tag:theconversation.com,2011:/au/topics/school-performance-4436/articlesschool performance – The Conversation2023-02-13T19:12:20Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1997712023-02-13T19:12:20Z2023-02-13T19:12:20ZSuccess in life is tied to parental education. That’s why we need to track intergenerational school performance<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509678/original/file-20230213-515-wswk59.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=40%2C478%2C4500%2C2250&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The notion of the “fair go” is meant to be central to Australia’s national ethos.</p>
<p>It’s not easy to define, but most of us would agree it means the chance to reach your full potential, regardless of your background. This doesn’t necessarily mean equality, but it does imply social mobility, where you can do better than your parents based on merit. </p>
<p>Education is a major driver of social mobility, with research showing educational attainment explains up to 30% of the transmission of economic advantage between parents and children.</p>
<p>But a <a href="https://www.pc.gov.au/inquiries/completed/school-agreement/report/school-agreement.pdf">Productivity Commission report</a> published last month shows the education system is not doing well in correcting for the disadvantage students face in the classroom. </p>
<p>For example, Year 3 students whose parents did not finish secondary school are an average of 1.3 years behind in numeracy, compared with those whose parents have a bachelors’ degree or higher. By the time these students reach Year 9 this gap widens to almost four years.</p>
<p>The Productivity Commission report was commissioned under the Morrison government to review the 2018 National School Reform Agreement between the federal and state governments to improve student outcomes. The deal came with A$319 billion in extra funding. But after five years, the report concludes, this has so far failed to make any difference in results. </p>
<p>Given the magnitude of the funding, this is troubling on its own. The broader implications for social mobility in Australia are even more concerning. </p>
<p>The commission’s report highlights the need for better data on educational attainment and social mobility. This will enable better analysis of the links between the two – and ultimately more effective education policy. </p>
<p>If policymakers don’t know what works, especially for students from disadvantaged backgrounds, they will spend money on the wrong things.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-degree-promises-a-better-life-but-social-mobility-has-a-downside-too-150535">A degree promises a better life but social mobility has a downside too</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>The importance of longitudinal data</h2>
<p>As children from less educated families perform significantly worse than the children of the more educated, it is far less likely their relative economic situation in adulthood will exceed that of their parents.</p>
<p>Unravelling the links between education and social mobility requires longitudinal data – tracking the same individuals over decades.</p>
<p>The best example of longitudinal data in Australia is the Household, Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia (HILDA) survey, conducted by the Melbourne Institute at the University of Melbourne. </p>
<p>Since 2001, HILDA has tracked a nationally representative sample of about 18,000 Australians, asking them about things such as income, employment, health and wellbeing. By surveying the same people, researchers can use this data to understand influences on people’s lives over time.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/hilda-survey-reveals-striking-gender-and-age-divide-in-financial-literacy-test-yourself-with-this-quiz-100451">HILDA Survey reveals striking gender and age divide in financial literacy. Test yourself with this quiz</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The Australian Taxation Office’s <a href="https://alife-research.app/info/overview">ALife dataset</a>, an anonymised sample of 10% of all Australian taxpayers also provides significant insight into intergenerational income mobility.</p>
<p>By following individuals over decades, researchers can observe and compare the labour market outcomes of parents with those of their children as they grow into adults.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="By Year 3, Australian students whose parents did not finish secondary school are 1.3 years behind in numeracy compared with those whose parents have Bachelors' degree or higher." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509685/original/file-20230213-28-jdrqo7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509685/original/file-20230213-28-jdrqo7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=347&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509685/original/file-20230213-28-jdrqo7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=347&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509685/original/file-20230213-28-jdrqo7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=347&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509685/original/file-20230213-28-jdrqo7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=437&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509685/original/file-20230213-28-jdrqo7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=437&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509685/original/file-20230213-28-jdrqo7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=437&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">By Year 3, Australian students whose parents did not finish secondary school are 1.3 years behind in numeracy compared with those whose parents have Bachelors’ degree or higher.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For example, University of Technology Sydney researchers Tomas Kennedy and Peter Siminski have used HILDA and other survey data to conclude about <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1475-4932.12641">two-thirds of Australians aged 30-34</a> have higher incomes than their parents at the same age. </p>
<p>Australian National University researchers Nathan Deutscher and Bhashkar Mazumder have used ALife to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0927537120300658">conclude</a> about 12% of Australians born into the bottom 20% of family income join the top 20% between the ages of 29 and 35. If a family’s wealth at birth had no bearing on a child’s wealth as an adult, that number would be 20%.</p>
<p>Deutscher has also <a href="https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/app.20180329">used</a> ALife to follow individuals over 25 years and calculate the effect of where they lived as a child on their income in adulthood. Where a child grows up has a causal impact on their adult outcomes. This typically matters most during the teenage years.</p>
<p>The question is how much of this relates to their school.</p>
<p>To answer this and other questions, researchers need more comprehensive longitudinal data that enables linking things such as child-care attendance, test scores, and school choice across time and with other data sources. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/our-top-1-of-income-earners-is-an-increasingly-entrenched-elite-170445">Our top 1% of income earners is an increasingly entrenched elite</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Unique student identifier</h2>
<p>One important policy initiative of the National School Reform Agreement is the introduction of a “unique student identifier” (USI) to track individual student performance over time. This will enable data on educational outcomes to be more easily linked with other data held by state and federal governments, and provide researchers with a clearer picture of how educational outcomes shapes social, economic and health outcomes later life. </p>
<p>However, the Productivity Commission report notes the rollout of this initiative is well behind schedule.</p>
<p>The USI offers more than mere standardisation. Once in place, researchers will also be better able to evaluate the impact of education policy interventions by conducting randomised control trials, similar to those used by in medicine to assess the efficacy of new drugs and treatments. Such trials are crucial for assessing whether a particular education policy reform, for instance a new teaching method, has a causal impact on learning outcomes. </p>
<p>To date, the dearth of randomised control trials in education policy has held back the Australian education evidence base. </p>
<p>As noted in the University of Newcastle’s Teachers and Teaching Research Centre’s <a href="https://www.pc.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/347609/subdr084-school-agreement.pdf">submission</a> to the Productivity Commission, the use of randomised control trials in evaluating education policy is hampered by the expense of collecting data from students via surveys. Better data linkage can help solve this problem.</p>
<p>Building a more effective education system to support, maintain and improve social mobility requires the right tools. Without better integrated data and a more reliable education evidence base, taxpayers are far less likely to see a return on the billions being spent.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/199771/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Australia’s education system is not doing that well in correcting for the disadvantage students face in the classroom.Robert Breunig, Professor of Economics and Director, Tax and Transfer Policy Institute, Crawford School of Public Policy, Australian National UniversityMatthew Taylor, Director of the Centre for Independent Studies Intergenerational Program and PhD candidate at, Australian National UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1987912023-02-10T14:46:19Z2023-02-10T14:46:19ZTanzania has ditched school rankings. It should replace them with something more useful<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509193/original/file-20230209-24-p4gtla.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Tanzania school pupils</span> </figcaption></figure><p>While announcing the <a href="https://www.thecitizen.co.tz/tanzania/news/national/necta-suspends-announcement-of-top-schools-and-students-4103134">results</a> of the 2022 Certificate of Secondary School Examination, Tanzania’s National Examination Council did not provide school rankings for the first time in decades. </p>
<p>School rankings have been announced for national primary and secondary school exams every year since the early 1990s. The rankings have become the main national talking point and students and parents often use them to determine school choices.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L_7qg10yKgU">Explaining the decision</a>, education minister Professor Adolf Mkenda said the examination council had decided in November to distance itself from ranking schools. He said the rankings had become controversial because they determined performance based on only one factor – the final exam. Other factors at play were not factored in. </p>
<p>For instance, he told Parliament, schools that had a high number of candidates were placed on the same scale as those that had a handful of candidates. High student numbers are associated with poor teacher-student ratios. This can translate to longer working hours for teachers as well as poor student supervision, thereby compromising quality. </p>
<p>School <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00071005.1990.9973850?journalCode=rbje20">rankings</a> are basically a performance-based listing of institutions from top to bottom by the national examination council. In Tanzania and other countries such as Kenya and Uganda, they are based on a one-off, final national examination performance. </p>
<p>It is a practice that has been embraced as a yardstick for education quality. The best-performing schools, teachers and students are featured in leading media (both print and online), receiving cash or <a href="https://nation.africa/kenya/news/debate-over-schools-that-give-big-rewards-to-top-students--764520">non-cash rewards</a>. </p>
<p>The decision not to rank Tanzanian schools in the 2022 exam has therefore kicked off a big <a href="https://thechanzo.com/2023/01/30/nectas-decision-to-no-longer-announce-best-school-student-stirs-debate/">debate</a>. Many argue that the abolition of rankings will demotivate schools and undermine <a href="https://www.thecitizen.co.tz/tanzania/news/national/form-six-national-exams-results-mobility-high-in-regional-rankings-2647566">competition</a> for higher grades among students and regions. </p>
<p>But it is my view that school rankings bring more harm than good. School rankings as they are arrived at currently often deepen inequalities between students. This is because the performance of students at vastly different schools over several years is judged on one score. Schools at the bottom of the list are simply <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/2158244015610172">labelled</a> as poor performers. </p>
<p>School rankings are not altogether a useless tool, though. Rankings offer value if performance proxy indicators and benchmarks are carefully designed. They should have a clarity of purpose and be cognisant of the broader mission of learning, the prevailing education philosophy and policy goals. </p>
<p>In fact, performance indicators have an important role in national development. They can be used to achieve national priorities such as those set out in the <a href="http://www.tzonline.org/pdf/theTanzaniadevelopmentvision.pdf">National Development Vision 2025</a>. </p>
<p>Tanzania should therefore replace school rankings with alternative instruments that genuinely serve educational and community objectives. </p>
