dvawf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/493590/original/file-20221104-14-7dvawf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/493590/original/file-20221104-14-7dvawf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/493590/original/file-20221104-14-7dvawf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/493590/original/file-20221104-14-7dvawf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/493590/original/file-20221104-14-7dvawf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/493590/original/file-20221104-14-7dvawf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An egg is visible in the center of a brood ball from a female rainbow scarab beetle (<em>Phanaeus vindex</em>).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Kimberly Sheldon</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>When the egg hatches, the larva feeds on dung from the brood ball, <a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/pupate">pupates</a> and emerges as an adult. It thus goes through <a href="https://nhmlac.org/marvelous-metamorphosis#">complete metamorphosis</a> – from egg to larva to pupa to adult – inside the brood ball. </p>
<h2>Warmer temperatures produce smaller beetles</h2>
<p>Dung beetle parents don’t provide care for their offspring, but their nesting behaviors affect the next generation. If a female places a brood ball deeper underground, the larva in the brood ball experiences cooler, less variable temperatures than it would nearer the surface. </p>
<p>This matters because temperatures during development can affect offspring survival and other traits, such as adult body size. If temperatures are too hot, offspring perish. Below that point, warmer, more variable temperatures lead to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jinsphys.2021.104215">smaller-bodied beetles</a>, which can affect the next generation’s reproductive success. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1168955226063351810"}"></div></p>
<p>Smaller males can’t compete as well as larger males, and smaller females have lower reproductive output than larger females. In addition, smaller-bodied beetles <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2656.13798">remove less dung</a>, so they provide fewer benefits to humans and ecosystems, such as nutrient cycling.</p>
<h2>Beetles in the greenhouse</h2>
<p>Climate change is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate2378">making temperatures more variable</a> in many parts of the world. This means that insects and other species have to handle not just warmer temperatures, but greater changes in temperature day to day. </p>
<p>To examine how adult dung beetles responded to the types of temperature shifts associated with climate change, I designed cone-shaped mini-greenhouses that would fit over 7-gallon buckets buried in the ground to their brims. Will Kirkpatrick, an undergraduate student in my lab, led the field trials. </p>
<p>We randomly placed a fertilized female rainbow scarab, <em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phanaeus_vindex">Phanaeus vindex</a></em>, in each greenhouse bucket and in the same number of uncovered buckets to serve as controls. Using temperature data loggers placed at four depths in the buckets, we verified that soil temperatures in “greenhouse” buckets were warmer and more variable than soil temperatures in uncovered buckets.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/493588/original/file-20221104-24-pcsfqh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A large round beetle with red, green and gold shading" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/493588/original/file-20221104-24-pcsfqh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/493588/original/file-20221104-24-pcsfqh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/493588/original/file-20221104-24-pcsfqh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/493588/original/file-20221104-24-pcsfqh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/493588/original/file-20221104-24-pcsfqh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/493588/original/file-20221104-24-pcsfqh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/493588/original/file-20221104-24-pcsfqh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A male rainbow scarab dung beetle (<em>Phanaeus vindex</em>).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Dan Mele</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We gave the beetles fresh cow dung every other day for 10 days and allowed them to make brood balls. Then we carefully dug through the buckets and recorded the number, depth and size of brood balls in each bucket. </p>
<h2>Digging deeper</h2>
<p>We found that beetle mothers in greenhouse environments created more brood balls overall, that these brood balls were smaller, and that these females <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2022.0109">buried their brood balls deeper in the soil</a> than beetle mothers in control buckets. Brood balls in the greenhouses still ended up in areas that were slightly warmer than those in the control buckets – but not nearly as warm as if the beetle mothers had not altered their nesting behaviors. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/493912/original/file-20221107-23-ksn05u.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A cone-shaped cover placed in a patch of dirt" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/493912/original/file-20221107-23-ksn05u.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/493912/original/file-20221107-23-ksn05u.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=563&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/493912/original/file-20221107-23-ksn05u.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=563&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/493912/original/file-20221107-23-ksn05u.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=563&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/493912/original/file-20221107-23-ksn05u.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=708&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/493912/original/file-20221107-23-ksn05u.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=708&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/493912/original/file-20221107-23-ksn05u.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=708&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A dung beetle greenhouse placed over a buried bucket of soil in the author’s field trial.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Kimberly Sheldon</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>However, by digging deeper, the adults fully compensated for temperature variation. There was no difference in the temperature variation experienced by brood balls in greenhouse buckets and control buckets. This reflects the fact that soil temperatures <a href="https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-2011-09-24-ct-wea-0924-asktom-20110924-story.html">become increasingly stable with depth</a> as the soil becomes more and more insulated from the changing air temperatures above it. </p>
<p>Our findings also hint at a possible trade-off between burial depth and brood ball size. Beetle mothers that dug deeper protected their offspring from temperature changes but provided less dung in their brood balls. This meant less nutrition for developing offspring. </p>
<p>Climate change could still affect adult dung beetles in ways we did not test, with consequences for the next generation. In future work, we plan to place brood balls of <em>Phanaeus vindex</em> and other species of dung beetles back into the greenhouse and control buckets at the depths at which they were buried so that we can see how the beetle offspring develop and survive. </p>
<p>So far, though, my colleagues and are encouraged to find that these industrious beetles can alter their behavior in ways that may help them survive in a changing world.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/191983/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kimberly S. Sheldon receives funding from the US National Science Foundation. </span></em></p>Everyone is feeling the heat these days – even species that develop underground.Kimberly S. Sheldon, Associate Professor of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of TennesseeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1866822022-09-06T12:36:15Z2022-09-06T12:36:15ZSupreme Court’s selective reading of US history ignored 19th-century women’s support for ‘voluntary motherhood’<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/482327/original/file-20220901-23-94389p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Members of the National American Woman Suffrage Association participate in a 1910 parade in Washington, D.C. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://media.gettyimages.com/photos/american-physician-anna-howard-shaw-leader-of-the-womens-suffrage-in-picture-id1393779815">Paul Thompson/FPG/Archive Photos/Hulton Archive via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The history of abortion in the U.S. guided some of Supreme Court Justice Samuel Alito’s arguments in the <a href="https://www.oyez.org/cases/2021/19-1392">Dobbs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization</a> decision. Alito argued that abortion has never been a “deeply rooted” constitutional right in the United States. </p>
<p>But <a href="https://facultyweb.kennesaw.edu/lthom182/">as a historian</a> of medicine, law and women’s rights, I think Alito’s read of abortion history is not only incomplete, <a href="https://www.politico.com/news/magazine/2022/06/02/alitos-anti-roe-argument-wrong-00036174">it is also inaccurate</a>. </p>
<p>Alito argued in the opinion that abortion has always been a serious crime, but there were no laws about abortion at all in Colonial America. Beginning in the 19th century, most states barred it only after “quickening,” when a pregnant woman can first feel the fetus move, typically around the fourth to sixth <a href="https://www.americanprogress.org/article/scarlet-letters-getting-the-history-of-abortion-and-contraception-right/">month of pregnancy</a>.</p>
<p>Abortion is indeed deeply rooted in the American experience and law. American women <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/12/13/opinion/sunday/abortion-history-women.html">have always tried</a> to personally determine the size of their families. Enslaved Black women <a href="https://www.aaihs.org/enslaved-womens-sexual-health-reproductive-rights-as-resistance/">used contraception and abortion</a> as specific strategies of resistance against their physical and reproductive bondage. </p>
<p>The very passage of <a href="https://constitution.congress.gov/constitution/amendment-13/">the 13th</a> and <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution/amendmentxiv">14th amendments</a>, which ended slavery and guaranteed citizenship for all, is <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/06/26/opinion/justice-alito-reproductive-justice-constitution-abortion.html">evidence that the Constitution actually does protect</a> bodily autonomy. The 14th Amendment’s due process and equal protection clauses have long been the legal basis for gender equality cases. If, as the Supreme Court’s ruling suggests, the right to abortion is not constitutionally protected via the 14th Amendment, it opens up the possibility that other settled law concerning gender and racial equality also has the potential to be reversed. </p>
<p>Instead of examining abortion through the lens of past cases of gender law, however, Alito instead refers to the opinions of 17th-century male legal theorists, <a href="https://www.bostonglobe.com/2022/05/06/metro/who-was-matthew-hale-17th-century-jurist-alito-invokes-his-draft-overturning-roe/">who believed</a> in witches and the right of husbands to rape their wives. He also cites as evidence the passage of 19th-century state abortion laws by all-male legislatures, which criminalized abortion and birth control. The <a href="https://www.mtsu.edu/first-amendment/article/1038/comstock-act-of-1873#:%7E:text=The%20Comstock%20Act%20of%201873,picture%2C%20drawing%2C%20or%20advertisement.">Comstock Postal Act of 1873</a> also made possessing or selling all sexual information and contraceptive items a federal crime. </p>
<p>Meanwhile, Alito’s opinion does not discuss the women’s rights movement in the 1800s or women’s ordinary, daily perspectives on abortion at the time. In this landmark decision, the court has skipped one of the biggest parts of U.S. history on abortion, creating a glaring gap in an understanding of how abortions and abortion law in the country worked in the past.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/482329/original/file-20220901-13-ldb478.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A middle aged white, blonde woman wears a straw hat, white clothing and a sash that says 'Votes for women.' Five other women, also in white and with the same sashes, stand in the foreground. Two hold a sign that says 'Votes for Women.'" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/482329/original/file-20220901-13-ldb478.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/482329/original/file-20220901-13-ldb478.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482329/original/file-20220901-13-ldb478.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482329/original/file-20220901-13-ldb478.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482329/original/file-20220901-13-ldb478.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482329/original/file-20220901-13-ldb478.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482329/original/file-20220901-13-ldb478.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Candace Stitzman-Duley, center, a distant relative of Susan B. Anthony, poses with Democratic voting activists in Muhlenberg, Pa.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://media.gettyimages.com/photos/candace-stitzmanduley-front-back-from-left-are-ella-drumgold-of-of-picture-id1269372458">Ben Hasty/MediaNews Group/Reading Eagle via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Voluntary motherhood</h2>
<p>Considering how suffragists like the Black journalist and activist <a href="https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/ida-b-wells-barnett">Ida B. Wells</a> and other prominent women’s rights activists in the 19th century thought about rights to their own bodies is an overlooked part of this history.</p>
<p>Suffragists in the 19th century focused on a woman’s right to vote – and did not openly support legalizing abortion or <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S1537781420000304">birth control</a>. </p>
<p>The reason why reproductive rights were omitted from the suffragist campaign is complex. </p>
<p>Suffragists argued that legalizing birth control and abortion would hurt women, who already had few legal rights at the time. They said that men would then use these legal freedoms to further abuse and control women.</p>
<p>Instead, suffragists embraced an idea they termed “<a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2019/07/did-suffragists-support-birth-control/593896/">voluntary motherhood</a>.” This meant that women had the right to reject unwanted sex and could choose if and when they had children. </p>
<p>Even in happy marriages, many women in the 1800s could not necessarily control the number of pregnancies they had. <a href="https://www.criminaldefenselawyer.com/resources/criminal-defense/crime-penalties/marital-rape.htm">Marital rape</a> was legal, and enslavers had total control over enslaved women’s bodies. </p>
<p>The idea of voluntary motherhood – meaning that women should have full control over their own bodies – was a powerfully radical idea. </p>
<p>This notion appealed to women across race and class lines, and it helped drive the emergent women’s rights movement, beginning in the <a href="https://www.nps.gov/wori/learn/historyculture/womens-rights-movement.htm">1840s</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/482330/original/file-20220901-19-4xoqqf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A black and white photo shows two older women in old fashioned clothing seated at a table, looking at some papers." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/482330/original/file-20220901-19-4xoqqf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/482330/original/file-20220901-19-4xoqqf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=640&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482330/original/file-20220901-19-4xoqqf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=640&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482330/original/file-20220901-19-4xoqqf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=640&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482330/original/file-20220901-19-4xoqqf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=804&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482330/original/file-20220901-19-4xoqqf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=804&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482330/original/file-20220901-19-4xoqqf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=804&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton, both noted suffragists, are shown in an 1890 photograph.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://media.gettyimages.com/photos/susan-b-anthony-and-elizabeth-cady-stanton-two-great-pioneers-in-the-picture-id624470444">Photo12/Universal Images Group via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What suffragists said about abortion</h2>
