tag:theconversation.com,2011:/au/topics/self-esteem-8466/articles
Self-esteem – The Conversation
2023-10-09T16:27:37Z
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/213628
2023-10-09T16:27:37Z
2023-10-09T16:27:37Z
The secrets to self-confidence, according to cognitive science
<p>In 2019, <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/products-eurostat-news/-/edn-20210910-1">7.2% of people in the European Union</a> suffered from chronic depression. The human – and economic – cost of this illness is considerable, which is why the European Commission unveiled a <a href="https://www.euractiv.com/section/health-consumers/news/beyond-health-policy-eu-commission-lays-out-mental-health-strategy/">€1.23 billion mental health strategy in June</a>, to be achieved through 20 flagship initiatives.</p>
<p>Science shows that self-esteem <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18729703/">plays a key role with certain mental disorders</a>, particularly those of anxious and depressive nature.</p>
<p>Even today, however, the cognitive mechanisms underlying self-esteem remain mysterious. If we are to understand them, we need to start by asking ourselves a set of questions:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>How is self-esteem expressed?</p></li>
<li><p>Why does it vary from one individual to another?</p></li>
<li><p>How do psychiatric disorders and self-esteem interact?</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Situated at the intersection of neuroscience, mathematical modelling and psychiatry, our research aims to answer these questions to better understand self-assessment, a critical aspect of human cognition.</p>
<p>Here’s what we’ve learned so far, and the main hypotheses we’re pursuing.</p>
<h2>Self-esteem and motivation</h2>
<p>Research in psychology shows that a high level of confidence in oneself and one’s abilities is associated with a greater <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1977-25733-001">sense of control over what happens to us</a>, which may promote our ability to take on challenges. When the latter are met with success, our confidence may enjoy a boost, propelling us into a virtuous circle.</p>
<p>Conversely, if a person lacks confidence when embarking onto a project, they are more likely “not to believe in it,” and therefore to give up trying. The chances of success – and consequently the opportunities to positively reinforce their confidence – are then reduced.</p>
<p>But is it low self-esteem that leads to the onset of anxiety or depressive disorders, or the reverse?</p>
<p>To explore these questions, we need to look at how individuals assess their performance.</p>
<h2>A wide range of confidence</h2>
<p>Let us preface what follows by stating there is huge variability in self-assessment. For example, a depressed person may underestimate their ability to complete a task despite performing on a par with others, while a person suffering from cognitive problems (in the early stages of dementia, for example) may continue to trust their own abilities.</p>
<p>This variability, the origins of which are not fully known yet, takes two main forms.</p>
<ul>
<li><p>The degree to which the confidence judgements made by an individual enable them to discriminate between their own correct responses and their errors. For example, one can tend to be overconfident, but still be less so when one is wrong than when one is right. Conversely, one can be overconfident, but equally so, regardless of the correctness of one’s answer.</p></li>
<li><p>The existence or not of a gap between subjective confidence and objective performance.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>We’ve all noticed that some people underestimate themselves, while others overestimate themselves. On the other hand, some are “well calibrated” – they are able to show a high level of confidence when their objective performance is high, and a lower level when their performance is truly lower.</p>
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<p>At the population level, a well-validated finding in behavioural psychology and economics is that <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2008-04236-009">we are (slightly) overconfident</a>. A case where the numbers speak for themselves is that more than half of people think that they are better than average drivers or are more intelligent than the average.</p>
<h2>Different levels of confidence</h2>
<p>Scientists have long struggled to differentiate variations in confidence from those in other cognitive characteristics. The task is made all the more difficult by the fact that confidence is expressed <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006322321013299">at different hierarchical levels</a>:</p>
<ol>
<li><p>Our confidence in a given decision (“I answered this question correctly”);</p></li>
<li><p>Our confidence in a task (“I did pretty well in that exam”);</p></li>
<li><p>Our confidence in a given cognitive domain (“I have a good memory”);</p></li>
</ol>
<p>4… up to our self-confidence, which constitutes an overall level.</p>
<p>These distinctions are important: one can be confident of one’s ability to drive in bad weather (perceptual domain), while not being sure one can remember a list of things to do (memory domain).</p>
<p>Similarly, for certain types of exercise one may be able to “know when one knows and know when one doesn’t know”, whereas for others it may be trickier to distinguish one’s mistakes from one’s successes.</p>
<h2>Two main hypotheses</h2>
<p>There are currently two main coexisting hypotheses about the mechanisms underlying confidence judgements.</p>
<p>One is that there is a central self-assessment mechanism that estimates confidence in any given response or task. This mechanism would be the same across different domains, such as memory, language or reasoning. In this case, actions designed to improve the accuracy of self-assessment <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/personality-neuroscience/article/human-metacognition-across-domains-insights-from-individual-differences-and-neuroimaging/16940B57B2F1649B5F0BC399174F84BA">should aim to “re-educate” or “train” this very central judgement capacity, independently of the task at hand</a>. The benefits would then become widespread.</p>
<p>The second hypothesis postulates that our confidence judgements are not the result of a central self-assessment mechanism, but are intimately linked to each domain. According to this hypothesis, any action designed to improve the accuracy of self-assessment should therefore target the relevant task or domain.</p>
<p>Both hypotheses remain hotly debated. Whether at the behavioural or neurological level, research results tend to indicate that the reality is probably somewhere in between. There is no single centralised mechanism (which would probably not confer enough flexibility), but neither is there a specific mechanism for each domain – that would be too “costly” for the brain to maintain.</p>
<h2>Mental health profiles in the population</h2>
<p>Another hurdle in the study of self-assessment and confidence is that the <a href="https://www.elsevier-masson.fr/dsm-5-manuel-diagnostique-et-statistique-des-troubles-mentaux-9782294739293.html">current classification of psychiatric disorders</a> is in the process of being rethought.</p>
<p>This is particularly true of the idea that a symptom is equivalent to an illness. Anxiety, for example, is not a diagnostic symptom of a single psychiatric disorder – one can be anxious when suffering from depression, a borderline personality disorder, and so on. Conversely, an illness does not necessarily limit itself to a single symptom. Take the case of an obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), where some patients experience high levels of anxiety, whereas others do not. Yet their diagnosis is the same.</p>
<p>This makes it challenging to reliably predict which treatment option would be most effective for a given patient. Indeed, while the traditional classification is clinically relevant, it does not always directly match the neurobiology of psychiatric disorders.</p>
<p>Complementary to this traditional viewpoint, the so-called <em>dimensional</em> approach focuses on the heterogeneity and variability in underlying symptoms, which may be common to several illnesses. This alternative classification is understood as <em>transdiagnostic</em>, one that works through traditional diagnostic categories.</p>
<h2>Maths can help to better capture mental health symptoms</h2>
<p>Traditionally, psychologists and doctors have tended to diagnose mental health disorders by relying on patients’ reports. The latter can enlighten either by expressing themselves directly on the couch or by answering specialised questionnaires, including questions such as:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“Do you find it difficult to make decisions?”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>or</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“Do you sometimes feel so anxious that you find it hard to breathe?”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Using machine learning, researchers attempted to group the symptoms in such a way as to identify common points to different pathologies, rather than studying each illness separately. Once groupings of symptoms common to several diseases had been established, experimental techniques could be used to better grasp the biological, cognitive or behavioural mechanisms involved.</p>
<p>In the case of OCD, machine learning methods could potentially identify subgroups – for example, an “anxiety” subgroup. The hope is that this will make it possible to offer treatments or psychotherapeutic methods that are better suited to each individual. Indeed, a person with anxious OCD may not respond in the same way to a given treatment as a person with OCD where anxiety is less pronounced.</p>
<h2>In the general population</h2>
<p>The idea is that mental health symptoms naturally fluctuate, both in patients and in the entire population. This is true even with those who have not been diagnosed with a psychiatric disorder – we are all to some degree more or less anxious, more or less impulsive, more or less obsessive, and so on.</p>
<p>Applying machine learning methods on volunteers, we found that people with more compulsive and intrusive thinking symptoms generally reported higher confidence, but had a less accurate self-assessment. This pattern <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29458997/">could be related psychological effects such as a tendency to jump to conclusions</a>.</p>
<p>Moreover, people with more marked anxious and depressive symptoms were found to have lower confidence in their decisions, but a more accurate self-assessment – which may be related to the notion of <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22717337/">“depressive realism”</a>. However, these results seem to depend on the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s44184-022-00009-4">domain</a> in which we are evaluating our confidence (for example, memory, sport, etc.).</p>
<p>A better understanding of how confidence judgements are formed could help us determine why self-assessment varies from one person to another. It could also help us gain awareness of the gap that can exist between our performance and our perception of it.</p>
<hr>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/308798/original/file-20200107-123373-wmivra.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/308798/original/file-20200107-123373-wmivra.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/308798/original/file-20200107-123373-wmivra.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/308798/original/file-20200107-123373-wmivra.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/308798/original/file-20200107-123373-wmivra.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/308798/original/file-20200107-123373-wmivra.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/308798/original/file-20200107-123373-wmivra.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
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<p><em>Created in 2007 to accelerate and share scientific knowledge on major societal issues, the Axa Research Fund has supported nearly 700 projects worldwide, led by researchers from 38 countries. To find out more, visit the Axa Research Fund website or follow us on Twitter @AXAResearchFund.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/213628/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Marion Rouault's research is supported by the Axa Research Fund.</span></em></p>
Cognitive disorders can often impact self-confidence, for the better or for the worse. But we won’t be able to offer adequate treatment unless we understand the mechanisms, one scientist warns.
Marion Rouault, Chargée de recherche CNRS en neurosciences cognitives, Institut du Cerveau (ICM)
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/209179
2023-09-18T12:21:16Z
2023-09-18T12:21:16Z
Racial trauma has profound mental health consequence – a Black clinical psychologist explains and offers 5 ways to heal
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/548126/original/file-20230913-34443-83m8wu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Racial trauma can cause feelings of isolation among Black people. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/female-employee-working-overtime-in-the-evening-royalty-free-image/1496339990?phrase=black+woman+corporation&adppopup=true">Taiyou Nomachi/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Since European expansion into the Americas, white people <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2021/11/25/us/ahmaud-arbery-racist-rhetoric-trial-takeaways/index.html">have demonized</a> Black people and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5004736/">portrayed them</a> as undesirable, violent and hypersexual. Originally, the <a href="https://jimcrowmuseum.ferris.edu/brute/homepage.htm">intent of this demonization</a> was to legitimize the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1532708616634769">conquest and sale</a> of African people.</p>
<p>One consequence of this negative portrayal has been the documented psychological impact on Black people themselves. It includes <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2611247/pdf/jnma00538-0053.pdf">self-hatred</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/009579847900500201">internalized racism</a> and an <a href="https://virginiahistory.org/learn/civil-rights-movement-virginia/rising-black-consciousness">erosion of Black consciousness</a> within the Black community.</p>
<p>During the 1960s, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=voV9ld-Qooc">Martin Luther King Jr.</a> recognized the consequences of racist stereotypes and tried to change the language and symbols of racism. </p>
<p>“Somebody told a lie one day,” King said. “They couched it in language. They made everything black ugly and evil. Look in your dictionaries and see the synonyms of the word black. It’s always something degrading and low and sinister. Look at the word white and it’s always something pure. …”</p>
<p>Though King longed for the day when the word “black” would be associated with beauty, Black people are still coping with feelings of alienation as a result of what is known as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000006292033">racialized trauma</a>, the emotional impact of racism, racial discrimination and violence on mostly Black people.</p>
<p>I am a psychologist and professor of counseling. In our <a href="https://doi.org/10.17744/mehc.44.2.01">2022 peer-reviewed article</a>, mental health counselor <a href="https://www.waldenu.edu/why-walden/faculty/janee-steele">Janeé M. Steele</a> and <a href="https://und.edu/directory/charmeka.newton">I</a> detail the mental injuries caused by encounters with racial bias, hostility, discrimination and harassment. </p>
<p>More important, our research has shown that healing from racialized trauma can help reduce the negative impacts of racism and provide the emotional resources necessary to challenge racial injustices.</p>
<h2>Racialized trauma and mental health</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://dictionary.apa.org/trauma">American Psychological Association</a> defines trauma as “any disturbing experience that results in significant fear, helplessness, dissociation, confusion, or other disruptive feelings intense enough to have a long-lasting negative effect on a person’s attitudes, behavior, and other aspects of functioning.”</p>
<p>Common ways people are exposed to racialized trauma include everyday slights such as a store owner following a person of color around the store, racial slurs, denied opportunities, racial profiling and hate crimes.</p>
<p>These encounters, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/trm0000217">known as race-based events</a>, may occur directly between individuals or groups of people, or they may happen indirectly – for example, as a result of watching <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-black-communities-cope-with-trauma-triggered-by-police-brutality-199039">a video of police brutality</a>.</p>
<p>Whether they occur directly or indirectly, race-based events have a negative <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/trm0000306">psychological effect on people of color</a> and often leave them feeling wounded. Some of these wounds include increased rates of <a href="https://www.webmd.com/mental-health/what-is-hypervigilance#:%7E:text=Hypervigilance%20%E2%80%94%20the%20elevated%20state%20of,a%20wide%20variety%20of%20incidents.">hypervigilance</a>, <a href="https://www.ptsd.va.gov/understand/related/depression_trauma.asp#:%7E:text=Depression%20often%20occurs%20after%20trauma,depression%20are%20often%20seen%20together.">depression</a>, <a href="https://adaa.org/understanding-anxiety/trauma">anxiety</a>, <a href="https://www.ptsd.va.gov/publications/rq_docs/V32N1.pdf">post-traumatic stress disorder</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2007.00540.x">low self-esteem</a>.</p>
<p>During our research, we interviewed a 29-year-old Black woman who grew up in a lower-middle-class neighborhood near Detroit. She attend predominantly white private schools and went on to become the first in her family to graduate from college and later earn a master’s degree in counseling. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Two women are sitting at a table and one of them is using a pencil to take take notes." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518819/original/file-20230331-18-ohzuti.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518819/original/file-20230331-18-ohzuti.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518819/original/file-20230331-18-ohzuti.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518819/original/file-20230331-18-ohzuti.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518819/original/file-20230331-18-ohzuti.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518819/original/file-20230331-18-ohzuti.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518819/original/file-20230331-18-ohzuti.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A Black social worker listens to a client.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/social-worker-meeting-a-client-royalty-free-image/532120326?phrase=black%20social%20workers&adppopup=true">Silvia Jansen/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But when she started her first full-time job, she noticed that it was dominated by white males in a work environment where the voices of people of color were not regularly heard. For instance, the woman told us that during staff meetings she was often ignored, except on rare occasions when issues of race were discussed.</p>
<p>As a result, the woman explained that she felt that she was devalued and began to feel anxious, sad and hopeless. Her self-esteem also suffered. </p>
<h2>How to heal</h2>
<p>Healing from racialized trauma is possible. </p>
<p>Yet current incidents of social injustice combined with centuries of violence, poverty, undereducation, mass incarceration, family dysfunction and health disparities have made it difficult for some Black people to maintain hope, a necessary element in undertaking the work to overcome this trauma. </p>
<p>Nevertheless, by learning new ways of thinking and coping, it is possible to find hope and overcome the wounds of racialized trauma. </p>
<p>Based on research and nearly 20 years of clinical experience, we have found tangible tools to address these wounds in five holistic ways.</p>
<p>As we write in “<a href="https://www.routledge.com/Black-Lives-Are-Beautiful-50-Tools-to-Heal-from-Trauma-and-Promote-Positive/Steele-Newton/p/book/9781032117423">Black Lives are Beautiful</a>,” a first step is identifying and understanding the psychological impacts of racialized trauma, as well as knowledge of strategies for wellness. </p>
<p>A second step in healing is the active promotion of higher self-esteem. </p>
<p>In our research, we learned that affirming one’s personal strengths and replacing negative beliefs can help individuals deal with racialized trauma. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A Black man looks hopeful as he sits near a window and looks outside." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/548165/original/file-20230913-29-nf968m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/548165/original/file-20230913-29-nf968m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548165/original/file-20230913-29-nf968m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548165/original/file-20230913-29-nf968m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548165/original/file-20230913-29-nf968m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548165/original/file-20230913-29-nf968m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548165/original/file-20230913-29-nf968m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Boosting self-confidence is one way to minimize the impact of racialiized trauma.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/thoughtful-young-man-looking-through-window-royalty-free-image/1170998728?phrase=black+man&adppopup=true">Klaus Vedfelt/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The third is developing resilience. Tenacity during adversity is important. The ability to bounce back and persevere can come from connecting with individuals, family and community.</p>
<p>For some Black people, this work is especially powerful, as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/11752-000">research indicates</a> that spending time engaged in activities that focus on cultural strengths can increase feelings of personal control and lead to higher self-esteem. </p>
<p>The fourth way is to promote empowerment. Finding strength in one’s personal choices is fundamental to achieving a higher self-image. Those choices could include supporting Black-owned businesses, attending cultural events and developing a strategy to gain financial independence. </p>
<p>The last way of healing is found in promoting a sense of community. By doing so, an individual can increase a sense of belonging and counter the feelings of isolation triggered by racialized trauma.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/209179/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Char Newton does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Whether experienced directly or indirectly, racial incidents can trigger numerous psychological impacts on Black people, including lower self-esteem and anxiety.
Char Newton, Clinical Assistant Professor, University of North Dakota
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/211256
2023-08-15T23:36:58Z
2023-08-15T23:36:58Z
What we get wrong about self-esteem: It’s built through actions, not words
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542377/original/file-20230811-15-h052af.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=180%2C27%2C5421%2C3773&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">People want quick fixes, but unfortunately, building healthy, realistic, and stable self-esteem isn't that simple.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Pexels/Moose Photos)</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/what-we-get-wrong-about-self-esteem-its-built-through-actions-not-words" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>Self-esteem is the sense of value we have for ourselves. It’s how we perceive ourselves: whether we think we are worthy and competent, whether we think we belong, whether we like ourselves.</p>
<p>There’s an entire wellness <a href="https://www.thecut.com/2017/05/self-esteem-grit-do-they-really-help.html">industry dedicated to improving self-esteem</a>, but it often gets things wrong. Standing in front of a mirror and saying “I’m awesome” probably isn’t going to make you feel better about yourself, because <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2005.00371.x">self-esteem can be explicit or implicit</a>, and how you consciously think about yourself might not align with how you unconsciously feel about yourself. </p>
<p>People want quick fixes, but unfortunately, building healthy, realistic and stable self-esteem isn’t that simple. </p>
<h2>More than high or low</h2>
<p>Self-esteem is often described as high or low: either we like ourselves and are confident in our abilities (high self-esteem) or we don’t (low self-esteem). </p>
<p>Level of self-esteem is an important measure. Low self-esteem has been linked with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167298246009">depression</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.102.2.297">eating disorders</a> and high self-esteem has been linked with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.65.6.1190">defensiveness</a>, <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40064223">aggression</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2005.00371.x">narcissism</a>. </p>
<p>There is also a link between <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.83.1.185">happiness and self-esteem</a>, but <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1529-1006.01431">more research is needed to determine if self-esteem causes happiness, or vice versa, or if they are just likely to co-occur</a>. However, the level of your self-esteem may be less important than its stability. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A father helping his daughter with homework at the kitchen table" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542896/original/file-20230815-21-yijw9t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542896/original/file-20230815-21-yijw9t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542896/original/file-20230815-21-yijw9t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542896/original/file-20230815-21-yijw9t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542896/original/file-20230815-21-yijw9t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542896/original/file-20230815-21-yijw9t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542896/original/file-20230815-21-yijw9t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Telling your child ‘Wow, you worked so hard on this!’ instead of ‘Wow, you’re so smart!’ puts the focus on effort.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Often, people have unstable self-esteem because they make their value dependent on something. This is called <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.130.3.392">contingent self-worth</a>. <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20183024">Basing your self-esteem on things like this is volatile</a> because mistakes or failures then become threats to your self-worth rather than opportunities to learn and grow. </p>
<p>People may make their self-worth contingent on things like productivity, religious approval, intelligence, relationships, or body shape or fitness. But what happens if you act immorally, fail a test or gain some weight? Things like relationships and health require lifelong maintenance, which means self-esteem based on success in these areas will constantly be in jeopardy (and therefore unstable). Unsurprisingly, <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20183024">contingent self-esteem has negative effects on mental health</a>.</p>
<h2>Self-esteem is off the scale, but is it stable?</h2>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000122">North Americans’ self-esteem is skyrocketing</a>. From 1988 to 2008, self-esteem scores in middle school, high school and college students have increased significantly. Out of a possible 40 on the <a href="https://www.apa.org/obesity-guideline/rosenberg-self-esteem.pdf">Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale</a> (RSE), 11- to 13-year-olds’ scores rose to 32.74 from 28.90, 14- to 17-year-olds’ scores rose to 31.84 from 29.86, and college students’ scores rose to 33.37 from 31.83. </p>
<p>By 2008, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019919">the most common RSE score for college students was 40, with nearly one in five college students scoring perfect self-esteem. More than half of college students scored over 35</a>. Most North Americans now have high, but not necessarily stable, self-esteem. </p>
<p>Studies show well-meaning attempts to bolster self-esteem in schools by complimenting intelligence actually impedes academic performance. When students are complimented on intelligence, they tend to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.75.1.33">focus on performance rather than learning, have extrinsic motivation for grades rather than intrinsic motivation for knowledge, and consider intelligence a fixed trait rather than something they can improve</a>, all of which is detrimental to learning. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Cropped image of a row of students writing an exam" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542894/original/file-20230815-19-riwsl7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542894/original/file-20230815-19-riwsl7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542894/original/file-20230815-19-riwsl7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542894/original/file-20230815-19-riwsl7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542894/original/file-20230815-19-riwsl7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542894/original/file-20230815-19-riwsl7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542894/original/file-20230815-19-riwsl7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Focusing on performance increases stress, anxiety and academic problems, not success.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Focusing on performance increases stress, anxiety and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167203029006003">academic problems</a>, not success. <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20183024">Losing intrinsic motivation</a> makes people feel less in control and more resentful. Finally, having self-esteem contingent on intelligence, while believing intelligence is a fixed trait, morphs mistakes, failures or challenging material into threats to self-worth.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.130.3.392">When self-esteem is threatened</a>, those with unstable self-esteem may feel worthless and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1984.tb00349.x">give up to protect themselves from feelings of failure, or they may blindly persist</a> to try to reaffirm their self-worth through success (even if their approach isn’t working, takes longer or takes more work). </p>
<p>Both strategies are unproductive. The more effective approach would be to reassess the problem and approach it from a different angle. </p>
<p>In short, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1529-1006.01431">self-esteem doesn’t boost good grades, good grades boost self-esteem</a>. Similarly, high self-esteem doesn’t make someone a better leader, better <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.95.3.608">romantic partner</a>, or more liked. </p>
<p>People with high self-esteem may think they are more popular and well-liked, but those with contingent high self-esteem, are usually perceived as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167205277206">unsupportive and unlikable</a> (which makes sense if they consider relationships a means to bolster their self-esteem). Just as with grades, social acceptance seems to boost self-esteem, not the opposite. </p>
<p>In other words, self-esteem isn’t a cure-all. Even the most confident, attractive, intelligent people experience relationship breakups, job loss and anxiety. </p>
<p>So, how do we develop healthy, stable self-esteem? By focusing on effort. </p>
<h2>Effort versus results</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Students walking and chatting on campus" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542852/original/file-20230815-25-j4mqiq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542852/original/file-20230815-25-j4mqiq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=395&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542852/original/file-20230815-25-j4mqiq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=395&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542852/original/file-20230815-25-j4mqiq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=395&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542852/original/file-20230815-25-j4mqiq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542852/original/file-20230815-25-j4mqiq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542852/original/file-20230815-25-j4mqiq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Encouraging kids to work hard, be curious and appreciate the results of their efforts means they’ll have a realistic sense of their abilities.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It’s impossible for us all to be exceptional and outperform our peers. By assuming those things, we set ourselves up for constant blows to our self-esteem. Instead, we can try to base self-esteem on doing better, not being better. Behaving in ways that align with our goals, and giving ourselves something to be proud of, will develop <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167203029006003">self-esteem that isn’t contingent on results</a> or others’ opinions. </p>
<p>For example, if your self-esteem is currently contingent on relationships, try focusing on how kind or helpful your actions are, rather than how liked you are. If your self-esteem is contingent on productivity, try focusing less on how much you get done and more on the impact of what you get done.</p>
<p>When building self-esteem in others, this means complimenting their efforts, not their results. For example, telling your child “Wow, you worked so hard on this!” or “Wow, you’re learning so much!” instead of “Wow, you’re so smart!” Kids can’t control how smart they are, and they’ll never excel at every subject, so those things shouldn’t define their self-worth. The same goes for adults.</p>
<p>Encouraging kids to work hard, be curious and appreciate the results of their efforts helps them build self-competence and belonging. This gives them a realistic sense of their abilities and an appreciation for their relationship to others.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/211256/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Simon Sherry receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. He also owns CRUX Psychology, a private practice in psychology.</span></em></p>
We often think of self-esteem as either high or low, but the level of your self-esteem might be less important than the stability of your self-esteem.