<h2>School rankings, good and bad</h2>
<p>The practice of school rankings suffers a great deal from both methodological and technical weaknesses. Some <a href="https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1233473.pdf">studies</a> have found that the playing field is not level for all participating schools. </p>
<p>In <a href="http://jhr.uwpress.org/content/early/2022/03/31/jhr.0417-8714R2.abstract">Ghana</a>, the introduction of school rankings in 2004 brought unintended consequences of examination malpractice in senior secondary school certificate examination. These included impersonation, copying from the scripts of other candidates and smuggling of foreign materials into examination room.</p>
<p>School rankings differ in methodologies and procedures. They’re also used differently. </p>
<p>In Australia, for instance, the government issues a comprehensive report about school performance across the country showing average scores for similar schools. </p>
<p>In Malaysia and <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227351098_School_Choice_Stratification_and_Information_on_School_Performance_Lessons_from_Chile">Chile</a>, school rankings are used for accountability purposes as a tool for school improvement. This is aimed at informing policy makers as well as for reporting to parents and school governing boards.</p>
<p>In Tanzania, raw examination scores are placed in a particular grade which consequently calculates Division or Grade Point Average. </p>
<p>But this method tends to ignore the context in which schools operate. </p>
<p>The methodology skips students’ socio-economic status, school environment, availability of adequate teaching and learning resources and facilities, presence of qualified teachers and facilities including laboratories in all examined subjects, and prevailing culture in the surrounding community.</p>
<p>For instance, some schools carefully select students with high academic performance and high socio-economic status. The academic progress of such students is closely monitored afterwards to ensure top performance. Students who are likely to perform poorly – and thereby lower the school average position in national examination rankings – are discontinued. </p>
<p>In addition, most private schools have institutionalised after-school programmes or classes, coaching for exams, preparatory monthly tests and joint mock examinations before the final national examination. Some schools with good resources at their disposal still under-perform, though.</p>
<p>Another methodological flaw is the failure to take account of continuous assessment tests. Continuous assessment is not without critics. It does not take into consideration several factors such as special educational needs, gender and distance from school. It also does not take account of disparities in school capacity and parents’ readiness to supplement government funds, grants or subsidies. </p>
<p>Therefore, the current school rankings compare schools which have different learning environments and differ in other contextual factors.</p>
<h2>What next for Tanzania</h2>
<p>The pressure on students to rank higher has encouraged unhealthy competition among schools. For these reasons, it is high time for Tanzania to abandon the conventional metric system of school rankings. </p>
<p>This should be replaced by an emphasis on suitable teaching and learning environment. At the core of this should be addressing individual learners’ needs and the provision of quality education for all.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/198791/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Simon Ngalomba does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The pressure on Tanzanian students to rank higher has encouraged unhealthy competition among schoolsSimon Ngalomba, Post-Doctoral Research Fellow, SARChI in Higher Education and Human Development Research Group, University of the Free StateLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1260112019-10-30T18:51:36Z2019-10-30T18:51:36ZChoosing a school for your kid? Here’s how other Australian parents do it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/299157/original/file-20191029-183128-169n6mx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Families are anxious when it comes to choosing the right school for their child.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>School choice is a defining feature of Australian education. One reason is because more families make choices between public and private schools than in other OECD countries. </p>
<p>In <a href="https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=EAG_ENRL_SHARE_INST">2017</a>, 29.8% of Australian primary, and 40.6% secondary, students were enrolled in private schools, compared to OECD averages of 11.5% (primary) and 17.8% (secondary). </p>
<p>Choices also exist <a href="https://www.cis.org.au/app/uploads/2016/03/31-4-jennifer-buckingham-trisha-jha.pdf">within school sectors</a>, such as selective or alternative government schools, or the variety of religious schools in the independent sector.</p>
<p>Recent research suggests a “<a href="https://minerva-access.unimelb.edu.au/bitstream/handle/11343/225639/doeke.pdf?sequence=3&isAllowed=y">generalised state of anxiety</a>” among families that not all schools can be trusted to deliver quality education. This is partly influenced by <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2018/feb/25/report-revealing-australias-educational-decline-a-real-worry-says-birmingham">media reports</a> raising alarm about Australia’s declining education standards. </p>
<p>So with all this choice, and anxiety, how do Australian families decide which school their kids will go to? While <a href="https://aifs.gov.au/media-releases/parents-primary-school-choice-about-more-academic-results">convenience and family reasons</a> play a large a part in decision-making at the household level, factors outside the household also influence families’ choices.</p>
<h2>School performance</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://www.myschool.edu.au/">MySchool website</a> was created to help families make better choices about schools by providing several aspects of school information, the main of which being data about how each school is performing in comparison to others. </p>
<p>School performance is shown using National Assessment Program – Literacy and Numeracy (<a href="https://www.nap.edu.au/">NAPLAN</a>) results. The theory <a href="https://grattan.edu.au/news/my-school-website-wont-lift-outcomes-for-all-schools/">behind MySchool</a> was that it would motivate schools to strive for better results to attract more families to enrol.</p>
<p>Yet a <a href="http://www.educationcouncil.edu.au/site/DefaultSite/filesystem/documents/Reports%20and%20publications/NAPLAN%20Reporting%20Review/Final%20Report.pdf">recent government review</a> found most families aren’t using MySchool for its intended purpose. While 81% of parents agreed information about school performance should be publicly available, this didn’t play a strong part in their choice of a school – only 45% of parents had ever looked at the MySchool website. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-makes-a-school-good-its-about-more-than-just-test-results-114372">What makes a school good? It's about more than just test results</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>And 71% of teachers did not believe MySchool influenced families’ choices. The NAPLAN results <a href="https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/naplan-results-to-be-demoted-on-myschool-website-20191008-p52yls.html">will now feature</a> less prominently on the MySchool website, in light of the review’s findings.</p>
<p>School performance is <a href="https://aifs.gov.au/media-releases/parents-primary-school-choice-about-more-academic-results">still relevant to families’ decisions</a>, however. Parents who don’t use MySchool may use one of a <a href="https://www.goodschools.com.au/">growing</a> <a href="https://bettereducation.com.au/Default.aspx">number</a> of privately-operated websites to compare prospective schools. </p>
<p>While NAPLAN results may not be persuasive, school ATAR scores <a href="https://pursuit.unimelb.edu.au/articles/should-school-rankings-matter">can impact on families’ decisions</a>, despite their limitations as a true measure of school performance. Media interest in secondary school results is intense, with The Age newspaper recently releasing its own online interactive <a href="https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/schools-that-excel-find-out-how-your-school-has-performed-20190322-p516jx.html">school comparison tool</a>. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-makes-a-school-good-its-about-more-than-just-test-results-114372">best measures of school performance</a> for families to use are those that capture the true value schools add to students’ learning. For example, the <a href="https://docs.acara.edu.au/resources/My_School_Student_Gain_Technical_Information.pdf">measures of student gain</a> on MySchool show how much difference schools are making to students’ learning over time, not just whether they achieve high scores.</p>
<h2>Social connections and location</h2>
<p><a href="https://minerva-access.unimelb.edu.au/bitstream/handle/11343/225639/doeke.pdf?sequence=3&isAllowed=y">Recent research</a> suggests Australian families choose schools in more complex ways than comparing their results. Choice of school is a strategic exercise, where parents figure out which curriculum subjects offer best advantage for university entry, or which school communities offer the best social connections. </p>
<p>Families with the right social networks are more likely to use “<a href="https://minerva-access.unimelb.edu.au/bitstream/handle/11343/225639/doeke.pdf?sequence=3&isAllowed=y">grapevine</a>” methods to choose a school. One teacher in the previously mentioned <a href="http://www.educationcouncil.edu.au/site/DefaultSite/filesystem/documents/Reports%20and%20publications/NAPLAN%20Reporting%20Review/Final%20Report.pdf">government review</a> commented that social media beats MySchool “hands down” in shaping families’ decisions.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/299162/original/file-20191029-183142-1yvk1pk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/299162/original/file-20191029-183142-1yvk1pk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/299162/original/file-20191029-183142-1yvk1pk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/299162/original/file-20191029-183142-1yvk1pk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/299162/original/file-20191029-183142-1yvk1pk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/299162/original/file-20191029-183142-1yvk1pk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/299162/original/file-20191029-183142-1yvk1pk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/299162/original/file-20191029-183142-1yvk1pk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Families choose schools based on a number of factors including social connections and location.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">from shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Location also matters in choosing a school, which is <a href="https://theconversation.com/location-matters-most-to-parents-when-choosing-a-public-school-41090">as much about the social mix of a particular area</a> as convenience. Moving into an area with desirable schools is the optimal strategy to gain both accessibility and social advantage. </p>
<p>Australian researchers have estimated house prices increase by <a href="https://www.propertyobserver.com.au/forward-planning/adding-value/subdivision-zoning/41208-how-do-school-zones-affect-melbourne-property-prices.html?start=1">nearly A$20,000</a> for every 1% increase in the proportion of top-ranked secondary students in local schools.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/location-matters-most-to-parents-when-choosing-a-public-school-41090">Location matters most to parents when choosing a public school</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Schools selecting students</h2>
<p>Just as families can select schools, school can also select their students. A growing number of Australian families are opting to seek entry into selective entry government schools. </p>
<p>In NSW – which has more than <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/education/key-growth-area-sydney-to-get-a-new-selective-school-20190604-p51u8s.html">45 selective schools</a> – more than <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/nsw/selective-schools-must-promote-equity-and-inclusion-20180728-p4zu6k.html">14,000</a> year 6 students sat the 2018 entry test, competing for just over 4,000 available places.</p>
<p>There is a strong cultural dimension to this choice. Families from language backgrounds other than English <a href="https://cpd.org.au/2019/05/ethnic-divides-schooling-discussion-paper-may-2019/">constitute 83%</a> of enrolments in NSW selective schools.</p>
<p>As well as the academic environment, selective schools offer families a similar socio-economic mix to a private school, without the price tag. In Victoria and NSW, <a href="https://minerva-access.unimelb.edu.au/bitstream/handle/11343/225639/doeke.pdf?sequence=3&isAllowed=y">59.5% and 74.4%</a> of select-entry school students, respectively, come from the wealthiest quarter of families in the state. </p>