<p>Suffragist reformers recognized that the right to vote meant little if they did not have control of their bodies or reproductive lives. Black suffragists like Wells and <a href="https://www.loc.gov/exhibitions/women-fight-for-the-vote/about-this-exhibition/new-tactics-for-a-new-generation-1890-1915/western-states-pave-the-way/i-speak-of-wrongs-frances-ellen-watkins-harper/">Frances Ellen Watkins Harper</a>, for example, <a href="https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/speeches-african-american-history/1866-frances-ellen-watkins-harper-we-are-all-bound-together/">spoke eloquently</a> about the constant dangers Black women faced from white men raping and assaulting them.</p>
<p>They and White women suffragists like Lucy Stone argued that gaining the right to vote would help women have more power to combat these problems. </p>
<p>These activists recognized that women turned to contraceptives and abortion to control their own reproduction. But they also said that unscrupulous manufacturers and people who performed abortions sometimes took advantage of women, by selling them ineffective or harmful contraceptives or charging them large sums for abortions. Substances used to induce abortion, or <a href="https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/19th-century-birth-control-dittrick">abortifacients</a>, also often contained harmful and poisonous ingredients that killed women, while surgical abortions were incredibly risky in an era where germ theory and understandings of infection were rudimentary at best.</p>
<p>Reformers also <a href="https://doi.org/10.1353/jowh.2019.0029">openly blamed</a> harsh anti-abortion laws for contributing to these problems – driving women to desperate measures while still allowing men to have sex freely and shirk their responsibilities of fatherhood. </p>
<p>Suffragist Matilda Joslyn Gage agreed, writing in a suffrage newspaper <a href="https://www.feministsforlife.org/matilda-joslyn-gage-1826-1898/">in 1868 that</a> “this crime of … abortion … lies at the door of the male sex.” </p>
<h2>Using history for today’s arguments</h2>
<p>Today, some anti-abortion rights women’s groups look to the suffragist movement to make the case that abortion should be limited or banned. </p>
<p>Feminists for Life and Susan B. Anthony Pro-Life America, for example, have long rested their funding and advocacy campaigns on attempting to <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/susan-b-anthony-was-pro-life-elizabeth-cady-stanton-roe-abortion-dobbs-decision-11655151459?mod=article_inline">prove that suffragists were “pro-life</a>.” But research shows that their argument is an incomplete reading of suffragists’ complex views of abortion, while also falsely presuming that suffragists would have supported current laws banning abortion today. </p>
<p>There is ample primary source evidence in suffrage newspapers like “The Revolution” or in the private letters of the suffragists showing that they repeatedly insisted that anti-abortion laws punished women, without actually eliminating the practice of abortion. </p>
<p>White suffragists like Anthony held <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/07/28/opinion/sunday/suffrage-movement-racism-black-women.html">overtly racist</a> and eugenic views, and their support for women who sought abortions often incorporated ideas of eliminating disability and what they deemed undesirable offspring. They prioritized rights for white, middle-class women and ignored or outright rejected Black reformers’ <a href="https://www.americanyawp.com/reader/18-industrial-america/ida-b-wells-barnett-lynch-law-in-america-1900/#:%7E:text=The%20result%20is%20that%20many,him%20with%20insult%20or%20assault.">urgent pleas</a> for reproductive justice. </p>
<p>But that messy, complex past nonetheless remains central to understanding Americans’ experiences with abortion and abortion law. </p>
<p>Alito wrote that women’s role in abortion history is too “conflicting” to be useful. Yet considering women’s historical attitudes about reproductive rights – and the reasons behind these views – was a critical omission in the court’s historical considerations of the role of abortion in Americans’ lives.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/186682/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lauren Thompson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The women’s rights movement in the 1800s did not openly support legalizing abortion or birth control. But the reasons why are complex.Lauren Thompson, Assistant Professor of History and Interdisciplinary Studies, Kennesaw State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1886442022-09-02T00:52:33Z2022-09-02T00:52:33ZSeahorse fathers give birth in a unique way, new research shows<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/482213/original/file-20220901-18-r757cr.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=9%2C0%2C3010%2C2009&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/big-belly-sea-horse-macro-closeup-1279556974">Charlotte Bleijenberg / Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In seahorses and pipefish, it is the male that gets pregnant and gives birth. Seahorse fathers incubate their developing embryos in a pouch located on their tail. </p>
<p>The pouch is the equivalent of the uterus of female mammals. It <a href="https://theconversation.com/pregnant-male-seahorses-support-up-to-1-000-growing-babies-by-forming-a-placenta-167534">contains a placenta</a>, supporting the growth and development of baby seahorses. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-secret-sex-life-and-pregnancy-of-a-seahorse-dad-46599">The secret sex life and pregnancy of a seahorse dad</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Seahorse dads provide <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32617716/">nutrients</a> and oxygen to their babies during pregnancy, using <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-secret-sex-life-and-pregnancy-of-a-seahorse-dad-46599">some of the same genetic instructions</a> as mammalian pregnancy. </p>
<p>However, when it comes to giving birth, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0143400422003149">our research</a> shows male seahorses seem to rely on elaborate behaviours and their unique body structure to facilitate labour.</p>
<h2>How animals give birth</h2>
<p>Labour is a complex biological process that in female pregnant animals is controlled by hormones including oxytocin. In mammals and reptiles, oxytocin induces contractions in the smooth muscles of the uterus.</p>
<p>There are three main types of muscle: smooth muscle, skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle. </p>
<p>Smooth muscle is found in the walls of most internal organs and blood vessels. This muscle type is not under conscious control. For example, your intestines are lined with smooth muscle, which rhythmically contracts to move food through your gut without you having to consciously control it.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/482207/original/file-20220901-24-vmdfya.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/482207/original/file-20220901-24-vmdfya.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=512&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482207/original/file-20220901-24-vmdfya.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=512&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482207/original/file-20220901-24-vmdfya.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=512&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482207/original/file-20220901-24-vmdfya.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=643&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482207/original/file-20220901-24-vmdfya.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=643&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482207/original/file-20220901-24-vmdfya.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=643&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A male seahorse with his pouch filled with water in a mating display.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/kymberlie/9278730">Kymberlie R McGuire</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Skeletal muscle is found throughout your body and attaches to bones via tendons, allowing body movement. This type of muscle is under conscious control. For example, your bicep muscles when contracted allow you to consciously bend your arm. </p>
<p>Cardiac muscle is specific to the heart and is also under involuntary control.</p>
<p>In female mammals the uterine wall contains abundant smooth muscle. Oxytocin stimulates this smooth muscle to contract, helping bring about labour. </p>
<p>These uterine contractions are spontaneous and involuntary. We can measure these uterine contractions in response to oxytocin, and the results are consistent in both <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0021542">mammals</a> and <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00360-019-01254-4#:%7E:text=equalis%2C%20uteri%20from%20oviparous%20individuals,to%20AVP%20than%20oviparous%20uteri.">reptiles</a>.</p>
<h2>How do male seahorses give birth?</h2>
<p>Our team of researchers from the <a href="https://www.camillawhittington.com/">University of Sydney</a> and the <a href="https://www.newcastle.edu.au/profile/jonathan-paul">University of Newcastle</a> set out to determine how labour works in male seahorses. </p>
<p>Our <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-secret-sex-life-and-pregnancy-of-a-seahorse-dad-46599">genetic data</a> suggested seahorse labour might involve a similar process to labour in female mammals. A <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1439-0310.1970.tb01894.x">study</a> in 1970 also showed that when non-pregnant male seahorses were exposed to the fish version of oxytocin (called isotocin), they expressed labour-like behaviours. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/482206/original/file-20220901-18-qt2sal.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/482206/original/file-20220901-18-qt2sal.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/482206/original/file-20220901-18-qt2sal.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=560&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482206/original/file-20220901-18-qt2sal.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=560&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482206/original/file-20220901-18-qt2sal.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=560&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482206/original/file-20220901-18-qt2sal.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=704&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482206/original/file-20220901-18-qt2sal.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=704&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482206/original/file-20220901-18-qt2sal.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=704&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Male seahorses give birth, but they don’t do it the way female animals do.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/beautiful-portrait-big-belly-seahorse-popular-1334303060">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Therefore, we predicted seahorse males would use oxytocin-family hormones to control the process of giving birth via contracting smooth muscles inside the brood pouch.</p>
<h2>What we found</h2>
<p>First, we exposed pieces of seahorse pouch to isotocin. While isotocin caused our control tissues (intestine) to contract, surprisingly this hormone produced no contractions in the brood pouch. </p>
<p>The result led us to wonder about the anatomy of the pouch. When we examined the pouch under a microscope, we found it contains only scattered small bundles of smooth muscle, far less than the uterus of female mammals. This explained why the pouch did not contract in our experiments.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/479639/original/file-20220817-16-ob3tnr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/479639/original/file-20220817-16-ob3tnr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/479639/original/file-20220817-16-ob3tnr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=526&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479639/original/file-20220817-16-ob3tnr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=526&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479639/original/file-20220817-16-ob3tnr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=526&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479639/original/file-20220817-16-ob3tnr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=661&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479639/original/file-20220817-16-ob3tnr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=661&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479639/original/file-20220817-16-ob3tnr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=661&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In the human uterus (left), the entire outer layer is comprised of smooth muscle. The seahorse pouch (right) only has small smooth muscle bundles scattered throughout the outer layers of the pouch.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jessica Suzanne Dudley / VWR</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Using 3D imaging techniques combined with microscopy, we then compared the body structure of male and female pot-bellied seahorses. </p>
<p>In males, we found three bones positioned near the pouch opening, associated with large skeletal muscles. These types of bones and muscles control the anal fin in other fish species. In seahorses, the anal fin is miniscule and has little or no function in swimming. </p>
<p>So, the large muscles associated with the tiny seahorse fin are surprising. The anal fin muscles and bones are much larger in male seahorses than in female seahorses, and their orientation suggests they could control the opening of the pouch.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/479641/original/file-20220817-19-1av2sj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/479641/original/file-20220817-19-1av2sj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=619&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479641/original/file-20220817-19-1av2sj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=619&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479641/original/file-20220817-19-1av2sj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=619&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479641/original/file-20220817-19-1av2sj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=778&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479641/original/file-20220817-19-1av2sj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=778&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479641/original/file-20220817-19-1av2sj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=778&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The skeleton of the male seahorse appears to be adapted for giving birth.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jessica Suzanne Dudley</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Seahorse courtship behaviour provides a clue</h2>
<p>Seahorse courtship is an elaborate process. Males open and fill their pouch with water by bending forward and contracting their bodies to force water into the pouch, before “dancing” with the female. </p>
<p>Similarly, during labour, male seahorses bend their body towards the tail, pressing and then relaxing. This “pressing” behaviour is accompanied by brief gaping of the pouch opening, with a series of whole-body jerks. This movement combined with pouch opening allows seawater to flush through the pouch. </p>
<p>Jerking and pressing continues, the pouch opening gets gradually bigger, and groups of seahorse babies are ejected with each movement. Many hundreds of babies are ejected in a short time. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/MsHCqrrU-Gk?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">A seahorse father undergoing labour.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Our findings suggest the opening of the pouch for courtship and birth is facilitated by contractions of the large skeletal muscles located near the pouch opening. We propose that these muscles control the opening of the seahorse pouch, allowing seahorse fathers to consciously control the expulsion of their young at the end of pregnancy. </p>
<p>Future biomechanical and electrophysiological studies are needed to examine the force required to contract these muscles and test whether they do control the opening of the pouch.</p>
<h2>Different ways to solve a problem</h2>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/479645/original/file-20220817-8128-i9o1lc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/479645/original/file-20220817-8128-i9o1lc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/479645/original/file-20220817-8128-i9o1lc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=1012&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479645/original/file-20220817-8128-i9o1lc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=1012&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479645/original/file-20220817-8128-i9o1lc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=1012&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479645/original/file-20220817-8128-i9o1lc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1272&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479645/original/file-20220817-8128-i9o1lc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1272&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479645/original/file-20220817-8128-i9o1lc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1272&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A male seahorse with his pouch tightly closed.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/burna10/8709348676/">Anthony Pearson</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Our unexpected results suggest male seahorses use different mechanisms to give birth compared to female pregnant animals. </p>
