tag:theconversation.com,2011:/au/topics/viticulture-19018/articlesViticulture – The Conversation2024-03-26T00:03:22Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2259972024-03-26T00:03:22Z2024-03-26T00:03:22ZHow climate change could affect the microbes that ferment grapes and give wine its specific flavours<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583911/original/file-20240324-26-w9yap6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=1005%2C143%2C5796%2C2766&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com.au/detail/news-photo/sauvignon-blanc-grapes-on-the-vine-in-the-marlborough-wine-news-photo/527401538?adppopup=true">Getty Images/Tim Clayton</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The far-reaching consequences of climate change inevitably include the production of foods and beverages, including wine. </p>
<p>In New Zealand, winemaking is an important business, with exports worth more than NZ$2 billion per year. </p>
<p>Earlier <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2021.618039">studies</a> have already suggested that grapevine characteristics such as flowering and grape sugar ripeness may be linked to climatic changes. But so far, the microbes that ferment grapes have received little attention.</p>
<p>Our new <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0296859">research</a> explores how yeasts, bacteria and fungi may be affected by changes in temperature and rainfall. </p>
<h2>Microbes, wine and the coveted gold star</h2>
<p>Without microbes, all we have is grape juice.</p>
<p>It is well established that individual strains of yeast (most commonly <em>Saccharomyces cerevisiae</em>) used to ferment grape juice into wine play a major role in the generation of a range of chemical compounds that influence the flavour, aroma and mouthfeel of wine. A “good” strain (or strains) can mean the difference between a gold award or a bottle of plonk.</p>
<p>Conventional commercial winemakers tend to use established strains from yeast suppliers to provide increased assurance for their production schedule and consistency of the final product. Nonetheless, inevitably every batch of juice will already possess its own diverse community of microorganisms, some of which will begin exerting their own influences upon the wine as it develops.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Barrells of fermenting wine" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583913/original/file-20240324-20-3lvuqo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583913/original/file-20240324-20-3lvuqo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583913/original/file-20240324-20-3lvuqo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583913/original/file-20240324-20-3lvuqo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583913/original/file-20240324-20-3lvuqo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583913/original/file-20240324-20-3lvuqo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583913/original/file-20240324-20-3lvuqo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">As wine develops, chemical compounds released by microbial processes influence the flavour and aroma.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock/Rudmer Zwerver</span></span>
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<p>Some winemakers choose to eschew the addition of commercial yeast, relying on the native microflora in and on the grapes to do the job. This process can be referred to as either spontaneous or “wild” fermentation. </p>
<p>In such cases, the role and diversity of these microbes is critical in the development of the wine, and to its quality. Various <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.1317377110">studies</a> have demonstrated that the microbial populations in a given winemaking region can be distinctive, contributing to the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0944501315300185">terroir of the wine</a>. </p>
<p>But what if they change over time and in different climates? </p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/grape-growers-are-adapting-to-climate-shifts-early-and-their-knowledge-can-help-other-farmers-183636">Grape growers are adapting to climate shifts early – and their knowledge can help other farmers</a>
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<h2>Climatic factors and changing microbes</h2>
<p>In collaboration with Greystone Wines, an organic winemaker in North Canterbury, we had the opportunity to explore how microbial ecosystems (yeasts, bacteria and fungi) in organic winemaking changed between vintages. </p>
<p>We set out to test this by analysing must (grape juice sampled during fermentation). We also tested exposure of their Pinot Noir wines to wild microbes in their winery and vineyard during two different years of production, 2018 and 2021.</p>
<p>We then subjected these samples to a molecular genetic process called “metabarcoding”. In this process, universal gene markers found in every single known example of bacteria, fungi and yeast are used to describe the diversity and distribution of microbes in the samples taken at different times of the wine production.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/come-pests-frost-or-fire-how-the-swiss-are-arming-their-wines-against-climate-change-202663">Come pests, frost or fire: How the Swiss are arming their wines against climate change</a>