Simon Sherry, Clinical Psychologist and Professor in the Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Dalhousie University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/206170
2023-06-07T12:25:05Z
2023-06-07T12:25:05Z
Mounting research documents the harmful effects of social media use on mental health, including body image and development of eating disorders
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529888/original/file-20230602-15-ynda6h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=8%2C8%2C5742%2C3819&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The hours spent – and the content viewed – by teens on social media can lead to depression, anxiety and body image issues.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/cell-phone-break-up-royalty-free-image/483933372?phrase=upset+teenager+on+phone&adppopup=true">Mixmike/E+via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Media influences and conventional beauty standards have long plagued society. </p>
<p>This issue took on new urgency in May 2023 when the <a href="https://www.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/sg-youth-mental-health-social-media-advisory.pdf">U.S. surgeon general issued a major public advisory</a> over the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/05/23/health/surgeon-general-social-media-mental-health.html">links between social media and youth mental health</a>. </p>
<p>Research shows that images of beauty as depicted in movies, television and magazines <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.103.4.836">can lead to mental illness</a>, issues with disordered eating and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fpch%2F8.5.287">body image dissatisfaction</a>. </p>
<p>These trends have been documented <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.134.3.460">in women</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2008.27.3.279">and men</a>, in the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2018.10.096">LGBTQ+ community</a> and in <a href="https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/striped/wp-content/uploads/sites/1267/2022/10/Real-Cost-of-Beauty-Report-10-4-22.pdf">people of different racial</a> and ethnic backgrounds. </p>
<p>Experts have long suspected that social media may be playing a role in the growing <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/04/23/health/mental-health-crisis-teens.html">mental health crisis in young people</a>. However, the surgeon general’s warning is one of the first <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/05/23/health/surgeon-general-social-media-mental-health.html">public warnings supported by robust research</a>.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/yj60GRxHRa8?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The U.S. surgeon general says the youth mental health crisis is the ‘defining public health challenge of our time.’</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Social media can be toxic</h2>
<p>Body dissatisfaction among children and adolescents is commonplace and <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffpsyg.2023.1037932">has been linked to</a> decreased quality of life, worsened mood and unhealthy eating habits. </p>
<p>As an <a href="https://som.cuanschutz.edu/Profiles/Faculty/Profile/29092">eating disorder and anxiety specialist</a>, I regularly work with clients who experience eating disorder symptoms, self-esteem issues and anxiety <a href="https://news.cuanschutz.edu/news-stories/how-does-social-media-affect-our-mental-health">related to social media</a>. </p>
<p>I also <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(23)00116-5">have firsthand experience with this topic</a>: I am 15 years post-recovery from an eating disorder, and I grew up when people were beginning to widely use social media. In my view, the impact of social media on diet and exercise patterns needs to be further researched to inform future policy directions, school programming and therapeutic treatment. </p>
<p>The mental health of adolescents and teens has been <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/nchhstp/dear_colleague/2020/dcl-102320-YRBS-2009-2019-report.html">declining for the past decade</a>, and the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.psychres.2023.115082">COVID-19 pandemic contributed to worsening youth mental health</a> and brought it into the spotlight. As the mental health crisis surges, researchers have been taking a <a href="https://cuanschutz360.buzzsprout.com/1991131/10641970-how-does-social-media-affect-our-mental-health">close look at the role of social media</a> in these increasing mental health concerns.</p>
<h2>The pros and cons of social media</h2>
<p>About 95% of children and adolescents in the U.S. between the ages of 10 and 17 are <a href="https://www.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/sg-youth-mental-health-social-media-advisory.pdf">using social media almost constantly</a>.</p>
<p>Research has shown that <a href="https://www.commonsensemedia.org/sites/default/files/research/report/2021-coping-with-covid19-full-report.pdf">social media can be beneficial</a> for finding <a href="https://doi.org/10.2196/26011">community support</a>. However, studies have also shown that the use of social media contributes to social comparisons, unrealistic expectations and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2019.2325">negative mental health effects</a>. </p>
<p>In addition, those who have <a href="https://www.apa.org/topics/social-media-internet/health-advisory-adolescent-social-media-use.pdf">preexisting mental health conditions</a> tend to spend more time on social media. People in that category are more likely to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444817694499">self-objectify</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eatbeh.2012.06.003">internalize the thin body ideal</a>. Women and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgph.0001091">people with preexisting body image concerns</a> are more likely to feel worse about their bodies and themselves after they spend time on social media.</p>
<h2>A breeding ground for eating disorders</h2>
<p>A recent review found that, as with mass media, the use of social media is a risk factor for <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgph.0001091">the development of an eating disorder</a>, body image dissatisfaction and disordered eating. In this review, social media use was shown to contribute to negative self-esteem, social comparisons, decreased emotional regulation and idealized self-presentation that negatively influenced body image.</p>
<p>Another study, called the <a href="https://www.dove.com/us/en/stories/campaigns/social-media-and-body-image.html">Dove Self-Esteem Project</a>, published in April 2023, found that 9 in 10 children and adolescents ages 10 to 17 are exposed to toxic beauty content on social media and 1 in 2 say that this has an impact on their mental health. </p>
<p>Eating disorders are <a href="https://theconversation.com/eating-disorders-among-teens-have-more-than-doubled-during-the-covid-19-pandemic-heres-what-to-watch-for-201067">complex mental illnesses</a> that develop because of biological, social and psychological factors. Eating disorder hospitalizations and the need for treatment have dramatically <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2022.4346">increased during the pandemic</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.34913">Some reasons for this</a> include isolation, food scarcity, boredom and <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1139261">social media content</a> related to weight gain, such as the “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2021.04.002">quarantine15</a>.” That was a reference to the weight gain some people were experiencing at the beginning of the pandemic, similar to the “freshman 15” belief that one will gain 15 pounds in the first year of college. Many teens whose routines were disrupted by the pandemic turned to eating disorder behaviors for <a href="https://doi.org/10.2196/26011">an often-false sense of control</a> or were influenced by family members who held unhealthy beliefs around food and exercise. </p>
<p>Researchers have also found that increased time at home during the pandemic <a href="https://www.luriechildrens.org/en/blog/social-media-parenting-statistics/">led to more social media use by young people</a> and therefore more exposure to toxic body image and dieting social media content. </p>
<p>While social media alone will not cause eating disorders, <a href="https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/striped/wp-content/uploads/sites/1267/2022/10/Real-Cost-of-Beauty-Report-10-4-22.pdf">societal beliefs about beauty</a>, which are amplified by social media, can contribute to the development of eating disorders. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/VN6st_4_FDg?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">According to a report from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 42% of high school students say they feel ‘persistently sad’ and ‘hopeless.’</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>‘Thinspo’ and ‘fitspo’</h2>
<p>Toxic beauty standards online include the normalization of cosmetic and surgical procedures and pro-eating-disorder content, which promotes and romanticizes eating disorders. For instance, social media sites have promoted trends such as “thinspo,” which is focused on the thin ideal, and “fitspo,” which perpetuates the belief of there being a perfect body that can be achieved with dieting, supplements and excessive exercise.</p>
<p>Research has shown that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s40337-019-0246-2">social media content encouraging “clean eating</a>” or dieting through pseudoscientific claims can lead to obsessive behavior around dietary patterns. These unfounded “wellness” posts <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105659">can lead to weight cycling, yo-yo dieting</a>, chronic stress, body dissatisfaction and higher likelihood of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444818821064">muscular and thin-ideal internalization</a>.</p>
<p>Some social media posts feature <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18042186">pro-eating-disorder content</a>, which directly or indirectly encourages disordered eating. Other posts promote deliberate manipulation of one’s body, using harmful quotes such as “nothing tastes as good as thin feels.” These posts provide a false sense of connection, allowing users to bond over a shared goal of losing weight, altering one’s appearance and continuing patterns of disordered eating. </p>
<p>While young people <a href="https://www.dove.com/us/en/stories/campaigns/real-cost-of-beauty/thestats.html">can often recognize and understand</a> toxic beauty advice’s effects on their self-esteem, they may still continue to engage with this content. This is in part because friends, influencers and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2022.03.007">social media algorithms</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-012-9898-9">encourage people</a> to follow certain accounts. </p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/XvM8hqoHXkI?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Not all teens are on social media.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>How policy changes could help</h2>
<p><a href="https://scrippsnews.com/stories/legislators-target-social-media-to-combat-eating-disorders/">Legislators across the U.S.</a> are proposing different <a href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/health/new-state-laws-aim-to-tackle-surge-in-eating-disorders">regulations for social media sites</a>. </p>
<p>Policy recommendations include increased transparency from social media companies, creation of higher standards of <a href="https://www.apa.org/topics/social-media-internet/health-advisory-adolescent-social-media-use?">privacy for children’s data</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0098858819849990">possible tax incentives and social responsibility initiatives</a> that would discourage companies and marketers from using altered photos.</p>
<h2>Phone-free zones</h2>
<p>Small steps at home to cut down on social media consumption can also make a difference. Parents and caregivers can <a href="https://www.luriechildrens.org/en/blog/social-media-parenting-statistics/">create phone-free periods</a> for the family. Examples of this include putting phones away while the family watches a movie together or during mealtimes. </p>
<p>Adults can also help by modeling healthy social media behaviors and encouraging children and adolescents to focus <a href="https://www.dove.com/us/en/dove-self-esteem-project/help-for-parents/social-media/social-media-filters.html">on building connections and engaging in valued activities</a>. </p>
<p>Mindful social media consumption is another helpful approach. This requires recognizing what one is feeling during social media scrolling. If spending time on social media makes you feel worse about yourself or seems to be causing mood changes in your child, it may be time to change how you or your child interact with social media.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/206170/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Emily Hemendinger does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Research shows that social media, with it endless promotion of unrealistic standards of beauty, has had a negative impact on millions of young people.
Emily Hemendinger, Assistant Professor of Psychiatry, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/206479
2023-05-31T12:38:25Z
2023-05-31T12:38:25Z
How the sounds of ‘Succession’ shred the grandeur and respect the characters so desperately try to project
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528918/original/file-20230529-25-6xjh0a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=376%2C0%2C913%2C669&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">While the Roy siblings are shielded by their wealth, the show's music chips away at their armor.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://static01.nyt.com/images/2023/05/21/arts/21succession/21succession-superJumbo.jpg">Macall Polay/HBO</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>HBO’s “<a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt7660850/">Succession</a>” delivered its grand finale on May 28, 2023 – the climax of four award-packed seasons of searing put-downs, nihilistic humor and desperate power plays. </p>
<p>The show tells the story of ailing media tycoon Logan Roy and his four horrid children who aim to inherit his empire. I loved it because it rendered despicable people in power as human – funny, pathetic, capable of deep feeling – without once trying to redeem them.</p>
<p><a href="https://music.berkeley.edu/people/delia-casadei/">But as a music historian</a>, I will miss the series’ use of music and sound the most. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/05/25/arts/television/succession-soundtrack-classical-music.html">As many critics have noticed</a>, one of the series’ best elements is its soundtrack, which is as complex and propulsive as the drama it accompanies.</p>
<p>To me, the show’s clever sound design, combined with composer <a href="https://www.imdb.com/name/nm1615109/">Nicholas Britell’s</a> gleefully dark score, reflects a level of emotional sophistication that is unrivaled on television. </p>
<p><audio preload="metadata" controls="controls" data-duration="93" data-image="" data-title="The theme song for 'Succession,' composed by Nicholas Britell" data-size="1488813" data-source="YouTube/HBO" data-source-url="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=77PsqaWzwG0" data-license="" data-license-url="">
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The theme song for ‘Succession,’ composed by Nicholas Britell.
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=77PsqaWzwG0">YouTube/HBO</a><span class="download"><span>1.42 MB</span> <a target="_blank" href="https://cdn.theconversation.com/audio/2816/937bb330-fe5b-11ed-a833-79192378bba5.mp3">(download)</a></span></span>
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<h2>Corrupting classical music</h2>
<p>Most contemporary political dramas are about corruption, and music is great at progressively turning something seemingly wholesome into something sour. </p>
<p>Traditionally, this is done by adding <a href="https://sites.tufts.edu/markdevoto/files/2015/10/Chromaticism.pdf">chromaticism</a> – the black keys of the piano keyboard – into the chords and melody, which produces a sense of darkening and dissonance. But these days, anything sounding weird – an off-beat rhythm, an unexpected sound – can do the trick. It is the composer’s skill in layering the strangeness into the music that makes the difference. </p>
<p>Britell <a href="https://youtu.be/X0WzqanwlG0?t=216">has described</a> being inspired by European late-18th century music. And the theme of “Succession” does draw from a couple of unmemorable bars from Beethoven’s “<a href="https://youtu.be/SrcOcKYQX3c?t=139">Pathétique Sonata</a>,” slowed down and with a few changed notes. </p>
<p>However, I’d say the theme song’s soundworld is closer to the opening dance of Sergei Prokofiev’s 1935 ballet “<a href="https://youtu.be/u3r5I9RolCA?t=101">Romeo and Juliet</a>” or Sergei Rachmaninov’s <a href="https://youtu.be/L1D-EQNTZWI?t=15">famous 1892 piano prelude in C Sharp minor</a>: big romantic pieces that swing between bass notes and thick block chords like the batter of a church bell.</p>
<p>But Britell then adds details that work in outlandish tension with the romantic musical language he’s adopted.</p>
<p>For example, the piano that plays the theme song is audibly out of tune. That’s no accident. Meanwhile, the melody, which is in a high register, awkwardly tries, but ultimately fails, to squirm its way to a brighter key. Throughout the show, there are a lot of reality-show-style pans to the faces of characters saying things like “I am excited.” This is their music.</p>
<p>The rhythm is littered by small dissonant accents in the upper register of the piano that sound like a fun-house version of the “low battery” sound on a cellphone. The effect is alarming – and oddly befitting of the topic of a corrupt media conglomerate.</p>
<p>Lastly, Britell is a hip-hop beat maker and layers the theme song with a cheesy 1990s synthesizer beat. This adds bounce, and a smirk, to the romantic broodiness of the chords and melody. </p>
<p>In his very 21st-century way, Britell festoons earnest Romantic music with details that gleefully desecrate it, bringing viewers right into the psychological dynamics of the show’s protagonists: a hunger for power, accompanied by levels of self-loathing that vacillate between comedy and tragedy.</p>
<h2>Brood too much and the effect is lost</h2>
<p>For comparison, “<a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1856010/">House of Cards</a>,” which follows a crooked politician’s quest for the U.S. presidency, and “<a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt4236770/">Yellowstone</a>,” which tells the story of a Montana landowning family’s mission to ward off developers, Indigenous leaders and environmental activists, also attempt to convey a grim mood and crookedness in their music. </p>
<p>Both shows have rightly garnered attention and praise. Yet they, unlike “Succession,” have, in my view, underwhelming scores.</p>
<p><audio preload="metadata" controls="controls" data-duration="96" data-image="" data-title="The title theme for 'House of Cards,' composed by Jeff Beal." data-size="1537197" data-source="YouTube/Simon" data-source-url="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9w-O60x1bYk" data-license="" data-license-url="">
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The title theme for ‘House of Cards,’ composed by Jeff Beal.
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<p>Their theme songs are symphonic, which befits the grandeur of the topic and obscene privilege of the characters; tunes are carried in the deeper, lower range, rather than the more customary bright, high register. Both theme songs make heavy use of the lower strings of violas, cellos and double basses, which further darken the sonic palette. </p>
<p><audio preload="metadata" controls="controls" data-duration="62" data-image="" data-title="The title theme for 'Yellowstone,' composed by Brian Tyler." data-size="996970" data-source="YouTube/EndtheProject" data-source-url="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1WOgBtFnZmY" data-license="" data-license-url="">
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The title theme for ‘Yellowstone,’ composed by Brian Tyler.
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<p>The composers also make an effort to signal corruption through momentarily dissonant chords or notes. At the end of the opening credits of “House of Cards,” you can hear it <a href="https://youtu.be/9w-O60x1bYk?t=70">in the twang of the electric guitar</a>. And in “Yellowstone,” Tyler uses <a href="https://sites.tufts.edu/markdevoto/files/2015/10/Chromaticism.pdf">chromaticism</a> to <a href="https://youtu.be/1WOgBtFnZmY?t=23">decorate the melody</a>. </p>
<p>These tricks, however, don’t quite land. </p>
<p>In order for the stain of corruption to stand out, musically and otherwise, it has to operate against a relatively clean background. The scores for both “House of Cards” and “Yellowstone” are already dark and twisty to begin with, which makes the “staining” effect harder to pull off. </p>
<p>This is where Britell’s astute ways of combining brightness and darkness in “Succession’s” music make all the difference.</p>
<h2>Hearing what the characters hear</h2>
<p>The unusual sound design in “Succession” also unveiled the series’ psychological complexity.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.nfi.edu/sound-design/">Sound design</a> indicates the ways in which all sounds, from noises to dialogue and music, are mixed into the soundtrack.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.vulture.com/article/succession-recap-series-premiere-season-1-episode-1-celebration.html">In the pilot episode</a>, viewers meet Kendall Roy, an eminently slappable finance bro and heir apparent to his father’s company. He’s being chauffeured to a business meeting, and he’s bouncing in the back seat to the Beastie Boys’ “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ny6hwUOFvlw">An Open Letter to New York</a>.” </p>
<p>It’s utterly cringeworthy: a wealthy white dude using hip-hop as emotional fluffing. </p>
<p>The Beastie Boys, as Britell and the showrunners must know, <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/popular-music/article/abs/beastie-boys-jews-in-whiteface/ECA1F2EFFF95A757B7F70A9A2B183921">have been criticized</a> for being white Jewish musicians parading as white working-class boys aping, in turn, Black hip-hop artists. At first the Beastie Boys blare out on the soundtrack; seconds later, their music disappears into Kendall’s headphones, and viewers hear his whiny voice rapping the lyrics. </p>
<p>Suddenly, we suspect he might hate himself more than we already do. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1327611127342231554"}"></div></p>
<p>Film scholar <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/15053054">Claudia Gorbman</a> first theorized the effect toyed with here by “Succession’s” award-winning sound designers, <a href="https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0003635/">Nicholas Renbeck</a> and <a href="https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0471397/">Andy Kris</a>.</p>
<p>Gorbman highlights the distinction between “diegetic music” – music playing in the background, say, at a party, or ambient sounds, like cutlery and crockery – that can be heard by the characters in the film, and “<a href="https://www.backstage.com/magazine/article/diegetic-vs-non-diegetic-sound-guide-75566/">non-diegetic music</a>,” which is music heard only by the film’s audience and not by the characters. </p>
<p>The balance between these two kinds of music and sounds creates the psychological setup for the story: Diegetic implies that the characters’ world is not quite the audience’s own. Non-diegetic, on the other hand, implies that the filmmakers are conveying the characters’ emotions to the audience, like when the music comes in as two romantic leads share a kiss. </p>
<p>The switch from non-diegetic to diegetic in Kendall’s entrance gives viewers a sense that they are spying on his fragile self-delusion. He is slippery, tweaky, unknown – even to himself.</p>
<h2>Haunted by water</h2>
<p>Britell’s music, and the show’s use of diegetic and non-diegetic sound, may be one of the reasons why, even four seasons in, that none of the show’s fans could confidently anticipate who would succeed the family’s patriarch.</p>
<p>The series that begins with Kendall fittingly ends with him, too, as he walks, in a daze, along the Hudson River. The non-diegetic theme song plays in the background one last time. Then, for a brief moment – before a hard cut to a black screen – the sound goes diegetic: Viewers hear, with Kendall, the sound of the river flowing.</p>
<p>It’s a shocking moment. The show’s sound designers <a href="https://www.asoundeffect.com/succession-sound/">deliberately avoided ambient noises</a> so as to show how the Roy siblings are too privileged and too busy scheming to notice their surroundings. </p>
<p>The moment Kendall hears the Hudson, everyone understands – first by ear, then by sight – that this story is over.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/206479/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Delia Casadei does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Composer Nicholas Britell festoons earnest Romantic music with sounds that gleefully desecrate it, underscoring the show’s emotional core: a lust for power joined by immense self-loathing.