<p>We speculate that oxytocin-family hormones, instead of primarily producing smooth muscle contractions, trigger the cascade of seahorse behaviours that lead to birth. </p>
<p>Despite the similarities that male seahorses share with female mammals and reptiles during pregnancy, it seems seahorse fathers have a unique way of giving birth to their young. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/pregnant-male-seahorses-support-up-to-1-000-growing-babies-by-forming-a-placenta-167534">Pregnant male seahorses support up to 1,000 growing babies by forming a placenta</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/188644/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Seahorse fathers use different muscles and hormones to give birth than female animals.Jessica Suzanne Dudley, Postdoctoral Fellow in Evolutionary Biology, Macquarie UniversityCamilla Whittington, Senior Lecturer, Evolutionary Biology, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1882172022-08-05T04:41:44Z2022-08-05T04:41:44ZWorld’s first ‘synthetic embryo’: why this research is more important than you think<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/477798/original/file-20220805-19495-thzafi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=1%2C2%2C963%2C464&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Mouse emobryo model in the lab from day 1 to 8.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://wis-wander.weizmann.ac.il/life-sciences/without-egg-sperm-or-womb-synthetic-mouse-embryo-models-created-solely-stem-cells">The Wizemann Institute of Science</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In what’s <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2022/aug/03/scientists-create-worlds-first-synthetic-embryos">reported as a world-first achievement</a>, biologists have grown mouse embryo models in the lab without the need for fertilised eggs, embryos, or even a mouse – using only stem cells and a special incubator.</p>
<p>This achievement, <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell/fulltext/S0092-8674(22)00981-3">published in the journal Cell</a> by a team led by researchers from the Weizmann Institute of Science in Israel, is a very sophisticated model of what happens during early mouse embryo development – in the stage just after implantation. </p>
<p>This is a crucial stage: in humans, many pregnancies are lost around this stage, and we don’t really know why. Having models provides a way to better understand what can go wrong, and possibly insights into what we may be able to do about it. </p>
<h2>The tiniest cluster</h2>
<p>What’s particularly interesting about the newly published model is its very complex structure; not only does it mimic the cell specification and layout of an early-stage body plan – including precursors of heart, blood, brain and other organs – but also the “support” cells like those found in the placenta and other tissues required to establish and maintain a pregnancy.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/dXlEDAGCN7w?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">This eight-day-old mouse embryo model has a beating heart, a yolk sac, a placenta and an emerging blood circulation. The Weizmann Institute of Science.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The earliest stages of pregnancy are difficult to study in most animals. The embryos are microscopic, tiny clusters of cells, difficult to locate and observe within the uterus. </p>
<p>But we do know that at this stage of development, things can go awry; for example, environmental factors can influence and interfere with development, or cells fail to receive the right signals to fully form the spinal cord, such as in <a href="https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/spina-bifida">spina bifida</a>. Using models like this, we can start to ask why.</p>
<p>However, even though these models are a powerful research tool, it is important to understand they are <em>not</em> embryos.</p>
<p>They replicate only some aspects of development, but not fully reproduce the cellular architecture and developmental potential of embryos derived after fertilisation of eggs by sperm – so-called natural embryos.</p>
<p>The team behind this work emphasises they were unable to develop these models beyond eight days, while a normal mouse pregnancy is 20 days long.</p>
<h2>Are ‘synthetic embryos’ of humans on the horizon?</h2>
<p>The field of embryo modelling is progressing rapidly, with new advances emerging every year.</p>
<p>In 2021, <a href="https://thenode.biologists.com/the-making-of-human-blastoids/outreach/">several teams</a> managed to get human pluripotent stem cells (cells that can turn into any other type of cell) to self-aggregate in a Petri dish, mimicking the “blastocyst”. This is the earliest stage of embryonic development just before <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/pregnancy-week-by-week/multimedia/fertilization-and-implantation/img-20008656">the complex process of implantation</a>, when a mass of cells attach to the wall of the uterus. </p>
<p>Researchers using these human embryo models, often called <a href="https://theconversation.com/researchers-have-grown-human-embryos-from-skin-cells-what-does-that-mean-and-is-it-ethical-157228">blastoids</a>, have even been able to start to explore implantation in a dish, but this process is much more challenging in humans than it is in mice.</p>
<p>Growing human embryo models of the same complexity that has now been achieved with a mouse model remains a distant proposition, but one we should still consider.</p>
<p>Importantly, we need to be aware of how representative such a model would be; a so-called synthetic embryo in a Petri dish will have its limitations on what it can teach us about human development, and we need to be conscious of that.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/researchers-have-grown-human-embryos-from-skin-cells-what-does-that-mean-and-is-it-ethical-157228">Researchers have grown 'human embryos' from skin cells. What does that mean, and is it ethical?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Ethical pitfalls</h2>
<p>No embryonic modelling can happen without a source of stem cells, so when it comes to thinking about the future use of this technology, it is vital to ask – where are these cells coming from? Are they human embryonic stem cells (derived from a blastocyst), or are they induced pluripotent stem cells? The latter can be made in the lab from skin, or blood cells, for example, or even derived from frozen samples.</p>
<p>An important consideration is whether using cells for this particular type of research – trying to mimic an embryo in a dish – requires any specific consent. We should be thinking more about how this area of research will be governed, when should it be used, and by whom. </p>
<p>However, it is important to recognise that there are existing laws and <a href="https://www.isscr.org/policy/guidelines-for-stem-cell-research-and-clinical-translation/key-topics/embryo-models">international stem cell research guidelines</a> that provide a framework to regulate this area of research.</p>
<p>In Australia, research involving human stem cell embryo models would require licensing, similar to that required for the use of natural human embryos under law that has been in place since 2002. However, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-01423-y">unlike other jurisdictions</a>, Australian law also dictates how long researchers can grow human embryo models, a restriction that some researchers would <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/sciencefriction/change-to-14-day-rule-for-embryo-research/13382872">like to see changed</a>. </p>
<p>Regardless of these or other changes to how and when human embryo research is conducted, there needs to be greater community discourse around this subject before a decision is made.</p>
<p>There is a distinction between banning the use of this technology and technologies like cloning in humans for reproductive use, and allowing research using embryo models to advance our understanding of human development and developmental disorders that we can’t answer by any other means. </p>
<p>The science is rapidly advancing. While mostly in mice at this stage, now is the time to discuss what this means for humans, and consider where and how we draw the line in the sand as the science evolves.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/188217/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Megan Munsie receives funding from Australian Research Council, Medical Research Future Fund and the Novo Nordisk Foundation. She is the Vice President of the Australasian Society for Stem Cell Research, non-executive director of the National Stem Cell Foundation of Australia and a member of ethics and policy advisory committees for several national and international organisations including the International Society for Stem Cell Research. </span></em></p>In a huge milestone, researchers have grown a mouse embryo entirely from stem cells. Could humans be next?Megan Munsie, Professor Emerging Technologies (Stem Cells), The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1846592022-07-28T14:35:42Z2022-07-28T14:35:42ZShining fluorescent light on bee sperm could help explain colony survival<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/467758/original/file-20220608-20-fs4cf2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ivan Marjanovic/Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Form follows function. This is the principle that the design or shape of something – whether made by humans or in nature – should serve a purpose.</p>
<p>Honey bees’ function is to pollinate plants, make honey, survive and reproduce. Along with other pollinators – birds, moths, butterflies, bats and many more – they are the unsung forces behind much of what people eat, drink and even wear. Animal pollinators are said to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8396518/">contribute</a> to the production of 87 global crops in 200 countries, including 30% of the world’s food crops. Their labours have been valued at around 153 billion euros.</p>
<p>But in one <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320718313636">review paper</a>, researchers suggest that at current rates of decline, the world will lose some 40% of its insect species, including bees, over the next few decades. Among the causes are widespread use of <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-science-europe-pesticides/pesticides-put-bees-at-risk-european-watchdog-confirms-idINKCN1GC18G">pesticides</a> and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320718313636">habitat loss</a>.</p>
<p>Bee colonies are collapsing around the world. In Europe, a <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/food/system/files/2017-04/la_bees_epilobee-report_2012-2014.pdf">2012-2014 survey</a>, the first of its kind, by the European Commission estimated that some countries were losing as many as a third of their colonies every year.</p>
<p>The threats to their survival make it urgent to understand the relationship between form and function in honey bees, particularly the sperm of the male bees (drones) – the “<a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/key-honey-bee-conservation-bee-semen-180969676/">flying genitalia</a>” of the bee world, as one researcher described them. That’s because of the way bees mate and reproduce.</p>
<p>Researchers around the world are applying the latest technologies to this project. One technique is computer-aided sperm analysis. This assesses sperm function (its vitality and movement) and its structural parameters. At the comparative spermatology group at the University of the Western Cape in South Africa, we have a particular interest in the structure and movement of insect sperm. We’ve now <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00218839.2022.2090729">pioneered</a> the use of fluorescent microscopy in combination with computer-aided sperm analysis for what we believe are superior results.</p>
<p>In addition to motility and velocity, our in-depth analyses provide data on, among other things, the swimming patterns of honey bee sperm. This fluorescent method shows promise and can, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00218839.2022.2090729">we argue</a>, provide baseline data for future studies evaluating honey bee sperm quality. </p>
<p>This matters as we seek to secure the survival of honey bee colonies.</p>
<h2>Choosy queen bees</h2>
<p>For now, South Africa and African honey bees appear to have been spared the colony losses seen in some parts of the world. This is thanks to the continuing use of traditional beekeeping practices, according to a <a href="https://www.fao.org/3/i2462e/i2462e.pdf">2012 report</a> by the United Nations’ Food and Agricultural Organisation.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/lessons-from-africa-on-how-to-build-resilient-bee-colonies-131478">Lessons from Africa on how to build resilient bee colonies</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>But the threat, as evidenced by the situation in Europe, can’t be ignored. </p>
<p>There is some urgency to understanding the sperm quality of the honey bee drones because of how long it has to last. Bee queens have limited mating flights. They fly to what’s known as a drone congregation area and mate with multiple drones before heading back to the colony. The queen <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2718501/#:%7E:text=Honeybee%20queens%20are%20efficient%20sperm,on%20the%20honeybee%20mating%20system">can store</a> some six million sperm in a specialised sac, the spermatheca, for as long as seven years. Any one queen bee can potentially have around 1.7 million offspring.</p>
<p>So, she needs the best and most resilient sperm she can get. And she will be choosy, shedding some sperm and keeping only what she likes. It’s not known how the queen decides which sperm is chosen or shed. </p>
<p>This is where form and function meet. Honey bee sperm has a very long tail, about 225 micrometres (µm) in length. It dwarfs the tails of the sperm of larger vertebrates, which are typically in the 40-75 µm range.</p>
<p>Why these long tails? Do they aid motility – how strongly and how fast the sperm moves? Are they relevant to the sperm’s longevity in the queen’s sperm sac? Do they determine which sperm the queen decides to hold on to and which to shed?</p>
<p>To answer these questions, we need the right technology. </p>
<h2>Technology sheds light</h2>
<p>Honey bee sperm are devilishly difficult to study, even with powerful microscopes and tried-and-tested techniques such as <a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/phase-contrast/introduction-to-phase-contrast-microscopy">phase-contrast microscopy</a>, a technique that allows more contrast in a viewed sample. This has much to do with the sperm’s form and structure. The tails are often tightly coiled in a helix, making it hard to tell which is the tail and which the head of the sperm. Both have about the same width. </p>
<p>Other studies of sperm motility and kinematic parameters – broadly, the direction and range of movement – have tried to work around these blind spots, but at the expense of thorough analysis.</p>
<p>Our research group has adapted and stacked existing technology to study the sperm of the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31383288/">black soldier fly</a> and <a href="https://www.micropticsl.com/bee-sperm-2/">the Cape honey bee</a>. </p>
<p>In our <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00218839.2022.2090729">first published paper</a> about this work, we explain how we have improved on other sperm analysis systems by using fluorescence. This has also been done successfully in studies of human sperm. Only sperm heads fluoresce – glow brightly – so it is much simpler to distinguish head from tail.</p>
<p>This has allowed us to glean useful insights into sperm concentration among drones. We’ve also been able to confirm the three swimming patterns of sperm: moving in single helices (wound-up), progressively forward snake-like swimmers, and what we describe as groups of helical swimming sperm (as compared to the individual helical swimmers).</p>
<h2>Protecting colonies</h2>
<p>Sperm quality has also been put forward as a cause of colony collapse. This sort of research broadens our understanding of sperm quality’s importance for colony health and performance. Researchers elsewhere have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/jisesa/ieab048">suggested</a> that drone quality (which we believe includes sperm quality) and variability in a colony or apiary can be a useful indicator of queen and colony health. It can therefore also be used to identify the effect of, for example, environmental stressors. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-honeybees-in-south-africa-need-from-people-better-managed-forage-166369">What honeybees in South Africa need from people: better managed forage</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Assessing sperm quality as part of drone quality will allow for early detection of such stressors. That will allow for preventive management strategies to avoid colony deterioration.</p>
<p>We still have much to learn about honey bee sperm and colony collapses. But if it means we can aid beekeepers to track colony health, for instance, perhaps we can help to secure the future of this critical pollinator. </p>
<p><em>The research on which this article is based was co-authored by Master’s student Janice Murray. Mike Allsopp of the Agricultural Research Council helped to collect data in the field.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/184659/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Christina Kotze receives funding from National Research Foundation (NRF); Thuthuka funding instrument; Grant number: TTK180407318351.