<p>Despite their growing popularity, selective entry schools can incur other costs, such as long commutes (up to <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/nsw/the-sydney-students-travelling-phenomenal-distances-to-get-to-school-every-day-20180403-p4z7lo.html">100 kilometres per day</a>), and the stress of entrance tests. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/selective-schools-mainly-select-advantage-so-another-one-wont-ease-sydneys-growing-pains-118449">Selective schools mainly 'select' advantage, so another one won't ease Sydney's growing pains</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p><a href="https://www.impact.acu.edu.au/community/are-selective-schools-good-or-bad-for-our-kids">ANU research</a> has found greater selectivity in education can lower a country’s overall academic performance, and distort students’ concept of their learning ability. This suggests that the choices individual families make to get the best education for their children may have costs for the education system as a whole.</p>
<h2>Not all choices (or choosers) are equal</h2>
<p>Many Australian families don’t have the opportunity to exercise choice in selecting a school for their child. A <a href="https://grattan.edu.au/report/the-myth-of-markets-in-school-education/">2013 Grattan Institute report</a> found around half of Australian schools had little competition from neighbouring schools, and were essentially the only available local choice.</p>
<p>Even where school options exist, many families cannot act on their preferences due to limited financial, social or academic resources. These families must make their decisions by default, accessing whichever schools are available <a href="https://insidestory.org.au/what-is-to-be-done-about-australian-schooling/">once more advantaged families have exercised their choices</a>. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://research.acer.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1014&context=columnists">world’s top-performing education systems</a> are those that balance families’ drive to make the best possible choices, with adequate support for those whose access to school choice (and its benefits) is most constrained.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/126011/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jen Jackson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Australian parents rely on a number of factors to choose a school for their child. These include school performance, location and social connections.Jen Jackson, Education Policy Lead, Mitchell Institute, Victoria UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/698332016-12-12T09:54:33Z2016-12-12T09:54:33ZIs there really a link between school performance and the Brexit vote?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/149248/original/image-20161208-31385-1vw7ree.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Matching Ofsted reports to voting patterns. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">DGLimages/shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Michael Wilshaw, the outgoing head of schools inspectorate Ofsted, <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/education-38155858">claimed in a recent interview</a> that there was a direct link between the failure of schools to improve and the vote in favour of Brexit. </p>
<p>Wilshaw specifically spoke about the <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-close-the-north-south-divide-between-secondary-schools-51607.com/">under-performance of schools</a> in the north and the East Midlands of England and how it had fuelled the sense of the divided nation reflected in the 52% vote in favour of Brexit. Wilshaw suggested that this division was: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>… feeding into a wider malaise that I sense with the Brexit vote, that actually this wasn’t just about leaving Europe, it’s about ‘our needs being neglected, our children are not getting as good a deal as elsewhere’.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The government, however, <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/maintained-schools-and-academies-inspections-and-outcomes-as-at-31-august-2016/maintained-schools-and-academies-inspection-outcomes-as-at-31-august-2016">highlighted</a> that across England, 90% of primary schools and 78% of secondary schools were judged good or outstanding at their most recent inspection. </p>
<h2>Boston and Lambeth</h2>
<p>Wilshaw’s comments triggered my curiosity and, along with my colleague Rob Vickers, I decided to explore whether there was a relationship between how schools and their regions are ranked by Ofsted and Brexit voting patterns. </p>
<p>First off, the “top” Brexit voting areas were overwhelmingly in eastern England and not the north, as the <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-36616028">BBC’s useful referendum analysis map</a> of the percentages who voted for Brexit illustrates. </p>
<p>Putting geography aside, we decided to look at the top ten areas in England which voted Leave and the top ten that voted Remain, as listed by the BBC.</p>
<p>We then searched for schools within a three-mile radius around these areas by using a <a href="https://www.compare-school-performance.service.gov.uk/find-a-school-in-england">government website</a> which compares school and college performance tables. </p>
<p>Although the government tables don’t state where the centre of the three-mile radius is, they are still useful as they give an overview of Ofsted rankings which can then be mapped to referendum voting areas.</p>
<p>The top voting Brexit area in England was Boston in Lincolnshire, where 75.6% voted Leave. So, if Wilshaw is correct, there should be signs of education underachievement here.</p>
<p>Taking the government’s figures of 90% of primary and 78% of secondary schools being ranked as good or outstanding as the benchmark, we found that 92% of both Boston’s primary and secondary schools are good or outstanding – above the national figure. </p>
<p>We then looked at the top voting Remain areas for comparison. In the case of Lambeth in London – the top Remain voting area with 79% voting to stay – we found that almost 92% of the primary schools and all 100% of secondary schools serving the area are good or outstanding. </p>
<p>We also examined the areas that were almost 50% Leave and 50% Remain, such as High Peak in Derbyshire, where 50.5% of people voted Leave and 49.5% Remain. For this area, 80% of the primary schools were good or outstanding – below the national figure of 90% – but 100% of secondary schools were good or outstanding, above the national figure of 78%. </p>
<p>It seems therefore, that although there is no difference in primary school performance between Boston and Lambeth, the story is different at secondary level. </p>
<p>Even though the number of good and outstanding secondary schools in these two areas were above the national figure, there was a gap of eight percentage points between them – a difference that could be down to what’s called the <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-londons-secondary-schools-have-improved-so-much-28531http://example.com/">London Challenge effect</a>. </p>
<h2>Regional relationships</h2>
<p>There is a problem with this analysis of course. The performances tables provided by the government reveal that there are not the same number of schools in a three-mile radius in rural and urban areas. For example, in Lambeth, there are 204 primary and secondary schools within three miles whereas in Boston there are only 25. </p>
<p>So, we then looked at the <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/ofsted-annual-report-201314-regional-reports">most recent Ofsted regional reports</a> for 2013-14. These reports tell us the percentage of pupils who attend schools which are outstanding, good, requiring improvement and inadequate in eight regional areas. We then mapped these percentages to the Brexit areas outlined in the BBC data.</p>
<p>We found that the top four Remain voting areas in England – London, south west, north-west and south-east – are also the top four areas when ranked by Ofsted for good or outstanding schools. The four areas where the most people voted most for Brexit – West Midlands, the east, East Midlands and Yorkshire, the Humber and north-east – are the bottom four areas ranked by Ofsted for good or outstanding schools, as the chart below shows. </p>
<iframe id="datawrapper-chart-owqv1" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/owqv1/2/" frameborder="0" allowtransparency="true" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen" webkitallowfullscreen="webkitallowfullscreen" mozallowfullscreen="mozallowfullscreen" oallowfullscreen="oallowfullscreen" msallowfullscreen="msallowfullscreen" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>Of course, this analysis is just a snapshot. To do a more sophisticated analysis we’d need to map the Brexit vote to the Ofsted ranking of schools over an extended period of time. </p>
<p>Even such a long-term analysis must, however, take into account a raft of factors. For example, it must not exclude the number of an area’s voters who did, and did not, attended the schools serving that area. In some cases, <a href="https://theconversation.com/hard-evidence-how-areas-with-low-immigration-voted-mainly-for-brexit-62138">population changes</a> might be high, in others the population is far more static.</p>
<h2>So, was Wilshaw correct?</h2>
<p>While the veracity of Wilshaw’s statement depends on exactly how you look at the data, there appears to be some correlation between those areas of the country where a majority voted for Brexit, and school performance.</p>
<p>Wilshaw’s statement, which draws a direct link between school performance and the sense of being ignored which led to Brexit, is therefore clearly both thought provoking and in need of further investigation. Not to do so, would miss an opportunity to drill down into some of the “whys” and “wherefores” of one of the most important political decisions in a generation.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/69833/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrew Clapham does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The head of Ofsted has said a sense that educational needs had been neglected fuelled the vote in favour of Brexit. Is he right?Andrew Clapham, Principal Lecturer in Education, Nottingham Trent UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/674592016-10-27T19:11:52Z2016-10-27T19:11:52ZRevising for exams - why cramming the night before rarely works<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/143369/original/image-20161027-11256-821cg2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Cramming does't help you retain information, so the effect of a long night on the books may not be for much.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>In our five-part series, <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/making-sense-of-exams-32567">Making Sense of Exams</a>, we’ll discuss the purpose of exams, whether they can be done online, overcoming exam anxiety, and effective revision techniques.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>The date for an important exam is looming. You know you have to study for it. Suddenly, it’s the evening before the dreaded date, and you feel like you haven’t studied enough, if at all. It’s time to cram all the information you can into your brain. </p>
<p>We know that to do well in exams, you have to remember your material to then demonstrate your knowledge during the test. But is an intense night of study an effective way of learning? </p>
<p>Learning information that can then be recalled in an often stressful environment is taxing on the brain. </p>
<p>In the best situations we <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-causes-mind-blanks-during-exams-67380">can forget things</a> like our colleague’s names when trying to introduce them to someone. </p>
<p>In a high pressure situation our brains can easily perform sub-optimally. </p>
<h2>How to remember information in the long term</h2>
<p>In cognitive psychology, a discrimination can be drawn between deep and shallow processing of information. This is known as the <a href="https://explorable.com/levels-of-processing">Levels of Processing theory</a> which was proposed by researchers in the 1970’s. They argued that “deep processing” led to better long-term memory than “shallow processing”.</p>
<p>Shallow processed information can be encoded by the brain based on the simple characteristics of the words, rather than the meaning. So the knowledge is only able to be stored in short-term memory stores, where it is only retained for a short period.</p>
<p>To process information deeply, the meaning and importance of the information is encoded. Relations between concepts are linked together in an elaborate manner, so more understanding of the information is able to be demonstrated. </p>
<p>Due to the more meaningful analysis of the material, stronger and more long lasting memories can be formed. </p>
<p>Taking the time to elaborate and assign meaning to information allows easier recall. However, this process takes time, and when an entire subject needs to be crammed into your memory in a short period of time, deep processing can’t be performed. </p>
<p>So cramming can work for a short-term recall of the information, but this information will rapidly be lost.</p>
<h2>Re-reading notes is not enough</h2>
<p>Re-reading through notes is often not enough to cement information into your memory. </p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/143374/original/image-20161027-11275-470p1j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/143374/original/image-20161027-11275-470p1j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/143374/original/image-20161027-11275-470p1j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/143374/original/image-20161027-11275-470p1j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/143374/original/image-20161027-11275-470p1j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/143374/original/image-20161027-11275-470p1j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/143374/original/image-20161027-11275-470p1j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Spider diagrams (above) or mind maps have been found to be more effective then conventional note taking for the retention of memory.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A way of encoding information more deeply is to write <a href="http://classroom.synonym.com/difference-between-linear-notetaking-mind-mapping-5559.html">diagrammatic notes</a>. Spider diagrams, mind maps and concept maps are visual stimuli and are more easily remembered than a list of points or blocks of text.</p>