Delia Casadei, Assistant Professor of Music, University of California, Berkeley
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/201637
2023-03-21T12:42:31Z
2023-03-21T12:42:31Z
A friend who’s more boss than BFF may be harmful for teens’ mental health
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516461/original/file-20230320-16-ty260l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=172%2C0%2C4710%2C3325&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">If one friend is always the boss, the other friend may suffer.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/gYdjZzXNWlg">Priscilla Du Preez/Unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/research-brief-83231">Research Brief</a> is a short take about interesting academic work.</em> </p>
<h2>The big idea</h2>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-023-01763-0">Teens with domineering friends</a> are at heightened risk for mental health problems, according to our new research.</p>
<p>Dominant friends often harness decision-making power – for instance, dictating which classmates their friends should follow on Instagram. They can also exert behavioral control, like by making the subordinate friend go to a party they don’t want to attend.</p>
<p>Friendships are extremely <a href="https://www.guilford.com/books/Friendships-in-Childhood-and-Adolescence/Bagwell-Schmidt/9781462509607">important relationships</a> for teens, but are they always a positive influence? <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=6Y0_gc8AAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">We are</a> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=N7WXzdgAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">psychology</a> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=1uXnTt4AAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">researchers</a> interested in the potential psychological consequences of having dominant friends. We suspected that being part of this kind of friendship with a peer might make adolescents feel worthless or distressed.</p>
<p>To investigate, we surveyed 388 adolescents at U.S. high schools five times across one year. Each time, we asked our teen participants to answer questions about their close friends’ dominating behaviors: Do they make all the decisions? Do they always get their way?</p>
<p>Consistent with our predictions, we found that when adolescents felt powerless in their close friendships – like their friends always “called the shots” – they experienced lower self-esteem and more symptoms of depression or anxiety.</p>
<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p>Adolescence is a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrn2513">high-risk time</a> for the onset of psychological disorders; rates of depression and anxiety tend to rise during the teenage years. Supportive and equitable friendships can <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/family/archive/2020/01/friendship-crucial-adolescent-brain/605638/">positively affect teen mental health</a>, but our new research reveals a potential dark side to some close friendships.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516463/original/file-20230320-16-56u3zj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="two young men joking with each other" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516463/original/file-20230320-16-56u3zj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516463/original/file-20230320-16-56u3zj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516463/original/file-20230320-16-56u3zj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516463/original/file-20230320-16-56u3zj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516463/original/file-20230320-16-56u3zj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516463/original/file-20230320-16-56u3zj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516463/original/file-20230320-16-56u3zj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Teens might need help recognizing the downsides of a lopsided friendship.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/YmPKoZgIVbM">whereslugo/Unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
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<p>Although some teens might be OK going with the flow and letting their friends take the reins, our study found some of the first evidence that this kind of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-023-01763-0">unequal relationship can be psychologically harmful</a>. Healthy friendships should offer both partners opportunities to have a say and make decisions.</p>
<p>Our findings suggest that it’s important to teach teens how to establish healthy, equitable friendships. One friend shouldn’t consistently feel bossed around or powerless. Also, adolescents may benefit from receiving help in developing effective communication tools for asserting their wants and needs to their close friends. </p>
<h2>What still isn’t known</h2>
<p>There is still a lot to learn about how power dynamics in friendships affect teen mental health. For example, is it better to have dominant friends than no friends at all? Does having several supportive friends negate the harm of having one dominant friend? And are there reasons some teens might be more likely than others to end up in these lopsided friendships? For example, it’s possible that personality plays a role, with more introverted teens gravitating toward more assertive peers, and vice versa.</p>
<p>We also need to learn more about the best ways to effectively intervene. Many programs are designed to promote <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2021.08.008">healthy teen romantic relationships</a>, but far fewer address healthy teen friendships. Recognizing that friendships are not unequivocally protective is an important first step in helping teens reap their benefits and avoid their costs.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/201637/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hannah L. Schacter received funding for this work from the Society for Research in Child Development and Wayne State University. She is currently funded by the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD). </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Adam Hoffman received funding for this work from the Society for Research in Child Development.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alexandra Ehrhardt does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Friendships are important, but are they always healthy? New research finds that teens who feel dominated by their friends experience lower self-esteem and more symptoms of anxiety and depression.
Hannah L. Schacter, Assistant Professor of Psychology, Wayne State University
Adam Hoffman, Assistant Professor of Psychology, Cornell University
Alexandra Ehrhardt, Ph.D. Candidate in Psychology, Wayne State University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/188322
2022-08-16T16:41:40Z
2022-08-16T16:41:40Z
Procrastinating is linked to health and career problems – but there are things you can do to stop
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/479349/original/file-20220816-25-vlxids.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=33%2C0%2C4459%2C2964&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Procrastination is an all-too-common problem</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/teenage-girl-listening-music-looking-her-1008197395">Yulia Grigoryeva/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Do you ever beat yourself up for procrastinating? You might be composing that message to a friend who you have to let down, or writing a big report for school or work, and doing your best to avoid it but deep down knowing you should just get on with it. </p>
<p>Unfortunately, telling yourself off won’t stop you procrastinating again. In fact, it’s one of the worst things you can do. This matters because, as my research shows, procrastination isn’t just a time-sapper but is actually linked to real problems. </p>
<p>Procrastination is not a result of laziness or poor time management. Scientific studies suggest procrastination is due to <a href="https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/spc3.12011">poor mood management</a>. </p>
<p>This makes sense if we consider that people are more likely to put off starting or completing tasks that they <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0191886999000914">feel aversion towards</a>. If just thinking about the task makes you anxious or threatens your sense of self-worth, you will be more likely to put it off.</p>
<p>Research has found that <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/psyp.13782">regions of the brain</a> linked to threat detection and emotion regulation are different in people who chronically procrastinate compared to those who don’t procrastinate frequently. </p>
<p>When we avoid the unpleasant task, we also avoid the negative emotions associated with it. This is <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.609874/full">rewarding</a> and conditions us to use procrastination to repair our mood. If we engage in more enjoyable tasks instead, we get another mood boost. </p>
<p>Tasks that are emotionally loaded or difficult, such as studying for an exam, or preparing for public speaking are prime candidates for procrastination. People with <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12144-021-02075-x">low self-esteem</a> are more likely to procrastinate as are those with <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/per.2098">high levels of perfectionism</a> who worry their work will be judged harshly by others. If you don’t finish that report or complete those home repairs, then what you did can’t be evaluated. </p>
<p>But <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4899-0227-6_7">guilt and shame</a> often linger when people try to distract themselves with <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0747563215004343">more pleasant activities</a>. </p>
<p>In the long run, procrastination isn’t an effective way of managing emotions. The mood repair you experience is temporary. Afterwards, people tend to engage in <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2002-10572-023">self-critical ruminations</a> that not only increase their negative mood, but also reinforce their tendency to procrastinate. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Women stares at laptop with her face in her hands" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/479351/original/file-20220816-5614-zqcgvx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/479351/original/file-20220816-5614-zqcgvx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479351/original/file-20220816-5614-zqcgvx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479351/original/file-20220816-5614-zqcgvx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479351/original/file-20220816-5614-zqcgvx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479351/original/file-20220816-5614-zqcgvx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/479351/original/file-20220816-5614-zqcgvx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">We put off tasks because they feel overwhelming.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/bored-young-african-american-girl-tired-1444225961">fizkes/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>How is procrastination harmful?</h2>
<p>So why is this such a problem? When most people think of the costs of procrastination, they think of the toll on productivity. For example, studies have shown that academic procrastination <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/european-psychiatry/article/academic-procrastination-in-university-students-associated-factors-and-impact-on-academic-performance/D230B8D2D670DC7C2884294A274A08B5">negatively impacts student performance</a>. </p>
<p>But academic procrastination may affect other areas of students’ lives. <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/10.1080/03075079.2013.854765">In one study</a> of over 3,000 German students over a six month period, those who reported procrastinating on their academic work were also more likely to engage in academic misconduct, such as cheating and plagiarism. But the behaviour procrastination was most closely linked with was using fraudulent excuses to get deadline extensions. </p>
<p>Other research shows employees on average spend almost a <a href="https://www.humanresourcesonline.net/how-much-time-are-your-employees-spending-procrastinating">quarter of their workday procrastinating</a>, and again this is linked with worse outcomes. <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ijsa.12048">In one US survey of over 22,000 employees</a>, participants who said they regularly procrastinated had lower annual incomes and less job stability. For every one-point increase on a measure of chronic procrastination, salary decreased by US$15,000 (£12,450).</p>
<p>Procrastination also correlates with serious <a href="https://www.elsevier.com/books/procrastination-health-and-well-being/sirois/978-0-12-802862-9">health and wellbeing</a> problems. A tendency to procrastinate is linked to poor mental health, including higher <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10942-017-0271-5">levels of depression and anxiety</a>.</p>
<p>Across numerous studies, I’ve found people who regularly procrastinate report a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0191886902003264">greater number of health issues</a>, such as headaches, flu and colds, and digestive issues. They also experience <a href="https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/91791/1/Procrastination%20and%20self%20compassion%20rev2%20FINAL.pdf">higher levels of stress</a> and <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/23311908.2015.1074776#:%7E:text=Research%20to%20date%2C%20testing%20the%20procrastination%E2%80%93health%20model%20%28Sirois%2C,health%20problems%20and%20behaviors%20that%20included%20sleep-related%20outcomes">poor sleep quality</a>. </p>
<p>They were less likely to practice <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0191886906004454">healthy behaviours</a>, such as eating a healthy diet and regularly exercising, and use <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1002/per.1985?journalCode=erpa">destructive coping strategies</a> to manage their stress. In one study of over 700 people, I found people prone to procrastination had a 63% greater risk of <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10865-015-9629-2">poor heart health</a> after accounting for other personality traits and demographics. </p>
<h2>How to stop procrastinating</h2>
<p>Learning not to procrastinate isn’t going to solve all your problems. But finding <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.780675/full">better ways to regulate your emotions</a> could be a route to improving your mental health and wellbeing.</p>
<p>An important first step is to manage your environment and how you view the task. There are a number of <a href="https://www.waterstones.com/book/procrastination/fuschia-m-sirois/9781433838064">evidence-based strategies</a> that can help you quarantine <a href="https://bpspsychub.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bjso.12243">distractions</a>, and set up your tasks so they <a href="https://theconversation.com/working-from-home-here-are-five-ways-to-reduce-procrastination-and-be-productive-133636">provoke less anxiety and feel more meaningful</a>. For example, reminding yourself why the task is important and valuable to you can increase your positive feelings towards it. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0191886910000474">Forgiving yourself</a> and <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15298868.2013.763404?journalCode=psai20">showing yourself compassion</a> when you procrastinate can help break the procrastination cycle. Admit you feel bad without judging yourself. Remind yourself that you’re not the first person to procrastinate, and you won’t be the last.</p>
<p>Doing this can take the edge off the negative feelings we have about ourselves when we procrastinate. This can make it easier to get <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0146167212445599?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%20%200pubmed">back on track</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/188322/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Fuschia Sirois does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Understanding the why of procrastination is key to breaking the habit.
Fuschia Sirois, Professor in Social & Health Psychology, Durham University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/164676
2022-07-28T12:23:35Z
2022-07-28T12:23:35Z
Women are better at statistics than they think
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/413758/original/file-20210729-25-1fao6bt.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=60%2C0%2C6720%2C4466&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Undergraduate students at the University of Nebraska Omaha collaborate on a group assignment for a STEM course.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Derrick Nero, University of Nebraska Omaha</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/research-brief-83231">Research Brief</a> is a short take about interesting academic work.</em></p>
<h2>The big idea</h2>
<p>Women in statistics classes do better academically than men over a semester despite having more negative attitudes regarding their own abilities, according to our recent study in the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/26939169.2022.2093805">Journal of Statistics and Data Science Education</a>. </p>
<p>Using data from more than 100 male and female students from multiple statistics classes, <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=p35egd0AAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">my colleague</a> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=2NQw3F0AAAAJ&hl=en">and I</a> assessed gender differences in grades over the course of a semester. As part of the study, students also answered surveys at the start and end of the semester that measured six different things: their fear of statistics teachers in general; their thoughts about the usefulness of statistics; their perceptions of their own mathematical ability; their anxiety in taking tests; their anxiety in interpreting statistics; and their fear of asking for help.</p>
<p>Overall, we found that students with more negative perceptions of their own mathematical ability had lower grades over the course of the semester. What’s even more interesting are the gender differences that emerged.</p>
<p>Even though men and women scored similarly on exams at the start of the semester, women finished the semester with almost 10% higher final exam grades. This was the case even though women had significantly worse attitudes about their mathematical abilities at the start of the semester than their male counterparts.</p>
<p>At the beginning of the semester specifically, women were more likely to rate their mathematical abilities as lower than men in the class and report more anxiety toward exams and toward interpreting statistical findings. However, each of these self-assessments improved over the course of the semester such that women’s attitudes didn’t differ from men’s by the end. </p>
<p>Meanwhile, the grades of male students who reported fear of statistics teachers or fear of asking for help decreased more sharply over the course of the semester. For men whose attitudes improved during the semester, grades also improved – though not as much as women’s grades improved.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/475718/original/file-20220723-16881-vx6abm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="line graph showing association of fear of asking for help and grades among men and women over the course of a semester" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/475718/original/file-20220723-16881-vx6abm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/475718/original/file-20220723-16881-vx6abm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=199&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475718/original/file-20220723-16881-vx6abm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=199&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475718/original/file-20220723-16881-vx6abm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=199&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475718/original/file-20220723-16881-vx6abm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=250&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475718/original/file-20220723-16881-vx6abm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=250&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475718/original/file-20220723-16881-vx6abm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=250&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Figure reflecting the effect of fear of asking for help and its change over time among women and men. Average grades decreased overall across the semester, likely because of coursework getting more challenging over time.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jonathan Santo</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p>A number of studies have shown that from an early age, <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-moment-youth/201912/learning-math-are-boys-better-girls">boys and girls learn math equally well</a>. </p>
<p>However, <a href="https://www.nber.org/papers/w20909">girls are less likely to be called on</a> in math classes than boys, even when they raise their hands as much as boys do. Moreover, some teachers unconsciously <a href="https://www.nber.org/papers/w20909">grade girls’ math tests more harshly than boys’</a>. By middle school, gender differences in math scores emerge. These factors may contribute to adult women’s being more likely to rate themselves <a href="https://knowledge.wharton.upenn.edu/article/gender-gap-mathematics-achievement/">as less mathematically skilled than men</a>. As a result, <a href="https://www.wgu.edu/blog/why-are-there-so-few-women-in-stem1907.html">women are also less likely to pursue STEM</a> – science, technology, engineering and math – occupations.</p>
<p>The results from our study, <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/1165255.pdf">in line with others</a>, bolster the notion that women have the potential to do as well as men, and even better, in STEM fields, such as statistics. We contend that <a href="https://thehill.com/changing-america/enrichment/education/557138-why-girls-are-better-at-math-but-dont-get-stem-jobs">women would benefit from additional mentoring</a> to encourage them as they begin pursuing STEM-related education.</p>
<h2>What still isn’t known</h2>
<p>The evidence above provides hints at some of the causes of the gender discrepancy in perceived ability. However, there is much we still don’t know.</p>
<p>For example, why did the attitudes of the women in our study improve over time? Was it based on their confidence in their abilities as their grades improved, or did their statistics teachers influence their perception of their own abilities over time? </p>
<p>More research is needed to understand exactly how women differed from men in their attitudes over the course of the school semester, among other questions. In particular, we’d like to disentangle exactly which classroom or instructor factors can lead to better attitudes among students, ultimately translating to better grades.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/164676/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jonathan B. Santo received funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) of Canada and Fonds Québécois de la Recherche Sur la Société et la Culture (FQRSC). He is a member of the Society for Research in Child Development and the International Society for the Study of Behavioral Development.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kelly Rhea MacArthur does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Female statistics students had higher final exam grades than their male peers, even though they had less confidence in their statistics abilities at the start of the semester.
Jonathan B. Santo, Professor of Psychology, University of Nebraska Omaha
Kelly Rhea MacArthur, Associate Professor of Sociology, University of Nebraska Omaha
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/182463
2022-05-26T13:20:35Z
2022-05-26T13:20:35Z
Ghanaian women in dance reality show challenge stereotypes about obesity
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/464300/original/file-20220519-13-a76q75.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Participants of the popular "Di Asa" show in competition. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia Commons</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Since the debut of <a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/2949828.stm">Big Brother Africa</a> in South Africa in 2003, reality television shows have become a common feature on television stations across the continent. They have helped the development of a host of television stations in the wake of the democratisation of the airwaves in the 1990s. This paved the way for private individuals or entrepreneurs to own television stations, creating an environment of competition for viewership. </p>
<p>The phenomenon of reality television has not been without criticism. </p>
<p>Some scholars <a href="https://academicworks.cuny.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1013&context=ho_pubs">argue</a> that the shows, particularly those that focus on obese individuals, objectify and – even worse – ridicule them for their body type and size. Other scholars on the continent, such as the famed Nobel prize winning author Wole Soyinka, <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0163443707081691">are of the view</a> that reality television shows offer nothing of value to Africans. </p>
<p>These criticisms haven’t dampened demand or supply. Shows range from music to dance, cooking, weight loss as well as cultural education and promotion reality shows. </p>
<p>Shows like <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt15302054/">Young, Famous, & African</a>, and <a href="https://www.dstv.com/mzansimagic/en-za/show/date-my-family">Date my Family</a> are among the most popular reality shows engaging Africans on the continent and globally. Examples in Ghana include <a href="https://thebftonline.com/tag/ghanas-most-beautiful/">Ghana’s Most Beautiful</a>, a reality show that showcases the cultural values of the 16 regions of Ghana. </p>
<p>Missing in the various debates about reality shows has been the views of the participants. We sought to fill this gap by engaging with participants in a dance reality show in Ghana called <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6Zhztnj-y8s">Di Asa (Just Dance)</a>. The show was designed exclusively for obese, low-income market women. </p>
<p>Our <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02589001.2022.2048808">findings</a> show that the women viewed their experiences as positive because they derived some benefit from participating in the show. They also had positive feelings about their size which they said they were using to their advantage with the help of family and friends. </p>
<p>The findings also indicate that television shows like Di Asa are not necessarily one-sided, seeking to exploit and shame the participants. They also challenge the notion that reality television is unAfrican, by demonstrating how family and friends supported participants targeting the ultimate prize in the show.</p>
<h2>The show</h2>
<p>The Di Asa reality show was <a href="https://diasa.show/">created</a> in 2017 by a relatively small Ghanaian media company, Atinka Media Village. It is privately owned with a TV station, radio stations, and an online presence. Atinka Media Village targets the Twi (one of the country’s major local languages) speaking population of Ghana. </p>
<p>The maiden edition began with auditions in markets around the country in which contestants were required to dance to earn their spot on the show.</p>
<p>What makes the show unique is the body size of the contestants. It only features obese women who compete for prizes based on their dancing ability. </p>
<p>The show became <a href="https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/entertainment/2017-RTP-Awards-Full-list-of-winners-595135">popular</a> in a short period of time, winning the TV reality show of the year in 2017.</p>
<p>It is the first show in Ghana to feature plus size women. </p>
<p>In many African <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3869529/">contexts</a>, an overweight woman can be viewed favourably in terms of body size preference. However, there are limits beyond which a woman’s body size becomes socially <a href="https://www.scirp.org/html/100062_100062.htm">unacceptable</a>. In Ghana, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27313998/">derogatory terms</a> like “obolo” and “cargo” are used for individuals deemed to have crossed the limits of the “acceptable” body size. These words also carry the perception that plus size women are lazy and physically inactive. </p>
<p>The maiden edition of the show shocked Ghanaian viewers due to the unusual body sizes presented on television. </p>
<h2>What we found</h2>
<p>We drew on interviews with 19 of the final 20 participants in the very first season of <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6Zhztnj-y8s">Di Asa</a> which run for 13 episodes.<br>
The participants were aged between 20 and 59.</p>
<p>The goal of the show was to identify the best female dancer out of a group of obese dancers. Evictions were carried out weekly using public votes. </p>
<p>The prizes at stake were a car for the winner, a mini truck for the person coming second and a motorised tricycle for the third. </p>
<p>Most of the women we interviewed said they had found participating in the show beneficial in ways that went beyond winning the top three prizes. </p>
<p>First was the fact that they earned an income. All the participants received the equivalent of US$50 for each week they remained on the show. This was a substantial amount given that a petty trader at the market doesn’t, on average, make that much. </p>
<p>The participants also received a range of products from the companies that sponsored the show. These included noodles, herbal energy drinks and cocoa products. </p>
<p>Most of the women said that they had become fitter due to their participation. The final set of participants had a trainer who worked with them routinely. They also had doctors discussing healthy eating options with them. </p>
<p>Financial management skills was another benefit from participation in the show. This was especially important given that most of the participants traded for a living and could parlay the lessons learnt from training sessions into growing and expanding their businesses. </p>
<p>Above all, the women became recognisable faces in their neighbourhoods and enjoyed the “celebrity” status that came with this. This boosted their self-esteem, something they all remarked on in the context of the body shaming that takes place in Ghana, including name calling.</p>
<p>Participating in the show also opened up new job opportunities. Some of the women were invited to dance at events for a fee, one had created a YouTube channel while others had been approached by advertising firms. </p>
<p>The owner of the TV station that sponsored the show also offered some employment opportunities in the pharmaceutical company he owned.</p>
<p>Given the advantages associated with participation in the show, friends and family members of the women were actively involved in their participation. In a number of cases women said they’d been alerted to the opportunity of participating in the show by family members or friends. Some went as far as to provide financial support to cover registration and participation. </p>
<p>In other cases family members and friends supported the women by campaigning for them and providing financial resources for people to vote for their contestant. </p>
<h2>Conclusions</h2>
<p>Our study shows that the participants of this particular show do not view it as a fat shaming exercise.</p>
<p>Rather, they saw it as providing them with opportunities such as making money and becoming celebrities that they otherwise would not have had. Hence the general support for auditioning and participation that they got from all and sundry.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/182463/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Akosua Keseboa Darkwah received funding from Mellon Foundation for this study</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rashida Resario received funding from Mellon Foundation for this study</span></em></p>
Obese persons are regularly associated with laziness and inactivity in Ghanaian society.