</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gerhard van der Horst is an Emeritus Professor of Medical Bioscience at UWC and an Extra-Ordinary Professor at the University of Stellenbosch. He is also a senior consultant to Microptic SL, Barcelona, Spain in the field of Computer Aided Sperm Analysis</span></em></p>Studying bee sperm is difficult because of the way it coils, but fluorescent light illuminates the head of the sperm. Sperm quality may indicate stress levels in the bee colony.Christina Kotze, Lecturer in anatomy and physiology, and researcher in invertebrate reproductive biology, University of the Western CapeGerhard van der Horst, Emeritus Professor UWC, Extra-Ordinary Professor SU, expert comparative spermatologist, University of the Western CapeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1829302022-05-31T13:04:13Z2022-05-31T13:04:13ZMost people support abortion staying legal, but that may not matter in making law<p>The Supreme Court is set to soon rule on the Dobbs v. Jackson Women’s Health case, nearly one month after a leaked <a href="https://www.politico.com/news/2022/05/02/read-justice-alito-initial-abortion-opinion-overturn-roe-v-wade-pdf-00029504">draft majority opinion</a> showed the <a href="https://theconversation.com/leaking-a-supreme-court-draft-opinion-on-abortion-or-other-hot-topics-is-unprecedented-4-things-to-know-about-how-the-high-court-works-182942">court might</a> uphold a Mississippi law that bans abortion after 15 weeks of pregnancy.</p>
<p>Ruling to uphold this ban could undo women’s constitutional right to abortion, guaranteed by Roe v. Wade in 1973, and throw the decision back to states.</p>
<p>Most Americans <a href="https://www.prri.org/spotlight/most-oppose-overturning-roe-v-wade-widespread-confusion-over-a-post-roe-world/">do not support overturning</a> Roe v. Wade, and have held this opinion for some time. </p>
<p>About 61% of Americans think that abortion should be legal in all or most circumstances, while 37% think it should be illegal in all or most circumstances, according to a <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2022/05/06/americas-abortion-quandary/">March 2022 Pew Research poll</a>. </p>
<p>But national public opinion <a href="https://open.oregonstate.education/open-judicial-politics/chapter/supreme-court-public-opinion/">does not often</a> influence the Supreme Court’s decisions. </p>
<p>As <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=oTq7_YIAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">a professor</a> of political science who studies gender and public opinion, I believe that while general national opinion polling on abortion is important, too much emphasis on it can be misleading. When it comes to how public opinion may shape the debate, it’s essential to pay attention to opinions in the various states, and among particular interest groups. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465775/original/file-20220527-19-mm05sn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A big fence with the words 'police line, do not cross' is shown outside the Supreme Court" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465775/original/file-20220527-19-mm05sn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465775/original/file-20220527-19-mm05sn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465775/original/file-20220527-19-mm05sn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465775/original/file-20220527-19-mm05sn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465775/original/file-20220527-19-mm05sn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465775/original/file-20220527-19-mm05sn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465775/original/file-20220527-19-mm05sn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Protective fencing encloses the U.S. Supreme Court building on May 24, 2022.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://media.gettyimages.com/photos/protective-fencing-remains-up-around-the-us-supreme-court-building-in-picture-id1399020089?s=2048x2048">Chip Somodevilla/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Public opinion on abortion</h2>
<p>Polling since 1995 <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/fact-sheet/public-opinion-on-abortion/">has consistently shown</a> that most Americans think abortion should be legal in all or most cases. </p>
<p>But beyond these general trends, people’s specific backgrounds and characteristics tend to guide their opinions on this controversial topic. </p>
<p>It may surprise some to know that research consistently shows that gender <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfu047">does not</a> broadly influence people’s opinions on abortion. Women are shown to be slightly more supportive of keeping abortion legal, but the gap between how women and men feel about this <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/1554477X.2015.985151">is small</a>. </p>
<p>But other characteristics matter a lot. Currently, the biggest dividing line on abortion beliefs is partisanship. </p>
<p>An overwhelming 80% of Democrats support legal abortion in all or most cases, while only 38% of Republicans do, according to a 2022 <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/politics/2019/08/29/u-s-public-continues-to-favor-legal-abortion-oppose-overturning-roe-v-wade/">Pew Research</a> poll. The opinion gap between Democrats and Republicans on this issue <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/politics/2019/08/29/u-s-public-continues-to-favor-legal-abortion-oppose-overturning-roe-v-wade/">has widened</a> over the past few decades. </p>
<p>In the 1970s and 1980s, Republicans and Democrats supported the right to get an abortion at fairly similar rates. Research finds that the partisan gap on abortion “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1532673X20961022">went from 1 point in the 1972 to 1986 time period to almost 29 points in the 2014 to 2017 period</a>.”</p>
<p>Religion also continues to play an important role in abortion support. White evangelical Christians are <a href="https://www.prri.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/Crosstab-March-2022-Abortion-2.pdf">particularly in favor</a> of overturning Roe v. Wade, but most other people who identify as religious are ambivalent, or remain supportive of the precedent. </p>
<p>Young people and those with more years of education are <a href="https://www.prri.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/Crosstab-March-2022-Abortion-1.pdf">more likely</a> to say that abortion should be legal, while <a href="https://www.prri.org/research/legal-in-most-cases-the-impact-of-the-abortion-debate-in-2019-america/">Latino people</a> are more likely to oppose abortion.</p>
<p>Most consequentially, abortion support varies dramatically across states, ranging from 34% in Louisiana to 72% in Vermont, according to the Public Religion Research Institute’s 2018 survey of the 50 <a href="https://www.prri.org/research/legal-in-most-cases-the-impact-of-the-abortion-debate-in-2019-america/">states</a>. </p>
<p>So, when West Virginia Senator Joe Manchin, a Democrat, <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2022/02/28/abortion-senate-vote/">blocked a</a> bill in February 2022 that would have protected the federal right to abortion, he was consistent with his constituents’ opinions. In West Virginia, only 40% support <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/05/04/upshot/polling-abortion-states.html">legal abortion</a> in all or most cases. </p>
<h2>The history of abortion attitudes</h2>
<p>Even after the Supreme Court ruled on Roe v. Wade in 1973, abortion was not <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S0898588X19000166">as partisan</a> of an issue as it is today. It was not until the <a href="https://documents.law.yale.edu/before-roe">late 1970s and early 1980s</a> that politicians tried to use abortion views as a way to gain votes. </p>
<p>But as religious conservative political movements <a href="https://www.mtsu.edu/first-amendment/article/1375/religious-right">grew in the</a> U.S., abortion became more politicized over the next few decades. </p>
<p>In the 1970s, both Democrats and Republicans in Congress were <a href="https://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691048574/the-politics-of-womens-rights">internally divided</a> on abortion. The Republican National Committee, for example, was <a href="https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2018/02/03/how-feminists-became-democrats-216926/">co-chaired</a> by Mary Dent Crisp, who supported abortion rights. By the 1980s, conservative activists pushed Crisp <a href="https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/P/bo24660595.html">out of her position</a>. </p>
<p>George H.W. Bush also ran as a moderate on abortion in the <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/politics-international-relations/american-government-politics-and-policy/party-position-change-american-politics-coalition-management">1980 Republican presidential primary</a>. But when Bush lost the primary bid and <a href="https://www.npr.org/2018/12/04/673398023/looking-back-on-president-george-h-w-bushs-legacy-on-abortion">became Ronald Reagan’s running mate</a> that year, his position shifted. Bush opposed abortion <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2018/12/05/how-george-hw-bush-enabled-rise-religious-right/">by the time</a> he ran for president in 1988. </p>
<p>This shift speaks to the rising importance of the Christian right in Republican electoral politics around this time.</p>
<p>President Joe Biden made a <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/2020-election/biden-s-long-evolution-abortion-rights-still-holds-surprises-n1013846">similar change</a> in his support for abortion over time. Biden opposed using federal funds for abortion early in his congressional career, but has taken a more liberal position in recent years and now sees abortion as an <a href="https://www.vox.com/2019/6/5/18653660/joe-biden-hyde-amendment-bernie-sanders-2020">essential element of health care</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465777/original/file-20220527-13-5bhjpm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A black and white photo shows demonstrators with signs that say things like 'the right to abortion belongs to God, not doctors.'" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465777/original/file-20220527-13-5bhjpm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465777/original/file-20220527-13-5bhjpm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465777/original/file-20220527-13-5bhjpm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465777/original/file-20220527-13-5bhjpm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465777/original/file-20220527-13-5bhjpm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=636&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465777/original/file-20220527-13-5bhjpm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=636&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465777/original/file-20220527-13-5bhjpm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=636&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Anti-abortion activists march to protest abortion in New York City in 1975.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://media.gettyimages.com/photos/prolife-activists-gather-to-protest-against-abortion-outside-an-hotel-picture-id1221974952?s=2048x2048">Peter Keegan/Authenticated News/Archive Photos/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Whose opinions matter?</h2>
<p>Even though the overall nationwide public support for abortion has remained relatively high since the 1990s, this masks how subsets of people, like those on the Christian right who feel strongly about abortion, can reshape politics. </p>
<p>State-level public opinion matters, too. Abortion attitudes vary greatly across states – and state-level policy <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S153759271700425X">has polarized</a> over time, creating bigger policy differences in conservative and liberal states. </p>
<p>This <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1541-0072.1999.tb01998.x">matters</a> because states have an outsize influence in abortion politics. Because so much of the federal debate revolves around Roe, the Senate has been an important gatekeeper for Supreme Court justices, who will determine whether they should overturn Roe.</p>
<p>This difference poses a fundamental challenge for people who want a single nationwide policy on abortion – whether they support the ability for someone to get an abortion in all or most cases, or do not. </p>
<p>Varied opinions on abortion also offer a reminder about what kind of public opinion matters most in democratic politics. It is not the version of public opinion that emerges from nationally representative surveys of the American people. Instead, the most influential kind of opinion is the organized political activity that can pressure government and shape electoral choices and legislative options.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/182930/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tarah Williams receives funding from the Public Religion Research Institute (PRRI) as a Public Fellow. </span></em></p>Americans have long said they generally support abortion rights, but understanding specific breakdowns of opinion across demographics, and the history of abortion beliefs, is also important.Tarah Williams, Assistant Professor of Political Science, Allegheny CollegeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1824132022-05-05T05:24:53Z2022-05-05T05:24:53ZAbortion is no longer a crime in Australia. So why is it still so hard to access?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/461209/original/file-20220504-25-ltsf9h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C1000%2C667&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/side-view-portrait-young-woman-wearing-1869302794">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>A <a href="https://theconversation.com/us-supreme-court-poised-to-overturn-abortion-law-what-the-leaked-opinion-says-and-what-happens-next-182351">leak of draft court documents</a> reveals Roe v. Wade – which has broadly guaranteed abortion rights in the United States since 1973 – may be overturned. </p>
<p>The US decision may influence the <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-end-of-roe-v-wade-would-likely-embolden-global-anti-abortion-activists-and-politicians-182345">rhetoric and lobbying techniques</a> of anti-abortion activists globally but it has no direct bearing on Australia. </p>
<p>Nevertheless, it is a chance to highlight continued obstacles to abortion access in Australia.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-end-of-roe-v-wade-would-likely-embolden-global-anti-abortion-activists-and-politicians-182345">The end of Roe v. Wade would likely embolden global anti-abortion activists and politicians</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Abortion is a common, essential health service. About <a href="https://www.mja.com.au/journal/2021/215/8/estimating-abortion-rate-australia-national-hospital-morbidity-and">88,800 people</a> have an abortion in Australia each year. Between <a href="https://www.sahealth.sa.gov.au/wps/wcm/connect/public+content/sa+health+internet/about+us/health+statistics/pregnancy+outcome+statistics">one quarter and one third</a> of women living in Australia will have an abortion in their lifetime. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/1753-6405.12997">vast majority</a> of Australians are <a href="https://law.adelaide.edu.au/system/files/media/documents/2019-12/Abortion%20Report%20281119.pdf">broadly “pro-choice”</a>.</p>
<h2>Abortion is not a crime, but legal issues remain</h2>
<p>In 2021, South Australia became the <a href="https://theconversation.com/abortion-is-no-longer-a-crime-in-australia-but-legal-hurdles-to-access-remain-156215">final jurisdiction</a> to decriminalise abortion. However, the <a href="https://indaily.com.au/news/2022/03/03/sa-abortion-law-reform-stalled-one-year-after-passing/">law has not commenced</a>. Until then, the state’s abortion providers and patients remain subject to <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-03-04/sa-abortion-access-delays-year-after-reforms-pass/100883906">old, criminalising legislation</a>. So the state government must enact the new law immediately. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.mediastatements.wa.gov.au/Pages/McGowan/2021/08/Safe-Access-Zones-passes-WA-Parliament.aspx">Western Australia</a> became the last jurisdiction to introduce “buffer zone” legislation, which prevents the harassment of pregnant people outside places that provide abortions. In WA, <a href="https://www.parliament.wa.gov.au/parliament/bills.nsf/43EBDD658FC50BA14825663400102F5D/$File/Act15.pdf">criminal law continues to regulate</a> medical doctors who provide abortions. </p>
<p>All jurisdictions <a href="https://theconversation.com/abortion-is-no-longer-a-crime-in-australia-but-legal-hurdles-to-access-remain-156215">prohibit unqualified people</a> from performing abortions. This is unnecessary legislation that seeks to regulate “backyard abortions”, which no longer exist, and prevents the full integration of abortion into health law (which already ensures medical procedures are performed by qualified professionals).</p>