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<p>The <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0296859">results</a> were striking. Samples taken from the 2018 vintage contained certain organisms that seemed to be completely absent in the 2021 vintage – and vice versa. </p>
<p>We found significant differences between vintages, most striking for bacteria (with 12 of 16 organisms present in one vintage but not the other). For fungi and yeast species, we found six of a total of 12 organisms fluctuating between harvests. </p>
<p>What could cause these differences? We suggest changes in temperature and rainfall play an important role. </p>
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<img alt="Rows of wine in a vineyard" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583914/original/file-20240324-26-fhrz82.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583914/original/file-20240324-26-fhrz82.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583914/original/file-20240324-26-fhrz82.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583914/original/file-20240324-26-fhrz82.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583914/original/file-20240324-26-fhrz82.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583914/original/file-20240324-26-fhrz82.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583914/original/file-20240324-26-fhrz82.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Temperature and moisture influence how well microbes grow.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock/byvalet</span></span>
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<p>Using publicly available climate data on humidity, temperature and rainfall to model climatic differences we determined that especially temperature, but also humidity, may be important factors in influencing the composition of different populations of microbes. The average rainfall during each of the production periods was also very different. </p>
<p>Temperature and moisture are well established elements that influence microbial growth, but to observe such stark differences between populations was a surprise to us.</p>
<h2>Implications of climatic and microbial diversity for wines</h2>
<p>Fermentative yeasts are the major agents converting grape fruit sugar into alcohol, the primary winemaking reaction. As mentioned above, they also help produce a range of other chemicals involved with the overall flavour and perception of the wine. </p>
<p>Different yeast strains will produce different compounds. Even at early stages of fermentation, certain yeasts may affect the overall quality of the wine. Most bacteria are not well adapted to the rather harsh environments of wine (ethanol is toxic, hence its use as a sanitiser); however several may proliferate, and some are known to spoil.</p>
<p>Like yeasts, any bacterium able to grow in grape juice (even for a short time) will secrete chemicals into the wine. Whether or not such chemicals are perceptible, favourable or undesirable to humans depends entirely on the individual chemical. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-change-may-make-bordeaux-red-wines-stronger-and-tastier-215503">Climate change may make Bordeaux red wines stronger and tastier</a>
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</em>
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<p>Some of the organisms observed are expected, with well-known adaptations to the wine environment. However, the dominance of a bacterium (<em>Tatumella</em>)
previously found in winemaking regions abroad is especially striking in the 2021 vintage. Its role is unknown.</p>
<p>What does this mean for the New Zealand, and indeed international, wine industry? We don’t know yet whether the changes in microbial diversity affect the flavour profiles of these two vintages. However, it is prudent to say that changes in microbial populations in winemaking are associated with differences in climatic factors.</p>
<p>It is therefore important we understand the full extent of climate change impacts on winemaking to be better prepared to protect the industry.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225997/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Winemakers need to understand the full extent of climate change impacts on the industry, including how changes in temperature and humidity may affect the microbes that ferment grapes.Stephen On, Professor of Microbiology, Lincoln University, New ZealandManpreet K Dhami, Senior Researcher, Manaaki Whenua - Landcare ResearchLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2129402023-12-11T10:16:12Z2023-12-11T10:16:12ZHow 1930s American scientists came to think about the impact of climate on wine<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553527/original/file-20231012-21-jbnzzm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C29%2C4912%2C3228&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Depending on the region, rising temperatures can have negative or positive effects on wine quality. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">David Kohler/Unsplash</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In Europe and beyond, the notion of <a href="https://www.brgm.fr/en/news/article/good-land-wine-how-geology-can-influence-quality-wine"><em>terroir</em></a> dominates ideas about the origins of the taste and quality of wine. While there’s intense debate over the term, generally it refers to the specific place where grapes are grown. The concept is largely focused on soil, but also includes the layout of the land and the elements to which it is regularly exposed – sun, rain, wind, seasons, and more. And although climate is seen as being part of the equation, the land upon which grapes are grown is its foundation. As such thinking took root over centuries, it was eventually codified into Europe’s <a href="https://www.inao.gouv.fr/Les-signes-officiels-de-la-qualite-et-de-l-origine-SIQO/Appellation-d-origine-protegee-controlee-AOP-AOC"><em>appellation d’origine contrôlée</em></a> (AOC) system, meaning “registered designation of origin”.</p>
<p>While European immigrants have long grown grapes and made wine around the world, the traditional regions were an ocean away, literally. So what could be done to improve wine quality in these new vineyards and wineries? The situation was particularly dire in the United States after the Prohibition forced many of its winemakers out of business.</p>
<h2>A world away</h2>
<p>After the Prohibition repealed in 1933, two scientists, Albert “Wink” Winkler and Maynard Amerine, launched an effort to revitalise California’s wine industry. Winkler was more of the viticulturalist and Amerine the oenologist, but both shared a passion for grapes, wine, and believed that the state could produce wines that rivalled the best of Europe. Their journey led them to collect vine samples from Fresno in the south to Ukiah in the north and westward to the coast. They planted many of these vines in test vineyards to see how they fared in different climatic regions, in order to advise growers on the best grapes for their plot of land. But vines were not the only bounty they sought.</p>
<p>Winkler and Amerine also collected grapes from willing viticulturalists turning them into a library of more than 500 site-specific wines over a decade. By 1943, they had observed enough seasonal variation in the hundreds of small batches of wines that Winkler and Amerine made and tasted every year to recommend specific grape varieties for specific regions. By expanding the vineyards where they collected grapes, they could both measure and taste the difference between vineyards in regions across California.</p>
<p>Winkler came to an epiphany from their sojourns in California’s vineyards and by analysing the wines these fields produce. The research let him to conclude that climate and regional differences were the most important factors in selecting varietals to produce high-quality wines. He came to this conclusion counter-intuitively.</p>
<p>By thinking about Europe and the idea of a “vintage” versus a “non-vintage” year, he realised the only thing that changed in the vineyard (not the vines, not soil type, not soil quality, not soil drainage) was the weather and, in particular, a vintage year was warmer in places like Bordeaux and Burgundy. He applied this same logic to California as he tasted the same grape in different regions and found some varieties like Zinfandel produced better wines in cooler climates in northern and coastal California while others like Alicante bouchés, which produced sweet wines, fared better in warmer, arguably hot, climates inland and in southern California. This observation had global impact.</p>
<h2>Knowing what to grow</h2>
<p>With Winkler’s development of a heat-based index, he and Amerine advised would-be California wine makers – from Gallo to Mondavi – not just on the varieties they should plant (or pull out) but also which ones would produce the best wines in their particular locations. The <a href="https://winedataresearcher.com/why-the-winkler-index-matters-to-the-wine-world/">Winker Index</a> rapidly transformed not just California vineyards but vineyards across the world as viticulturalists and oenologists paid more attention to the climate. In New World regions, it allowed them to choose varieties that produced wines best suited to the climate, thus improving the overall quality of wine.</p>
<p>But their research had an even deeper impact on varietal selection. Although the Winkler Index measured the temperature across the growing season, it was the taste and aroma of the wines in their wine library that was at the heart of their conclusions. In measuring the <a href="https://oeno-one.eu/article/view/7399">acid/sugar ratio</a> among other compounds in their wines, Amerine and Winkler judged how climate was reflected in the wines they swirled and sipped and how their wines changed over time, especially in years when the weather deviated from the norm.</p>
<p>These early observations on heat and its influence on wine quality allow historians, wine makers, and climate researchers to conclude that not only is the climate warming, but how a warming climate is changing the taste of wine based not just on acid/sugar ratios – though they are – but how hotter, sunnier growing season are increasing sugar in grapes, the alcohol in wine and reducing acidity, throwing wines out of balance. A vineyard that may have consistently produced high-quality wines from the 1930s through the 1990s now produced inconsistent wine.</p>