Akosua Keseboa Darkwah, Associate Professor of Sociology, University of Ghana
Rashida Resario, Lecturer, Theatre Arts, University of Ghana
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/182173
2022-05-16T13:58:22Z
2022-05-16T13:58:22Z
‘You can’t even talk English, so don’t talk!’ How linguistic racism impacts immigrants in the UK
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463286/original/file-20220516-21-re3mf5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">From the playground to the workplace, people from immigrant communities in the UK say accent-based racism impacts their daily lives.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/serious-african-american-young-businesswoman-hold-1613072614">fizkes | Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When Holan Liang was 17, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2022/feb/19/to-be-happy-you-have-to-feel-you-belong">she spent her holidays</a> working at her father’s computer parts company. In her <a href="https://guardianbookshop.com/a-sense-of-belonging-9781a780724683">recent book</a>, A Sense of Belonging: How to Find Your Way in a Fractured World, Liang, now a psychiatrist, recounts the racist ways in which customers would respond to her family’s Chinese roots. </p>
<p>Her father, who had a PhD in hydraulic engineering, was called “a useless Chinaman” who “can’t speak a bloody word of English”. Liang points out that he actually could speak fluent English, but did so with an accent and some grammatical errors because English was his second language.</p>
<p>What Liang’s family experienced – discrimination due to accent, dialect or speech patterns – is called <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13670050.2020.1783638">linguistic racism</a> or <a href="https://theconversation.com/ask-or-aks-how-linguistic-prejudice-perpetuates-inequality-175839">linguicism</a>. It is directed at people who speak in ways considered to be non-standard or “foreign-sounding”. It is not based on the proficiency or intelligibility of a language speaker, but rather on their accent and verbal delivery. </p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/accentism-is-alive-and-well-and-it-doesnt-only-affect-the-north-of-england-148825">Accentism</a> sees people suffer comments and ridicule for regional accents and dialects. But as an extension of racism, linguistic racism in the UK centres whiteness by deeming any so-called non-standard ways of speaking English to be abnormal and inferior. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Secondary-school pupils in uniform walk out of school grounds." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463283/original/file-20220516-11-rj350l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463283/original/file-20220516-11-rj350l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=418&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463283/original/file-20220516-11-rj350l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=418&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463283/original/file-20220516-11-rj350l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=418&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463283/original/file-20220516-11-rj350l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=525&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463283/original/file-20220516-11-rj350l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=525&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463283/original/file-20220516-11-rj350l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=525&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Young people from immigrant communities report being ostracized and bullied for their accents.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/london-uk-0309-secondary-school-pupils-1933374749">Yau Ming Low | Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Impact on family relationships</h2>
<p>Our respective doctoral research projects, which focus on Zimbabwean and South Asian communities in the UK, show that bilingual immigrants suffer from linguistic racism, due to their English accents <a href="https://aclanthology.org/2020.cllrd-1.7.pdf">being influenced</a> by their mother tongue and the community’s particular speech patterns.</p>
<p>We have found that this discrimination can affect their access to education, employment and social opportunities. It also impacts their self-esteem, resilience and efficacy.</p>
<p>Christine researches young people within the Zimbabwean community, who have reported experiencing playground bullying, mocking and exclusion from peer social groups at school, due to linguistic racism. “At the beginning, it was rough,” one participant in the research said. “I had a different accent to everyone else and hadn’t caught the London accent so people would try to pick on me, and no-one wanted to hang out with me.”</p>
<p>Young people described how linguistic racism impacted their self-esteem and sense of belonging, leading some to become ashamed of their ethnic identity. For some this in turn affected their relationships with their parents, often due to resentment of their heavy foreign accents. </p>
<p>One girl said of her mother, “When she does talk English, her accent is annoying. You know like, a person’s who’s got a really strong Zimbabwean accent, trying to talk in English? It annoys me, actually aggravates me. I don’t even want her to talk to my friends, because she’s embarrassing, because she just tries to talk and be all normal with them, in English, and it’s just like ‘Mum, you can’t even talk English, so don’t talk!’” </p>
<p>Other participants said they would avoid being seen in public with their parents or try to prevent them attending school events. </p>
<h2>Impact on access to opportunities</h2>
<p>Zanib has interviewed south Asian-heritage Muslim women at Apna Haq, a Rotherham-based charity. Most of the women reported facing accent-based microaggressions daily, despite many being proficient English speakers, born and raised in the UK. </p>
<p>One interviewee reported an incident in a library, where a stranger mockingly shouted out, “You talk Bud-Bud English!” “Bud-Bud” is a derogatory term that supposedly mimics south Asian accents. </p>
<p>This type of interaction led the women to experience feelings of deep shame and a loss of confidence in speaking English publicly. This limited their engagement with social and professional opportunities. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A woman in a pink headscarf talks on the phone as a woman in a blue headscarf looks on." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463274/original/file-20220516-20-omcus7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/463274/original/file-20220516-20-omcus7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463274/original/file-20220516-20-omcus7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463274/original/file-20220516-20-omcus7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463274/original/file-20220516-20-omcus7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463274/original/file-20220516-20-omcus7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/463274/original/file-20220516-20-omcus7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Women in South Asian communities in the UK have spoken about how accent bias impacts job opportunities and social interactions.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/muslim-business-woman-on-phone-over-740839630">UfaBizPhoto | Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In 2020, sociolinguists at Queen Mary University of London conducted research into the effect of <a href="https://accentbiasbritain.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Accent-Bias-Britain-Report-2020.pdf">accentism and linguistic racism in job recruitment</a>. They found that this discrimination affects interviewer perceptions of candidate suitability for particular occupations. </p>
<p>They also found that candidates’ success at interview was disproportionately lower the further their accents were from received pronunciation, regardless of how strong their qualifications, skills or interview proficiency were. This mainly affected non-white candidates. </p>
<p>France set a positive example in 2020, when it passed <a href="https://la1ere.francetvinfo.fr/glottophobie-la-discrimination-par-l-accent-sera-desormais-sanctionnee-par-le-code-penal-et-le-code-du-travail-896872.html">a ground-breaking law</a> banning what French sociolinguist Philippe Blanchet terms <a href="https://theconversation.com/la-glottophobie-ou-la-langue-comme-outil-de-discrimination-53345">“glottophobie”</a>, racism based on regional or foreign accent. The new law attracts a <a href="https://www.thelocal.fr/20201127/france-approves-law-banning-discrimination-based-on-a-persons-accent/">maximum penalty</a> of three years’ imprisonment and €45,000 fine. </p>
<p>Unfortunately, in the UK, there is little clarity on linguistic racism within the Equalities Act (2010), and therefore no real protection. Unchallenged, linguicism endures as a pretext for perpetuating racism under the radar.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/182173/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Zanib Rasool was a community researcher on the University of Sheffield Imagine project that received Arts and Humanities Research Council /Economic and Social Research Council (AHRC/ESRC) funding.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Christine Makuve does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Non-standard ways of speaking are often deemed inferior, affecting schooling, social lives and job prospects.
Zanib Rasool, Doctoral Researcher in Education, University of Sheffield
Christine Makuve, Doctoral Researcher in Social Anthropology, The University of Edinburgh
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/178645
2022-03-14T18:56:59Z
2022-03-14T18:56:59Z
Men think they’re brighter than they are and women underestimate their IQ. Why?
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/450861/original/file-20220309-2144-1oix4kf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C21%2C7076%2C4689&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>When asked to estimate their own intelligence, most people will say they are <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illusory_superiority">above average</a>, even though this is a statistical improbability. This is a normal, healthy cognitive bias and extends to any socially desirable trait such as <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0146167211432763">honesty, driving ability and so on</a>. This pattern is so common that it’s known as “<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illusory_superiority">the above-average effect</a>”.</p>
<p>In a <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.812483/full">recent study</a>, my colleagues and I explored how consistently men and women estimated their own intelligence or IQ (intelligence quotient). We also assessed measures of general self-esteem and masculine and feminine personality traits. </p>
<p>We found the strongest predictors of overestimating IQ were biological sex and then psychological gender. Being born male and having strong masculine traits (both men and women) were associated with an inflated intellectual self-image. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/you-can-do-it-a-growth-mindset-helps-us-learn-127710">You can do it! A 'growth mindset' helps us learn</a>
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<h2>Male hubris, female humility</h2>
<p>Despite people’s overall tendency to overestimate their own intelligence, individuals vary. Some doubt their intellectual ability while others greatly overestimate their talents. In general, though, when asked to estimate their IQ, men think they’re significantly brighter than they are, while women’s estimates are far more modest. </p>
<p>Our findings are consistent with those of other studies. Psychologist Adrian Furnham has termed this effect the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223906403_Male_hubris_and_female_humility_A_crosscultural_study_of_ratings_of_self_parental_and_sibling_multiple_intelligence_in_America_Britain_and_Japan">male hubris, female humility problem</a>. It’s true of many cultures. </p>
<p>Why do men see themselves as so much brighter, while women consistently underestimate their intelligence?</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/understanding-emotions-is-nearly-as-important-as-iq-for-students-academic-success-131212">Understanding emotions is nearly as important as IQ for students' academic success</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>There are no gender differences in actual IQ</h2>
<p>Psychology and intelligence researchers are unequivocal: men and women do not differ in actual IQ. There is no “smarter sex”. However, it was only with the development of objective measures of assessing intelligence that this notion was invalidated. </p>
<p>Historically, women were believed to be intellectually inferior as they had slightly smaller skulls. By the same logic, an elephant’s intelligence dwarfs ours! Bigger is not necessarily better when it comes to brain size.</p>
<p>In the past century, <a href="https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2019/07/women-equally-more-competent">gender stereotypes have changed greatly</a>. Today, when asked explicitly, most people will agree men and women are equally intelligent. Overt endorsements of gender stereotypes about intelligence are rare in most countries.</p>
<p>But there is quite a difference in implicit beliefs about gender and intellect. Covert and indirect endorsement can still be widely seen. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Old black and white photo of man looking at a women in a superior way" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/450863/original/file-20220309-20-18pneu9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/450863/original/file-20220309-20-18pneu9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=475&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/450863/original/file-20220309-20-18pneu9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=475&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/450863/original/file-20220309-20-18pneu9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=475&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/450863/original/file-20220309-20-18pneu9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=597&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/450863/original/file-20220309-20-18pneu9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=597&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/450863/original/file-20220309-20-18pneu9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=597&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In the past, men were openly declared to be the ‘smarter sex’. Even today many people still implicitly accept this stereotype.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In a <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1018772830511">classic social psychology study</a>, researchers asked parents to estimate the intelligence of their children. Sons were rated significantly more intelligent than daughters. This finding has been replicated across the world. </p>
<p>Parental expectations may be particularly important in influencing their children’s intellectual self-image, and are also predictive of later academic achievement.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/youre-the-best-your-belief-in-your-kids-academic-ability-can-actually-improve-their-grades-161881">'You're the best!' Your belief in your kids' academic ability can actually improve their grades</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p><a href="https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2016/01/self-esteem-gender">Gender differences in self-esteem</a> might also be an important factor, as people with higher self-esteem tend to see all aspects of their life (including intellectual ability) more positively. Girls and women rate their general self-esteem significantly lower than boys and men. This difference emerges early in adolescence. </p>
<h2>What did our study find?</h2>
<p>In <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.812483/full">our study</a>, we asked participants to estimate their IQ after briefing them on how intelligence is scored. The average score is 100 points. We showed participants that two-thirds (66%) of people score in the range between 85 and 115 points to give them a frame of reference for estimates. </p>
<p>Where our study differed is that we told participants they would complete an IQ test after estimating their own IQ. This would help counter false bragging and inflated estimates, and allow us to test the accuracy of the male and female self-estimates. </p>
<p>Participants also completed a measure of general self-esteem, and the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/Bem-Sex-Role-Inventory">Bem Sex-Role Inventory</a>, which measures masculine and feminine personality traits. We had a hypothesis that psychological gender (specifically masculinity) would be a better predictor of self-estimates than biological sex (male or female at birth). </p>
<p>Our sample reported a mean IQ score of 107.55 points. This was slightly above average, as expected. </p>
<p>First, we examined the accuracy of their judgments, as one possibility might simply be that one gender (males or females) had completely unrealistic estimates of ability. Looking at the lines plotting self-estimated IQ against actual IQ, we can see men and women in our sample were fairly consistent in their accuracy. The difference was that male scores (in blue) were more more often overestimates (above the line) and females scores (in green) were more often underestimates (below the line). </p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/450315/original/file-20220307-23-waidcb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/450315/original/file-20220307-23-waidcb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/450315/original/file-20220307-23-waidcb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=519&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/450315/original/file-20220307-23-waidcb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=519&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/450315/original/file-20220307-23-waidcb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=519&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/450315/original/file-20220307-23-waidcb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=652&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/450315/original/file-20220307-23-waidcb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=652&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/450315/original/file-20220307-23-waidcb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=652&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Scatterplot of the relationship between self-estimated and actual IQ, by gender (blue line is men, green is women).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>After statistically controlling for the effects of actual measured IQ, we next examined the strongest predictors of self-estimated intelligence. The results showed biological sex remained the strongest factor: males rated their intelligence as higher than females. However, psychological gender was also a very strong predictor, with highly masculine subjects rating their intelligence higher (importantly, there was no association with femininity). </p>
<p>There was also a strong contribution of general self-esteem to participants’ intellectual self-image. As noted above, males report higher self-esteem than females.</p>
<h2>Why does all this matter?</h2>
<p>Educational psychologists pay attention to intellectual self-image because it’s often a self-fulfilling prophecy: if you think you can’t, you won’t. </p>
<p>When girls undervalue their intelligence in school, they tend to choose less challenging course content – especially in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (the STEM subjects). These decisions limit their education and career choices after school. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/calling-all-parents-australias-future-female-scientists-need-your-support-now-89025">Calling all parents – Australia's future female scientists need your support now</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>These gender differences may in part explain the gender gap in wages and bargaining power with employers. </p>
<p>We need to lift girls’ aspirations if they are to go on to solve the complex problems our society faces, while achieving equal pay. It starts early with gendered parental expectations of intelligence, and differences in self-esteem between boys and girls. </p>
<p>Wouldn’t it be nice if, as parents, educators and a society, we could build the confidence of girls and young women to a level where they believe in themselves and are free of those doubts?</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/178645/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Reilly is a member of the American Psychological Association, and an Associate Member of the Australian Psychological Society. There was no external funding of this study, and no financial interests to declare.</span></em></p>
Intellectual self-image matters because it’s often a self-fulfilling prophecy: if you think you can’t, you won’t.
David Reilly, Researcher, School of Applied Psychology, Griffith University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/175786
2022-03-07T15:19:58Z
2022-03-07T15:19:58Z
Colourism: how skin-shade prejudice impacts black men in the UK
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/448094/original/file-20220223-17-1t6z5ut.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Experiencing skin-shade prejudice can impact on a person's self-confidence and their relationships.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/two-african-male-friends-talking-together-1616496982">AS photostudio | Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The Black Lives Matter movement, and the renewed focus on equality and social justice for black people that has come with it, has brought increasing attention to the issue of <a href="https://theconversation.com/colourism-how-shade-bias-perpetuates-prejudice-against-people-with-dark-skin-97149">colourism</a>. This form of prejudice privileges people of colour with lighter skin and discriminates against those with darker skin. </p>
<p>Prominent black public figures, including the British singers Alexandra Burke and Beverley Knight, have begun to share their experiences. In June 2020, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/music/2020/jun/20/alexandra-burke-says-she-was-told-to-bleach-skin-by-music-industry">Burke</a> spoke of how people in the music industry had told her to bleach her skin in order to succeed. That same year, <a href="https://www.itv.com/news/central/2020-07-22/singer-beverley-knight-on-her-rise-to-fame-when-she-didnt-look-like-everyone-else-in-the-charts">Knight told ITV News</a> that the music industry is keen “to market people who are perhaps a little lighter than I am because it’s seen as being more mass accepted”.</p>
<p>Few black men, however, have spoken out. Little research has been done on men’s experiences of colourism, and none, to our knowledge, in the UK specifically. To address this gap, for a <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/00380385211069507">recent study</a> we conducted in-depth interviews with nine men (eight of whom identified as black and one as mixed race) from January to July 2019. </p>
<p>We found that despite having been subjected to colourism, some men also perpetuate it. It impacts both their confidence in themselves and their ideas of who is attractive. </p>
<h2>Internalised hurt</h2>
<p>In our study, black and mixed-race men’s experiences of colourism seemed to be most pronounced during childhood and adolescence. It occurred within families at home and among peers at school. As a result, some of the men we spoke to had internalised negative ideas about darker skin shades, with lasting effects on self-confidence. </p>
<p>Terrence, 22, said that his oldest brother was lighter than him and “always used to make jokes” about their other brother’s dark skin. He said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>It would never be directed at me, but I just knew that I was darker than him. You’re left wondering if what you look like is the ideal.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The impact of his brother’s colourism was exacerbated by the jokes he was subjected to at school. Classmates would comment on both his skin shade and that of others with equally dark skin. </p>
<p>“It never really struck me deeply,” he said, “but sometimes you just look in the mirror and you’re like, ‘Wow, I am dark.’” He said that growing up, you just kind of internalise that idea that “lighter is brighter, lighter is better”. </p>
<p>This echoes studies among <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0095798417690054">black Americans</a> and among <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/19485565.2021.1991777?casa_token=AeJWdqa_giMAAAAA:FjNTmpGkKLlZ6DODP9TxsA1qHTalo9ibRD0cpRrtiNGqlMC7Q-M-OancEwfV46kF8px2Kshbe4II">Pakistani women</a> that show a negative correlation between internalised colourism and self-esteem. This underlines the global nature of the prejudice. </p>
<h2>Status symbol</h2>
<p>We found that being subjected to colourism did not necessarily stop men from perpetuating it. One man, Isaiah, said that when he was younger, he treated people who were dark differently. “I treated them less than … I treated them not as nice.” </p>
<p>What Isaiah is describing is internalised colourism, which is akin to <a href="https://theconversation.com/5-ways-to-address-internalized-white-supremacy-and-its-impact-on-health-152667">internalised</a> racism. Due to the <a href="https://theconversation.com/structural-racism-what-it-is-and-how-it-works-158822">structural</a> nature of racism, people of colour can perpetuate the prejudice to which they, themselves, are subjected. As Australian sociologist Adam Seet <a href="https://search.informit.org/doi/epdf/10.3316/informit.751970839227968">has put it</a>, they are in effect indoctrinated into holding racist beliefs about themselves and the group to which they belong.</p>
<p>So too with colourism. The men we spoke to said that being seen to have relationships with mixed-race women or black women with light skin conferred status on black men. As another man, Bilal, put it:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>With a lot of black men, you haven’t really made it or you’re not really successful until you have obtained a light-skinned or fair-complexioned woman … As a young boy growing up in London, if you’re with a pretty light-skin or mixed-race girl, you’ll get a slap on the back from your peers and people will be like, you’ve done well and you’ll feel a sense of accomplishment.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>In 2017, British journalists Kimberly McIntosh and Sophia Leonie <a href="https://gal-dem.com/yes-black-british-youth-are-obsessed-with-light-skin-and-curly-hair/">responded</a> to a viral video in which young black men had described how they preferred girls with light skin. For McIntosh, these boys were “reciting from the colonial scripture – beauty is measured in its inches from whiteness”.</p>
<p>This has harmful consequences. <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26505337">Research</a> in the US has shown how colourism leads to black women feeling less desired. As McIntosh put it, “If young black women internalise racialised beauty standards, it can spawn a debilitating self-hatred. Blocking out the messages of the fashion and cosmetic industries is hard enough. Being spurned by your own race is another burden dark-skinned black women just don’t need.” </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A group of women of different races in black sportswear." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/448118/original/file-20220223-19-1gf2myn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/448118/original/file-20220223-19-1gf2myn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/448118/original/file-20220223-19-1gf2myn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/448118/original/file-20220223-19-1gf2myn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/448118/original/file-20220223-19-1gf2myn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/448118/original/file-20220223-19-1gf2myn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/448118/original/file-20220223-19-1gf2myn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Men can hold prejudicial opinions about attractiveness in women based on skin shade.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/portrait-mixed-race-women-standing-together-1332846986">Jacob Lund | Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Pride and authenticity</h2>
<p>The men we spoke with highlighted the many privileges associated with light skin and, conversely, the prejudices against dark skin they themselves and others have experienced. Some, however, also argued that dark skin symbolised black authenticity. </p>
<p>For these interviewees, black skin was a source of pride. This fits with <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01419870601143992">Black antiracist aesthetics</a> that celebrate natural hair, dark skin and African features. One interviewee, Ekow, said that <a href="https://blackvoicenews.com/2015/04/10/black-skin-melanin-imparts-superiority-potential/">in Ghanaian culture</a>, the darker a person is, the more spiritual they are perceived to be. “I like my skin shade,” he said. “I love it.” </p>
<p>Different characteristics including skin shade, ethnicity and gender intersect and collectively affect a person’s experiences. Understanding how people of colour, and black and mixed-race men in particular, experience and perpetuate colourism – in all its complexity – is central to challenging it. </p>
<p>Black Lives Matter activists have been working to disrupt <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/socf.12540?saml_referrer">racist structures</a>. The narratives about the value of dark skin from some of our participants point to efforts to address colourism, which need to go hand in hand with efforts to address racism.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/175786/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Skin-shade prejudice can have a lasting impact both on people’s self-confidence and on who they in turn find attractive. Understanding how it works is key to resisting it.
Aisha Phoenix, Lecturer in Social Justice, King's College London
Nadia Craddock, Research fellow, University of the West of England
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/174009
2022-01-09T13:16:40Z
2022-01-09T13:16:40Z
How social media can crush your self-esteem
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/439352/original/file-20220104-15-1n279an.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=4%2C0%2C994%2C567&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Using social media increases our natural tendency to compare ourselves. How does this affect our well-being?</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>We all have a natural tendency to compare ourselves to others, whether intentionally or not, online or offline. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.76.1.129">Such comparisons help us evaluate our own achievements</a>, skills, personality and our emotions. This, in turn, influences how we see ourselves.</p>
<p>But what impact do these comparisons have on our well-being? It depends on how much comparing we do. </p>
<p>Comparing ourselves on social media to people who are worse off than we are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000204">makes us feel better</a>. Comparing ourselves to people who are doing better than us, however, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000204">makes us feel inferior or inadequate instead</a>. The social media platform we choose also affects our morale, as do crisis situations like the COVID-19 pandemic.</p>
<p>As a PhD student in psychology, I am studying incels — men who perceive the rejection of women as the cause of their involuntary celibacy. I believe that social comparison, which plays as much a role in these marginal groups as it does in the general population, affects our general well-being in the age of social media.</p>
<h2>An optimal level of comparison</h2>
<p>The degree of social comparison that individuals carry out is thought to affect the degree of motivation they have. According to a study by researchers at Ruhr University in Bochum, Germany, there is an <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000204">optimal level of perceived difference between the self and others</a> that maximizes the effects of social comparison.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A woman sitting on a sofa, holding a cell phone in one hand and holding her head in distress with the other." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/439759/original/file-20220106-23-1fjgtki.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/439759/original/file-20220106-23-1fjgtki.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439759/original/file-20220106-23-1fjgtki.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439759/original/file-20220106-23-1fjgtki.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439759/original/file-20220106-23-1fjgtki.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439759/original/file-20220106-23-1fjgtki.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439759/original/file-20220106-23-1fjgtki.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">When people compare themselves to others who appear to be better off, they feel inferior, disatisfied or inadequate.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Specifically, if we see ourselves as vastly superior to others, we will not be motivated to improve because we already feel that we are in a good position. Yet, if we perceive ourselves as very inferior, we will not be motivated to improve since the goal seems too difficult to achieve.</p>
<p>In other words, the researchers note, beyond or below the optimal level of perceived difference between oneself and another, a person no longer makes any effort. By perceiving oneself as inferior, the individual will experience negative emotions, guilt and lowered pride and self-esteem.</p>
<h2>Unrealistic comparisons on social media</h2>
<p>Social comparisons therefore have consequences both for our behaviour and for our psychological well-being. However, comparing yourself to others at a restaurant dinner does not necessarily have the same effect as comparing yourself to others on Facebook. It is easier to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1145/3313831.3376482">invent an exciting existence or embellish certain aspects of things on a social media platform than it is in real life</a>.</p>
<p>The advent of social media, which allows us to share content where we always appear in our best light, has led many researchers to consider the possibility that this amplifies unrealistic comparisons.</p>
<p>Research shows that the more time people spend on Facebook and Instagram, the more they compare themselves socially. This social comparison is linked, among other things, to lower self-esteem and higher social anxiety. </p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="A cartoon of a smiling woman on a social media post, but unhappy in real life." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/439760/original/file-20220106-25-1u9f04t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/439760/original/file-20220106-25-1u9f04t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=545&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439760/original/file-20220106-25-1u9f04t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=545&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439760/original/file-20220106-25-1u9f04t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=545&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439760/original/file-20220106-25-1u9f04t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=685&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439760/original/file-20220106-25-1u9f04t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=685&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439760/original/file-20220106-25-1u9f04t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=685&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Many people share only positive moments in their lives on social media.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A study conducted by researchers at the National University of Singapore <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305120912488">explains these results</a> by the fact that people generally present positive information about themselves on social media. They can also enhance their appearance by using filters, which create the impression that there is a big difference between themselves and others.</p>
<p>In turn, researchers working at Facebook observed that the more people looked at content where people were sharing positive aspects of their lives on the platform, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1145/3313831.3376482">the more likely they were to compare themselves to others</a>.</p>
<h2>COVID-19: Less negative social comparison</h2>
<p>However, could the effect of this comparison in a particularly stressful context like the COVID-19 pandemic be different?</p>
<p>A study from researchers at Kore University in Enna, Italy, showed that before lockdowns, high levels of online social comparison were associated with greater distress, loneliness and a less satisfying life. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110486">But this was no longer the case during lockdowns</a>.</p>
<p>One reason for this would be that by comparing themselves to others during the lockdown, people felt they were sharing the same difficult experience. That reduced the negative impact of social comparisons. So, comparing oneself to others online during difficult times can be a positive force for improving relationships and sharing feelings of fear and uncertainty.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Four female friends greeting each other on an online video call." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/439761/original/file-20220106-19-19r7g0x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/439761/original/file-20220106-19-19r7g0x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439761/original/file-20220106-19-19r7g0x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439761/original/file-20220106-19-19r7g0x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439761/original/file-20220106-19-19r7g0x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439761/original/file-20220106-19-19r7g0x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439761/original/file-20220106-19-19r7g0x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The shared difficult experiences of COVID-19 lockdowns reduced the negative impacts of social comparisons.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A different effect depending on the social media</h2>
<p>There are distinctions to be made depending on which social media platform a person is using. Researchers at the University of Lorraine, France, consider <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0248384">that social media platforms should not be all lumped together</a>.</p>
<p>For example, the use of Facebook and Instagram is associated with lower well-being, while Twitter is associated with more positive emotions and higher life satisfaction. One possible explanation: Facebook and Instagram are known to be places for positive self-presentation, unlike Twitter, where it is more appropriate to share one’s real opinions and emotions.</p>
<p>Trying to get social support on social media during the COVID-19 pandemic may reactivate negative emotions instead of releasing them, depending on which social media platform a person is using.</p>
<p>Many things motivate us to compare ourselves socially. Whether we like it or not, social media exposes us to more of those motivations. Depending on the type of content that is being shared, whether it is positive or negative, we tend to refer to it when we are self-evaluating. Sharing content that makes us feel good about ourselves and garners praise from others is nice, but you have to consider the effect of these posts on others.</p>
<p>Yet overall, I believe that sharing your difficulties in words, pictures or videos can still have positive effects and bring psychological benefits.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/174009/count.gif" alt="La Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sabrina Laplante ne travaille pas, ne conseille pas, ne possède pas de parts, ne reçoit pas de fonds d'une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n'a déclaré aucune autre affiliation que son organisme de recherche.</span></em></p>
Comparing ourselves to people who are worse off than we are on social media should make us feel better. The opposite is true.