<p>For the most part, however, abortion in Australia is now regulated under health law rather than criminal law. While new health laws correctly frame abortion as a matter of health, these health laws continue to impede access to it. </p>
<p>This is due to the continued <a href="https://theconversation.com/abortion-is-no-longer-a-crime-in-australia-but-legal-hurdles-to-access-remain-156215">over-regulation of abortion</a> through measures including:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>gestational limits to abortion (in all state/territories except the Australian Capital Territory)</p></li>
<li><p>requirements for doctors provide patients with information about counselling services (WA, NSW, SA).</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Over-regulation is a direct result of, and exacerbates, abortion stigma, which treats abortion as more risky than it is in practice. </p>
<p>All medical procedures <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1037969X20986636">are already tightly regulated</a> by government (state and federal health law), institutions (for instance, hospital policies) and professional bodies (for instance, doctors’ codes of ethics).</p>
<p>Removing the stand-alone abortion legislation that exists in all states/territories would treat abortion like all other health procedures and decrease abortion stigma.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/abortion-is-no-longer-a-crime-in-australia-but-legal-hurdles-to-access-remain-156215">Abortion is no longer a crime in Australia. But legal hurdles to access remain</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Who has access? How about the cost?</h2>
<p>People in SA and the Northern Territory can access abortion in the public system. Vulnerable people in <a href="https://pubgeomapping.1800myoptions.org.au/#!/">Victoria</a> and <a href="https://www.health.tas.gov.au/health-topics/sexual-and-reproductive-health/reproductive-health/terminating-ending-pregnancy">Tasmania</a> also have public access. </p>
<p>However, <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1753-6405.12641">abortions are costly</a> for others because they are largely performed in private clinics rather than in the public system.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1462912057875959808"}"></div></p>
<p>There are few abortion providers in rural and regional Australia. Currently, only <a href="https://www.mshealth.com.au/wp-content/uploads/MS-Health-July-2021-Update-1.pdf">about 10% of GPs</a> are registered to prescribe mifepristone, sometimes known as RU486, for <a href="https://theconversation.com/early-medical-abortion-is-legal-across-australia-but-rural-women-often-dont-have-access-to-it-125300">medical abortion</a>. This figure <a href="https://www.mariestopes.org.au/your-choices/nurse-abortion-care/">falls to less than 1%</a> in <a href="https://www.mshealth.com.au/wp-content/uploads/MS-Health-July-2021-Update-1.pdf">some regional, remote and rural areas</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/early-medical-abortion-is-legal-across-australia-but-rural-women-often-dont-have-access-to-it-125300">Early medical abortion is legal across Australia but rural women often don't have access to it</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>We can learn from Tasmania</h2>
<p>Since Tasmania’s last private abortion clinic <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-01-13/tasmanias-only-abortion-clinic-closes/9325194">closed in 2018</a>, abortion provision in the state has been <a href="https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwjN1ZHOhcX3AhVj63MBHfLCAEE4ChAWegQIJRAB&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.canberratimes.com.au%2Fstory%2F7383954%2Fthese-women-are-facing-limited-or-no-access-to-surgical-abortions%2F%3Fcs%3D9676&usg=AOvVaw1Z3jsspakwpwVHnpkAu09K">dire</a>. Last year, the government took action, <a href="https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwjEk8ym_cT3AhUD4zgGHW5dBWwQFnoECCgQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.examiner.com.au%2Fstory%2F7403213%2Fsurgical-abortions-to-be-more-widely-available%2F&usg=AOvVaw1-5MuNN2B6CZQK3LFbgxhR">expecting</a> that, by October 2021, select public hospitals (together, covering the entire state) would provide abortions. </p>
<p>Surgical abortions are now performed at <a href="https://www.health.tas.gov.au/health-topics/sexual-and-reproductive-health/reproductive-health/terminating-ending-pregnancy">three public hospitals</a> in the state. <a href="https://www.health.tas.gov.au/sites/default/files/2021-12/Termination_of_Pregnancy_fact_sheet_DoHTasmania.pdf">Vulnerable women</a> are prioritised, indicating the service may not be universal.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/heres-why-there-should-be-no-gestational-limits-for-abortion-121500">Here's why there should be no gestational limits for abortion</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What would improve access around Australia?</h2>
<p>The current <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0277539521000340?casa_token=zscbkTWzMfQAAAAA:4BId2MmOmBJ7unfhCLb3JGCxXakCa6_fPZaeB2YRdUfDDuzVQ3Pff_ZKqESRFw49Aa1K-gHMgA">shortage of abortion providers</a> could be remedied if Australia followed Sweden to make abortion provision <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1521693419300951?casa_token=kWYrA1SEDnsAAAAA:zOC87tC7xnzbUMmjw869koeg7XzwI4kfHjaxZ_mmIIiLeosedBJXuZlTm4Ly3Db_SHszLab6KQ">compulsory</a> to the <a href="https://obgyn.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ajo.13368">training</a> and work of midwives and <a href="https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/serviceprofiles/obstetrician-gynaecologist-service">obstetrician-gynaecologists</a>.</p>
<p>The federal government could tie funding for public hospitals <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-03-06/labor-promises-free-abortions-if-it-wins-government-at-election/10873612">to abortion provision</a>.</p>
<p>Primary health-care provision of abortion also needs to increase, which requires two key policy shifts.</p>
<p>First, the Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) must revise its guidelines for providers and dispensers of medical abortion. At present, doctors must complete an instruction module and register to prescribe mifepristone. Pharmacies must register to dispense the drug. No other drug is subject to such <a href="https://theconversation.com/its-time-to-lift-the-restrictions-on-medical-abortion-in-australia-114364">unnecessary regulation</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/its-time-to-lift-the-restrictions-on-medical-abortion-in-australia-114364">It's time to lift the restrictions on medical abortion in Australia</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Second, Medicare needs to add an item number specifically for the provision of medical abortion. Appointments take time and, to keep this service viable, GPs often charge an out-of-pocket fee to <a href="https://www.childrenbychoice.org.au/for-professionals/becoming-a-medical-abortion-provider/">patients of A$200-$300</a>. Providing a Medicare item number reflects the need for this service and would incentivise more GPs to become providers by ensuring adequate compensation.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/461421/original/file-20220505-14-c233ee.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Medicare card and Australian bank notes" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/461421/original/file-20220505-14-c233ee.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/461421/original/file-20220505-14-c233ee.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461421/original/file-20220505-14-c233ee.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461421/original/file-20220505-14-c233ee.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461421/original/file-20220505-14-c233ee.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461421/original/file-20220505-14-c233ee.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461421/original/file-20220505-14-c233ee.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">We need changes to Medicare to encourage more GPs to offer medical abortions.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/australian-medicare-card-money-457586230">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>More nurses, midwives and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander health workers are needed to provide abortion services if abortions are to be <a href="https://3fe3eaf7-296b-470f-809a-f8eebaec315a.filesusr.com/ugd/410f2f_b90e75bf10784fedb7f3f6b2de9e6f48.pdf">affordable, local and timely</a>. </p>
<p>This requires <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/py/PY20304">several shifts</a>, including (but not limited to) changes to state/territory abortion laws (many of which limit abortion provision to medical doctors), TGA guidelines, and increased training. </p>
<h2>Australia’s system is not perfect</h2>
<p>There are several legal and practical hurdles to make sure abortion in Australia is affordable, accessible, and provided in a timely manner. We can look to the recent developments in the US to mobilise, in Australia, for a health system that reflects that abortion is an essential, common part of health care that needs to remain free from stigma and political interference.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/182413/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Erica Millar receives funding from the Australian Research Council. She is a member of the South Australian Abortion Action Coalition. </span></em></p>We need more health workers and public hospitals to provide abortions, a common and essential health service.Erica Millar, Senior research fellow, La Trobe UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1815932022-04-20T19:56:21Z2022-04-20T19:56:21ZThere’s more than one way to grow a baby<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/458754/original/file-20220420-25-6432x.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4281%2C2848&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/mother-cat-cares-her-20-days-160645280">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In his 1989 book <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wonderful_Life_(book)">Wonderful Life</a>, evolutionary biologist Stephen Jay Gould famously argued that, if we could “replay the tape”, life on Earth would evolve to be fundamentally different each time. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/458730/original/file-20220419-15105-obec4o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="X-ray style drawing showing the wings and skeletons of a pterosaur, a bat, and a bird." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/458730/original/file-20220419-15105-obec4o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/458730/original/file-20220419-15105-obec4o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=934&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/458730/original/file-20220419-15105-obec4o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=934&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/458730/original/file-20220419-15105-obec4o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=934&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/458730/original/file-20220419-15105-obec4o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1173&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/458730/original/file-20220419-15105-obec4o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1173&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/458730/original/file-20220419-15105-obec4o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1173&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Wings and flight evolved differently, and independently, in (1) pterosaurs, (2) bats, and (3) birds.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">George Romanes</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Was he right? Convergent evolution, in which similar features evolve to perform similar functions in distantly related organisms, offers an excellent model in which to run Gould’s thought experiment. </p>
<p>One classic example of convergent evolution is the independent evolution of wings and flight in insects, birds, pterosaurs, and bats. Another is live birth (or “viviparity”), which has evolved independently from egg-laying <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/jmor.20272">more than 150 times</a> in vertebrates (animals with backbones).</p>
<p>To understand how this happened, we studied the genes involved in pregnancy and live birth in six different live-bearing species. We <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msac077">discovered</a> that, despite broad similarities in the anatomy and physiology involved, each species used a completely different set of genetic tools to give birth to live young. </p>
<h2>Is live birth controlled by a universal set of genes?</h2>
<p>In nearly all live-bearing vertebrates examined so far, changes to the gestational tissues and biophysical processes during pregnancy appear remarkably similar. </p>
<p>Some common elements of the process are:</p>
<ul>
<li>tissues in the bodies of the mother and fetus which <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S1095-6433(00)00274-9">grow more blood vessels</a> to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/jez.1402660508">exchange gases and water</a> with each other</li>
<li><a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/mec.16333">protection of the fetus</a> from the mother’s immune system</li>
<li><a href="https://doi.org/10.1530/REP-13-0309">allocation of nutrients</a> to the fetus.</li>
</ul>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A triptych of photographs showing a cow giving birth to a calf." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/458731/original/file-20220419-13-geoepc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/458731/original/file-20220419-13-geoepc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/458731/original/file-20220419-13-geoepc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/458731/original/file-20220419-13-geoepc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/458731/original/file-20220419-13-geoepc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=176&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/458731/original/file-20220419-13-geoepc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=176&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/458731/original/file-20220419-13-geoepc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=176&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Live birth is driven by a complex suite of morphological, physiological, and genetic changes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cow_giving_birth,_in_Laos_(step_by_step).jpg">Modified from an image by Basile Morin</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The changes that occur during pregnancy and birthing must be mainly controlled by genetics, and we know that the expression of genes changes during pregnancy in different live-bearing animals. </p>
<p>However, the generality of these changes is less clear. For example, are the same genes used during pregnancy in mammals and fish? Or are similar outcomes driven by entirely different genes? </p>
<p>That’s what we set out to discover in our study, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msac077">newly published</a> in Molecular Biology and Evolution, in collaboration with researchers from the University of Queensland and James Cook University.</p>
<h2>Measuring gene activity during pregnancy</h2>
<p>An animal’s development is controlled by its genes, its environment, and an interaction between the two. </p>
<p>Not every gene within an animal is always active. Genes are switched on (or “expressed”) when needed, and then switched off again when no longer needed. </p>
<p>Gene expression levels naturally vary over time as an animal interacts with the environment and undergoes physiological changes, such as those <a href="https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00040.2011">associated with pregnancy</a>. Using a technique called “transcriptomics”, we can take snapshots of these changes in gene expression as they occur.</p>