<p>Condensing information down into single word cues can then efficiently trigger the recall of large amounts of information. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/a-learning-secret-don-t-take-notes-with-a-laptop/">Hand writing revision notes</a> can also help you learn information more deeply and helps you to get into the practice of writing rapidly in an exam setting. </p>
<p>Typing on a computer can also increase distraction, as the temptation to procrastinate can increase.</p>
<h2>A lack of sleep can affect your performance</h2>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/143377/original/image-20161027-11252-lvpqhv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/143377/original/image-20161027-11252-lvpqhv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/143377/original/image-20161027-11252-lvpqhv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/143377/original/image-20161027-11252-lvpqhv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/143377/original/image-20161027-11252-lvpqhv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/143377/original/image-20161027-11252-lvpqhv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/143377/original/image-20161027-11252-lvpqhv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sleep is essential in forming enduring memories.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Last minute revision is synonymous with a poor night’s sleep, if any sleep at all. </p>
<p>The dilemma presented is that you can either stay up and study to commit as much information to memory as possible, or forfeit a night’s sleep. </p>
<p>Sleep, however, is essential in forming enduring memories – and a lack of sleep is shown to be self defeating in terms of memory recall. </p>
<p>Scientists still do not fully understand why sleep is so important for brain function, but it is known that sleep is important in the <a href="http://www.human-memory.net/processes_consolidation.html">consolidation</a> of memory. </p>
<p>This is the process of forming an enduring memory from short-term stores into long-term memory. </p>
<p>Your brain goes through different stages of sleep. The deepest stage of sleep is known as <a href="http://healthysleep.med.harvard.edu/healthy/glossary/n-p">Slow Wave Sleep</a> and this period is proposed to be vital in the consolidation of memories.</p>
<p>The <a href="http://www.news-medical.net/health/Hippocampus-What-is-the-Hippocampus.aspx">hippocampus</a> is essential in the consolidation of memories, in particular in forming episodic memories, which requires linking the features of a memory together. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2824214/">Studies</a> have revealed in mice that the neurons in the hippocampus activated during learning a maze became active again during Slow Wave Sleep. The reactivation of neurons is proposed to strengthen the new connections. </p>
<p>So a good night’s sleep after learning new information is essential to forming memories. It’s beneficial to get sleep rather than staying awake and going into an exam without rest.</p>
<h2>Procrastination can pile on the pressure</h2>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/143379/original/image-20161027-32322-1m39y42.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/143379/original/image-20161027-32322-1m39y42.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/143379/original/image-20161027-32322-1m39y42.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/143379/original/image-20161027-32322-1m39y42.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/143379/original/image-20161027-32322-1m39y42.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/143379/original/image-20161027-32322-1m39y42.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/143379/original/image-20161027-32322-1m39y42.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sometimes anything else can be more appealing than revising for exams.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Despite the deadline of exams to study for, mundane tasks suddenly become more appealing, like rearranging a bookshelf, or cleaning your desk, instead of revising for an exam. </p>
<p>The tasks we can occupy ourselves with when procrastinating are typically immediately rewarding but only have a short-term value. </p>
<p>The more important task of studying can lead to a bigger reward - passing the exam, however this reward is not immediate. </p>
<p>Humans tend to be motivated for small, immediate rewards. The value of passing a test certainly outweighs smaller, immediate rewards like playing video games; when the deadline approaches, the importance shifts. This usually leads to a long night of study before the exam.</p>
<p>It has been suggested procrastinators may be a certain <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/dont-delay/200804/is-procrastination-personality-problem-what-is-personality">personality type</a>, in particular people who are thrill seekers. </p>
<p>Leaving an important task until the last minute increases adrenalin and stress hormones, and you can get a rewarding “rush” once its complete. The reinforces the idea that such people work better under pressure.</p>
<h2>Familiar environment can prompt memory</h2>
<p>Even if you arrive at the exam the morning after a long night of study, feeling sleep deprived and as if you haven’t learnt enough, all may not be lost. </p>
<p>Being in the exam hall at school, college or university can help you recall information. The familiar environment can increase performance as the stimuli around you can prompt memory. </p>
<p>For example, a science exam being taken in a science classroom can cue memories, these cues aren’t present in a strange environment such as taking an exam in a race course hall.</p>
<p>This is known as the <a href="https://www.reference.com/world-view/definition-context-dependent-memory-f3ad275cf46d2df3">environmental reinstatement effect</a>, which occurs because the location you are in can act as a prompt for past memories. </p>
<p>Environmental cues can trigger memory recall, so something as simple as having your pencil case on your desk while studying and again during the exam could assist in prompting memories. </p>
<h2>Tips for remembering information</h2>
<ol>
<li>Hand write out your notes instead of typing</li>
<li>Get a good night’s sleep before an exam</li>
<li>Write a revision plan and start early</li>
</ol>
<p><em>• <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/making-sense-of-exams-32567">Read more</a> from the series.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/67459/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amy Reichelt receives funding from the Australian Research Council. </span></em></p>An intense night of study won’t help you remember information in the long-term – and the stress of revising under pressure will likely impact on your sleep and thus your exam performance.Amy Reichelt, Lecturer, ARC DECRA, RMIT UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/637032016-08-11T20:03:38Z2016-08-11T20:03:38ZNAPLAN data is not comparable across school years<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/133458/original/image-20160809-18037-1e36ylt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Research shows that the test error is too high in NAPLAN.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Recent political comment suggests Australia has not performed as well as expected in the latest round of NAPLAN testing. Such comment is based on the belief that NAPLAN scores can be compared from one year to the next. </p>
<p>But new research, to be published next month in the journal, Quality Assurance in Education, shows that NAPLAN results cannot be compared across years. It is not then reasonable for politicians to say <a href="http://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/2016/08/02/naplan-results-show-no-significant-improvement-despite-funding-increases">NAPLAN results have plateaued</a>, because comparisons from year to year are not reliably accurate.</p>
<p>The study – which used NAPLAN scores from 2008 to 2012 – questions the reliability of NAPLAN as a tool for charting individual student progress across school years, let alone that of whole year groups.</p>
<p>The study collected data for nearly 10,000 students in over 110 primary schools in Australia. It looked at the influences on student performance of gender, language background and the NAPLAN test itself (the nature of the actual test in a particular year). </p>
<p>While gender was found to be the most influential, followed by language background, the test itself was also found to be a factor, with the average score attained by students fluctuating significantly from year to year. This variability, the study concluded, was likely to be a consequence of differences in the tests themselves rather than a reflection of student performance.</p>
<h2>Flaws in the test</h2>
<p>There are two conflicting views about the reliability and use of NAPLAN scores to compare individuals from one year to the next. </p>
<p>NAPLAN tests have questions that are in common from one year to the next. Student performance in these questions can then be used to standardise the test as a whole. This then provides the mechanism for comparing the test in one year with that of the next.</p>
<p>Professor Margaret Wu from the University of Melbourne is sceptical of the capacity for NAPLAN scores to be used to compare individuals or schools from year to year.</p>
<p>She argues that comparisons of national cohorts are problematic due to the large random fluctuations and error margins implicit in such comparisons. </p>
<p>Each NAPLAN test is short, only 40 questions. Therefore the questions used for standardising one test with another are not enough. </p>
<p>As with any test, there is an expected error in measurement. The errors can be for a number of reasons. One reason can be that the answer to the question may not in fact be the best answer, which confuses kids. A test error rate is a measure of how good an instrument (test) is at achieving the same result if it were to be done by another group of students. </p>
<p>In the case of NAPLAN, that would mean the same group of students getting the same result, the school getting the same result and even any system (Department of Education or Catholic Education Office or even the DOE in different states) getting the same result.</p>
<p>In the NAPLAN test the measurement error is large mainly because the test is short. Even if the test from one year could be compared with the test from another, the errors inherent in individual test scores would mean such a comparison would be unreliable. </p>
<p>Margaret Wu states that the fluctuation in NAPLAN scores can be as much as ± 5.2. This is because of a standard error of measurement of about 2.6 standard deviations. </p>
<p>This means there is a 95% confidence that if the same students were to complete the same test again (without new learning between tests) the results would vary by as much as ± 5.2 (2.6 x 2) of the original score. This represents nearly 12% variability for each individual score.</p>
<p>The standard error of measurement depends on the test reliability, meaning the capacity of the test to produce consistent and robust results.</p>
<p>What <a href="https://eprints.qut.edu.au/63662/1/Donna_Ward_Thesis.pdf">some researchers say</a> is that the NAPLAN test’s large margin for errors makes the comparison across years inaccurate.</p>
<p>For example, if a student gets 74% in a test and another gets 70% and the error is 5, that means that essentially the first mark is 74 + or – 5, and the other mark is 70% + or – 5. </p>
<p>This means the two different marks can overlap by a fair bit. So it is not really possible to say a score of 74 is that much different to a score of 70. </p>
<p>The implication is that when you take this into account over a whole cohort of people it is difficult to sat categorically that one set of marks is any different compared with another.</p>
<h2>Implications</h2>
<p>There are various implications for using NAPLAN results to compare students, schools or even state performance. </p>
<p>The “My School” website data, for example, should be viewed with caution by parents when making decisions about their children’s schooling. </p>
<p>Teachers and principals should not be judged based on NAPLAN findings and, as <a href="http://www.google.com.au/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=2&ved=0ahUKEwjih6S15LPOAhWBPZQKHbQxA8MQFgghMAE&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aph.gov.au%2FDocumentStore.ashx%3Fid%3D7ce5ae54-f645-4ae7-901c-b572a70694ef%26subId%3D11587&usg=AFQjCNHeq8OMSnIGsAFsz6_8geSOgr3Lww&sig2=4eAYXxjiHGdxYPmbR_njGQ">others have argued</a>, more formative (assessment during learning) rather than summative (assessment at the end of a learning cycle) measures for providing teaching and learning feedback should be explored.</p>