<p>The opposite can also be true: A region like Bordeaux, which was historically plagued by erratic weather, sometimes losing entire vintages to hail, frost or cold summers, <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/climate-change-french-wine-taste-better">now had more consistent yields</a>, smoothing the difference between a vintage and a non-vintage year. Even inexpensive wines in Bordeaux benefited from warmer growing seasons because more grapes fully ripened.</p>
<p>Of course, as the climate warms, that impact has other negative consequences. Hotter weather reduces the acidity of wines making them flat, flabby, or turgid. An example of mitigating low acidity is Bordeaux’s experiment allowing new varieties to be blended into their iconic – and legislated – varieties of reds and whites to increase acidity and rebalance overripe wines.</p>
<h2>Where there’s fire there’s smoke</h2>
<p>An even more difficult and frightening consequence of a warming climate are wildfires. While fires do not always destroy vineyards (grapes are just spheres of water, after all), the smoke can contaminate wine made near wildfires, resulting in <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2113327118">smoke-tainted wine</a> – it tastes something like burnt rubber, cigarette ash or other unpleasant flavours. Once smoke has wafted into the vineyard and engulfed ripening grapes, it is impossible to remove. Worse, winemakers cannot tell if the wine will be smoke tainted by tasting the grapes themselves, as fermentation also affects how foul a wine will taste.</p>
<p>Though scientists around the world are trying to find a solution, they still do not understand exactly what makes a wine taste smoke tainted or how to mitigate it. It’s become a growing concern given the rising number of fires in wine-growing regions, including <a href="https://edition.cnn.com/2020/10/11/us/california-wildfires-wineries/index.html">California</a> in 2020, <a href="https://www.rfi.fr/en/france/20210824-provence-wine-producers-weigh-up-losses-after-deadly-wildfires-in-france-ros%C3%A9-french-riviera">France</a> in 2021, and <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/wildfire-leaves-sense-total-destruction-spanish-winemaker-says-2022-07-21/">Spain</a> in 2022. The same year two wildfires burned more than <a href="https://www.icare.univ-lille.fr/wildfires-in-southwest-france-july-2022/">20,000 hectares of forest</a> in France’s Bordeaux region. Tests indicated that that year’s harvest <a href="https://www.rfi.fr/en/france/20220831-bordeaux-wine-harvest-will-not-have-a-smoky-taste-after-summer-wildfires-winemakers-say">shouldn’t be affected</a>, but the coming years promise to be difficult for winemakers.</p>
<h2>Adapting to a changing world</h2>
<p>It is only because Winkler severed the link between wine and terroir that wine growers had the vision to plant and produce world-renowned wine made in places like <a href="https://visitcanberra.com.au/things-to-do/canberras-wine-region">Canberra</a>, Australia; <a href="https://www.winetourism.com/wine-region/mendoza/">Mendoza</a>, Argentina; <a href="https://www.wine-searcher.com/regions-sussex">Sussex</a>, England; and <a href="https://www.wineningxia.com/">Ningxia</a>, China.</p>
<p>Given that climate change is already changing the weather in Europe’s wine-growing regions – the ones whose methods and very identity are most closely linked to traditional notions of <em>terroir</em> – research is also seeking to help wine makers adapt to a changing world. It’s a process that’s already taking place, not only in the <a href="https://www.terraview.co/gdd-and-winkler-index-update/">Winkler Index itself</a>, but even in the <a href="https://www.yahoo.com/lifestyle/france-changes-aoc-rules-allow-153919195.html">venerable AOC system</a>. <em>Plus ça change</em>…</p>
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<p><em>This article is the result of The Conversation’s collaboration with <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/research-and-innovation/en/horizon-magazine">Horizon</a>, the EU research and innovation magazine. In February, the authors published an <a href="https://projects.research-and-innovation.ec.europa.eu/en/horizon-magazine/wine-connoisseurs-face-testing-times-climate-change-alters-flavours">interview with the magazine</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/212940/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gabriella Maria Petrick a reçu des financements de EU Horizon 2020 MSCA project number 896298. </span></em></p>While the notion of terroir has long been the foundation of European wine, research in the 1930s in the US began to reveal the link between climate and wine.Gabriella Maria Petrick, Research Fellow Ruhr University Bochum, University of StavangerLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2002522023-02-27T19:15:42Z2023-02-27T19:15:42ZCyclone Gabrielle hit NZ’s main fruit-growing region hard – now orchardists face critical climate choices<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512302/original/file-20230226-4657-99m1px.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=9%2C123%2C6316%2C3869&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Kerry Marshall/Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Hawke’s Bay, one of New Zealand’s most productive regions and the hub of the fruit-growing sector, is among the areas worst hit by Cyclone Gabrielle and ongoing rain. </p>