<p>To investigate the genetic changes occurring in the uterus during pregnancy in different species, we collected samples or used existing data from six live-bearing animals: the Australian sharpnose shark, three species of Australian lizards, the gray short-tailed opossum, and the brown lab rat.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/458732/original/file-20220419-15-uagqhs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A tiny lizard perched on a human finger." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/458732/original/file-20220419-15-uagqhs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/458732/original/file-20220419-15-uagqhs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=255&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/458732/original/file-20220419-15-uagqhs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=255&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/458732/original/file-20220419-15-uagqhs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=255&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/458732/original/file-20220419-15-uagqhs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=320&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/458732/original/file-20220419-15-uagqhs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=320&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/458732/original/file-20220419-15-uagqhs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=320&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The spotted skink <em>Niveoscincus ocellatus</em>, sampled in our study, gives birth to live young.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Charles Foster</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Sampling this wide range of animals allowed us to determine whether the same gene expression changes occur during pregnancy across species in which live birth evolved independently. </p>
<p>Our work is the first quantitative study into the genetic basis of live birth at such a broad evolutionary scale.</p>
<h2>There are many different ways to grow a baby</h2>
<p>We expected to find many of the same genes used during pregnancy to support the growth and survival of embryos in each of the live-bearing species we sampled. </p>
<p>This hypothesis seemed logical, given the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/jmor.20272">many similarities</a> in anatomical changes during pregnancy across live-bearing vertebrates, along with qualitative findings from <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-021-01555-4">previous research</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/this-lizard-lays-eggs-and-gives-live-birth-we-think-its-undergoing-a-major-evolutionary-transition-133630">This lizard lays eggs and gives live birth. We think it's undergoing a major evolutionary transition</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Instead, we found there was no one set of “live-bearing genes” utilised during pregnancy across our sampled range of animals. In other words, evolution has converged on similar functions for successful pregnancy but those functions have been achieved by recruiting different groups of genes. </p>
<p>Despite not being what we expected, this finding also makes sense. Different animal lineages may have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msac077">different “toolboxes” of genes</a> to draw from, due to their unique evolutionary histories.</p>
<p>A genetic “toolbox” can be thought of as a broad class of genes that perform similar basic functions. Over the long timescales of evolution, different genes from this ancestral toolbox can be recruited to carry out the same physiological functions in different animals. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/458733/original/file-20220420-28457-hzx4t2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A photograph showing a greyish white shark with an umbilical cord and placenta." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/458733/original/file-20220420-28457-hzx4t2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/458733/original/file-20220420-28457-hzx4t2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=363&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/458733/original/file-20220420-28457-hzx4t2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=363&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/458733/original/file-20220420-28457-hzx4t2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=363&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/458733/original/file-20220420-28457-hzx4t2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/458733/original/file-20220420-28457-hzx4t2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/458733/original/file-20220420-28457-hzx4t2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Like humans, the Australian sharpnose shark transports nutrients to developing embryos via a placenta.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Camilla Whittington</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For example, developing babies require access to a supply of amino acids for successful development. In many species these amino acids are transported from the mother to the fetus across the placenta via “solute carrier” genes. </p>
<p>We identified more than 75 different solute carrier genes in the combined genetic toolbox of our study species. However, each species recruited different genes from the toolbox to transport amino acids during pregnancy.</p>
<h2>Rethinking live birth</h2>
<p>Our findings force us to rethink the idea that the cross-species similarities in live birth are controlled by the same genetic changes.</p>
<p>We can also consider our results in the context of Gould’s thought experiment about “replaying the tape of life”. </p>
<p>Was the evolution of live birth predictable? It depends on how you look at it.</p>
<p>Large-scale similarities, such as the anatomy and functions of the uterus, seem predictable. They appear to have evolved repeatedly to solve the biophysical challenges of successful pregnancy. </p>
<p>However, our results show this predictability does not extend to the underlying genes.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/181593/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Charles Foster has previously received funding from the Australian Research Council, and is currently employed via funding from the Medical Research Future Fund (Australian Government Department of Health) and the University of New South Wales. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Camilla Whittington receives funding from the Australian Research Council and the University of Sydney.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>James Van Dyke receives funding from the Australian Research Council and the Australian Government Department of Industry, Science, Energy and Resources.</span></em></p>Live birth has evolved independently more than 150 times. The underlying biophysical processes all look quite similar, but new research shows they use completely different genetic tools.Charles Foster, Postdoctoral Research Associate, UNSW SydneyCamilla Whittington, Senior lecturer, University of SydneyJames Van Dyke, Senior Lecturer in Biomedical Sciences, La Trobe UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1771182022-03-28T12:37:55Z2022-03-28T12:37:55ZHow did cockroaches survive the asteroid that led to the extinction of dinosaurs?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/453979/original/file-20220323-19-1ijv5iq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5000%2C3495&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Artist's rendering of the Chicxulub asteroid entering Earth's atmosphere 66 million years ago, triggering events that caused a mass extermination.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/illustration/end-of-cretaceous-kt-event-illustration-royalty-free-illustration/724237133">Roger Harris/Science Photo library via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/curious-kids-us-74795">Curious Kids</a> is a series for children of all ages. If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, send it to <a href="mailto:curiouskidsus@theconversation.com">curiouskidsus@theconversation.com</a>.</em></p>
<hr>
<blockquote>
<p><strong>How did cockroaches survive the asteroid that led to the extinction of dinosaurs? – Kinjal, age 11, Delhi, India</strong></p>
</blockquote>
<p>When the rock now known as the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/13/science/chicxulub-dinosaur-extinction.html">Chicxulub impactor</a> plummeted from outer space and slammed into the Earth 66 million years ago, cockroaches were there. The impact caused a massive earthquake, and scientists think it also <a href="https://theconversation.com/more-bad-news-for-dinosaurs-chicxulub-meteorite-impact-triggered-global-volcanic-eruptions-on-the-ocean-floor-91053">triggered volcanic eruptions</a> thousands of miles from the impact site. Three-quarters of plants and animals on Earth died, including all dinosaurs, <a href="https://www.birdlife.org/news/2021/12/21/its-official-birds-are-literally-dinosaurs-heres-how-we-know/">except for some species</a> that were ancestors of today’s birds.</p>
<p>How could roaches a couple of inches long survive when so many powerful animals went extinct? It turns out that they were nicely equipped to live through a meteoric catastrophe.</p>
<p>If you’ve ever seen a cockroach, you’ve probably noticed that their bodies are very flat. This is not an accident. Flatter insects can squeeze themselves into tighter places. This enables them to hide practically anywhere – and it may have helped them survive the Chicxulub impact.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/1ro6PNqkHEM?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Cockroaches have flat bodies that help them squeeze through tiny spaces. They’re also strong and fast.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>When the meteor struck, <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/dinosaur-killing-asteroid-impact-chicxulub-crater-timeline-destruction-180973075/">temperatures on Earth’s surface skyrocketed</a>. Many animals had nowhere to flee, but roaches could take shelter in tiny soil crevices, which provide excellent protection from heat.</p>
<p>The meteor’s impact <a href="https://www.livescience.com/dinosaur-killing-asteroid-struck-earth">triggered a cascade of effects</a>. It kicked up so much dust that the sky darkened. As the sun dimmed, temperatures plunged and conditions became wintry around the globe. With little sunlight, surviving plants struggled to grow, and many other organisms that relied on those plants went hungry. </p>
<p>Not cockroaches, though. Unlike some insects that <a href="https://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/pollinators/pollinator-of-the-month/yucca_moths.shtml">prefer to eat one specific plant</a>, cockroaches are <a href="https://cockroachfacts.com/what-do-cockroaches-eat/">omnivorous scavengers</a>. This means they will eat most foods that come from animals or plants as well as cardboard, some kinds of clothing and even poop. Having appetites that aren’t picky has allowed cockroaches to survive lean times since the Chicxulub extinction and other natural disasters.</p>
<p>Another helpful trait is that cockroaches <a href="https://extension.umn.edu/insects-infest-homes/cockroaches">lay their eggs in little protective cases</a>. These egg cartons look like dried beans and are called oothecae, which means “egg cases.” Like phone cases, oothecae are hard and protect their contents from physical damage and other threats, such as flooding and drought. Some cockroaches may have waited out part of the Chicxulub catastrophe from the comfort of their oothecae. </p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Small brown rectangular egg case on white background" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/453995/original/file-20220323-17-10395k5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/453995/original/file-20220323-17-10395k5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453995/original/file-20220323-17-10395k5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453995/original/file-20220323-17-10395k5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453995/original/file-20220323-17-10395k5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453995/original/file-20220323-17-10395k5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453995/original/file-20220323-17-10395k5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cockroach egg cases are about 0.5 inches long (10 millimeters) and contain up to 50 eggs, depending on the species.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/ootheca-of-cockroach-isolated-on-white-royalty-free-image/488873689">VitalisG/iStock via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Modern cockroaches are little survivors that can live just about anywhere on land, from the heat of the tropics to some of the coldest parts of the globe. Scientists estimate that <a href="https://bugguide.net/node/view/342386">there over 4,000 cockroach species</a>. </p>
<p>A handful of these species like to live with humans and quickly become pests. Once cockroaches become established in a building, it’s hard to rid every little crack of these insects and their oothecae. When large numbers of roaches are present in unsanitary places, they can spread diseases. The biggest threat they pose to human health is from allergens they produce that can <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/08/03/science/cockroach-diseases.html">trigger asthma attacks and allergic reactions</a> in some people.</p>
<p>Cockroach pests are hard to manage because they can <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/pesticides-are-making-german-cockroaches-stronger">resist many chemical insecticides</a> and because they have the same abilities that helped their ancestors outlive many dinosaurs. Still, cockroaches are much more than a pest to control. Researchers study cockroaches to understand <a href="https://news.umich.edu/lessons-from-cockroaches-could-inform-robotics/">how they move</a> and <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2016/02/09/science/cockroaches-indestructible-and-instructive-to-robot-makers.html">how their bodies are designed</a> to get ideas for building better robots.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Brian-Lovett">As a scientist</a>, I see all insects as beautiful, six-legged inspirations. Cockroaches have already overcome odds that were too great for dinosaurs. If another meteorite hit the Earth, I’d be more worried for humans than for cockroaches.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Hello, curious kids! Do you have a question you’d like an expert to answer? Ask an adult to send your question to <a href="mailto:curiouskidsus@theconversation.com">CuriousKidsUS@theconversation.com</a>. Please tell us your name, age and the city where you live.</em></p>
<p><em>And since curiosity has no age limit – adults, let us know what you’re wondering, too. We won’t be able to answer every question, but we will do our best.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/177118/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Brian Lovett does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Cockroaches have been on Earth far longer than humans and may outlast us. Here are a few reasons why.Brian Lovett, Postdoctoral Researcher in Mycology, West Virginia UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1731512021-12-06T19:06:20Z2021-12-06T19:06:20ZHalf of women over 35 who want a child don’t end up having one, or have fewer than they planned<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/435731/original/file-20211205-15-1adyinb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/tBtuxtLvAZs">Matthew Henry/Unsplash</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>At age 35, one in four Australian women and one in three men were hoping to have a child or more children in the future. But by age 49, about half report they haven’t yet had the number of children they hoped for.</p>
<p>That’s according to the <a href="https://melbourneinstitute.unimelb.edu.au/hilda">Household, Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia</a> (HILDA) 2021 report, released today. Over 20 years, HILDA has tracked more than 17,500 people in 9,500 households.</p>
<p>While some of the 49-year-old men may still father a child later in life, this is unlikely to be the case for women at that age. </p>
<p>In Australia and other high-income countries, there has been a long-term downward trend in the fertility rate: the average number of births per woman. In 2019, Australia hit a record-low of <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-08-24/fertility-rates-in-australia-at-all-time-low-cause-for-concern/100367258">1.66 babies per woman</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australians-want-more-children-than-they-have-so-are-we-in-the-midst-of-a-demographic-crisis-81547">Australians want more children than they have, so are we in the midst of a demographic crisis?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Low fertility rates are partly a result of more people <a href="https://apo.org.au/sites/default/files/resource-files/2020-07/apo-nid306881.pdf">not having children</a>, either by choice or through circumstance. About a quarter of Australian women in their reproductive years are likely <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/bb8db737e2af84b8ca2571780015701e/1e8c8e4887c33955ca2570ec000a9fe5!OpenDocument">to never have children</a>. </p>
<h2>Why are women having fewer children?</h2>
<p>There are many reasons why people have no or fewer children than planned towards the end of their reproductive years. </p>