<p>NAPLAN is not good for the purpose for which it was intended. However, it makes politicians feel they are doing something to promote literacy and numeracy.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/63703/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kevin Watson receives funding from Sydney Catholic School. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Boris Handal receives funding from Sydney Catholic Schools for this research project.. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Margie Maher received funding from Sydney Catholic Schools for the completion of this research.</span></em></p>It is not reasonable for politicians to say NAPLAN results have plateaued, because comparisons from year to year are not reliably accurate.Kevin Watson, Associate Professor of Science Education and Director of Research, University of Notre DameBoris Handal, Associate Professor in Educational Technology, University of Notre Dame AustraliaMargie Maher, Dean of Education, University of Notre Dame AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/580522016-06-12T19:39:16Z2016-06-12T19:39:16ZGenes can have up to 80% influence on students’ academic performance<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/125658/original/image-20160608-3497-1b1wmin.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Genes do have an influence over school performance. But they are never the full story. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2013.800521">Research shows</a> that a student’s genetic makeup can have a strong influence on their academic performance. </p>
<p>Some interpret this as meaning there is little that can be done to help those who struggle academically – and that spending extra money on these students to help them succeed <a href="http://www.theaustralian.com.au/opinion/cash-cant-beat-genetics-in-class/news-story/6d62e16e5061602a25f6398f52eb94d6">is pointless</a>.</p>
<p>But is this the case? </p>
<p>A major misconception is that genes are destiny. This is wrong because genes are never the full story. </p>
<p>This is because environmental factors (“nurture”) also play a role in levels of academic achievement. Well-designed and well-delivered remediation can also help struggling students even in cases where genetic factors (“nature”) may be the source of the difficulties.</p>
<h2>What we know about genetic influence</h2>
<p>We know about strong genetic influences on academic skills primarily through the use of the <a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10519-013-9598-6">twin method</a>.</p>
<p>This is where the genetic makeup of identical twins is compared with non-identical twins. </p>
<p>Evidence of genetic influence emerges if identical twins are more alike in terms of academic performance than non-identical (“fraternal”) twins. </p>
<p>Identical twins share all their genes, “fraternal” twins share half of their genes, but both types share homes and schools. </p>
<p>So <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16173891">researchers can estimate</a> the degree to which genes affect academic achievement over and above the effects of homes and schools: that is, they can estimate how much ability is inherited. And because non-identical twins can be opposite-sex, researchers can also identify if nature and nurture play out differently with males and females. </p>
<p>For the most part the same genes appear to affect boys and girls, and in general gender effects are in danger of being exaggerated in public discourse.</p>
<p>Studies with twin children have been conducted worldwide, including in <a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11145-006-9019-9">Australia, the US</a>, the <a href="https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/files/35193441/Shakeshaft_Trzaskowski_McMillan_et_al_2013_PLoS_ONE.pdf">UK</a>, <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22700061">continental Europe</a>, <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0016640">Asia</a>, and <a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11145-006-9017-y">Africa</a>, with an emphasis on the core areas of literacy and numeracy. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10888438.2013.800521">Estimates of genetic influence</a> vary somewhat among subjects and locations, but range from near 50% to as high as 80%. The studies have used standardised tests as well as <a href="https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/files/35193441/Shakeshaft_Trzaskowski_McMillan_et_al_2013_PLoS_ONE.pdf">school-administered tests</a>.</p>
<p>Less is known about creative and technical subjects, where particular talents clearly exist.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/125660/original/image-20160608-3492-1bw6ds0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/125660/original/image-20160608-3492-1bw6ds0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/125660/original/image-20160608-3492-1bw6ds0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/125660/original/image-20160608-3492-1bw6ds0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/125660/original/image-20160608-3492-1bw6ds0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=520&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/125660/original/image-20160608-3492-1bw6ds0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=520&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/125660/original/image-20160608-3492-1bw6ds0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=520&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Identical twins are more alike in terms of academic performance than non-identical twins.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What about environmental influence?</h2>
<p>Twin studies can also parse environmental influence into factors that twin children mostly share, such as home socio-economic status (SES) and school attended. There are also those that are unique to each child in a twin, such as illnesses and, often enough, separate teachers. </p>
<p>Contrary to many people’s expectations, some shared factors such as family SES and school attended are relatively <a href="http://slatestarcodex.com/2016/03/16/non-shared-environment-doesnt-just-mean-schools-and-peers/">minor influences</a> on student differences once genetic endowment has been taken into consideration. </p>
<p>It is important to note, however, that some groups may show lower average levels of achievement due to adverse environmental circumstances such as <a href="http://www.aihw.gov.au/closingthegap/documents/issues_papers/ctg-ip01.pdf">poorer rates of school attendance and retention</a>. </p>
<p>Other groups may be affected by unusual environments, such as <a href="http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/26448503">heavy metal contamination</a> from mining and metals processing, which can be associated with lower NAPLAN scores. </p>
<h2>Educational interventions</h2>
<p>What works are well-designed, well-delivered and timely interventions that can help struggling children to reach or more closely approach normal-range levels. </p>
<p>These interventions are usually designed for <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/edu/106/1/46/">individuals or small groups</a> but have proven successful when implemented at <a href="http://aer.sagepub.com/content/43/1/137.2.abstract">school district level</a>. </p>
<p>We do not claim that compensating for genetic disadvantage is easy, but with the right <a href="http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-secret-to-raising-smart-kids1/">frame of mind</a> and sustained help with an emphasis on <a href="http://trove.nla.gov.au/work/8407677?">how the alphabet represents the sounds of speech</a>, plus supported reading practice, progress is real and rewarding. </p>
<h2>Funding implications</h2>
<p>This is why the conclusion that strong genetic influence makes additional spending pointless is too pessimistic. </p>
<p>It could be argued that if some children struggling with literacy or numeracy are doing so because of constraints on learning with biological origins, then extra funding delivered to these children is exactly what is needed. </p>
<p>This is especially so if we wish to counter increasing <a href="https://grattan.edu.au/report/widening-gaps/">gaps</a> between the best - and worst -performing students. </p>
<h2>Implications for the teaching profession</h2>
<p><a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1751-228X.2007.00001.x/abstract">Some teachers</a> have been reluctant to acknowledge the role of genes in school performance, perhaps because of an aversion to biological explanations - so-called <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Blank_Slate">“biological determinism”</a> - and perhaps because of the false impression that if genes matter, teachers don’t. </p>
<p>Among other consequences, this has meant an overemphasis on the role of teacher skill and dedication in determining why some students prosper and others struggle. </p>
<p>There is <a href="https://theconversation.com/genes-arent-destiny-but-teaching-isnt-everything-either-10561">direct evidence from twins</a> that teacher differences are not responsible for much in the way of student differences in literacy. So teachers do matter in that they are the reasons why children know more at the end of the year or even the day. But our teachers are more uniformly effective than many give them credit for.</p>
<h2>The Colorado story</h2>
<p>It is unfortunate that in some education systems, such as in <a href="https://www.cde.state.co.us/educatoreffectiveness/overviewofsb191">Colorado</a> in the US, teacher employment and remuneration are tied to evaluations that give undue weight to student progress. </p>
<p>This ignores the fact that some students struggle because of biological constraints on learning that can be overcome to an encouraging degree, but only with special and adequate resources. </p>
<p>In the US, teacher morale is at an <a href="http://www.rawstory.com/2015/04/crisis-in-american-education-as-teacher-morale-hits-an-all-time-low/">all time low</a>, and in other places, including <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/edu/102/1/32/">Australia</a>, teachers are blamed by many in the media and politics.</p>
<h2>What is needed</h2>
<p>We need a more nuanced understanding of the factors that influence academic achievement, including the role that genes play.</p>
<p>At the same time, we need to avoid the unwarranted pessimism that can accompany acknowledgement of genetic influence, a danger that applies not only to attitudes toward academic development but to <a href="http://cdp.sagepub.com/content/24/5/399.abstract">mental and physical health</a> as well. </p>
<p>We need to take comfort from the existence of scientifically-grounded interventions, which in the hands of teachers with sufficient resources, can make a difference to the prospects of students who initially find the going in particular subjects tough.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/58052/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Brian Byrne receives funding from the Australian Research Council and the National Health and Medical Research Council.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Richard Olson receives funding from the National Institutes of Health, U.S.A. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Katrina Grasby does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Some students struggle because of biological constraints on learning. This can be overcome to an encouraging degree, but only with special and adequate resources.Brian Byrne, Chief Investigator, ARC Centre of Excellence in Cognition and its Disorders, Chief Investigator, NHMRC Centre of Research Excellence in Twin Research, and Emeritus Professor, School of Behavioural, Cognitive and Social Sciences, University of New EnglandKatrina Grasby, PhD, University of New EnglandRichard Olson, Professor of psychology and neuroscience director, Colorado Learning Disabilities Research Centre, University of Colorado BoulderLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/488902015-12-13T19:26:09Z2015-12-13T19:26:09ZYear 12 results day: does the ATAR actually matter that much?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/104817/original/image-20151208-3122-q5sjdk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">How much emphasis should we place on ATAR scores? </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>This morning, thousands of young people will be glued to their mobile phones for good reason. </p>
<p>It’s the first day that Australian Tertiary Admissions Rankings (ATARs) are released to students. </p>
<p>It’s these results that put a full stop on 13 years of schooling and open a new chapter. </p>
<p>And it’s also the day that <a href="http://www.heraldsun.com.au/leader/west/vce-results-2014-anxious-wait-over-for-students-as-atar-scores-released/news-story/8eea0e02d76679f3c7573854c7ded66a">media outlets</a> across the country crunch the numbers to parade out the big winners – the handful of young people who obtain <a href="http://www.theage.com.au/victoria/life-after-a-9995-score-what-becomes-of-the-perfect-vce-students-20141212-1265hv.html">perfect scores</a> of 99.95. </p>
<p>Over the coming days, we will hear how important the ATAR is for determining “<a href="http://www.smh.com.au/national/education/top-atar-hsc-performances-the-result-of-years-of-achievement-20141210-12442a.html">the rest of your life</a>”. </p>
<p>We will see the school league tables of winners and losers: the usual cast of schools in the usual handful of locations across the country that take top honours.</p>
<p>What we will not hear about is how <a href="http://www.mitchellinstitute.org.au/reports/educational-opportunity-in-australia-2015-who-succeeds-and-who-misses-out/">a quarter of young</a> people are <a href="http://www.smh.com.au/national/quarter-of-australian-students-drop-out-new-report-reveals-20151025-gkhtpo.html">not completing year 12</a> or its equivalent. Or about the schools that help disadvantaged children improve their ATARs, but do not make the top grades.</p>