<p>Horticulture underpins the local economy, with apple earnings alone contributing around NZ$700m annually. The immediate destruction of crops from the heavy wind and rain is obvious. But the full extent of the long-term damage to trees and vines themselves is yet to fully assessed. </p>
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<p>With metres of silt covering the land, smothering crops and potentially suffocating the root systems of fruit trees, it’s clear the impacts will be severe. </p>
<p>Horticulture will take longer to recover than pasture, which can be grown back on the affected land. Fruit trees have deep roots and require a functioning soil structure, which may have been destroyed by the silt. Recent <a href="https://www.nzherald.co.nz/business/cyclone-gabrielle-the-7-billion-horticulture-industry-takes-a-hammering/B5V33PMPBNDBNNMUFWQM26MWO4/">media coverage</a> suggests the industry could take 50 to 100 years to fully recover, but during that time, we know there will be more extreme weather events. </p>
<p>The region has already been dealing with variable weather, including a severe frost in October that caused considerable damage to kiwifruit crops. </p>
<p>In the immediate weeks after the cyclone, growers will be busy removing silt from the base of trees to avoid the roots suffocating from a lack of oxygen. Prospects of harvesting for those hit hard are likely to be low – even without the destruction of crops, getting machinery into the orchards will be difficult. </p>
<p>Beyond the immediate clean-up, some fruit growers may need to consider whether this is a “window” for changing the type of crop or system. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A flooded house, paddock and trees in the Hawke's Bay." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512303/original/file-20230226-2989-tp0oxv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512303/original/file-20230226-2989-tp0oxv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512303/original/file-20230226-2989-tp0oxv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512303/original/file-20230226-2989-tp0oxv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512303/original/file-20230226-2989-tp0oxv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512303/original/file-20230226-2989-tp0oxv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512303/original/file-20230226-2989-tp0oxv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">New Zealand’s main fruit-growing region has been hit hard by Cyclone Gabrielle.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Kerry Marshall/Getty Images</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Adaptation to a changing climate</h2>
<p>Recovery will range from clearing the damage and possibly salvaging trees and vines to complete loss of orchards. The cost of replanting is eye-watering, and likely to be prohibitive for many. One Hawke’s Bay farmer <a href="https://www.nzherald.co.nz/hawkes-bay-today/news/an-industry-on-its-knees-hawkes-bay-horticulture-wiped-out/UBGTSMSDEJFNTFFIF24ENUINRY/">estimated</a> it will take three years to replant an 11-hectare apple orchard, at a cost of $180,000 to $250,000 per hectare. </p>
<p>Given the significant investment and the long life of fruit trees, there is a more strategic question to be asked about replanting the same crops in the same areas.</p>
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<p>Hawke’s Bay has long been treasured for its highly valuable and diverse soils, resulting in the abundance of fruit grown in the region. But a changing climate may mean some of these areas will become less suitable over the coming decades. </p>
<p>Researchers are developing a growing understanding of the changing suitability for a range of crops during the remainder of the century. Assessments of suitability are based on projections of climate variables such as temperature, precipitation and frost days. All these represent gradual changes in growing conditions. </p>
<p>We are already observing fewer frost days, which is making the region <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/01140671.2017.1368672">less suitable for certain kiwifruit varieties</a>. This is likely to be even more pronounced in the future. For apples, decreased chill is likely to be the biggest driver of change.</p>
<h2>More intense weather will be part of the future</h2>
<p>These projections do not, however, include extreme weather events such as Cyclone Gabrielle. In a changing climate, we know extremes will occur more often and may be more intense. </p>
<p>Although climate change doesn’t generate more cyclones, it can make them <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo779">more intense</a>. Even without these extreme events, rainfall is likely be become more variable and <a href="https://environment.govt.nz/publications/climate-change-projections-for-new-zealand/">periods of heavy rainfall may increase</a>.</p>