<p>One contributing factor is the average age when women have their first child has increased in the last few decades and is now almost <a href="https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/mothers-babies/australias-mothers-babies-data-visualisations/contents/demographics-of-mothers-and-babies/maternal-age">30 years</a>. This is in part explained by women spending more time in education and the workforce than they <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3529638/">used to</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/balancing-work-and-fertility-isnt-easy-but-reproductive-leave-can-help-171497">Balancing work and fertility isn't easy – but reproductive leave can help</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Another reason is some women don’t find a <a href="https://rbej.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12958-018-0389-z">suitable partner</a> or have a partner who is unwilling or “not ready” to commit to parenthood. </p>
<p>It’s also possible <a href="https://www.fertstert.org/article/S0015-0282(12)02343-6/fulltext">limited knowledge</a> about the factors affecting fertility leads to missed opportunities to have the number of children originally planned.</p>
<p>But whatever the reason, having children later in life will inevitably affect the number of children people ultimately have. While most women who try for a baby will succeed, some won’t, and some will have fewer children than they had planned to have. </p>
<h2>Fertility declines with age – so does IVF success</h2>
<p>The risk of not achieving pregnancy increases as a woman gets older because the number and quality of her eggs decline. </p>
<p>By 40, a woman’s fertility is about half the level it was when she was <a href="https://www.fertstert.org/article/S0015-0282(16)62849-2/fulltext">30</a>. And sperm quality decreases with age too, starting at around <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12801554/">age 45</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Man leans against a bike while looking at his phone." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/435745/original/file-20211206-25-sh7k7m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/435745/original/file-20211206-25-sh7k7m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/435745/original/file-20211206-25-sh7k7m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/435745/original/file-20211206-25-sh7k7m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/435745/original/file-20211206-25-sh7k7m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/435745/original/file-20211206-25-sh7k7m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/435745/original/file-20211206-25-sh7k7m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Men’s sperm quality also declines with age.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/zn2aUVfbUrk">Unsplash</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Increasingly, people who struggle to conceive turn to assisted reproductive technology (ART) such as in-vitro fertilisation (IVF). </p>
<p>There was a 27% increase in the number of treatment cycles in the 2020–2021 financial year compared to the previous year, according to <a href="https://www.varta.org.au/resources/annual-reports">data released today</a> by the Victorian Assisted Reproductive Treatment Authority (VARTA). </p>
<p>But unfortunately, IVF is not a good back-up plan for age-related infertility. </p>
<p>On behalf of VARTA, researchers at the University of New South Wales tracked thousands of women who started IVF in Victoria in 2016 to see what had happened to them by June 30, 2020. The graph below shows the proportions of women who had a baby after one, two or three stimulated IVF cycles, including the transfer of all fresh and frozen embryos that resulted from these. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/435762/original/file-20211206-19-mq97.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/435762/original/file-20211206-19-mq97.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=427&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/435762/original/file-20211206-19-mq97.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=427&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/435762/original/file-20211206-19-mq97.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=427&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/435762/original/file-20211206-19-mq97.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=537&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/435762/original/file-20211206-19-mq97.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=537&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/435762/original/file-20211206-19-mq97.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=537&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Victorian Assisted Reproductive Treatment Authority</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Women who started IVF when they were 30 years old had a 48% chance of a baby after one stimulated cycle, a 62% chance after two cycles and a 67% chance after three cycles. </p>
<p>But for a woman who started IVF at age 40, there was only a 13% chance of a baby after one stimulated cycle, a 21% chance after two cycles and a 25% chance after three cycles.</p>
<h2>Fertility options for over-35s</h2>
<p>So, what are the options for women in their mid-30s who want to have a child or more children? </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.varta.org.au/resources/annual-reports">Victorian Assisted Reproductive Treatment Authority data</a> reveal some women aren’t waiting to find a partner. Over four years, there has been a 48% increase in single women using donor sperm to have a child, and a 50% increase among same-sex couples. </p>
<p>But the number of men who donate sperm in Victoria has remained the same, so there is now a shortage of donor sperm.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Woman sits reading in a medical waiting room." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/435746/original/file-20211206-15-3tu035.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/435746/original/file-20211206-15-3tu035.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/435746/original/file-20211206-15-3tu035.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/435746/original/file-20211206-15-3tu035.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/435746/original/file-20211206-15-3tu035.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/435746/original/file-20211206-15-3tu035.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/435746/original/file-20211206-15-3tu035.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Single women are increasingly using donor sperm to have a baby.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/young-patient-reading-magazine-waiting-room-421203046">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The option of freezing eggs for later use is also used by more and more women. Almost 5,000 women now have frozen eggs in storage in Victoria, up 23% on the previous year. </p>
<p>But it’s important to remember that although having stored eggs offers the chance of a baby, it’s <a href="https://www.varta.org.au/resources/news-and-blogs/whats-your-chance-having-baby-frozen-eggs">not a guarantee</a>. </p>
<p>For women in their 40s, using eggs donated by a younger woman increases their chance of having a baby. Our study showed women aged 40 and over who used donor eggs were five times more likely to have a live birth than women who used their <a href="https://obgyn.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ajo.13179">own eggs</a>. </p>
<p>But finding a woman who is willing to donate her eggs can be <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14647273.2021.1873430">difficult</a>. Most women who use donated eggs recruit their donor themselves and some use eggs imported from overseas <a href="https://www.varta.org.au/resources/annual-reports">egg banks</a>.</p>
<p>So while people might think pregnancy will happen as soon as they stop contraception, having a baby is <a href="https://www.yourfertility.org.au/fertility-week-2021">not always easy</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/egg-freezing-wont-insure-women-against-infertility-or-help-break-the-glass-ceiling-46619">Egg freezing won't insure women against infertility or help break the glass ceiling</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/173151/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Karin Hammarberg receives funding from The Australian Government Department of Health. She is a Senior Research Officer at the Victorian Assisted Reproductive Treatment Authority. </span></em></p>While most women who try for a baby will succeed, some won’t, and some will have fewer children than they had planned to have.Karin Hammarberg, Senior Research Fellow, Global and Women's Health, School of Public Health & Preventive Medicine, Monash UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1706912021-11-01T12:24:55Z2021-11-01T12:24:55ZHow AI is hijacking art history<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/429399/original/file-20211029-17-ql1b8b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=46%2C76%2C1096%2C1067&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Art historians have long used traditional X-rays, X-ray fluorescence or infrared imaging to better understand artists' techniques.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/The_Holy_Family_with_the_Infant_Saint_John_the_Baptist_MET_Perino_X-ray.jpg">Metropolitan Museum of Art/Wikimedia Commons</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>People tend to rejoice in the disclosure of a secret. </p>
<p>Or, at the very least, media outlets have come to realize that news of “mysteries solved” and “hidden treasures revealed” generate traffic and clicks. </p>
<p>So I’m never surprised when I see AI-assisted revelations about famous masters’ works of art go viral. </p>
<p>Over the past year alone, I’ve come across articles highlighting how artificial intelligence <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2021/jun/06/modigliani-lost-lover-beatrice-hastings">recovered a “secret” painting</a> of a “lost lover” of Italian painter Modigliani, <a href="https://www.cnn.com/style/article/hidden-picasso-nude-scli-intl-gbr/index.html">“brought to life” a “hidden Picasso nude”</a>, <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/klimt-painting-restore-artificial-intelligence-color-faculty-paintings-180978843/">“resurrected” Austrian painter Gustav Klimt’s destroyed works</a> and <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-57588270">“restored” portions of Rembrandt’s 1642 painting “The Night Watch.”</a> <a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/08/190830150738.htm">The list goes on</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.umass.edu/arthistory/member/sonja-drimmer">As an art historian</a>, I’ve become increasingly concerned about the coverage and circulation of these projects.</p>
<p>They have not, in actuality, revealed one secret or solved a single mystery. </p>
<p>What they have done is generate feel-good stories about AI.</p>
<h2>Are we actually learning anything new?</h2>
<p>Take the reports about the Modigliani and Picasso paintings. </p>
<p>These were projects executed by the same company, <a href="https://www.oxia-palus.com/">Oxia Palus</a>, which was founded not by art historians but by doctoral students in machine learning.</p>
<p>In both cases, Oxia Palus relied upon traditional X-rays, X-ray fluorescence and infrared imaging that had already been <a href="https://www.metmuseum.org/art/metpublications/Picasso_in_The_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art">carried out and published</a> <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2018/feb/28/modigliani-portrait-comes-to-light-beneath-artists-later-picture">years prior</a> – work that had revealed preliminary paintings beneath the visible layer on the artists’ canvases. </p>
<p>The company edited these X-rays and <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1909.05677">reconstituted them as new works of art</a> by applying a technique called “<a href="https://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.06576.pdf">neural style transfer</a>.” This is a sophisticated-sounding term for a program that breaks works of art down into extremely small units, extrapolates a style from them and then promises to recreate images of other content in that same style.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1447741842401939458"}"></div></p>
<p>Essentially, Oxia Palus stitches new works out of what the machine can learn from the existing X-ray images and other paintings by the same artist. </p>
<p>But outside of flexing the prowess of AI, is there any value – artistically, historically – to what the company is doing?</p>
<p>These recreations don’t teach us anything we didn’t know about the artists and their methods. </p>
<p>Artists paint over their works all the time. It’s so common that art historians and conservators have a word for it: <a href="https://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/glossary/pentimento">pentimento</a>. None of these earlier compositions was an Easter egg deposited in the painting for later researchers to discover. The original X-ray images were certainly valuable in that they <a href="https://www.academia.edu/40255609/The_Getty_Conservation_Institute_From_Connoisseurship_to_Technical_Art_History_The_Evolution_of_the_Interdisciplinary_Study_of_Art">offered insights into artists’ working methods</a>.</p>
<p>But to me, what these programs are doing isn’t exactly newsworthy from the perspective of art history.</p>
<h2>The humanities on life support</h2>
<p>So when I do see these reproductions attracting media attention, it strikes me as soft diplomacy for AI, showcasing a “cultured” application of the technology at a time when skepticism of its <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2020/jan/13/what-are-deepfakes-and-how-can-you-spot-them">deceptions</a>, <a href="https://nyupress.org/9781479837243/algorithms-of-oppression/">biases</a> and <a href="https://www.wiley.com/en-us/Race+After+Technology:+Abolitionist+Tools+for+the+New+Jim+Code-p-9781509526437">abuses</a> is on the rise.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1401526342513049603"}"></div></p>
<p>When AI gets attention for recovering lost works of art, it makes the technology sound a lot less scary than when it garners headlines <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/deepfake-artificial-intelligence-60-minutes-2021-10-10/">for creating deep fakes that falsify politicians’ speech</a> or <a href="https://www.politico.eu/article/the-rise-of-ai-surveillance-coronavirus-data-collection-tracking-facial-recognition-monitoring/">for using facial recognition for authoritarian surveillance</a>. </p>
<p>These studies and projects also seem to promote the idea that computer scientists are more adept at historical research than art historians. </p>
<p>For years, university humanities departments <a href="https://carrollnews.org/3680/campus/art-history-department-to-be-eliminated-tenured-faculty-receive-termination-notices/">have been gradually squeezed of funding</a>, with more money funneled into the sciences. With their claims to objectivity and empirically provable results, the sciences tend to command greater respect from funding bodies and the public, which offers an incentive to scholars in the humanities to adopt computational methods. </p>
<p>Art historian Claire Bishop <a href="https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/dah/article/view/49915">criticized this development</a>, noting that when computer science becomes integrated in the humanities, “[t]heoretical problems are steamrollered flat by the weight of data,” which generates deeply simplistic results. </p>
<p>At their core, art historians study the ways in which art can offer insights into how people once saw the world. They explore how works of art shaped the worlds in which they were made and would go on to influence future generations. </p>
<p>A computer algorithm cannot perform these functions.</p>
<p>However, some scholars and institutions have allowed themselves to be subsumed by the sciences, adopting their methods and partnering with them in sponsored projects. </p>
<p>Literary critic Barbara Herrnstein Smith <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3366/j.ctt1r2bq2.9?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents">has warned about ceding too much ground to the sciences</a>. In her view, the sciences and the humanities are not the polar opposites they are often publicly portrayed to be. But this portrayal has been to the benefit of the sciences, prized for their supposed clarity and utility over the humanities’ alleged obscurity and uselessness. At the same time, she <a href="https://doi.org/10.1215/0961754X-3622212">has suggested</a> that hybrid fields of study that fuse the arts with the sciences may lead to breakthroughs that wouldn’t have been possible had each existed as a siloed discipline. </p>
<p>I’m skeptical. Not because I doubt the utility of expanding and diversifying our toolbox; to be sure, some <a href="http://www.mappingsenufo.org/">scholars working in the digital humanities</a> have taken up computational methods with subtlety and historical awareness to add nuance to or overturn entrenched narratives.</p>
<p>But my lingering suspicion emerges from an awareness of how public support for the sciences and disparagement of the humanities means that, in the endeavor to gain funding and acceptance, the humanities will lose what makes them vital. The field’s sensitivity to historical particularity and cultural difference makes the application of the same code to widely diverse artifacts utterly illogical. </p>