<p>In part, this is because high-performing students from disadvantaged areas often <a href="https://griffithreview.com/articles/condemned-to-innovate/">drift toward higher-performing schools</a>. The schools serving the most marginalised populations are tasked with providing the most support for those for whom university pathways are not the priority.</p>
<p>There are some <a href="http://www.smh.com.au/national/education/cese-report-most-overachieving-nsw-public-schools-revealed-20151110-gkv82u.html">success stories</a>, but these are the exceptions to the norm in mainstream media. <em>If only other disadvantaged schools would just pay attention to what these success stories do with their students!</em></p>
<p>What we won’t hear about is the crippling anxiety and other mental health issues that many students face in completing year 12. </p>
<p>A <a href="https://www.missionaustralia.com.au/what-we-do/research-evaluation/youth-survey">recent report</a> shows that over one-third of young people aged between 15 and 19 are “highly stressed” about school. Over half of the 19,000 surveyed felt that academic barriers would impact on their further study and work goals. </p>
<p>Year 12 is often positioned as the defining moment, and many students falsely believe that exam failure means <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/lifematters/what-if-i-fail-year-123f/6861662">absolute disaster</a> for their future. </p>
<p>So does the ATAR actually matter that much? </p>
<p>Well that depends on who you are asking, and what you think matters. </p>
<p>For university placements, the ATAR is being used <a href="http://www.theage.com.au/victoria/more-and-more-the-atar-means-less-and-less-20141214-126v18.html">less and less</a> as the sole measure that universities employ in selecting students. </p>
<p>There is an overwhelming focus on those courses that are “easy” or “hard” to get into, with little regard for what students will do post-study. Within this, the ATAR is becoming less effective as a predictor of future success.</p>
<p>There is <a href="https://pursuit.unimelb.edu.au/articles/opinion-gen-y-s-long-road-to-security">strong evidence</a> to suggest that even those who do well in education are having a harder time of navigating their post-school lives. </p>
<p>Those who complete year 12 still tend to enjoy better <a href="http://www.lsay.edu.au/publications/2761.html">job and life conditions than those who don’t</a>. </p>
<p>However, other measures of disadvantage around socio-economic status, language background, Indigenous status and gender tend to act as stronger predictors of poor outcomes. </p>
<p>Far from meritocratic, poor ATARs tend to accumulate around particular postcodes where <a href="http://www.dote.org.au/">educational disadvantage is concentrated</a>.</p>
<p>In a market where schools in wealthy suburbs — whether public or private — post billboards around their suburb reporting on student ATARs and university offers for their year 12 cohorts, is it surprising that students are overwhelmingly oriented toward university pathways over TAFE? </p>
<p>Is it surprising that students feel that their schools are being <a href="http://www.news.com.au/lifestyle/parenting/school-life/private-school-captains-shocking-speech-goes-viral/news-story/7935b58be62f3563e891419bce147fb0">run as businesses</a> with a focus on improving numbers, publicity and being competitive in the education marketplace?</p>
<p>The focus on ATARs in the mainstream media unfairly conflates school leaving with university offers. </p>
<p>In a country where <a href="http://theconversation.com/careers-education-must-be-for-all-not-just-those-going-to-university-49217">only half of young people finishing school take up university places</a>, and almost a quarter of those students do not finish their <a href="https://www.universitiesaustralia.edu.au/australias-universities/key-facts-and-data#.VmYuU98rJTY">bachelor degrees</a>, this focus provides a false representation of where young people go after school. </p>
<p>It also masks a much deeper story about who is missing out on educational and work opportunities. </p>
<p>Today is the day that we celebrate those at the top of the curve. However, today should be the day that we interrogate the value of the ATAR and of targets for improving the proportion of young people attaining year 12 or equivalent. </p>
<p>We must question the premium on year 12 as the measure for a successful transition. As a country, it is time we had a serious discussion about the emphasis we place on year 12.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/48890/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Shane Duggan does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The ATAR is being used less and less as the sole measure that universities use to select students. It’s time to question its value and the pressure it puts on students in year 12.Shane Duggan, Lecturer in Youth Studies and Teacher Education, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/311072015-03-15T19:26:34Z2015-03-15T19:26:34ZDelay school start times to help young people catch up on sleep<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/72562/original/image-20150220-28219-18xsteh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C300%2C2943%2C2100&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Adolescents are losing up to an hour of sleep a night more then they did ten years ago.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/yourdon/2680866397/in/photolist-55U9br-8Mn3cq-pbE7bn-niFXfa-qq6iUc-oSR2bU-p1Z8qg-paKoyy-prZ3gw-qs4b7R-pF1M2E-fwJWW8-4BDDhF-5L3wn7-u7jGj-2NwRu2-4SgeJU-4kMTep-8gtVyS-8ki6XK-oEA5j3-pBkfa4-oWWjKp-pJb77u-pFPAy3-prj7fc-pFBHmA-prgzdM-oqTJgk-qCTAos-qhtxCy-oSeYH6-qEKznG-pjihwB-ott4rr-os3bDZ-pRR6pK-q1W4en-ook1qx-pMu3n6-oEPiA8-qhS8Xz-qqcJgs-r4sV52-p43Mpg-oE1SXD-8gqEQ4-8gtWnS-8gqF9n-8gtW61">Ed Yourdon/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Sleep is the foundation of good health for all of us, especially during times of physical and mental development. But since adolescents are sleeping less these days, it may be time to delay school starting times to ensure young people can be productive and well at this important point in their lives.</p>
<p>Both physical and mental health both suffer when we don’t get enough sleep. And this particularly so for adolescents, who are going through puberty and all its attendant physical and mental development. But in a <a href="http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/115/6/1555.short">trend that has held</a> for the <a href="http://www.cqu.edu.au/research/research-organisations/institutes/appleton-institute/research/current-projects/beyond-blue">last ten years</a> young people in this age group have been losing up to one hour of sleep every school night. </p>
<p>The best remedy may be to let adolescents catch up on their sleep by allowing them to start school later. </p>
<h2>Sleep at a delicate time</h2>
<p>There’s a <a href="http://www.smrv-journal.com/article/S1087-0792(09)00100-2/abstract?cc=y">significant and important relationship</a> between daytime performance, mental and physical health and sleep duration. In essence, the less young people sleep, the worse they fare in <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0031395511000186">neuropsychological function</a> (decreased attention and memory capacity and impaired learning), <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1038/oby.2007.63/full">physiological function</a> (increased risk of being overweight and obese, and reduced immune system function), and <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/da.20443/full">psychosocial function</a> (increased aggression, withdrawn behaviours and mood disorders).</p>
<p>The causal relationship between these impacts and poor sleep is well established, and when sleep quantity and quality improve, <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0031395511000186">negative outcomes are reversed</a>. But the amount of sleep people across all population groups get has gradually reduced ever since the industrial revolution. That’s thanks to the arrival of electric light, which has enabled us to do more during night hours.</p>
<p>The internet and the advent of the 24-hour society, where technology and globalisation allow continuous access to activities have no doubt contributed to this trend. Social media usage, for instance, <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1389945710001632">has had a major impact</a> as young people displace sleep time with social networking activities that in their view may be more interesting than sleep.</p>
<p>The problem is that adolescence is accompanied by major changes in sleeping patterns. Starting at puberty, adolescents experience a delayed release of the sleep-inducing hormone, melatonin, relative to melatonin activity in middle childhood. As a result, they are sleepy later in the evening and tend to delay bedtimes, sometimes as much as two hours later. </p>
<p>This results in a shorter sleep periods than in middle childhood, but with little real change in sleep need. That’s why adolescents are <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15402000701263809#.VOLbXbDLfuQ">often very tired and sleepy</a> during the week and struggle to get up in time for school. In fact, 80% of adolescents report being sleepy on awakening in the morning before school.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/74442/original/image-20150311-24197-excef4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/74442/original/image-20150311-24197-excef4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/74442/original/image-20150311-24197-excef4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/74442/original/image-20150311-24197-excef4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/74442/original/image-20150311-24197-excef4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=604&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/74442/original/image-20150311-24197-excef4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=604&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/74442/original/image-20150311-24197-excef4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=604&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Social media usage has had a major impact on young people who displace sleep time with social networking activities.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/afagen/8637598334">Adam Fagen/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Young people are still undergoing considerable brain growth at this age, for which adequate sleep is especially important. And they’re under pressure to undertake all sorts of activities expected of them to secure future success, as well as to cope well while doing them. </p>
<p>Sleep loss <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1087079209001002">can have serious consequences</a> on their academic performance, with higher incidences of school failure, and school dropout in adolescents with insufficient sleep. And it can also increase risk of <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/da.20443/full">depression, anxiety and stress</a>, suicide attempts, and <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2572740/">drug and alcohol abuse</a>. </p>
<h2>Radical but effective</h2>
<p>One effective way to address this problem is to look for measures that can work across the whole of the adolescent population. And one such measure that deserves attention is delaying starting times for school. <a href="http://archpedi.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=383436">Research shows</a> when school starts later, adolescents feel less sleepy, less moody and perform significantly better at their academic workload. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.heraldsun.com.au/news/victoria/schools-wake-up-to-sleepy-students-and-consider-later-teaching-hours/story-fni0fit3-1227028587105">Some Australian schools</a> have done just this for older adolescents, while others have staggered start times so students can choose between a few options. This allows students who are most affected by sleep deprivation to recuperate before facing the demands of their academic day.</p>
<p>But changes like this may be hindered by practical difficulties in implementation, which they need to be assessed against a cost-benefit analysis of consequences to families, school districts, and communities before wholesale implementation. </p>
<p>Delaying start times could result in some students not getting home until much later in the evening, for instance, and this would impact to family routines. How would families with children in both middle and senior school navigate the logistics of transporting them to school at different times? </p>
<p>And what could arguably be even more difficult is getting schools to address issues such as the curriculum re-scheduling and teacher workload. </p>
<p>What we do know is that adolescence is a time of high stress and academic pressure. Giving young people every chance to be the best they can requires good sleep and every opportunity to decrease its loss should be considered. Delaying the school starting times could deliver real benefits at a time in life when young people need a helping hand the most.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/31107/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sarah Blunden does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Adolescents are getting less sleep even though they’re at a stage in life when they may need it most. Why not delay school starting times so they can catch up on some shuteye?Sarah Blunden, Associate Professor and Head of Paediatric Sleep Research, CQUniversity AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/367022015-01-29T23:26:46Z2015-01-29T23:26:46ZWhy don’t all kids do well at school?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/70367/original/image-20150129-22292-6i96qi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Not all kids do well at school, and it's not their fault.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The new school year has just begun. Parents may be feeling nervous about sending their children off to school. What if they don’t like school? What if school doesn’t like them? What if they don’t do well? </p>