Sabrina Laplante, Candidate au doctorat en psychologie, Université du Québec à Montréal (UQAM)
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/170796
2021-12-17T13:26:16Z
2021-12-17T13:26:16Z
The ‘runner’s high’ may result from molecules called cannabinoids – the body’s own version of THC and CBD
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/436228/original/file-20211207-172173-y26qwj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5220%2C3453&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Exercise spurs the release of the body's natural cannabinoids, which have myriad benefits for mental health and stress relief.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/running-along-road-at-sunrise-in-iceland-royalty-free-image/578633163?adppopup=true">Luca Sage/Stone via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Many people have experienced reductions in stress, pain and anxiety and sometimes even euphoria after exercise. What’s behind this so-called “runner’s high”? New research on the neuroscience of exercise may surprise you. </p>
<p>The “runner’s high” has long been attributed to <a href="https://doi.org/10.2519/jospt.1983.4.3.169">endorphins</a>. These are chemicals produced naturally in the body of humans and other animals after exercise and in response to pain or stress. </p>
<p>However, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1089/can.2021.0113">new research from my lab</a> summarizes nearly two decades of work on this topic. We found that exercise reliably increases levels of the body’s endocannabinoids – which are molecules that work to maintain balance in the brain and body – a process called “homeostasis.” This natural chemical boost may better explain some of the beneficial effects of exercise on brain and body. </p>
<p>I am a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=S9ykvZUAAAAJ&hl=en">neuroscientist</a> at the Wayne State University School of Medicine. <a href="https://wsuthinklab.mystrikingly.com/">My lab</a> studies brain development and mental health, as well as the role of the endocannabinoid system in stress regulation and anxiety disorders in children and adolescents. </p>
<p>This research has implications for everyone who exercises with the aim of reducing stress and should serve as a motivator for those who don’t regularly exercise. </p>
<h2>Health benefits of exercise</h2>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1097/HCO.0000000000000437">Several decades of research</a> has shown that exercise is beneficial for physical health. These studies find a consistent link between varying amounts of physical activity and reduced risk of <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2018-100393">premature death</a> and dozens of chronic health conditions, including <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10654-015-0056-z">diabetes</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-013-0065-6">hypertension</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jval.2018.06.020">cancer</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph9020391">heart disease</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="The marijuana plant cannabis." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/436203/original/file-20211207-19-7n3tp8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/436203/original/file-20211207-19-7n3tp8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436203/original/file-20211207-19-7n3tp8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436203/original/file-20211207-19-7n3tp8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436203/original/file-20211207-19-7n3tp8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436203/original/file-20211207-19-7n3tp8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436203/original/file-20211207-19-7n3tp8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">While cannabinoids are produced in cannabis, the marijuana plant, they are also made in the human body.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/background-texture-of-marijuana-plants-outdoor-royalty-free-image/1258024915?adppopup=true">Iuliia Bondar/Moment via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>More recently – over about the past <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2014.00066">two decades</a> – mounting research shows that exercise is also <a href="https://theconversation.com/swimming-gives-your-brain-a-boost-but-scientists-dont-know-yet-why-its-better-than-other-aerobic-activities-164297">highly beneficial for mental health</a>. In fact, regular exercise is associated with lower symptoms of anxiety, depression, Parkinson’s disease and other common mental health or <a href="https://doi.org/10.1159/000223730">neurological problems</a>. Consistent exercise <a href="https://doi.org/10.1159/000350946">is also linked to</a> better cognitive performance, improved mood, lower stress and higher self-esteem. </p>
<p>It is not yet clear what is behind these mental health boosts. We do know that exercise has a variety of effects on the brain, including raising <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/tp.2017.135">metabolism</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.3233/JAD-201456">blood flow</a>, promoting the formation of <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2018.00052">new brain cells</a> – a process called neurogenesis – and increasing the release of several chemicals in the brain. </p>
<p>Some of these chemicals are called neurotrophic factors, such as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1159/000223730">brain-derived neurotrophic factor</a>. BDNF is intricately involved in brain “plasticity,” or changes in activity of brain cells, including those related to <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2019.00363">learning and memory</a>.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/lk3mrNqhn24?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">From the Dana Foundation: “How Exercise Affects The Brain”</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Scientists have also shown that exercise increases blood levels of endorphins, one of the body’s natural opioids. Opioids are chemicals that work in the brain and have a variety of effects, including <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpain.2021.721357">helping to relieve pain</a>. Some <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhn013">early research</a> in the 1980s contributed to the long-standing popular belief that this endorphin release is related to the euphoric feeling known as the runner’s high. </p>
<p>However, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bjsm.2004.011718">scientists have</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1514996112">long questioned</a> the role of endorphins in the runner’s high sensation, in part because endorphins cannot cross into the brain through the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a020412">blood-brain barrier</a>, which protects the brain from toxins and pathogens. So endorphins are not likely to be the main driver for the beneficial effects of exercise on mood and mental state.</p>
<p>This is where our research and <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bjsm.2004.011718">that of others</a> points to the role of our body’s natural versions of cannabinoids, called endocannabinoids.</p>
<h2>The surprising role of endocannabinoids</h2>
<p>You <a href="https://www.healthline.com/health/cbd-vs-thc">may be familiar with</a> cannabinoids such as tetrahydrocannabinol – better known as THC – the psychoactive compound in cannabis (from the <em>Cannabis sativa L.</em> plant) that causes people to feel high. Or you may have heard of <a href="https://www.fda.gov/consumers/consumer-updates/what-you-need-know-and-what-were-working-find-out-about-products-containing-cannabis-or-cannabis">cannabidiol, commonly known as CBD, an extract of cannabis</a> that is infused in some foods, medicines, oils and many other products. </p>
<p>But many people do not realize that humans also create their own versions of these chemicals, called endocannabinoids. These are tiny molecules made of lipids – or fats – that circulate in the brain and body; “endo” refers to those produced in the body rather than from a plant or in a lab.</p>
<p>Endocannabinoids work on cannabinoid receptors <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0703472104">throughout the brain</a> and body. They cause a variety of effects, including pain relief, reduction of anxiety and stress and enhanced learning and memory. They also affect hunger, inflammation and <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fnpp.2017.130">immune functioning</a>. Endocannabinoid levels can be influenced by food, time of day, exercise, obesity, injury, inflammation and stress. </p>
<p>It’s worth noting that one should not be tempted to forgo a run or bike ride and resort to smoking or ingesting cannabis instead. Endocannabinoids lack the unwanted effects that come with getting high, such as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-006-0508-y">mental impairment</a>.</p>
<h2>Understanding the runner’s high</h2>
<p>Studies <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2021.105173">in humans</a> and in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1514996112">animal models</a> are pointing to endocannabinoids – not endorphins – as the star players in the runner’s high.</p>
<p>These elegant studies demonstrate that when opioid receptors are blocked – in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2021.105173">one example</a> by a drug called naltrexone – people still experienced euphoria and reduced pain and anxiety after exercise. On the flip side, the studies showed that blocking the effects of cannabinoid receptors reduced the beneficial effects of exercise on euphoria, pain and anxiety. </p>
<p>While <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mhpa.2020.100366">several studies</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-012-2495-5">have shown</a> that exercise increases the levels of endocannabinoids circulating in the blood, some have reported inconsistent findings, or that different endocannabinoids produce <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2018.00269">varying effects</a>. We also don’t know yet if all types of exercise, such as cycling, running or resistance exercise like weightlifting, produce similar results. And it is an open question whether people with and without preexisting health conditions like depression, PTSD or fibromyalgia experience the same endocannabinoid boosts.</p>
<p>To address these questions, an undergraduate student in my lab, Shreya Desai, led a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1089/can.2021.0113">systematic review and meta-analysis</a> of 33 published studies on the impact of exercise on endocannabinoid levels. We compared the effects of an “acute” exercise session – like going for a 30-minute run or cycle – with the effects of “chronic” programs, such as a 10-week running or weightlifting program. We separated them out because different levels and patterns of exertion could have very distinct effects on endocannabinoid responses.</p>
<p>We found that acute exercise consistently boosted endocannabinoid levels across studies. The effects were most consistent for a chemical messenger known as anandamide – the so-called <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1470919">“bliss” molecule</a>, which was named, in part, for its positive effects on mood.</p>
<p>Interestingly, we observed this exercise-related boost in endocannabinoids across different types of exercise, including running, swimming and weightlifting, and across individuals with and without preexisting health conditions. Although only a few studies looked at intensity and duration of exercise, it appears that moderate levels of exercise intensity – such as cycling or running – are more effective than lower-intensity exercise – like walking at slow speeds or low incline – when it comes to raising endocannabinoid levels. This suggests that it is important to keep your heart rate elevated – that is, between about 70% and 80% of age-adjusted maximum heart rate – for at least 30 minutes to reap the full benefits. </p>
<p>[<em>Over 140,000 readers rely on The Conversation’s newsletters to understand the world.</em> <a href="https://memberservices.theconversation.com/newsletters/?source=inline-140ksignup">Sign up today</a>.]</p>
<p>There are still a lot of questions about the links between endocannabinoids and beneficial effects from exercise. For example, we didn’t see consistent effects for how a chronic exercise regimen, such as a six-week cycling program, might affect resting endocannabinoid levels. Likewise, it isn’t yet clear what the minimum amount of exercise is to get a boost in endocannabinoids, and how long these compounds remain elevated after acute exercise. </p>
<p>Despite these open questions, these findings bring researchers one step closer to understanding how exercise benefits brain and body. And they offer an important motivator for making time for exercise during the rush of the holidays.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/170796/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dr. Marusak is funded, in part, by the National Institutes of Mental Health (K01MH119241).</span></em></p>
A growing body of research points to the body’s natural cannabinoid system as the primary driver behind the runner’s high – and the mental health boost and stress relief following exercise.
Hilary A. Marusak, Assistant Professor of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, Wayne State University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/168043
2021-09-16T18:22:25Z
2021-09-16T18:22:25Z
States sue Meta for knowingly hurting teens with Facebook and Instagram − here are the harms researchers have documented
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421642/original/file-20210916-27-1xq65r4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5499%2C3663&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Instagram's emphasis on filtered photos of bodies harms girls' self-image.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/teenage-friends-hanging-out-in-front-yard-on-summer-royalty-free-image/854140120">Thomas Barwick/DigitalVision via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Forty-one states and the District of Columbia <a href="https://www.wsj.com/tech/states-sue-meta-alleging-harm-to-young-people-on-instagram-facebook-f9ff4641">filed lawsuits against Meta</a> on Oct. 24, 2023, alleging that the company intentionally designed Facebook and Instagram with features that harm teens and young users. </p>
<p>Meta officials had internal research in March 2020 showing that Instagram – the social media platform <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2023/04/24/teens-and-social-media-key-findings-from-pew-research-center-surveys/">most used by adolescents</a> after TikTok – is harmful to teen girls’ body image and well-being. But the company swept those findings under the rug to continue conducting business as usual, according to a Sept. 14, 2021, <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/facebook-knows-instagram-is-toxic-for-teen-girls-company-documents-show-11631620739">Wall Street Journal report</a>. The report was based on documents provided by <a href="https://www.c-span.org/video/?515042-1/facebook-whistleblower-testifies-protecting-children-online">Facebook whistleblower Frances Haugen</a>.</p>
<p>Meta’s record of pursuing profits regardless of documented harm has sparked comparisons to Big Tobacco, which <a href="https://doi.org/10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2011-050338">knew in the 1950s that its products were carcinogenic</a> but publicly denied it into the 21st century. Those of us <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=tuYEhtgAAAAJ&hl=en">who study social media use by teens</a> didn’t need a suppressed internal research study to know that Instagram can harm teens. Plenty of peer-reviewed research papers <a href="https://theconversation.com/mounting-research-documents-the-harmful-effects-of-social-media-use-on-mental-health-including-body-image-and-development-of-eating-disorders-206170">show the same thing</a>.</p>
<p>Understanding the impact of social media on teens is important because almost all teens go online daily. A Pew Research Center poll shows that <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2023/04/24/teens-and-social-media-key-findings-from-pew-research-center-surveys/">77% of teens report they use social media daily</a>.</p>
<p>Teens are <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2023/04/24/teens-and-social-media-key-findings-from-pew-research-center-surveys/">more likely to log on to Instagram</a> than any other social media site except TikTok. It is a ubiquitous part of adolescent life. Yet studies consistently show that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000182">the more often teens use Instagram</a>, the worse their overall well-being, self-esteem, life satisfaction, mood and body image. One study found that the more that college students used Instagram on any given day, the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000350">worse their mood and life satisfaction were that day</a>.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/Mcz6OpCg24c?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Meta has taken steps to make Instagram less harmful to teens, but experts say the changes are not enough.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Unhealthy comparisons</h2>
<p>But Instagram isn’t problematic simply because it is popular. There are two key features of Instagram that seem to make it particularly risky. First, it allows users to follow both celebrities and peers, both of whom can present a manipulated, filtered picture of an unrealistic body along with a highly curated impression of a perfect life. </p>
<p>While all social media allows users to be selective in what they show the world, Instagram is notorious for its photo editing and filtering capabilities. Plus, the platform is popular among celebrities, models and influencers. Facebook has been relegated to the uncool soccer moms and grandparents. For teens, this seamless integration of celebrities and retouched versions of real-life peers presents a ripe environment for upward social comparison, or comparing yourself to someone who is “better” in some respect. </p>
<p>People, as a general rule, look to others to know how to fit in and judge their own lives. Teens are especially vulnerable to these social comparisons. Just about everyone can remember worrying about fitting in in high school. Instagram exacerbates that worry. It is hard enough to compare yourself to a supermodel who looks fantastic (albeit filtered); it can be even worse when the filtered comparison is Natalie down the hall.</p>
<p>Negatively comparing themselves to others <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/sipr.12033">leads people to feel envious</a> of others’ seemingly better lives and bodies. Recently, researchers even tried to combat this effect by <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/15213269.2021.1968440">reminding Instagram users that the posts were unrealistic</a>. </p>
<p>It didn’t work. Negative comparisons, which were nearly impossible to stop, still led to envy and lowered self-esteem. Even in studies in which participants knew the photos they were shown on Instagram were retouched and reshaped, adolescent girls still <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/15213269.2016.1257392">felt worse about their bodies</a> after viewing them. For girls who tend to make a lot of social comparisons, these effects are even worse. </p>
<h2>Objectification and body image</h2>
<p>Instagram is also risky for teens because its emphasis on pictures of the body leads users to focus on how their bodies look to others. My colleagues’ and my research shows that for teen girls – and increasingly teen boys – thinking about their own bodies as the object of a photo <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0272431618770809">increases worrying thoughts about how they look to others</a>, and that leads to feeling shame about their bodies. Just taking a selfie to be posted later makes them feel worse about how they look to others.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1438065105481183236"}"></div></p>
<p>Being an object for others to view doesn’t help the “selfie generation” feel empowered and sure of themselves – it can do exactly the opposite. These are not insignificant health concerns, because body dissatisfaction during the teen years is a powerful and consistent <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.22270">predictor of later eating disorder symptoms</a>.</p>
<p>Meta has <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/facebook-knows-instagram-is-toxic-for-teen-girls-company-documents-show-11631620739">acknowledged internally</a> what researchers have been documenting for years: Instagram can be harmful to teens. <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/tween-and-teen-health/in-depth/teens-and-social-media-use/art-20474437">Parents can help</a> by repeatedly talking to their teens about the difference between appearance and reality, by encouraging their teens to interact with peers face-to-face, and to use their bodies in active ways instead of focusing on the selfie. </p>
<p>The big question will be how Meta handles these damaging results. History and the courts have been less than forgiving of the head-in-the-sand approach of Big Tobacco. </p>
<p><em>This story has been updated to include news of state attorneys general filing lawsuits against Meta claiming the company knowingly put children at risk.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/168043/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Christia Spears Brown does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Ample research demonstrates the harms Instagram causes teen girls, especially around body image. Meta is now facing the consequences of knowingly marketing a harmful service.
Christia Spears Brown, Professor of Psychology, University of Kentucky
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/163866
2021-07-28T13:27:51Z
2021-07-28T13:27:51Z
Taking the circus to school: How kids benefit from learning trapeze, juggling and unicycle in gym class
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/410400/original/file-20210708-13-13zxiyu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C2297%2C1665&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Researchers found that circus activities improve movement competencies, confidence and motivation.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(© Marie-Andrée Lemire, École nationale de cirque, 2019)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://www.winnipegfreepress.com/local/cirque-de-lecole-574439002.html">Twelve public schools in Winnipeg</a> are currently operating circus programs in physical education. </p>
<p>Circus arts have been gaining popularity in schools around the world. Added to physical education programs, circus arts instruction not only seems to motivate children to exercise, but also has the potential to develop other abilities beyond the physical. </p>
<p>My research team measured <a href="https://doi.org/10.1123/jtpe.2018-0269">resiliency and physical literacy levels among students who started circus activities in physical education</a>. Physical literacy is the competence, confidence and knowledge to be physically active for life.</p>
<h2>Why physical literacy is important for children</h2>
<p>J.J. Ross, co-ordinator of physical education and health education at the St. James Assiniboia school division, helped to implement circus activities for four schools in Canada with about 160 attending students. <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p6Xfxbn-7ac&ab_channel=J.J.Ross">He says the biggest benefit he’s seen in the students</a> is in motivation and confidence as it relates not only to physical literacy, but to performing. He says:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“I am traditionally a ‘sports’ guy and everything I have done in my life was aimed at competing against someone or another group of individuals. This focus is aimed at entertaining, not competing. This has attracted a different group of kids to be active for life.” </p>
</blockquote>
<p>The initiative at the St. James Assiniboia School Division was part of a research project in which circus activities were implemented in Canadian school curriculum in Grades 4-6. Circus activities encompass juggling balls and scarves, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_4pC9SRZc38&ab_channel=Juggleboy">flower sticks</a>, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pcaw8myrmpo&ab_channel=CircusVideoLibrary">rola bola</a>, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zxm9s5fd5oU&t=50s&ab_channel=KumaFilms">diabolo</a>, stilts, unicycle, trampoline, trapeze, rope climbing, hoops, wire and <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G_NNLCfJzvo&ab_channel=KumaFilms">German wheel</a>. My <a href="https://doi.org/10.1123/jtpe.2018-0269">research team compared physical literacy</a> among these students with students using standard physical education instruction. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/p6Xfxbn-7ac?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">St. James Assiniboia School Division took part in a research project implementing circus arts in Canadian school curriculum in Grades 4-6.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Researchers found that circus activity improves <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2019.00346">movement competencies, confidence and motivation</a>. This study is also novel in that it reduced the gender gap in movement competencies with downstream positive psychological benefits to the female participants, potentially due to the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.12.084">inclusive and participatory nature of the circus</a>. </p>
<p>Circus activity in its various forms alternates between individual work and teamwork. It is non-competitive and encourages individual and artistic movement. These aspects motivate students to participate in physical activities, especially girls, and provides a challenge for all levels of abilities and interests. </p>
<p>Circus arts instruction shows great promise, as it contributes to break the cycle of <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/reports-publications/health-promotion-chronic-disease-prevention-canada-research-policy-practice/vol-37-no-8-2017/at-a-glance-physical-activity-sedentary-behaviour-sleep-indicator-framework.html">physical inactivity that is prevalent</a> in society today. Furthermore, the concept embraces much more than physical competence, since circus arts also have beneficial physiological and emotional effects. </p>
<h2>Psychological and emotional benefits</h2>
<p>Results showed that learning circus is an opportunity to develop social skills, <a href="https://www.americancircuseducators.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/McCutcheon-Thesis-2003-Identity-thru-Risk.pdf">improve risk-taking</a> judgment, <a href="https://www.wesleyschool.org/uploaded/faculty/Mr_Funt/Why_Circus_Works.pdf">align individuals’ projected and actual selves</a> and enhance <a href="https://www.proquest.com/docview/2336259591?pq-origsite=gscholar&fromopenview=true">problem solving</a>, <a href="http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1440-1630.2007.00713.x">creativity, self esteem</a> and perseverance. </p>
<p>An important component of circus is the “meaning-making” or “art-making” by doing. Students can expand their understanding of their own experience and the environment around them by creating meaning or art.</p>
<p>The results indicated a clear association between <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2019.00346">resilience and physical literacy</a> in circus arts instruction in Canada. Resilience refers to the ability of one or more systems (for example, a child, a family, a school) to overcome, adapt to and successfully withstand adversity. Another small-scale study reported that circus increases <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/jrs/fez091">resilience in refugees</a>. </p>
<p>The link between physical literacy and resilience could have significant implications for improving curriculum in the schools. Encouraging physical literacy may help ensure that people will thrive and engage with society. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412302/original/file-20210720-27-168130o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two children performing aerial circus arts: on climbing a blue rope and one on a suspended hoop" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412302/original/file-20210720-27-168130o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412302/original/file-20210720-27-168130o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=458&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412302/original/file-20210720-27-168130o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=458&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412302/original/file-20210720-27-168130o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=458&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412302/original/file-20210720-27-168130o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=576&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412302/original/file-20210720-27-168130o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=576&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412302/original/file-20210720-27-168130o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=576&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Circus arts promote physical health and therefore a healthy lifestyle.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">( © Marie-Andrée Lemire, École nationale de cirque, 2019)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Social circus</h2>
<p>Social circus is defined by the use of circus arts as media for social justice and social good. The goal is to foster the psychological and social development of youths who are marginalized or at social or personal risk. For example, <a href="https://www.cirquedusoleil.com/citizenship/community">Cirque du Monde, Cirque du Soleil’s social circus program</a>, operates in more than 80 communities and 25 countries worldwide. The program promotes physical health and therefore a healthy lifestyle. It helps to <a href="https://www.cfp.ca/content/60/11/e548.long">build self-esteem and create skills that result in healthier communities</a>. </p>
<p>Social circus has been found not only to promote health but also health equity and the social changes needed to sustain it. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/cdj/bsx015">Researchers Jennifer Spiegel and Stephanie Parent studied social circus among youths with marginalized lifestyles in Québec</a>. They found that personal growth is associated with change in social inclusion and community building. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/17533015.2014.932292">Spiegel and other colleagues from Canada and Ecuador also studied Ecuador’s national social circus projects</a>. They investigated how and why circus is being deployed as an “art for social change” as well as its impacts. They found that social circus programs not only contribute to personal well-being, but also promote social support and inclusivity. These programs help establish <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/17441692.2018.1504102">future policies and institutions that contribute to social development</a>. </p>
<p>Many individuals and researchers throughout the world have begun to realize the unimaginable potential of circus arts. Providing circus opportunities to young people as well as studying their benefits are two key actions to explore that potential.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/163866/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Marion Cossin does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Teaching circus arts — from juggling to trapeze — in physical education classes increased children’s physical literacy, resilience and participation, with greater gender equity.