<p>Growers looking to get back on their feet after this highly disruptive event would benefit from understanding what the future is likely to hold for their region. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="People clearing silt from a farm driveway" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512305/original/file-20230226-4942-xbycv0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512305/original/file-20230226-4942-xbycv0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512305/original/file-20230226-4942-xbycv0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512305/original/file-20230226-4942-xbycv0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512305/original/file-20230226-4942-xbycv0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512305/original/file-20230226-4942-xbycv0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512305/original/file-20230226-4942-xbycv0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Some orchards may take years to recover, but during this time, there will likely be more heavy rainfall.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Kerry Marshall/Getty Images</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Industry bodies have a role here to support their growers’ knowledge and awareness of options and processes for adaptation. The horticulture sector has developed an <a href="https://www.hortnz.co.nz/about-us/aotearoa-horticulture-action-plan/">action plan</a> that recognises the need to develop new techniques and consider new growing regions, underpinned by scientific evidence. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/extreme-heat-and-rain-thousands-of-weather-stations-show-theres-now-more-of-both-for-longer-141869">Extreme heat and rain: thousands of weather stations show there's now more of both, for longer</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Opportunity to do things differently</h2>
<p>We’ll need to tackle adaption to climate change at all levels to ensure horticulture can continue to thrive in Hawke’s Bay. Growers may reconsider the types of crops planted, where they are grown or the way they are grown. </p>
<p>Some growers are already developing covered systems to provide protection from some elements (but which may not withstand events such as Gabrielle). </p>
<p>We must also consider the role of stop banks. They allow the development of land in potentially flood-prone areas, which may lead to a false sense of security and greater damage if they are inadequate for projected water volumes.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/grape-growers-are-adapting-to-climate-shifts-early-and-their-knowledge-can-help-other-farmers-183636">Grape growers are adapting to climate shifts early – and their knowledge can help other farmers</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>There is increasing interest in returning riparian areas to their natural state to buffer against flooding, while also generating ecological benefits. But when the land protected by stop banks is as valuable as it is in Hawke’s Bay, this will be a challenging conversation. </p>
<p>With the increasingly disruptive weather Aotearoa New Zealand is already facing, and the <a href="https://environment.govt.nz/publications/climate-change-projections-for-new-zealand/">changes expected over the next decades</a>, it is crucial the decisions we make today do not make us more vulnerable in the future.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/200252/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anita Wreford receives funding from the Deep South National Science Challenge.</span></em></p>Horticulture underpins the local economy in areas devastated by Cyclone Gabrielle. Climate change may mean some parts of the region will become less suitable for crop production during this century.Anita Wreford, Professor Applied Economics, Lincoln University, New ZealandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1748792022-01-24T03:26:26Z2022-01-24T03:26:26ZNatural wines: how are they made and what’s the deal with sulfites? An expert explains<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/440597/original/file-20220113-44941-781wf2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C25%2C5599%2C3699&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>I was first introduced to natural wines in Paris about 20 years ago. My initial tasting experience did little to convince me this approach to winemaking would survive. Many showed faults reflecting oxidation or yeast- or bacterial-derived odours that smelled “off”.</p>
<p>The natural winemaking strategy has matured dramatically since then and the wines are now making significant <a href="https://www.winemag.com/2020/02/12/best-australian-natural-wine">inroads</a> in Australia. In <a href="https://punchdrink.com/articles/the-best-natural-wine-bars-in-paris">Paris</a> and in <a href="https://www.cntraveller.com/gallery/best-natural-wine-france">France</a> generally, natural wines have gone from strength to strength.</p>