<h2>Who is to blame?</h2>
<p>If a child doesn’t do well at school, whose fault is it? Is it <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03054985.2014.995160">the homes they come</a> from, the breakfasts they didn’t eat, the books they weren’t read? Is it the politicians who <a href="http://www.smh.com.au/national/education/australia-falling-behind-in-education-due-to-naplan-pasi-sahlberg-20140614-3a472.html">fail to fund equitably</a>? Or is it our society that <a href="https://theconversation.com/does-the-way-we-speak-affect-our-future-23503">perpetuates inequities</a>? Is it the curriculum and the relentless <a href="https://theconversation.com/curriculum-equity-and-resources-how-we-got-lost-in-the-gonski-debate-21210">push to teach the content</a> rather than the child which leaves some behind? Is it the <a href="http://www.appa.asn.au/reports/Primary-Principals-Perspectives-NAPLAN.pdf">increased focus on standardised test performance</a> that strips the joy out of learning? Is it the <a href="http://www.decd.sa.gov.au/limestonecoast/files/pages/new%20page/PLC/teachers_make_a_difference.pdf">quality of the teachers</a>? </p>
<p>It could be any of these, or all of these - and there have been plenty of arguments put forward for each. However, whilst politicians, bureaucrats and academics debate whose fault it is, one thing is certain, if a child doesn’t do well at school it definitely is <strong>not their</strong> fault. </p>
<p>But unfortunately it is the children who carry the burden of failure. They carry the stigma of the Ds on their report card, and the other public declarations of their failings in the many subtle, and not so subtle, forms this takes - from their placement in the Wombats reading group to the lunchtime detentions for not getting their classwork finished. They carry the burden of feeling they must be dumb and they carry it for many many years.</p>
<h2>Who does well at school?</h2>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/70368/original/image-20150129-22308-peuvpd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/70368/original/image-20150129-22308-peuvpd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/70368/original/image-20150129-22308-peuvpd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/70368/original/image-20150129-22308-peuvpd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/70368/original/image-20150129-22308-peuvpd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/70368/original/image-20150129-22308-peuvpd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/70368/original/image-20150129-22308-peuvpd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/70368/original/image-20150129-22308-peuvpd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">For some kids, school just isn’t a good fit.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>To do well at school you need to be a puzzle piece that fits neatly in the puzzle frame. The closer your home experiences, your language, your knowledge and your values are to that of your school and your teachers - the easier it is for you to do well at school. The closer your learning style to your teacher’s teaching style - the easier it is for you to do well at school. </p>
<p>Unfortunately, if you are not prepared or able to perform in ways the school wants, then it is likely you won’t do well at school.</p>
<p>There isn’t much room for square pegs in the round holes of school.</p>
<h2>Some stories from the classroom</h2>
<p>When I was a primary school teacher, I also worked in the evenings at my husband’s mini market. Every other evening a 10 year old girl would bring her two little brothers into the shop, and she would stretch $5 to buy the ingredients for a meal for them. She showed enormous skill - management skills, financial skills, relationship skills, leadership skills, all of which are indicative of the knowledge and skills that schools value. But at school she was known as the poor little kid who didn’t have a school uniform, whose hair was often dirty, who never had her homework done and who struggled with reading. Staffroom chatter tut tutted the parenting and seemed oblivious to what this girl <strong>could</strong> do. </p>
<p>It seemed inevitable that this little girl would get further behind as the gap between what she knew and did, and what school wanted her to know and do grew ever wider.
Whose fault was this? Her parents’? Society’s? Her teachers’? It certainly was not her fault. But it was she who carried the burden.</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/70371/original/image-20150129-22317-1f8k5ni.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/70371/original/image-20150129-22317-1f8k5ni.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/70371/original/image-20150129-22317-1f8k5ni.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=807&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/70371/original/image-20150129-22317-1f8k5ni.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=807&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/70371/original/image-20150129-22317-1f8k5ni.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=807&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/70371/original/image-20150129-22317-1f8k5ni.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1014&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/70371/original/image-20150129-22317-1f8k5ni.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1014&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/70371/original/image-20150129-22317-1f8k5ni.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1014&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Not all types of skills are valued at school.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jaine/Flickr</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>And what about the little boy who begins school so keen and chatty; a bright little personality but he struggles with reading. Mum and dad do all the “right” things - they read to him, they give him a healthy breakfast and a clean school uniform but he just doesn’t get reading. As the other kids get rewards for reading well and reading lots, he is getting more and more frustrated. Soon he isn’t the happy little boy who started school, he is being naughty and disruptive, or sullen and silent. </p>
<p>Whose fault is this? His parents’? The curriculum? His teachers’? The bureaucrats who set arbitrary benchmarks for reading by the end of the first year of school? It certainly is not the five year old boy’s fault. But he will be the one who bears the consequences of not being taught in the way he needs to learn.</p>
<h2>What could we do differently?</h2>
<p>School is a strange sort of club. We let everyone in, but not everyone gets equal access to the facilities. </p>
<p>All kids bring knowledge, experience, language and values to school - but it doesn’t always match those of the school, and that makes it harder to do well at school. There are two solutions to this mismatch:</p>
<ol>
<li>value and use what children bring to school, broadening our definition of what counts as worthy knowledge </li>
<li>work harder to give all students the knowledge and skills that schools value. </li>
</ol>
<p>A combination of the two is required. Students need to be explicitly taught the skills and knowledge that will give them success at school, and that means knowing each student well - understanding what they already know and how they learn. </p>
<p>This requires genuine communication between homes and schools - not the kind where school simply tries to make home look and sound more like school, but the kind where school is interested in home, and values it and seeks to include it in school.</p>
<p>And parents need to remember schools can’t work productively with their children without their help. Don’t hold back - get involved.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/36702/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
The new school year has just begun. Parents may be feeling nervous about sending their children off to school. What if they don’t like school? What if school doesn’t like them? What if they don’t do well…Misty Adoniou, Senior Lecturer in Language, Literacy and TESL, University of CanberraLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/327032014-10-09T05:08:26Z2014-10-09T05:08:26ZHow East Asian children get so far ahead of their classmates<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/61149/original/j25zm9x2-1412763491.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Racing ahead.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-42776815/stock-photo--year-old-little-asian-girl-doing-homework.html?src=cYNdDC5yXXi8PvMIMOxuPQ-1-47">mamahoohooba </a></span></figcaption></figure><p>It is no secret that children of East Asian heritage excel at school. In England, for example, <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/280689/SFR05_2014_Text_FINAL.pdf">78% of ethnic Chinese children obtain</a> at least 5 A<sup>*</sup> to C GCSE grades, compared to a national average of just 60%. Yet, despite some <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/education/2011/feb/07/chinese-children-school-do-well">very interesting research done</a> by my colleague at the Institute of Education, Becky Francis, we still know very little about why this is the case.</p>
<p>I have explored this issue in a <a href="http://johnjerrim.com/papers/">new paper</a> using Australian data from the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development’s 2012 Programme for International Student Assessment data. Just like their counterparts in the UK, Australian-born children of East Asian heritage do very well in school – particularly when it comes to maths. </p>
<p>I show that they score an average of 605 points on the PISA 2012 maths test. This puts them more than two years ahead of the average child living in either England or Australia. They even outperform the average child in perennial top PISA performers such as <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-is-singapores-school-system-so-successful-and-is-it-a-model-for-the-west-22917">Singapore</a>, Hong Kong and Japan.</p>
<p>Politicians frequently tell us that we need to <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/politics/2013/dec/03/gove-defends-education-reforms">learn lessons from high-performing countries</a>. Yet, in my opinion, it is actually more insightful to consider what is driving the high performance of East Asian children born and raised within an “average performing” country such as Australia. After all, they clearly excel at the PISA tests, despite having been exposed to a western culture and education system similar to that in England.</p>
<h2>No silver bullet</h2>
<p>First, there does not seem to be a “silver bullet” that explains why East Asian children excel at school. Rather, a combination of inter-linked factors are at play.</p>
<p>Second, I find little evidence that children of East Asian heritage simply put more effort into the PISA test. So it seems unlikely that their high performance is a statistical artefact, or that they are more motivated to do well in the test than their British or Australian peers.</p>
<p>Third, the type of school matters a great deal. This accounts for roughly half the achievement gap between children with East Asian parents versus those with western (either Australian or British) parents. This may partly be a reflection of culture, including the high value East Asian families place upon their children’s education – meaning they send them to the best possible school.</p>
<h2>Outside the school gates</h2>
<p>Even after accounting for differences in family background and schools, children with East Asian parents remain one whole school year ahead of their peers with Australian (or British) parents. This is partly due to East Asian parents investing more in out-of-school tuition and instilling a harder work ethic in their children. These out-of-school factors therefore play an important role in explaining why East Asian children do so much better in the PISA test than their British and Australian peers.</p>
<p>What are the implications of these findings for us here in the UK? Well, every time international assessments like PISA are released, we hear <a href="https://theconversation.com/our-asian-schooling-infatuation-the-problem-of-pisa-envy-9435">about the lessons to be learned</a> from the high-performing East Asian economies. This has led to us <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/184064/DFE-RR178.pdf">comparing our curriculum to those in Singapore and Hong Kong</a>, and sending delegations to <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/news/experts-to-visit-shanghai-to-raise-standards-in-maths">observe teaching methods in East Asian schools</a>. </p>
<p>Yet many of the key reasons why East Asian children excel are cultural and therefore beyond the control of schools. So what the data really teaches us is that parents and family culture matter a great deal. And we must not forget that England’s overall middling performance in such international comparisons depends on a lot more than just the “performance” of our education system, teachers and schools.</p>
<hr>
<p>_
This article is co-published with the <a href="http://ioelondonblog.wordpress.com/2014/10/09/east-asia-top-performers-what-pisa-really-teaches-us/">IOE London blog</a>.