Marion Cossin, ingénieure de recherche en cirque, Université de Montréal
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/160583
2021-05-27T12:07:11Z
2021-05-27T12:07:11Z
Why do women still get judged so harshly for having casual sex?
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/402912/original/file-20210526-13-mj6hcn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=5%2C341%2C3780%2C2578&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">There's virtually no association between self-esteem and sexual behavior.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/in-the-bed-private-collection-news-photo/903375506?adppopup=true">Heritage Images/Hulton Fine Art Collection via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>F. Scott Fitzgerald famously called the Roaring Twenties – which happened on the heels of the 1918 flu pandemic – “<a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/history/2020/10/28/1920s-upheaval-2020s/">the most expensive orgy in history</a>.”</p>
<p>Now, <a href="https://abcnews.go.com/Health/half-us-adults-now-fully-vaccinated-covid-19/story?id=77860393">as more and more Americans are vaccinated</a>, some are saying all the sexual energy pent up over the past year will be unleashed, with Yale sociologist Nicholas Christakis <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/love-sex/pandemic-sex-parties-twenties-b1777493.html">predicting a summer marked by a surge</a> in “sexual licentiousness.”</p>
<p>Women, however, might face backlash for exploring their post-vaccination sexuality. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797620983829">In a new study</a>, we found that women – but not men – continue to be perceived negatively for having casual sex.</p>
<p>This stereotype persists even as <a href="https://nyupress.org/9780814799697/hooking-up/">casual sex has become increasingly normalized</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-016-0003">gender equality has risen in the U.S.</a> and much of the Western world.</p>
<p>Specifically, both men and women assume that a woman who has casual sex must have low self-esteem.</p>
<p>But that perception isn’t based in reality. So what might be driving this unfounded stereotype?</p>
<h2>A belief held across religious and political divides</h2>
<p>Although the idea that women’s sexual behavior is linked to their self-esteem is a common trope in film, <a href="https://arresteddevelopment.fandom.com/wiki/Girls_with_Low_Self-Esteem">television</a> and <a href="https://rxforconfidence.com/3-ways-casual-sex-decreases-your-self-value/">even</a> <a href="https://www.quora.com/How-is-promiscuity-related-to-low-self-esteem">some</a> <a href="https://knowitallnancy.com/know-it-all-nancy/blog/why-no-strings-attached-sex-can-damage-your-self-esteem#:%7E:text=Your%20Self%2DEsteem-,Why%20No%2DStrings%20Attached%20Sex%20Can%20Damage%20Your%20Self%2DEsteem,levels%20of%20anxiety%20and%20depression.">relationship</a> <a href="https://www.drphil.com/slideshows/dont-be-that-girl-the-social-experiment/">advice</a> sites, we documented just how entrenched this stereotype is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797620983829">across six experiments published in Psychological Science</a>.</p>
<p>In one experiment, we asked Americans to estimate the correlation between people’s sexual behavior and their self-esteem. We described those people as being a man, woman or simply as “a person,” without providing any information about their gender. We then described that man, woman or person as having a lot of casual sex, portrayed them as being a serial monogamist or provided no information about their sexual behavior. </p>
<p>We found that Americans tended to associate monogamy with high self-esteem, especially for women. More striking, they associated casual sex with low self-esteem – but only for women. </p>
<p>This belief was surprisingly widespread, and across our studies we found that both men and women hold it. </p>
<p>We wondered: Was this stereotype the product of sexist beliefs? Could it be due to participants’ political ideology or their religion? </p>
<p>But time and again, we saw that this stereotype transcended a number of markers, including the extent to which someone held sexist beliefs, their political views and their religiosity.</p>
<h2>What if a woman says she wants casual sex?</h2>
<p>However, people might believe that women don’t want casual sex in the first place. For example, people might assume that women have causal sex only because they’re trying and failing to attract a long-term relationship. In fact, such beliefs do seem to influence the stereotype about women’s self-esteem.</p>
<p>Specifically, the more that Americans believed that women don’t actually want casual sex, the more these Americans tended to associate women’s casual sex with low self-worth. </p>
<p>This finding inspired another experiment. We wondered what would happen if we told participants that a woman was actually perfectly happy with her casual sexual lifestyle. Might that change their beliefs?</p>
<p>But even this factor didn’t seem to stop the stereotyping. Participants still saw these women as having low self-esteem. And they even perceived a woman described as having monogamous sex – but who was deeply dissatisfied with her monogamous sex life – as having higher self-esteem. </p>
<p>Here’s the kicker: Among our participants – the same ones who showed this stereotyping – we found virtually no association between their self-esteem and their own sexual behavior.</p>
<p>These findings are similar to those of psychologist David Schmitt, who <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.02.011">conducted a survey</a> of more than 16,000 participants drawn from all over the world, and also found little association between self-esteem and casual sex. </p>
<p>And in our study, it was actually the men who reported having more casual sex who also tended to have slightly lower self-esteem.</p>
<h2>Do our Stone Age brains play a role?</h2>
<p>So why do people hold this negative assumption about women who have casual sex – especially if it doesn’t hold water? The short answer is that we currently do not know, and associations between sex and self-esteem in the real world are complex.</p>
<p>Some people might wonder if the media is to blame. It’s true that women who have casual sex are sometimes portrayed <a href="https://doi.org/10.1023/B:SERS.0000023070.87195.07">as being somehow deficient</a>. But this doesn’t tell the whole story. Even if popular media perpetuates this stereotype, it still doesn’t explain why people would feel compelled to portray women this way in the first place. </p>
<p>Another possible explanation is that the stereotype extends from reproductive biology, in which men <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/buy/1993-29295-001">have historically had more to gain from casual sex</a> than women, who – since they risk getting pregnant – often have to bear greater costs, on average, than men.</p>
<p>Yet today, newer technologies – like birth control and safe, legal abortion – allow women to have casual sex without being forced to bear some of those unwanted costs. Perhaps, then, our Stone Age brains have simply not yet caught up.</p>
<p>Whatever the origin of this stereotype, it’s likely to foster prejudice and discrimination today. For example, people perceived to have low self-esteem are less likely to be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/147470491100900202">asked out on dates</a> or <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2008.08.018">elected to political office</a>. </p>
<p>This stereotype might also have led to seemingly well-intentioned – but ultimately misguided – advice directed toward girls and women about their sexual behavior. There is a cottage industry built around <a href="https://www.harpercollins.com/products/act-like-a-lady-think-like-a-man-steve-harvey?variant=32122702463010">telling women what sort of sex not to have</a>. (Searching for books on “friendship advice” on Amazon yields <a href="https://www.amazon.com/s?k=%22friendship+advice%22&i=stripbooks&ref=nb_sb_noss">fewer than 40 results</a>, but searching for “dating advice” returned <a href="https://www.amazon.com/s?k=%22dating+advice%22&i=stripbooks&ref=nb_sb_noss_2">over 2,000</a>.)</p>
<p>In Western society, women are rarely disparaged for breaking glass ceilings to become leaders, professors, CEOs and astronauts.</p>
<p>So why do they continue to be denigrated as they become increasingly open and willing to go to bed with others at their own whim, of their own accord?</p>
<p>[<em>Like what you’ve read? Want more?</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=likethis">Sign up for The Conversation’s daily newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/160583/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
A new study finds that women are just as likely as men to assume something’s wrong with a woman who decides she wants to sleep with a handful of partners.
Jaimie Arona Krems, Assistant Professor of Psychology, Oklahoma State University
Michael Varnum, Associate Professor of Psychology, Arizona State University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/155595
2021-04-14T14:26:07Z
2021-04-14T14:26:07Z
South Africa’s efforts to tackle joblessness can be more effective: here’s how
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/392740/original/file-20210331-23-9ogybc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=2%2C24%2C528%2C353&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A group of young men wait on a road for work in South Africa. A staggering 74% of the country's youth are jobless. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Photo by Frederic Lewis/Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Youth unemployment is one of South Africa’s most intractable challenges, made worse by COVID-19. Prior to the pandemic the unemployment rate (including people who had given up looking for work) was <a href="http://www.statssa.gov.za/publications/P0211/P02114thQuarter2019.pdf">just under 70% for people aged 15 to 24</a>. </p>
<p>A year later <a href="http://www.statssa.gov.za/publications/P0211/P02114thQuarter2020.pdf">the rate had increased to 74%</a> – despite government investments. So it is crucial to understand what interventions are working. But how do we evaluate whether youth employment programmes are successful, particularly when unemployment is caused by the <a href="https://www.thebalance.com/structural-unemployment-3306202">structure of the economy</a>?</p>
<p>The obvious answer, of course, is whether a programme results in a young person getting employed. </p>
<p>This is logical and easy to measure. It can easily be linked to the release of funding to programmes. And it allows for programmes to be compared. This was done in a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0305750X18303905">systematic review of 113 programmes internationally</a>.</p>
<p>However, as we have explored in several recent studies, there are a number of drawbacks to relying solely on job placement as an indicator of successful intervention. Doing so misses out on outcomes that are equally important, or more so, amid high structural unemployment. </p>
<p>These lessons are particularly important in economies that have been severely affected by the COVID-19 pandemic, where youth employment recovery will take time. </p>
<h2>Inadequate measure of success</h2>
<p>We make this argument based on several studies. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0190740920303431">The first</a> looked at long-term employment outcomes of 1,892 youth between 18 and 25 who participated in youth employability programmes over the period 2017-2018. These are programmes run by NGOs, business and the state. They typically include technical and soft skills training. </p>
<p>The proportion of participants who found jobs and stayed in them over time was <a href="https://www.uj.ac.za/faculties/humanities/csda/Documents/Siyakha%20Report%20June%202019%20Web%20LowRes.pdf">just 28% – somewhat better than a matched sample from the quarterly labour force survey data</a>, but still low. But we also found evidence that programmes had other important outcomes. These included a continued positive orientation to the labour market, and improved self-esteem and self-efficacy – important attributes for managing the protracted transition to work in a low growth economy. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.opensaldru.uct.ac.za/bitstream/handle/11090/963/2019_249_Saldruwp.pdf?sequence=1">The second</a> involved analysis of the quarterly labour force survey and general household survey data to understand the nature of young people not in employment or in education and training. It found that while many such youth have never worked, a significant portion find themselves in and out of work without making much longer-term progress. </p>
<p>The <a href="http://opensaldru.uct.ac.za/bitstream/handle/11090/968/2019_253_Saldruwp.pdf?sequence=3">third study</a> draws together several qualitative studies conducted in the past 10 years. It shows that young people are frustrated by the constant cycle of finding and taking up training and employment opportunities, without making progress towards a longer-term career. </p>
<p>Together, these studies show that job placement alone is an insufficient goal and measure of the success of youth employability programmes. Four reasons for this argument emerge from these studies. </p>
<p>First, job placement says more about demand than supply. A young person’s ability to find a job doesn’t depend only on their skills but also on whether the labour market is creating sufficient demand for employees. No matter how well a programme trains and supports a young person, if there are limited jobs, young people are unlikely to be employed. </p>
<p>Second, if a programme is getting young people into jobs even though job numbers are not growing – as in South Africa – these placements may be at the <a href="https://ideas.repec.org/a/oup/wbrobs/v32y2017i2p127-154..html">expense</a> of other work seekers. </p>
<p>Individual programmes can get people into jobs while the overall youth unemployment rate stays stagnant or rises. In the context of a <a href="https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2020/07/18/covid-19-has-throttled-south-africas-economy">rapidly contracting economy in the COVID-19 era</a>, this is a particularly important argument against job placement as the only measure of a programme’s success. </p>
<p>Third, using this single indicator takes attention away from longer-term pathways towards sustainable livelihoods. Many jobs in South Africa, especially at entry level, are insecure, part time or casual. There’s a risk of disregarding whether a job is decent and has prospects for learning and career development. </p>
<p>Young people typically <a href="https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2019-10-29-we-must-equip-young-people-to-bounce-back-into-work/">do not stay in jobs</a>. This is either because the job is not a good fit or is for a short term only. Other barriers, such as transport costs, also account for why they are unable to stay in jobs.</p>
<p><a href="http://opensaldru.uct.ac.za/bitstream/handle/11090/968/2019_253_Saldruwp.pdf?sequence=3">Qualitative</a> and <a href="http://www.nids.uct.ac.za/images/papers/2016_17_NIDSW4.pdf">quantitative evidence</a> shows that young people find jobs that are typically short lived, before having to look again for their next placement. Policymakers should consider whether these short term experiences add up to something longer term – or there’s a risk of perpetuating the cycle of underemployment. </p>
<p>Finally, and perhaps most importantly, evaluating programmes on the basis of job placement alone underestimates the <a href="http://www.opensaldru.uct.ac.za/handle/11090/818#:%7E:text=Using%20National%20Census%202011%20data,%20the%20Youth%20Multidimensional,its%20spatial%20distribution%20across%20relatively%20small%20geographical%20regions.">multidimensionality of poverty</a>. Evidence repeatedly shows how many barriers and <a href="https://www.uj.ac.za/faculties/humanities/csda/Documents/Youth%20Unemployment%20report%20FINAL%20interactive.pdf">challenges young people face</a> as they leave the education system and begin to find their way towards a job, and perhaps even a career. </p>
<p>These barriers are not only related to the labour market or education system. They also include issues such as <a href="https://www.uj.ac.za/faculties/humanities/csda/Documents/Siyakha%20Report%20June%202019%20Web%20LowRes.pdf">food insecurity, income poverty, and care responsibilities</a>, among others. Each of these limit the ability of young people to look for work. </p>
<p>These interrelated challenges influence young people’s ability to take up training or job opportunities. </p>
<p>Taken together, these challenges require far more intensive support than simply training and placing a young person in a job.</p>
<h2>Alternative approaches</h2>
<p>It is crucial that funders, policy makers, and programme developers invest in more intensive support that can help young people meet the challenges they face in seeking work. They must also insist on measures beyond job placement as indicators of success. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0305750X18303905">International evidence </a> bears this out. It shows that across 113 programmes reviewed, multidimensional programmes that seek to provide more comprehensive support to youth are more effective than those that offer training only. They are particularly successful when they target the most vulnerable youth. </p>
<p>Further, <a href="https://www.saldru.uct.ac.za/wp-content/uploads/BPS_policy-brief_final-23_03_2020.pdf">our research</a> recognises the crucial contribution such programmes play in keeping young people connected to opportunities, and reducing social exclusion and social drift. This is when young people become increasingly disconnected from the labour market, training opportunities and positive social inclusion, which in turn can have negative consequences on mental health. </p>
<p>Given this evidence and the fact that South Africa is facing a stagnant economy for some time, it is crucial that funders, policy makers and those working on youth employment interventions evaluate and invest in programmes on the basis of their ability to keep young people positively oriented towards the labour market. The programmes should help improve their employability, even if the young participant is not yet able to find an actual job. </p>
<p>Outcome indicators that can more adequately measure these factors include enhancing <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0190740920303431">job search resilience, promoting self-esteem and self-efficacy, and reducing discouragement</a>.</p>
<p>There are ample reasons to move away from evaluating employability programmes on the basis of employment outcomes alone. Rather, a range of indicators should be used to track whether young people remain engaged, believe in themselves and keep trying to find a job. This, while developing the personal attributes that will make them attractive to future employers. </p>
<p>Each of these outcomes is more difficult to measure than a simple count of job placements. But it’s not impossible.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/155595/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>For the studies reported on in this article Lauren Graham received funding from the Government Technical Advisory Committee, the Ford Foundation, and the Capacity Building Programme for Employment Promotion. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ariane De Lannoy receives funding from the European Union via the Capacity Building Programme for Employment Promotion, based at the Government Technical Advisory Centre (GTAC). I also receive funding from UNICEF and the DG Murray trust.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Leila Patel receives funding from the Department of Science and Technology and the National Research Foundation for her Chair in Welfare and Social Development.</span></em></p>
Relying solely on job placement as an indicator of successful intervention misses out on outcomes that are equally important, or more so, amid high structural unemployment.
Lauren Graham, Associate professor at the Centre for Social Development in Africa, University of Johannesburg, University of Johannesburg
Ariane De Lannoy, Senior Researcher: Poverty and Inequality Initiative, Southern Africa Labour and Development Research Unit, University of Cape Town
Leila Patel, Professor of Social Development Studies, University of Johannesburg
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/144459
2020-08-19T17:52:36Z
2020-08-19T17:52:36Z
Families can support kids’ mental health whether they’re learning remotely or at school – here’s how
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/353670/original/file-20200819-25336-1hh3706.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C354%2C4775%2C3301&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Kids learn who they are and how to cope within their families.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/father-in-discussion-with-daughters-before-school-royalty-free-image/671716337">Thomas Barwick/Stone via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The choice between in-person learning, where available, and remote learning is a fraught one for parents. Children experience joy and connection when they learn alongside other kids, but they risk being exposed to the coronavirus. Remote learning at home can protect kids from COVID-19, but does it set back their social-emotional development?</p>
<p>It may feel like a stark <a href="https://www.facebook.com/eeholmes423/posts/10157358309075404">choice between mental or physical health</a>. But as a family therapist and professor of educational psychology who <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=t-lUR98AAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">studies resilience in families under stress</a>, I can assure you there’s no single schooling option that guarantees a happy, healthy kid or dooms a child to despair.</p>
<p>In fact, much more than schooling context, children’s mental health relies on high-quality relationships within families.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/353474/original/file-20200818-18-1tlvsct.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="two girls wearing backpacks with their arms around each other" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/353474/original/file-20200818-18-1tlvsct.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/353474/original/file-20200818-18-1tlvsct.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=903&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/353474/original/file-20200818-18-1tlvsct.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=903&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/353474/original/file-20200818-18-1tlvsct.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=903&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/353474/original/file-20200818-18-1tlvsct.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1134&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/353474/original/file-20200818-18-1tlvsct.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1134&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/353474/original/file-20200818-18-1tlvsct.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1134&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Children can be missing their school friends but still be doing OK at home.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/1ks9WPyj5fo">Free To Use Sounds/Unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Spending time with other children can benefit children’s mental health, though it’s not clear that group settings are necessary to achieve those gains. Some research from before the pandemic found that home-schooled children experience <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00220671.2015.1116055">more academic success and better mental health</a> compared to kids in school, especially when families maintain ties to religious institutions and community groups. Other studies show no differences or suggest that home-schooled children <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2014.03.007">fall behind their peers</a>, especially when structure at home is too loose. And of course processes within schools during the pandemic will change how children interact.</p>
<p>No matter what the schooling situation, there are four key components that belong in a child’s mental health toolkit. The good news is that parents can support all of these areas as part of in-person, remote or small-pod learning.</p>
<h2>Connecting mind and body: ‘What I need’</h2>
<p>Mental health and physical health are inextricably linked. Physical activity, good nutrition and sleep are all crucial for both. Children need <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000433">clear bedtime routines</a> and a consistent schedule – especially during times of unease like now. Children need to go to bed <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cppeds.2016.12.001">at a similar time</a> each evening and wake up at a similar time each morning.</p>
<p>This guidance applies across ages. Though it’s normal for sleep schedules to shift in adolescence, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/jsr.12373">consistency remains critical</a>. Research increasingly shows that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2006-2089F">poor sleep hygiene</a> is a central issue in symptoms of depression, anxiety and other mental health problems.</p>
<h2>Developing identity: ‘Who I am’</h2>
<p>Children of all ages incorporate information from both family members and peers into their sense of identity.</p>
<p>School exposes students to others with similar and different viewpoints or backgrounds and lets them confront social rules. Research with home-schooled children shows that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0013124516677009">interacting with other home-schooled kids</a> is good for their mental health. Peer relationships, especially in adolescence, are related to self-esteem. Overall, positive peer relationships throughout childhood can help students adjust in school, while <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/e/9780203841198/chapters/10.4324/9780203841198-10">bad experiences leave the strongest mark</a> on mental health. </p>
<p>But it’s kids’ empathy and pro-social behaviors, like helping someone in need – <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2004.05.005">characteristics they largely learn in their families</a> – that help them build and maintain their friendships. If you’re worried about kids being isolated while learning remotely, remember that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0143034306073402">parent-child attachment is the most important</a> source of self-esteem and a positive sense of self for children.</p>
<p>Focusing on reciprocity is one way families can help kids explore identity. Parents should ask open-ended questions and show curiosity about children’s opinions and interests. Family rituals, like a special weekly dinner, family game night or a loving bedtime ritual, can support family bonding and help children gain a strong sense of self, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/jmft.12293">contributing to better mental health</a>. Parents can try to engage in 20 minutes of joyful, focused interaction with their kids each day and consistently observe and promote their children’s positive attributes.</p>
<h2>Regulating emotions: ‘How I feel’</h2>
<p>Skills that allow children to understand their emotions and make choices about how they respond to them are crucial building blocks of good mental health. Families can practice regulating emotions with their children, supporting strategies to understand and manage frustration, anger and sadness when those feelings become unmanageable. Experiencing <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-006-9015-4">joy and positive emotions</a> supports good mental health.</p>
<p>Children are likely to experience complex emotions in the coming months. At school, kids may have a hard time separating from family or difficulty when confronted with new safety measures and expectations. In addition, existing school-based risk factors like bullying may exacerbate mental health issues. Children at home may feel disconnected and pick up on stress within families facing work and income challenges. Ongoing issues in families like parental mental health problems and family violence can also put children at risk.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/353475/original/file-20200818-16-1af7j5h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Child painting with brush" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/353475/original/file-20200818-16-1af7j5h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/353475/original/file-20200818-16-1af7j5h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=752&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/353475/original/file-20200818-16-1af7j5h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=752&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/353475/original/file-20200818-16-1af7j5h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=752&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/353475/original/file-20200818-16-1af7j5h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=945&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/353475/original/file-20200818-16-1af7j5h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=945&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/353475/original/file-20200818-16-1af7j5h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=945&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A creative outlet can help children manage emotions.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/YKLkzMuEA8Q">Madalyn Cox/Unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>When children face emotions that are unfamiliar, dysregulated behavior – which can include sleeplessness, aggression or listlessness, for example – may be a first indicator for adults, who can step in with emotion coaching. Parents can regularly check in with children to take their “feelings temperature” and suggest ways to practice coping.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/15401383.2010.485090">Outlets for creative expression</a>, like art, music and dance, can support positive emotional development and coping, as well.</p>
<h2>Recognizing interdependence: ‘Who we are’</h2>
<p>A big piece of good mental health is being able to see yourself as a part of a whole.</p>
<p>The parent-child relationship is the context in which children learn to view themselves as interdependent – a person who is connected to previous generations and present networks.</p>
<p>Responses to the pandemic can threaten the usual sense of community. To help make up for any isolation, whether due to remote learning or physical distancing measures, families can provide opportunities for children to consider others’ feelings and practice giving and receiving emotional support.</p>
<p>Parents must attend to their own mental health; research shows that if parents struggle with depression, aspects of children’s social-emotional development – including building empathy skills and engaging socially – <a href="https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2013.12121597">can also suffer</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/353672/original/file-20200819-14-cffeu7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="boy and woman talking over a snack" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/353672/original/file-20200819-14-cffeu7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/353672/original/file-20200819-14-cffeu7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/353672/original/file-20200819-14-cffeu7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/353672/original/file-20200819-14-cffeu7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/353672/original/file-20200819-14-cffeu7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/353672/original/file-20200819-14-cffeu7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/353672/original/file-20200819-14-cffeu7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Parents can use the same tools to support their kids’ mental health no matter what school looks like.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/mother-and-son-eating-and-doing-homework-at-dining-royalty-free-image/1216406560">Klaus Vedfelt/DigitalVision via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Challenges abound, but the tools are consistent</h2>
<p>Kids who were vulnerable before the pandemic remain vulnerable. But mental health risk factors are largely the same for children whether <a href="https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203841198">in school or learning from home</a>.</p>
<p>[<em>Deep knowledge, daily.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=deepknowledge">Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter</a>.]</p>
<p>Any changes, even happy ones, can create stress. Good mental health is the ability to adapt. The strategies in this toolkit can help children adapt and cope with stress, whether due to the pandemic, economic inequities, racism, unaddressed special needs or interpersonal problems within a family. </p>
<p>Some children <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/community/schools-childcare/reopening-schools.html">need to be in school</a>. Their learning needs may be complex or their homes may not be safe, and they depend on school to buffer problems at home. But the argument that all children in general <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2020/08/what-weve-stolen-our-kids/615211/">must be at school</a> to ward off a mental health crisis just is not true. Wherever and however kids are learning this year, families can support students so they continue developing as mentally healthy individuals.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/144459/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Erika Bocknek does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Good mental health is the ability to adapt to changes and stress. Whatever school looks like, parents can help keep kids’ social-emotional development on track in these four areas.