<p>The natural wine movement in Australia is being driven by consumers from varied backgrounds who, <a href="https://www.theshout.com.au/news/natural-wine-winning-consumers-with-authenticity-and-truth/">according</a> to one winemaker, demand “transparency and truth around the winemaking process”. Authenticity of the final product is key.</p>
<p>But how are natural wines made, and what makes them “natural”? </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-drives-our-wine-choice-taste-or-the-price-tag-35252">What drives our wine choice – taste, or the price tag?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Natural winemaking</h2>
<p>The overall goal in natural wine production is to have <a href="http://bellina-alimentari.com/what-is-natural-wine/">as little human intervention as possible</a> in the journey from the vineyard to the wine.</p>
<p>Grapes must be harvested manually from a vineyard managed by either organic practice or under biodynamic principles (such as those outlined <a href="https://cdn.theconversation.com/static_files/files/1936/Organic_and_Biodynamic_Wines.pdf?1642743103">here</a>).</p>
<p>Once the grapes are crushed, fermentation is carried out by indigenous – sometimes called “wild” – yeasts on the skin of the grapes. In some styles, grape stalks may be included in the ferment.</p>
<p>These practices alone, however, are not unique to the natural winemaking process; they’re sometimes used in production of conventional wines, too. </p>
<p>But in conventional winemaking, a wide range of <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-makes-a-vegan-friendly-wine-vegan-and-hows-it-different-to-conventional-wine-174468">processing aids and additives</a> may be used.</p>
<p>And this is the point of difference: in natural winemaking, no additions are made.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/440802/original/file-20220113-27-ar1gi2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A person holds a bunch of red grapes." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/440802/original/file-20220113-27-ar1gi2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/440802/original/file-20220113-27-ar1gi2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440802/original/file-20220113-27-ar1gi2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440802/original/file-20220113-27-ar1gi2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440802/original/file-20220113-27-ar1gi2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440802/original/file-20220113-27-ar1gi2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440802/original/file-20220113-27-ar1gi2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Once the grapes are crushed, fermentation is carried out by indigenous - sometimes called ‘wild’ – yeasts on the skin of the grapes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Processing aids and additives</h2>
<p>The <a href="http://bellina-alimentari.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/AttachmentLineup11.13.jpg">image here</a> demonstrates this clearly. The list of processes and additives decreases markedly as one moves from conventional through organic, biodynamic to natural winemaking.</p>
<p>For natural wines, once the fermentation is finished, the wine is left enclosed for the waste grape material and dead yeast cells to settle before being decanted into clean vessels for bottling. </p>
<p>Some winemakers will use a simple cloth-type filtration to remove larger particles. High-tech filtration techniques, such as membrane or <a href="https://grapeworks.com.au/news/winemaking/filtration-methods-in-winemaking">cross-flow filtration</a>, are not allowed.</p>
<p>The resulting unfiltered wine in bottle will be cloudy. </p>
<p>For a conventionally made wine, this would be a definite marketing negative. But for natural wines, it is the norm.</p>
<h2>On the tricky question of sulfites</h2>
<p>A lot of wines contain a compound called sulfites, which can cause an <a href="https://www.allergy.org.au/patients/other-allergy/sulfite-sensitivity-faq">allergic reaction</a> in some people. In winemaking, they serve to reduce oxidation and limit bacterial growth.</p>
<p>The use of sulfites, also commonly called sulfur dioxide, in natural wines is a point of contention. There are many who refuse to use it, because they see it as an additive. Others argue a small addition to what is already present as a by-product of the fermentation can be beneficial.</p>
<p>Wine expert Isabelle Legeron – the first woman in France to have conferred upon her the prestigious title of Master of Wine – is a great <a href="https://www.rawwine.com/pages/isabelle-legeron">advocate for natural wines</a>. </p>