<p>How absurd to think that black-and-white photographs from 100 years ago would produce colors in the same way that digital photographs do now. And yet, this is exactly what <a href="https://hyperallergic.com/639395/the-limits-of-colorization-of-historical-images-by-ai/">AI-assisted colorization</a> does. </p>
<p>That particular example might sound like a small qualm, sure. But this effort to “<a href="https://deepai.org/machine-learning-model/colorizer">bring events back to life</a>” routinely mistakes representations for reality. Adding color does not show things as they were but recreates what is already a recreation – a photograph – in our own image, now with computer science’s seal of approval.</p>
<h2>Art as a toy in the sandbox of scientists</h2>
<p>Near the conclusion of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aaw7416">a recent paper</a> devoted to the use of AI to disentangle X-ray images of Jan and Hubert van Eyck’s “<a href="https://www.getty.edu/foundation/initiatives/past/panelpaintings/panel_paintings_ghent.html">Ghent Altarpiece</a>,” the mathematicians and engineers who authored it refer to their method as relying upon “choosing ‘the best of all possible worlds’ (borrowing Voltaire’s words) by taking the first output of two separate runs, differing only in the ordering of the inputs.” </p>
<p>Perhaps if they had familiarized themselves with the humanities more they would know how satirically those words were meant when Voltaire <a href="https://brill.com/view/title/20877">used them to mock a philosopher</a> who believed that rampant suffering and injustice were all part of God’s plan – that the world as it was represented the best we could hope for.</p>
<p>Maybe this “gotcha” is cheap. But it illustrates the problem of art and history becoming toys in the sandboxes of scientists with no training in the humanities.</p>
<p>[<em>Over 115,000 readers rely on The Conversation’s newsletter to understand the world.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=100Ksignup">Sign up today</a>.]</p>
<p>If nothing else, my hope is that journalists and critics who report on these developments will cast a more skeptical eye on them and alter their framing. </p>
<p>In my view, rather than lionizing these studies as heroic achievements, those responsible for conveying their results to the public should see them as opportunities to question what the computational sciences are doing when they appropriate the study of art. And they should ask whether any of this is for the good of anyone or anything but AI, its most zealous proponents and those who profit from it.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/170691/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sonja Drimmer does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Breathless headlines of artificial intelligence discovering or restoring lost works of art ignore the fact that these machines rarely, if ever, reveal one secret or solve a single mystery.Sonja Drimmer, Associate Professor of Medieval Art, UMass AmherstLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1637952021-07-30T12:22:48Z2021-07-30T12:22:48ZMale fertility is declining – studies show that environmental toxins could be a reason<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/413819/original/file-20210729-15-sq2owv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C105%2C4345%2C3244&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">For decades, sperm counts and sperm health have been declining.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/sperm-cells-about-to-fertilize-an-ovum-new-life-royalty-free-image/1212523166?adppopup=true">Carol Yepes/Moment via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In the U.S., nearly 1 in 8 couples <a href="https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/menshealth/conditioninfo/infertility#f1">struggles with infertility</a>. Unfortunately, physicians like me who specialize in reproductive medicine are unable to determine the cause of male infertility around <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(20)32667-2">30% to 50% of the time</a>. There is almost nothing more disheartening than telling a couple “I don’t know” or “There’s nothing I can do to help.” </p>
<p>Upon getting this news, couple after couple asks me questions that all follow a similar line of thinking. “What about his work, his cellphone, our laptops, all these plastics? Do you think they could have contributed to this?” </p>
<p>What my patients are really asking me is a big question in male reproductive health: Does environmental toxicity contribute to male infertility? </p>
<h2>Male fertility decline</h2>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/413822/original/file-20210729-25-12sy39n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A medical professional sitting with a couple." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/413822/original/file-20210729-25-12sy39n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/413822/original/file-20210729-25-12sy39n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413822/original/file-20210729-25-12sy39n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413822/original/file-20210729-25-12sy39n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413822/original/file-20210729-25-12sy39n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413822/original/file-20210729-25-12sy39n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413822/original/file-20210729-25-12sy39n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">If a couple is struggling to get pregnant, doctors will try to figure out the cause.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/doctor-consulting-with-patients-royalty-free-image/899796660?adppopup=true">Philippe Roy/Cultura via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Infertility is defined as a couple’s inability to get pregnant for one year despite regular intercourse. When this is the case, doctors evaluate both partners to determine why.</p>
<p>For men, the cornerstone of the fertility evaluation is semen analysis, and there are a number of ways to assess sperm. Sperm count – the total number of sperm a man produces – and sperm concentration – number of sperm per milliliter of semen – are common measures, but they aren’t the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/humrep/dev058">best predictors of fertility</a>. A more accurate measure looks at <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/humrep/dev058">the total motile sperm count</a>, which evaluates the fraction of sperm that are able to swim and move. </p>
<p>A wide range of factors – from <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(20)32667-2">obesity to hormonal imbalances to genetic diseases</a> – can affect fertility. For many men, there are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(20)32667-2">treatments</a> that can help. But starting in the 1990s, researchers noticed a concerning trend. Even when controlling for many of the known risk factors, male fertility <a href="https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.00108961">appeared to have been declining for decades</a>. </p>
<p>In 1992, a study found a global <a href="https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.305.6854.609">50% decline in sperm counts in men over the previous 60 years</a>. Multiple studies over <a href="https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.00108961">subsequent years</a> confirmed that initial finding, including a 2017 paper showing a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/humupd/dmx022">50% to 60% decline in sperm concentration between 1973 and 2011</a> in men from around the world. </p>
<p>These studies, though important, focused on sperm concentration or total sperm count. So in 2019, a team of researchers decided to focus on the more powerful total motile sperm count. They found that the proportion of men with a normal total motile sperm count <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.urology.2019.06.038">had declined by approximately 10% over the previous 16 years</a>. </p>
<p>The science is consistent: Men today produce fewer sperm than in the past, and the sperm are less healthy. The question, then, is what could be causing this decline in fertility.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/413820/original/file-20210729-13-1bci2lm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A stack of reddish plastic pipes." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/413820/original/file-20210729-13-1bci2lm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/413820/original/file-20210729-13-1bci2lm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413820/original/file-20210729-13-1bci2lm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413820/original/file-20210729-13-1bci2lm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413820/original/file-20210729-13-1bci2lm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=567&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413820/original/file-20210729-13-1bci2lm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=567&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413820/original/file-20210729-13-1bci2lm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=567&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Plasticizers are common endocrine-disrupting compounds, found in many plastics – like PVC pipes – that come in contact with food or water.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pvc_cevi.jpg#/media/File:Pvc_cevi.jpg">Mm Zaletel/Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Environmental toxicity and reproduction</h2>
<p>Scientists have known for years that, at least in <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/biomonitoring/Phthalates_FactSheet.html">animal models</a>, environmental toxic exposure can alter hormonal balance and throw off reproduction. Researchers can’t intentionally expose human patients to harmful compounds and measure outcomes, but we can try to assess associations. </p>
<p>As the downward trend in male fertility emerged, I and other researchers began looking more toward chemicals in the environment for answers. This approach doesn’t allow us to definitively establish which chemicals are causing the male fertility decline, but the <a href="https://doi.org/10.21037/tau-20-685">weight of the evidence is growing</a>. </p>
<p>A lot of this research focuses on <a href="https://www.endocrine.org/topics/edc/what-edcs-are/common-edcs/reproduction">endocrine disrupters</a>, molecules that mimic the body’s hormones and <a href="https://doi.org/10.21037/tau-20-685">throw off the fragile hormonal balance of reproduction</a>. These include substances like phthalates – better known as plasticizers – as well as pesticides, herbicides, heavy metals, toxic gases and other synthetic materials. </p>
<p>Plasticizers are found in most plastics – like water bottles and food containers – and exposure is associated with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2018.07.029">negative impacts on testosterone and semen health</a>.
Herbicides and pesticides abound in the food supply and some – specifically those with synthetic organic compounds that include phosphorus – are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxlet.2014.01.029">known to negatively affect fertility</a>.</p>
<p>Air pollution surrounds cities, subjecting residents to particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide and other compounds that likely <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s12958-018-0430-2">contribute to abnormal sperm quality</a>. Radiation exposure from laptops, cellphones and modems has also been associated with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s12958-018-0431-1">declining sperm counts, impaired sperm motility and abnormal sperm shape</a>. Heavy metals such as cadmium, lead and arsenic are also present in food, water and cosmetics and are also known to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.reprotox.2017.07.021">harm sperm health</a>.</p>
<p>Endocrine-disrupting compounds and the infertility problems they cause are taking a significant toll on human <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpobgyn.2006.12.003">physical and emotional</a> health. And treating these harms <a href="https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2014-4325">is costly</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/414202/original/file-20210802-24-1jv2xsg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A sign warning of chemicals that cause cancer, birth defects or other reproductive harm." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/414202/original/file-20210802-24-1jv2xsg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/414202/original/file-20210802-24-1jv2xsg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/414202/original/file-20210802-24-1jv2xsg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/414202/original/file-20210802-24-1jv2xsg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/414202/original/file-20210802-24-1jv2xsg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=568&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/414202/original/file-20210802-24-1jv2xsg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=568&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/414202/original/file-20210802-24-1jv2xsg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=568&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Thousands of new chemicals are introduced every year and government agencies do their best to keep up.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/prop-65-warning-posted-on-the-window-of-a-ventura-auto-news-photo/564054361?adppopup=true">Stephen Osman/Los Angeles Times via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The effects of unregulated chemicals</h2>
<p>A lot of chemicals are in use today, and tracking them all is incredibly difficult. More than <a href="https://archive.epa.gov/oig/catalog/web/html/167.html">80,000 chemicals are registered in the U.S.</a> and nearly <a href="https://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/annualreport/2019/annualreport_508.pdf">2,000 new chemicals are introduced each year</a>. Many scientists believe that the safety testing for health and environmental risks <a href="https://theconversation.com/will-the-new-toxic-chemical-safety-law-protect-us-60769">is not strong enough</a> and that the rapid development and introduction of new chemicals challenges the ability of organizations to <a href="https://www.ewg.org/news-insights/news/top-problems-two-tsca-bills">test long-term risks to human health</a>.</p>
<p>Current U.S. regulations follow the principle of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031914-122654">innocent until proved guilty</a> and are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.0800404">less comprehensive and restrictive</a> than <a href="https://echa.europa.eu/home">similar regulations in Europe</a>, for example. The <a href="https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/78102/WHO_HSE_PHE_IHE_2013.1_eng.pdf?sequence=1">World Health Organization</a> recently identified 800 compounds capable of disrupting hormones, only a small fraction of which have been tested. </p>
<p>A trade group, the American Chemistry Council, says on its website that manufacturers “have the regulatory certainty they need to innovate, grow, create jobs and win in the global marketplace – at the same time that public health and the environment benefit from strong risk-based protections.” </p>
<p>But the reality of the current regulatory system in the U.S. is that chemicals are introduced with minimal testing and taken off the market only when harm is proved. And that can <a href="https://theconversation.com/will-the-new-toxic-chemical-safety-law-protect-us-60769">take decades</a>.</p>
<p>Dr. Niels Skakkebaek, the lead researcher on one of the <a href="https://www.newsweek.com/2017/09/22/male-infertility-crisis-experts-663074.html">first manuscripts</a> on decreasing sperm counts, called the male fertility decline a “wake-up call to all of us.” My patients have provided a wake–up call for me that increased public awareness and advocacy are important to protect global reproductive health now and in the future. I’m not a toxicologist and can’t identify the cause of the infertility trends I’m seeing, but as physician, I am concerned that too much of the burden of proof is falling on the human body and people who become my patients.</p>
<p><em>This article was updated to more accurately represent the chemical regulatory system in the U.S.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/163795/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ryan P. Smith receives funding from a Virginia Catalyst grant for male contraceptive research. </span></em></p>People are exposed to toxic substances – like pesticides, chemicals in plastics and radiation – every day. A growing body of research shows that this exposure is causing a decline in male fertility.Ryan P. Smith, Associate Professor of Urology, University of VirginiaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.