Erika Bocknek, Associate Professor of Educational Psychology, Wayne State University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/141655
2020-07-24T08:59:05Z
2020-07-24T08:59:05Z
What racial discrimination does to young people’s wellbeing
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/348358/original/file-20200720-102864-77rc8g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=18%2C0%2C6075%2C4065&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/depressed-upset-african-american-teen-child-1653226636">fizkes/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Discrimination against minority groups can be difficult to prove. Perpetrators are typically motivated to deny their prejudices, and are not always aware of their biases. </p>
<p>This makes it possible to suggest – as <a href="https://dutchreview.com/dutch-news/parliamentary-debate-on-institutional-racism-spirals-out-of-control/">happened recently</a> in the Dutch national parliament – that racism is virtually nonexistent, and that claims about discrimination are simply exaggerated. </p>
<p>These attitudes can lead to accusations that minorities <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2020/jan/16/playing-the-race-card-racism-black-experience">“play the race card”</a> or the “discrimination card”: that they see wrongful or unfair treatment where it doesn’t exist. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Student alone with smartphone" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/348391/original/file-20200720-31-1dl1v3b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/348391/original/file-20200720-31-1dl1v3b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/348391/original/file-20200720-31-1dl1v3b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/348391/original/file-20200720-31-1dl1v3b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/348391/original/file-20200720-31-1dl1v3b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/348391/original/file-20200720-31-1dl1v3b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/348391/original/file-20200720-31-1dl1v3b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Our research looked at the wellbeing of young people who felt they suffered discrimination.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/female-student-sitting-on-her-own-432814564">DGLimages/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Such accusations suppose that minorities call out discrimination to their own advantage, and are too quick to ascribe something to discrimination when other factors were in fact the cause: that they use discrimination as a way to feel better about themselves. The overall result is that reports of discrimination are minimised or not taken seriously. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.uu.nl/staff/JTThijs/Research%20output">Our own research</a> examined the psychological effects on young people of ethnic and religious minorities who perceived that they had faced discrimination. It provides evidence that pushes back against these claims. Overall, we found that these young people did not feel better about themselves when they believed negative experiences were the result of discrimination, and so would not be likely to exaggerate discrimination against them.</p>
<h2>Past experiments</h2>
<p>People can have a tendency to explain events in self-serving ways. <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2015-19097-008">Past research</a> has used experiments to prove that people can feel temporarily better about themselves if they can attribute highly negative events to discrimination rather than to their own shortcomings. </p>
<p>Such experiments consist of two phases. Participants first experience the negative event – such as a failure on an important test – and next they are given the opportunity to attribute it to discrimination. Apparently, interpreting the event as discriminatory can then alleviate the participants’ resulting negative feelings about themselves.</p>
<p>However, this doesn’t mean that an interpretation in terms of discrimination is a positive thing. Although it can protect against self-blame in extreme situations – as found in the experiments – perceiving discrimination tends to have a negative impact on wellbeing overall.</p>
<h2>Perceiving discrimination</h2>
<p>We showed this in a <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/01973533.2016.1186027">study with children of non-western immigrant descent</a> living in the Netherlands. For children, discrimination often takes the form of victimisation by their peers. We asked the 379 children in our study to do two things. First, to report how often they were the victims of name-calling, bullying and peer exclusion. And second, to tell us the extent to which each type of victimisation was based on their ethnicity – and so was discriminatory. </p>
<p>Our results suggested that perceiving these experiences as discriminatory did have a self-protective effect. Children who were frequently victimised (an extreme situation) had lower overall self-esteem than their infrequently victimised peers, but not if they ascribed their experiences of victimisation to their ethnicity. </p>
<p>As the graph above shows, however, among all the victimised children, the ones who perceived the least discrimination were those with with the highest self-esteem. Those children also had the least emotional problems. Ultimately, it was psychologically harmful to perceive that their ethnicity was a reason to be victimised.</p>
<h2>Group experiences</h2>
<p>This study focused on individual experiences. However, we’ve also examined young people’s perceptions of discrimination against their group more generally. Cynics might still argue that young people could use this discrimination to their own advantage, while not experiencing it directly. They could refer to it to explain away negative situations in their own lives, leading to a higher sense of personal wellbeing. In short, they could “play the discrimination card”. However, our research suggests that this is not the case. </p>
<p>In <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/jasp.12547">one study</a> we worked with <a href="https://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/mohadesa-najumi/dutch-racism_b_9659886.html?guccounter=1&guce_referrer=aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cuZ29vZ2xlLmNvbS8&guce_referrer_sig=AQAAACyuU6oU-GPHMH4e_n-YSYVQK2MEeLqHw2sGwqAqw4rsuiAzTwwWVzX7JOdjzltD4U5LxU0HCcGbdvmHRq8CVagRZONj3PXP9waT0vyS2OXCxhCO7BFZBQ7TAdOCbmNyl81KEZzze6POGMss38GAq2dcpetyvH542WhfnADl7Pj8">Moroccan-Dutch</a> adolescents. The 354 young people in this study were asked both about their personal experiences with discrimination and about the experience of Moroccans as a group. </p>
<p>Unlike the personal experiences, the group experiences were not related to lower self-esteem. However, respondents who perceived more discrimination against their group experienced more psychological problems such as fear and anxiety, both according to themselves and to their parents.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="group of students walking" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/348378/original/file-20200720-15-k705kv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/348378/original/file-20200720-15-k705kv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/348378/original/file-20200720-15-k705kv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/348378/original/file-20200720-15-k705kv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/348378/original/file-20200720-15-k705kv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=460&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/348378/original/file-20200720-15-k705kv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=460&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/348378/original/file-20200720-15-k705kv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=460&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Seeing discrimination against a group they belonged to led to anxiety in young people.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/large-group-young-people-urban-scene-139255337">Artens/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We conducted <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10964-018-0906-6">another study</a> which looked at the relation between religious discrimination and self-esteem in Muslim students in Dutch Islamic schools. These children reported lower self-esteem if they perceived more discrimination against Muslim children, regardless of whether they or their peers were the victims.</p>
<p>Taken together, our findings clearly do not support the suggestion that young people in minority groups are motivated to exaggerate discrimination.
Both the perception that you are negatively treated because of your background – and the negative treatment itself – are psychologically damaging. Seeing others from the group you belong to being discriminated against can lead to fears, worries, and sometimes lower self-esteem. Young people’s reports of discrimination should be taken seriously.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/141655/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jochem Thijs has received funding from the Jacobs Foundation and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond his academic appointment.. </span></em></p>
The perception that you are negatively treated because of your background is psychologically damaging.
Jochem Thijs, Associate Professor in Interdisciplinary Social Science, Utrecht University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/140829
2020-06-18T12:17:29Z
2020-06-18T12:17:29Z
Here’s why some people are willing to challenge bullying, corruption and bad behavior, even at personal risk
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/342503/original/file-20200617-94078-1gy6mv0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=209%2C286%2C7029%2C4341&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Certain characteristics mean moral rebels are willing to not go with the flow.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/rebellion-concept-royalty-free-image/1170636104">Francesco Carta fotografo/Moment via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Georgia Secretary of State Brad Raffensperger, a longtime Republican, spent months standing up to intense and highly public <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/georgia-election-brad-raffensperger-lindsey-graham-throw-out-ballots/">pressure from members of Congress</a>, who urged him to throw out legally cast ballots, <a href="https://theconversation.com/trumps-smoking-gun-tape-is-worse-than-nixons-but-congressional-republicans-have-less-incentive-to-do-anything-about-it-152643">and from President Donald Trump</a>, who asked him to “find 11,780 votes” to change the outcome of the election.</p>
<p>Rep. Adam Kinzinger of Illinois became the first Republican member of Congress to <a href="https://chicago.cbslocal.com/2021/01/07/congressman-adam-kinzinger-president-donald-trump-removal-25th-amendment-us-capitol-riot/">call for Trump’s immediate removal</a> from office by the 25th Amendment, following the mob riot at the U.S. Capitol on Jan. 6.</p>
<p>Ben Danielson, a well-regarded medical director of a Seattle medical clinic, resigned in November to protest ongoing racism in the hospital, noting concerns about his “<a href="https://crosscut.com/equity/2020/12/revered-doctor-steps-down-accusing-seattle-childrens-hospital-racism">own complicity as a representative of a hospital</a> that does not treat people of color as it should.”</p>
<p>All of these people spoke up to call out bad behavior, even in the face of immense pressure to stay silent. Although the specifics of each of these cases are quite different, what each of these people share is a willingness to take action. <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=-dCo5lYAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">Psychologists like me</a> describe those who are willing to defend their principles in the face of potentially negative social consequences such as disapproval, ostracism and career setbacks as “moral rebels.”</p>
<p><a href="https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674241831">Moral rebels</a> speak up in all types of situations – to tell a bully to cut it out, to confront a friend who uses a racist slur, to report a colleague who engages in corporate fraud. What enables someone to call out bad behavior, even if doing so may have costs?</p>
<h2>The traits of a moral rebel</h2>
<p>First, moral rebels generally <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10508422.2015.1012765">feel good about themselves</a>. They tend to have high self-esteem and to feel confident about their own judgment, values and ability. They also <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167209346170">believe their own views are superior</a> to those of others, and thus that they have a social responsibility to share those beliefs.</p>
<p>Moral rebels are also <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2015.10.002">less socially inhibited than others</a>. They aren’t worried about feeling embarrassed or having an awkward interaction. Perhaps most importantly, they are far less concerned about conforming to the crowd. So, when they have to choose between fitting in and doing the right thing, they will probably choose to do what they see as right. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/342510/original/file-20200617-94060-1a795tg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/342510/original/file-20200617-94060-1a795tg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/342510/original/file-20200617-94060-1a795tg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=576&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/342510/original/file-20200617-94060-1a795tg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=576&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/342510/original/file-20200617-94060-1a795tg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=576&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/342510/original/file-20200617-94060-1a795tg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=724&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/342510/original/file-20200617-94060-1a795tg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=724&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/342510/original/file-20200617-94060-1a795tg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=724&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The orbitofrontal cortex (in green on this brain that is facing to the left) looks different in moral rebels.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/illustration/digital-illustration-of-human-brain-with-royalty-free-illustration/98193711">Dorling Kindersley via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Research in neuroscience reveals that people’s ability to stand up to social influence is reflected in anatomical differences in the brain. People who are more concerned about fitting in show <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2012.01.012">more gray matter volume in one particular part of the brain</a>, the lateral orbitofrontal cortex. This area right behind your eyebrows creates memories of events that led to negative outcomes. It helps guide you away from things you want to avoid the next time around – such as being rejected by your group. </p>
<p>People who are more concerned about conforming to their group also show <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2013.12.035">more activity in two other brain circuits</a>; one that responds to social pain – like when you experience rejection – and another that tries to understand others’ thoughts and feelings. In other words, those who feel worst when excluded by their group try the hardest to fit in.</p>
<p>What does this suggest about moral rebels? For some people, feeling like you’re different than everyone else feels really bad, even at a neurological level. For other people, it may not matter as much, which makes it easier for them to stand up to social pressure. </p>
<p>These characteristics are totally agnostic as to what the moral rebel is standing up for. You could be the lone anti-abortion voice in your very liberal family or the lone abortion rights advocate in your very conservative family. In either scenario it’s about standing up to social pressure to stay silent – and that pressure of course could be applied about anything.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/342504/original/file-20200617-94101-1j66rwv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/342504/original/file-20200617-94101-1j66rwv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/342504/original/file-20200617-94101-1j66rwv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/342504/original/file-20200617-94101-1j66rwv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/342504/original/file-20200617-94101-1j66rwv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/342504/original/file-20200617-94101-1j66rwv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/342504/original/file-20200617-94101-1j66rwv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/342504/original/file-20200617-94101-1j66rwv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Kids learn to stand up for what they believe in when they see their role models doing so.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/girl-jumps-holding-a-sign-while-she-and-her-family-protest-news-photo/1216479646">Apu Gomes/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The path of a moral rebel</h2>
<p>What does it take to create a moral rebel?</p>
<p>It helps to have <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2005-08753-003">seen moral courage in action</a>. Many of the civil rights activists who participated in marches and sit-ins in the southern United States in the 1960s had parents who displayed moral courage and civic engagement, as did many of the Germans who rescued Jews during the Holocaust. Watching people you look up to show moral courage can inspire you to do the same.</p>
<p>A budding moral rebel also needs to feel empathy, imagining the world from someone else’s perspective. Spending time with and really getting to know people from different backgrounds helps. White high school students who had more contact with people from different ethnic groups – in their neighborhood, at school and on sports teams – have higher levels of empathy and see people from different minority groups in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12053">more positive ways</a>.</p>
<p>These same students are more likely to report taking some action if a classmate uses an ethnic slur, such as by directly challenging that person, supporting the victim or telling a teacher. People who are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-010-9109-1">more empathetic</a> are also more likely to defend someone who is being bullied.</p>
<p>Finally, moral rebels need particular skills and practice using them. One study found that teenagers who <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01682.x">held their own in an argument with their mother</a>, using reasoned arguments instead of whining, pressure or insults, were the most resistant to peer pressure to use drugs or drink alcohol later on. Why? People who have practiced making effective arguments and sticking with them under pressure are better able to use these same techniques with their peers. </p>
<p>Moral rebels clearly have particular characteristics that enable them to stand up for what’s right. But what about the rest of us? Are we doomed to be the silent bystanders who meekly stand by and don’t dare call out bad behavior?</p>
<p>Fortunately, no. It is possible to develop the ability to stand up to social pressure. In other words, anyone can learn to be a moral rebel.</p>
<p><em>This is an updated version of an article originally published on June 18, 2020.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/140829/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Catherine A. Sanderson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Psychologists have identified the characteristics of ‘moral rebels’ who make the tough choice to stand up for their principles in the face of negative consequences.