_</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/32703/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>John Jerrim receives funding from the Economic and Social Research Council.</span></em></p>It is no secret that children of East Asian heritage excel at school. In England, for example, 78% of ethnic Chinese children obtain at least 5 A* to C GCSE grades, compared to a national average of just…John Jerrim, Lecturer in Economics and Social Statistics, UCLLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/320062014-09-23T10:40:37Z2014-09-23T10:40:37ZEven at best schools, kids on free school meals are performing worse than their peers<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/59779/original/wcw8gmwz-1411463838.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Mind the gap. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-115945939/stock-photo-overhead-view-of-teacher-tutoring-students-in-classroom.html?src=RqXM2UHhol8vG25ghn7REg-3-30">Teaching via Shutterstock/michaeljung </a></span></figcaption></figure><p>It doesn’t matter if a school is outstanding or struggling, or if the majority of pupils are well-off or not – it’s likely that there will be a gap between how well poorer pupils perform compared to their peers. The low achievement and below average progress of pupils who are entitled to free school meals is an issue for every school in England – whether in inner city urban areas or leafy rural shires. </p>
<p>This “free school meals gap” – the difference in achievement between those children who are entitled to free school meals and those who are not – appears to exist in nearly all schools, according to forthcoming research I am presenting at the <a href="http://beraconference.co.uk/programme-at-a-glance/">British Educational Research Association</a> conference. Dealing with this problem is not a question of finding who to blame, but of recognising the importance of factors outside as well as inside the school gates.</p>
<p>For example, children who grow up in poverty may do less well because they have parents who are more stressed, less able to afford educational activities and resources and less well-placed to help them with their school work. This is not to say that schools should not do everything possible to close the gap. But it does indicate that a punitive approach on the part of government that sees the issue as one of “failing” schools misconstrues the nature of the problem.</p>
<h2>Six grades difference</h2>
<p>Overall, looking at pupil’s scores in the best eight exams they take, pupils on free school meals achieve nearly 40 fewer points (or 6 GCSE grades) lower compared to their better-off peers. They also make around 15 points (three GCSE grades) less progress between the age 11-16, once all other pupil and school background factors are controlled for. There is some school variation around these averages, but in over 95% of schools, pupils entitled to free school meals achieved lower grades than pupils who are not entitled. </p>
<p>The fact that this achievement gap is so consistent is an indication that idiosyncratic factors like variation in school policies, practices or effectiveness is probably not the main reason. Factors outside the school gates, in the home, wider community or among peer groups, are likely to be more influential. This has been noted in previous analyses of school effects in England (e.g. <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03054985.2014.891980">Strand, 2014</a>).</p>
<h2>Best schools still fall short</h2>
<p>Data from schools inspectorate Ofsted can be used to illustrate the same point. In those schools judged by Ofsted as “outstanding” in 2012, 50% of pupils on free school meals achieved more than five A star to C grades at GCSE, including English and Maths. This was compared to just 25% in schools judged by Ofsted to be “inadequate”. </p>
<p>As the graph below shows, the odds of achieving these good grades are around the same in both good and poorly performing schools: 3 to 1 in outstanding schools, compared to 2.7 to 1 in inadequate schools. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/59729/original/xgrrc626-1411407402.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/59729/original/xgrrc626-1411407402.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=442&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/59729/original/xgrrc626-1411407402.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=442&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/59729/original/xgrrc626-1411407402.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=442&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/59729/original/xgrrc626-1411407402.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=556&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/59729/original/xgrrc626-1411407402.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=556&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/59729/original/xgrrc626-1411407402.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=556&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Gap between free school meals pupils and peers, by Ofsted school rating.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>On the face of it this is good news: schools can and do make a difference. But while the outstanding schools “raise the bar”, they do not “close the gap”. The gap between pupils entitled to free school meals and those who are not is identical in outstanding, good, satisfactory or inadequate schools. Even if we improved all “inadequate” schools to the level of those judged “outstanding” we would still have a free school meal gap – and of much the same size as we do today. </p>
<h2>Policy implications</h2>
<p>Approaches to school funding based on individual pupil data, such as the <a href="https://www.gov.uk/pupil-premium-information-for-schools-and-alternative-provision-settings">pupil premium grant</a>, are important so that all schools receive additional funding for disadvantaged pupils – even if there are very few of them in schools in well-off areas. This is important since the data indicates that pupils entitled to free school meals do poorly in low deprivation as well as in high deprivation schools. </p>
<p>But by failing to account for any factors associated with pupil background or the socio-economic composition of the school, current accountability mechanisms such as performance tables and Ofsted inspections are biased against schools serving more disadvantaged intakes. This acts a disincentive for talented teachers and school leaders to work in the more challenging schools. It is important that schools are accountable for the progress of their students relative to schools with similar intakes – not just for “raw” attainment outcomes.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/32006/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Steve Strand has previously received funding from the Department for Education and funding from the charities Unbound Philanthropy and The Bell Foundation to examine the National Pupil Database for a range of effects on pupil achievement and progress for the Education Endowment Foundation. </span></em></p>It doesn’t matter if a school is outstanding or struggling, or if the majority of pupils are well-off or not – it’s likely that there will be a gap between how well poorer pupils perform compared to their…Steve Strand, Professor of Education, University of OxfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/307992014-08-21T14:00:04Z2014-08-21T14:00:04ZRise in GCSE A* to C grades, plus entry in vocational subjects<p>Despite <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/education-28876367">a number</a> of dire warnings, <a href="http://www.jcq.org.uk/media-centre/news-releases">overall GCSE results</a> have not been very volatile. Across the country, the number of students getting A* to C grades has increased slightly, by 0.7% points. On the basis of past performance, students who would have received an A or a C grade in 2013, should have received that A or C this year too. But there are some marked subject differences, as well as developments in the number of teenagers taking vocational and computing subjects.</p>
<p>We have already had a relatively boring set of <a href="https://theconversation.com/permanent-revolution-of-a-level-exams-helps-nobody-30488">A level results</a> this summer. On the whole, A Level grades were similar to last year’s, with some minor fluctuations, most notably in an increase of students who got A* grade. </p>
<p>Please don’t misunderstand me when I say boring: when it comes to exams, this is a good thing. It reassures us that most students got the grades they deserved. Of course, there will always be exceptions – measurement error in examinations, no matter what the politicians tell us, is inevitable and will always be with us.</p>
<p>For the GCSEs, on a subject-by-subject basis there were notable differences. The A* to C pass rate for English was down 1.9% points, while in mathematics it was up 4.8% points and 6% points in science. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/57063/original/c5txb457-1408621730.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/57063/original/c5txb457-1408621730.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/57063/original/c5txb457-1408621730.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/57063/original/c5txb457-1408621730.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/57063/original/c5txb457-1408621730.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/57063/original/c5txb457-1408621730.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/57063/original/c5txb457-1408621730.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/57063/original/c5txb457-1408621730.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Overall, the number of exam entries was down by over 200,000, from 5.4m in 2013 to 5.2m in 2014, largely due to <a href="http://ofqual.gov.uk/standards/statistics/provisional-summer-gcse-igcse-entries/">a 39% drop</a> in the number of entries for Year 10 students. But even these changes are less dramatic than it might seem.</p>
<h2>Rise in vocational subjects</h2>
<p>Two points I have noted that probably will not get much attention were the increase in the take-up of applied (vocational) GCSEs as well as a dramatic increase in computing and ICT GCSEs, admittedly from a low base. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/57077/original/fyzxpg7m-1408628176.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/57077/original/fyzxpg7m-1408628176.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/57077/original/fyzxpg7m-1408628176.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=327&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/57077/original/fyzxpg7m-1408628176.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=327&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/57077/original/fyzxpg7m-1408628176.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=327&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/57077/original/fyzxpg7m-1408628176.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/57077/original/fyzxpg7m-1408628176.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/57077/original/fyzxpg7m-1408628176.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Business, engineering, health and social care, media studies, hospitality and catering, and leisure and tourism are all on the increase. Some subjects, such as engineering and social care have seen the number of A* to C students increase, while others including leisure and tourism and business studies, have seen a decrease. </p>
<p>As for computing – the number of entries jumped almost fourfold to 16,773 this year. However, there was a slight dip in the numbers of students getting A* to C – down from 68.4% in 2013 to 65.5% this year. Computing now counts as a science, and therefore as one of the subjects in the <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-ebacc-effect-pushes-pupils-into-more-academic-subjects-thats-a-good-thing-29931">English Baccalureate</a>, a performance measure of five core subjects now being used in school rankings. The number of ICT entries was also up 40% to 96,811. </p>
<p>Many vocational qualifications are no longer counted as equivalent to GCSEs in this year’s school performance tables, following on from recommendations in <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/180504/DFE-00031-2011.pdf">Alison Wolf’s 2011 review</a> of vocational qualifications. Those qualifications that are able to be counted now only attract the points-equivalent of one GCSE, when in the past some counted for more. This has discouraged schools from entering students for those qualifications. </p>
<p>But it seems this year’s results show signs that some schools are shifting some of their students into applied GCSEs. This could possibly be in anticipation of counting at least some of the qualification results toward the “best eight” qualifications that will now be the basis of <a href="https://theconversation.com/new-look-gcse-league-tables-reconfirm-wide-disparities-between-schools-22793">new performance tables, due to be introduced in 2016</a>. </p>
<h2>Impact of decline in early entry</h2>
<p>Students in England will have taken all of their examinations at the end of their two-year GCSE course because of the government’s insistence on linear qualifications.</p>
<p>For English GCSEs, speaking and listening is now graded separately and does not count in the overall results. Many students in the past have done better in this teacher-marked element than in reading and writing – just think about how verbally articulate most teenagers are and you can see why. English is now 60% externally assessed through examination papers whereas last year it was 40%. </p>
<p>And changes to the way performance tables are structured now mean that <a href="https://theconversation.com/shift-from-sitting-gcses-a-year-early-wins-guarded-support-29869">only a student’s first attempt</a> at an examination is counted toward the school’s results. Many schools have ceased to enter 15-year-old Year 10 students early for the examinations, resulting in 300,000 fewer early entries this year. </p>
<p>Those schools that made little use of early entry and resits will on the whole have stable or perhaps even better results than last year. For those that made wide use of these practices, the picture could be mixed. Multiple re-sits can just help those students on the border between grade C and grade D to get the higher grade – boosting school results. But taking a qualification at age 16 rather than 15 could mean that students do better because they’ve studied longer and are more mature, pushing results up.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/30799/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tina Isaacs does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Despite a number of dire warnings, overall GCSE results have not been very volatile. Across the country, the number of students getting A* to C grades has increased slightly, by 0.7% points. On the basis…Tina Isaacs, Programme Leader, MA in Educational Assessment, UCLLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.