Catherine A. Sanderson, Poler Family Professor and Chair of Psychology, Amherst College
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/134089
2020-04-01T11:39:24Z
2020-04-01T11:39:24Z
Be kind to your body on lockdown, look to the diversity of people in the real world
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/324606/original/file-20200401-66148-ddrgol.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C13%2C3055%2C1791&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Looking at diverse images can make people less critical of their bodies.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/multiracial-women-different-height-figure-type-713100184">GoodStudio/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In the past 30 years, there has been a dramatic increase in body criticism. Most women, and many men, feel dissatisfied with how they look. They feel too small, round, short, spotty, lined… the list goes on. Unsurprisingly, this has lead to an increase in poor self-esteem and low levels of confidence. </p>
<p>One key source of this body criticism is the media (from TV and billboards to social media), which – despite more body diverse campaigns – continues to promote the “thin ideal”. As we all are spending more time at home consuming media and less time moving our bodies, we need to show ourselves more body kindness for the sake of our mental health. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/thank-you-bikini-terrorists-for-moving-us-on-from-throwback-diet-ads-now-eachbodysready-40973">Thank you bikini terrorists for moving us on from throwback diet ads – now #eachbodysready</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Thankfully, in recent years there has been a welcome backlash against this approach and a call for greater body diversity in the media.</p>
<p>In our <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13548506.2020.1734219">latest study</a> 106 women aged 16 to 30 rated how they felt about their bodies before and after seeing one of three sets of 26 images. The first set was of neutral images of household objects, the second set was of images of a women’s bodies and faces that were far more diverse in terms of size and shape than we usually see, and the third set reflected the more traditional thin-ideal images of women we are so familiar with. </p>
<p>The results showed that seeing the body diversity images made participants less critical of their bodies but more critical of the media’s use of “thin-ideal” images. Simple exposure to greater body diversity had an immediate impact on how they felt about themselves.</p>
<h2>The power of the media</h2>
<p>The media is all-pervasive and bombards us with images through the TV, billboards, films, our computers and our phones. This can result in two key processes without us even knowing it. The first is social comparison as we make unfavourable comparisons between ourselves and the media world. This makes us feel like we have failed, underachieved and are destined to be nobodies. The second is internalisation, whereby we internalise the images and change our mindsets to believe that these are “normal”. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/4BKwk8q4H0Y?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>For body criticism, when we view the all-pervasive and narrow range of “thin-ideal” images of women in the media, our social comparisons tell us we are not good enough and our internalised new normal enables this upward comparison to continue even when the images are no longer there. </p>
<p>Yet the power of the media goes beyond its all-pervasiveness and is exacerbated by a clever sleight of hand. Because the media is everywhere, we think that what we are seeing is everything there is to see. That the news is all the news, the science is all the science and that the culture is all the culture. There is so much of it that it must be all of it. But without knowing it, we are all trapped inside our little echo chambers that simply feeds us more of what we are used to. So we see a very narrow range of images of women because this is what the media uses. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-problem-of-living-inside-echo-chambers-110486">The problem of living inside echo chambers</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>On top of this, we’ve all noticed how the internet watches what we look at and suggests more of the same. This narrows the range of what we consume down even further to create an even more restrictive echo chamber. And, as we never see anything to contradict this media controlled world, we believe that these images are normal – so the downward spiral continues. And when could be a worse time for this to happen, than when the world is in lockdown and our worlds have become the narrowest they have ever been?</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/iVJDs9nVbsY?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<h2>Exit the echo chamber</h2>
<p>The media needs to promote body diversity more and stop championing one body shape over others. The images we used were from <a href="https://www.theindustry.fashion/rankin-steven-tai-and-stephen-bell-challenge-perceptions-of-beauty-with-portrait-positive-initiative/">Portrait Positive</a>, developed by event organiser Stephen Bell and fashion designer Steven Tai, in 2018. This project aimed to defy traditional beauty perceptions by photographing 16 females with visible body and facial differences and was in support of the leading Changing Faces charity.</p>
<p>Together with the <a href="https://www.bustle.com/articles/165804-15-definitions-of-body-positivity-straight-from-influencers-activists">body positivity movement</a> – and recent campaigns such as those by <a href="https://www.dove.com/uk/stories/campaigns/be-real.html">Dove</a>, <a href="https://www.thisgirlcan.co.uk/">#ThisGirlCan</a> and womenswear company <a href="https://www.elle.com/fashion/shopping/a22658721/aerie-body-positive-customer-experience-store-aeriereal/">Aerie</a> – initiatives like this have challenged the media to move away from their narrow ideals of beauty. </p>
<p>We could also simply look elsewhere for our norms. The media may well bombard us with a narrow idea of beauty, but when we look up from our phones or computers the real world does a wonderful job of body diversity. Out there, there are fatter, thinner, older, younger, balder, hairier, wrinklier, wobblier, bigger-nosed and smaller-mouthed people than anything we will ever see on our screens. </p>
<p>And this is where we should be looking for both our social comparisons and internalisations. Our friends, colleagues, family members and passersby present us with the perfect set of body diversity norms. So when this lockdown ends, if we could remember to look up, rather than down, our range of normality could quickly become broad, unrestricted, healthy and positive again.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/134089/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jane Ogden does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
On your daily walk take in real people. It might make you kinder to your own body during the Coronavirus lockdown
Jane Ogden, Professor of Health Psychology, University of Surrey
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/130986
2020-02-23T13:13:51Z
2020-02-23T13:13:51Z
Reading struggles? Don’t wait to advocate for your child
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/315750/original/file-20200217-10980-olyteg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=14%2C877%2C3902%2C2390&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Lack of access to quality reading instruction and early diagnoses and intervention of reading disorders can have significant, long-lasting effects.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Reading is an important predictor of future academic performance in all subjects and through all levels of school. The World Literacy Organization notes that weak reading skills <a href="https://www.voced.edu.au/content/ngv:63953">predict lower income levels as an adult, increased health care costs, decreased productivity and increased involvement with the criminal justice system</a>. </p>
<p>Approximately <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/pch/11.9.573">42 per cent of Canadians have literacy skills below those “typically required for high school completion,” or what literacy researchers call level three literacy</a>. At this level, someone’s reading and comprehension skills are advanced enough to <a href="https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/89-555-x/2013001/t/tbl1.1-eng.htm">follow multi-step directions and interpret and evaluate texts</a>.</p>
<p>Researchers estimate that <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2016-58418-005">three to five per cent of Canadians have a learning disability that could negatively affect reading</a>, and 80 per cent of those <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579408000631">with a learning disability have a reading disability</a>.</p>
<p>Lack of access to quality reading instruction and early diagnoses and intervention of reading disorders can have significant, long-lasting effects, as Colleen Smereka, a Canadian invisible disability and literacy advocate, describes in the documentary <em>Searching for Words: A Woman’s Fight to Learn</em>. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/HOo1JQEZwU0?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">‘Searching for Words: A Woman’s Fight to Learn.’</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It is much more difficult to remediate reading difficulties in older students than in young ones, a fact that highlights <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5826.2011.00347.x">the importance of early intervention</a>.</p>
<h2>Reading and mental health</h2>
<p>In my practice as a school psychologist, I have seen evidence of the research finding that academic performance and mental health can have a two-way relationship. Students who do not develop strong reading skills are at greater risk for <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219409359939">developing symptoms of anxiety</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1097/01.chi.0000242241.77302.f4">depression</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1097/01.chi.0000242241.77302.f4">behaviour problems</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/00222194060390060301">thoughts of suicide</a>. </p>
<p>Longitudinal research has provided evidence that there is not just a relationship between reading difficulty and depression in boys but that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022534527021">poor reading skills actually predict later symptoms of depression</a>. Students who report <a href="https://literacytrust.org.uk/research-services/research-reports/mental-wellbeing-reading-and-writing/">low levels of well-being also say that they are below-average readers</a>.</p>
<p>Even when poor reading does not lead to mental health diagnoses, it can <a href="https://thinkingreadingwritings.wordpress.com/2019/04/22/can-reading-problems-affect-mental-health/">increase students’ feelings of shame, failure and exclude them from access to knowledge through print</a>. </p>
<p>Most of us avoid tasks that we are not good at, especially if we cannot find support to improve. But children are regularly required to read for all academic areas, and to gain knowledge in other areas of life. We cannot expect children to read if we don’t help them learn to read.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/316001/original/file-20200218-10991-ziczpu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/316001/original/file-20200218-10991-ziczpu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/316001/original/file-20200218-10991-ziczpu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/316001/original/file-20200218-10991-ziczpu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/316001/original/file-20200218-10991-ziczpu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/316001/original/file-20200218-10991-ziczpu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/316001/original/file-20200218-10991-ziczpu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Systemic, direct instruction for teaching reading is most effective.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Reading instruction and early intervention</h2>
<p>Twenty years ago, a group of U.S. researchers <a href="https://books.google.ca/books?hl=en&lr=&id=b0WdAAAAMAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=national+reading+panel&ots=RbeDktS16q&sig=8Zoa11oCqwG6J6CaTX5d-f5qrcE#v=onepage&q=national%20reading%20panel&f=false">tasked with reviewing over 100,000 studies on reading by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development</a> summarized decades of research about how to best teach children how to read. </p>
<p>Recent research <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100618772271">continues to support their findings</a> that the best results in teaching children to read are found through systemic, direct instruction and intervention <a href="http://reading.uoregon.edu/big_ideas/">focusing on five areas</a>: </p>
<ol>
<li><p><strong>phonemic awareness</strong> (knowing that words are made up of sounds: cat = /c/ /a/ /t/);</p></li>
<li><p><strong>decoding</strong> (connecting letters with sounds to sound out words);</p></li>
<li><p><strong>fluency</strong> (reading quickly, accurately and with expression);</p></li>
<li><p><strong>vocabulary</strong> (knowing what lots of words mean);</p></li>
<li><p>and <strong>comprehension</strong> (understanding both simple direct information and less direct inferences of text). </p></li>
</ol>
<p>Unfortunately, students do not always receive such systemic instruction. For example, the Ontario Human Rights Commission is currently investigating whether students who have reading difficulties <a href="http://www.ohrc.on.ca/en/right-read-public-inquiry-on-reading-disabilities">experience human rights violations as a result of schools not screening and providing early interventions</a>. </p>
<p>In Canada, <a href="http://www.cmec.ca/Publications/Lists/Publications/Attachments/201/key-factors-literacy-school-aged.pdf">no province has specific requirements for training or necessary competencies necessary for teachers to be prepared to teach reading</a>, and many elementary school teachers report feeling inadequately prepared to teach reading and even less prepared to support children who struggle. </p>
<p>A 2019 survey by the International Literacy Association of 1,443 literacy experts (including teachers) from 65 countries showed that <a href="https://www.literacyworldwide.org/docs/default-source/resource-documents/whatshotreport_2020_final.pdf">60 per cent don’t think teacher training programs are “equipping educators with the skills they need for effective reading instruction.</a>”</p>
<h2>If your child is struggling with reading</h2>
<p><a href="http://reading.uoregon.edu/big_ideas/">Here are some supports</a> you can provide: </p>
<p><strong>Play with words:</strong> Teaching children to rhyme and to pull apart the sounds of words and add new sounds develops phonemic awareness, which is foundational to developing decoding skills.</p>
<p><strong>Read to your children and with your children:</strong> This helps children associate reading with positive feelings of spending time with caring adults.</p>
<p><strong>Spend time reading yourself:</strong> Set an example that reading is valuable and enjoyable.</p>
<p><strong>Talk with your children:</strong> Talking with your children about the world around them, science and literature helps them to develop strong vocabulary skills.</p>
<p><strong>Play word games with your children:</strong> There are free <a href="https://pbskids.org/">online word games</a> that can support reading development, but it is much better to engage in these with your children rather than have your children use them alone.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/315758/original/file-20200217-10980-rl1rbd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/315758/original/file-20200217-10980-rl1rbd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/315758/original/file-20200217-10980-rl1rbd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/315758/original/file-20200217-10980-rl1rbd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/315758/original/file-20200217-10980-rl1rbd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/315758/original/file-20200217-10980-rl1rbd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/315758/original/file-20200217-10980-rl1rbd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Teaching children to rhyme and to pull apart the sounds of words helps build reading skills.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>If your child still struggles</h2>
<p>Sometimes children <a href="https://www.dyslexiacanada.org/">struggle to learn to read</a> <a href="https://www.ldac-acta.ca/">even when they have good supports in place</a>. For example, children in dual language programs or children whose schooling is not in their first language often have a normal delay in reading.</p>
<p>If your child appears to struggle to progress through their age-appropriate school curriculum, first <a href="https://www.readingrockets.org/article/early-signs-reading-difficulty">consider if you notice common areas that suggest reading difficulty</a>:</p>
<p><strong>Early language difficulty:</strong> A large number of children with language delays also have difficulty learning to read.</p>
<p><strong>Difficulty with phonological awareness:</strong> Difficulty with rhyming, hearing the syllables in words, pulling apart the sounds in letters and putting sounds together to make a word suggest that your child may have difficulty learning to read. </p>
<p><strong>Difficulty with decoding:</strong> If your children have difficulty sounding out words or learning the connection between letters and their sounds in grade one, then they may be at risk for learning to read.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/new-research-suggests-three-profiles-of-communication-delays-in-early-childhood-115769">New research suggests three profiles of communication delays in early childhood</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>If you think your child has difficulty with several of theses areas, discuss your concerns with your child’s teacher. If you have continued concerns, consider:</p>
<p><strong>Assessment:</strong> You can seek out an assessment through your school board or a private provider. Many university training clinics and some non-profit organizations offer lower-cost assessments.</p>
<p><strong>Intervention:</strong> Look for reading interventions provided by your school or seek out private tutoring. </p>
<p><strong>Advocate:</strong> Do not wait until your child is failing and falling behind to advocate for intervention and/or assessment. Early intervention has very high success rates for supporting reading development, but it is much more difficult to improve reading skills in older students.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/130986/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gabrielle Wilcox does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Early intervention with reading challenges has very high success rates for supporting reading development, but it is much more difficult to improve reading skills in older students.
Gabrielle Wilcox, Associate Professor, Werklund School of Education, University of Calgary
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/126292
2019-12-02T15:56:14Z
2019-12-02T15:56:14Z
Sadfishing: frequently sharing deeply emotional posts online may be a sign of a deeper psychological issue
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/304674/original/file-20191202-67034-oithax.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=11%2C0%2C7928%2C5304&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">"Sadfishing" is when a person posts deeply emotional, personal content online in order to get attention or sympathy. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/red-heart-like-symbols-on-blank-1211656696?src=5052f86a-d581-464a-a541-0f2b841d6159-1-92">Kostsov/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When Kendall Jenner recently shared a series of <a href="https://www.instagram.com/p/BswTPcNDbuH/?utm_source=ig_embed">emotionally-charged Instagram posts</a> about her experiences with acne, the 24-year-old model was immediately accused by many online observers of “sadfishing” – particularly because the post was a paid brand partnership with a skincare product used to treat acne. </p>
<p>Although the term “sadfishing” is relatively recent – coined at the beginning of 2019 by <a href="https://metro.co.uk/2019/01/21/sadfishing-social-media-trend-making-misery-profitabl-8367931/">writer Rebecca Reid</a> – many people are probably familiar with the act of fishing for sympathy online, whether they’ve seen it happen, or are guilty of it themselves. Reid defines sadfishing as the act of posting sensitive, emotional personal material online to gain sympathy or attention from the online community.</p>
<blockquote><p>Lots of us sadfish sometimes, and that’s okay. Attention seeking is a perfectly legitimate thing. There’s nothing wrong with wanting attention.</p>— Rebecca Reid (@RebeccaCNReid) <a href="https://twitter.com/RebeccaCNReid/status/1178967554808778753?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">October 1, 2019</a></blockquote>
<p>However, sadfishing is increasingly being used to accuse people of attention-seeking, to criticise people, or to belittle a person’s online content – whether they were actually sadfishing or not. When Justin Bieber made a post <a href="https://www.instagram.com/p/B17JfkkHEKt/?utm_source=ig_embed">detailing his mental health struggles</a>, for example, he was met with a variety of responses, including accusations of sadfishing. However, it’s almost impossible to know if someone is genuinely sadfishing or not. And everyone from regular people to politicians and entertainers have been accused of sadfishing for attention or trying to exaggerate the importance of a particular issue. </p>
<p>The concept of online “sadfishing” is relatively new, which means there’s currently no research examining these behaviours. However, parallels can be drawn with sadfishing and general attention-seeking behaviour, where a person acts out to gain attention, sympathy, or validation from others. <a href="https://dsm.psychiatryonline.org/doi/book/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596">Attention-seeking behaviour</a> is associated with low self-esteem, loneliness, narcissism, or Machiavellianism (the desire to manipulate other people).</p>
<p>However, it’s difficult to understand the motivations of social media users just by reading through their posts or online activity. It might be the case that so-called sadfishing posts are intended to genuinely highlight an important or sensitive issue, such as depression or anxiety. Others might simply be sharing information with little regard for the response it might generate. Some so-called sadfishing posts might even exist only to exploit or provoke readers.</p>
<h2>Attention-seeking and sadfishing</h2>
<p>Although everyone can be guilty of sadfishing, celebrities are more commonly accused of sadfishing by online users, especially if they’ve shared personal details about struggles they’ve faced. These accusations can often become hostile, with many celebrities becoming victims of online abuse as a result. But what impact does even just observing online abuse have on observers?</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/little-mix-member-jesy-nelson-confronts-the-harsh-realities-of-online-abuse-and-shes-not-alone-123555">Little Mix member Jesy Nelson confronts the harsh realities of online abuse – and she's not alone</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2019.09.020">Recent research</a> had participants read a series of celebrity tweets, some of which were emotionally negative. They were then asked to judge if these celebrities were to blame for any abuse that they received. The study found that the way a person perceived the severity of online abuse depended upon how strongly they exhibited narcissism, Machiavellianism, or psychopathy – the so-called <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/gb/basics/dark-triad">“dark triad”</a>. Results showed that people who exhibited higher dark triad characteristics gave less sympathy to celebrities. </p>
<p>It’s likely that if a person exhibits these dark triad personality traits, they will be more likely to judge posts as less genuine, or an example of sadfishing. It’s also likely that these traits influence whether or not a person is a sadfisher. People who score high in narcissism and Machiavellianism are more like to <a href="http://www.fortunejournals.com/articles/exploring-the-dark-side-relationships-between-the-dark-triad-traits-and-cluster-b-personality-disorder-features.pdf">exhibit attention-seeking behaviour</a> – which may mean they’re more likely to sadfish.</p>
<p>But like real-world attention-seeking behaviour, sadfishing might reflect a deeper problem, such as a personality disorder. For example, <a href="https://icd.who.int/browse10/2016/en#/F60.4">histrionic personality disorder</a> is characterised by high levels of attention-seeking, and begins in early adulthood. These people have an excessive need for approval, are dramatic, exaggerate, and long for appreciation.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/304677/original/file-20191202-67017-2zw2ce.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/304677/original/file-20191202-67017-2zw2ce.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/304677/original/file-20191202-67017-2zw2ce.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/304677/original/file-20191202-67017-2zw2ce.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/304677/original/file-20191202-67017-2zw2ce.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/304677/original/file-20191202-67017-2zw2ce.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/304677/original/file-20191202-67017-2zw2ce.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">‘Sadfishing’ could be a sign of a deeper issue.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/portrait-sad-girl-smartphone-one-hand-1508704817?src=cce4ed71-d2c9-4f48-96a5-eb0f90754cdf-1-7">Elena_Goncharova</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Sadfishers may be hard to recognise, unless they admit to these behaviours openly. Although presenting sensitive or deeply personal information publicly might lead to accusations of sadfishing, it’s possible that these accusations may be incorrect. Wrongly accusing someone of sadfishing when they’ve genuinely reached out for support – rather than for attention – can have a <a href="https://www.hmc.org.uk/blog/new-daukhmc-report-identifies-latest-online-trends/">powerful impact on that person’s health</a>.</p>
<p>A person wrongly accused of sadfishing may be at risk of <a href="https://www.hmc.org.uk/blog/new-daukhmc-report-identifies-latest-online-trends/">experiencing lowered self-esteem, anxiety, and shame</a>. They might also be discouraged from seeking support from family, friends, partners, or support workers. </p>
<p>But people who deliberately “go sadfishing” should know their actions can potentially <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/facebook-emotions-are-contagious/">effect the well-being of others</a>. Posting deeply emotional content, such as about serious health concerns, might also cause readers to experience anxiety, physical or mental stress. Although social media can provide a supportive place for people to talk about their mental health or other health issues, it’s important to know that disingenous posts could do more harm than good.</p>
<p>Social media users should think carefully about what information they share and with who. Those genuinely needing support might find it better to reach out to people close to them privately as they might be able to <a href="https://www.mind.org.uk/information-support/guides-to-support-and-services/seeking-help-for-a-mental-health-problem/talking-to-friends-family/#.XeUemuj7TIU">provide support</a>, or even share their own experiences. It’s also important to make contact with support services such as healthcare providers or professional support groups.</p>
<p>Despite its new name, sadfishing is simply just a new label for attention seeking. This deliberate attention seeking can have a negative impact on both the person writing the post, and those reading it. </p>
<hr>
<p><em>If you or someone you know is experiencing depression or suicidal thoughts as a result of cyber-bullying, phone Samaritans on 116 123. Young people under the age of 19 can also phone Childline on 0800 1111. These services operate 24 hours a day, seven days a week.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/126292/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Christopher Hand does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
“Sadfishers” are people who post sensitive or emotional personal material online to gain sympathy or attention. But this behaviour might actually indicate a deeper psychological issue.
Christopher Hand, Lecturer, Psychology, Glasgow Caledonian University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/113041
2019-03-17T18:50:39Z
2019-03-17T18:50:39Z
Women can build positive body image by controlling what they view on social media
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/263540/original/file-20190313-86693-6utk6k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">It is possible to limit your bombardment with images of bodies that feel way out of reach – so choose wisely who you follow. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/-FRlERefnNg">hannah grace / unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Social media use is often described as being problematic for mental health and body image. But is all social media use bad?</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444819826530" title="#BoPo on Instagram: An experimental investigation of the effects of viewing body positive content on young women’s mood and body image">Our new research</a> shows that viewing body positive Instagram content may actually <em>improve</em> women’s body image, at least in the short term.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-ideal-female-body-type-is-getting-even-harder-to-attain-91373">The ideal female body type is getting even harder to attain</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>With more awareness, social media users might be able to curate a social media environment that promotes positive body image by unfollowing or blocking idealised accounts, and following more body positive accounts – possibly including more <a href="https://www.instagram.com/celestebarber/">Celeste Barbour</a> – on Instagram.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/263538/original/file-20190313-86703-vlocti.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/263538/original/file-20190313-86703-vlocti.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/263538/original/file-20190313-86703-vlocti.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263538/original/file-20190313-86703-vlocti.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263538/original/file-20190313-86703-vlocti.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263538/original/file-20190313-86703-vlocti.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263538/original/file-20190313-86703-vlocti.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263538/original/file-20190313-86703-vlocti.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Celeste Barbour runs an account on Instagram where she parodies the images celebrities post on their own social media.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.instagram.com/celestebarber/?hl=en">Celeste Barbour (screen shot taken March 13 2019)</a></span>
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</figure>
<h2>Chasing ‘the ideal’</h2>
<p>Body image concerns are common among young women and can have serious negative consequences. Most young women use social media <a href="http://www.pewinternet.org/2018/03/01/social-media-use-in-2018/">daily</a>, and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2017.10.002">research</a> suggests that viewing idealised appearance-focused content is associated with poorer body image. </p>
<p>That is, following accounts like the Kardashians/Jenners, fitspiration, or influencers and friends posting glamorous bikini shots, is associated with women being more preoccupied with their appearance and less satisfied with their own bodies. As a result, women may engage in unhealthy dieting or exercise strategies to try and achieve “the ideal” they see in their social media feeds.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-did-the-kardashian-jenner-family-become-so-successful-a-psychologist-explains-92377">How did the Kardashian Jenner family become so successful? A psychologist explains</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>The rise of BoPo</h2>
<p>Recently, a new trend has emerged on social media called “body positivity” (or “BoPo”). </p>
<p>Body positivity aims to challenge narrow beauty ideals and encourage acceptance and appreciation of bodies of all shapes, sizes, and appearances. BoPo accounts such as <a href="https://www.instagram.com/bodyposipanda/">@bodyposipanda</a> (with over 1 million followers), have become particularly popular on Instagram. </p>
<p>A search for the hashtag #bodypositive returns almost 9 million posts, and #effyourbeautystandards (popularised by body positive activist <a href="https://www.instagram.com/tessholliday/">Tess Holiday</a>) generates almost 4 million posts. </p>
<p>A recent <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2019.02.007">content analysis</a> of body positive content on Instagram shows that these posts do indeed depict a broad range of body sizes and appearances. Content includes: </p>
<ul>
<li><p>selfies of women proudly displaying their belly rolls and cellulite</p></li>
<li><p>before and after photos of “real” vs “edited” bodies, encouraging awareness of the common use of Photoshop on Instagram</p></li>
<li><p>self-compassion quotes</p></li>
<li><p>images focusing on body functionality (what the body can <em>do</em> rather than what it looks like).</p></li>
</ul>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/263798/original/file-20190314-123525-1edu6ph.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/263798/original/file-20190314-123525-1edu6ph.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263798/original/file-20190314-123525-1edu6ph.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263798/original/file-20190314-123525-1edu6ph.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263798/original/file-20190314-123525-1edu6ph.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263798/original/file-20190314-123525-1edu6ph.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263798/original/file-20190314-123525-1edu6ph.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Bodyposipanda is a BoPo Instagram account with over one million followers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.instagram.com/p/BbnE-FAhVWf/">Megan Jayne Crabb on Instagram</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>But do women feel better?</h2>
<p>Although body positive content is intended to make women feel better about their appearance, there had been no research confirming whether this was actually the case. </p>
<p>In our <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444819826530">new study</a>, 195 young women (18-30 years old) viewed either body positive content, idealised content with thin women, or appearance-neutral content taken from Instagram. </p>
<p>Before and after viewing this content we asked women to rate their mood, body satisfaction, and the extent to which they focused on their appearance (known as self-objectification). </p>
<p>We found that brief exposure to body positive Instagram posts resulted in improved body image and mood in young women, compared to idealised and appearance-neutral posts. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/263797/original/file-20190314-123525-1cuqmgr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/263797/original/file-20190314-123525-1cuqmgr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263797/original/file-20190314-123525-1cuqmgr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263797/original/file-20190314-123525-1cuqmgr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263797/original/file-20190314-123525-1cuqmgr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=553&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263797/original/file-20190314-123525-1cuqmgr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=553&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263797/original/file-20190314-123525-1cuqmgr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=553&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Not many of us will ever look like this in a bikini.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.instagram.com/p/BsvYc2kBEzV/">G A B R I E L L E on Instagram</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Women who viewed body positive posts felt more satisfied with their bodies, were more appreciative of the unique functions and health of their bodies, and had more positive mood. In contrast, those who viewed idealised Instagram posts had poorer body image and mood. </p>
<p>Although this study found positive results for body image, it also showed that body positive content can make women more focused on their physical appearance over other aspects of themselves. </p>
<p>This has been a <a href="https://www.huffpost.com/entry/what-is-body-neutrality_n_5b61d8f9e4b0de86f49d31b4">criticism</a> of body positive accounts in the past, with some suggesting that it may be better to focus on aspects of the self that are unrelated to physical appearance in order to improve well-being. </p>
<p>We need more research to determine the effects of body positive content over time and to explore what types of posts are more helpful than others. </p>
<h2>Curate your own environment</h2>
<p>Given the popularity of social media among young women, we need to understand the type of use that may be helpful or harmful for body image. Unlike traditional media formats (like magazines and televison), social media users are active content creators and have agency in what they post and view. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-body-ideals-shape-the-health-of-gay-men-108393">How body ideals shape the health of gay men</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Interestingly, another <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2019.03.001">recent study</a> found that showing women humorous, parody Instagram content (<a href="https://www.instagram.com/celestebarber/">@celestebarber</a>) resulted in improved body image and positive mood, compared to viewing traditional thin celebrity posts. </p>
<p>So, maybe social media is not necessarily all bad? Rather, we need to be more mindful of the content we are consuming. Considered choices about who we follow, and the messages they promote, might actually help us feel better.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/113041/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rachel Cohen receives funding from the Australian Government Research Training Program Scholarship.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amy Slater and Jasmine Fardouly do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Do your Instagram viewing habits trigger joy or guilt? New research shows that viewing body positive content may actually improve women’s body image – at least in the short term.
Rachel Cohen, Clinical Psychologist and PhD Candidate, University of Technology Sydney
Amy Slater, Associate Professor, University of the West of England
Jasmine Fardouly, Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Macquarie University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.