<p>In 2012, she established the <a href="https://www.rawwine.com/pages/our-story">RAW WINE</a> community to support low intervention winemakers. In her monthly wine <a href="https://www.rawwine.com/shop?menu_open=1&country=AUS">recommendations</a>, Legeron lists those with no added sulfites and those with sulfites <a href="https://www.rawwine.com/pages/charter-of-quality">up to 70 mg/litre</a>, somewhat higher than the more common upper limit of 30 mg/litre.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/440599/original/file-20220113-13-1dei2p3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="People pour wine into a glass." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/440599/original/file-20220113-13-1dei2p3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/440599/original/file-20220113-13-1dei2p3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=210&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440599/original/file-20220113-13-1dei2p3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=210&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440599/original/file-20220113-13-1dei2p3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=210&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440599/original/file-20220113-13-1dei2p3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=264&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440599/original/file-20220113-13-1dei2p3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=264&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/440599/original/file-20220113-13-1dei2p3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=264&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In conventional winemaking, a wide range of processing aids and additives may be used. In natural winemaking, no additions are made.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In France, natural wines are now mainstream. Natural wine has, after many years of debate, been given formal recognition there under the designation “<a href="https://www.jancisrobinson.com/articles/natural-wine-defined">Vin Méthode Nature</a>”, a strictly defined term now accepted by key government <a href="https://www.decanter.com/wine-news/natural-wine-receives-formal-recognition-vin-methode-nature-435358/">agencies</a> and regulatory bodies.</p>
<p>There is a <a href="https://vinmethodenature.org/le-label/">12-point commitment charter</a> to which winemakers must adhere to obtain the Vin Méthode Nature endorsement. </p>
<p>There is even a sticker that can be affixed to the bottle, one version of which indicates sulfur dioxide has been added to the wine. </p>
<h2>The taste profile</h2>
<p>Natural wines are different in appearance and taste. Although my early experience to these wines was not always favourable, production methods have matured. While many remain cloudy, as they are unfiltered, the palate structure can show the length and depth that I chase when selecting wine.</p>
<p>In 2017, wine media outlet Decanter <a href="https://www.decanter.com/wine-reviews-tastings/top-rated-natural-wine-368454">reviewed</a> 122 natural wines. The reviewers’ comments were overall positive, endorsing and reinforcing the place of natural wines in an expanding market.</p>
<p>Natural sparkling wines – commonly referred to Pétillant-Naturel or simply Pet Nat – are one of my favourites. Made by the <a href="https://www.winemag.com/2018/08/07/pet-nat-wine-guide/">ancestral method</a>, fermentation begins in an open tank and, at some point, it is transferred to bottle to finish.</p>
<p>The wine is amazingly refreshing, albeit cloudy and lightly sparkling (about half the pressure of champagne). There is no secondary fermentation and no additives – the yeast is indigenous to the grape. </p>
<p>This is pretty much grapes into wine with minimal human intervention.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/appearance-aroma-and-mouthfeel-all-you-need-to-know-to-give-wine-tasting-a-go-172500">Appearance, aroma and mouthfeel: all you need to know to give wine tasting a go</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/174879/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Geoff Scollary does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The overall goal in natural wine production is to have as little human intervention as possible in the journey from the vineyard to the wine.Geoff Scollary, Adjunct Professor, Charles Sturt UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1718232021-12-30T19:16:05Z2021-12-30T19:16:05ZNo, putting a spoon in an open bottle of champagne doesn’t keep it bubbly – but there is a better way<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/433846/original/file-20211125-25-1f9sj9i.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=862%2C0%2C2706%2C1994&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wes Mountain/The Conversation</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>At a recent tasting, I was presenting some sparkling wines from the Limoux region of France, a region that produced sparkling wines at least 100 years before wines from the Champagne region were well known. </p>
<p>Towards the end, I commented that if the bottle is not empty, seal it with a sparkling wine stopper and store it in the refrigerator. The response was: “Why bother to seal it? Just put a spoon in the neck.”</p>
<p>I was somewhat surprised. Although I had heard it suggested previously, I did not think anyone took the idea seriously. </p>
<p>The fact is, it’s a myth to say a spoon in an open bottle of sparkling wine keeps it bubbly. You’re better off buying a proper stopper.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/432293/original/file-20211116-19-4yk0mp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A champagne stopper in a bottle." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/432293/original/file-20211116-19-4yk0mp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/432293/original/file-20211116-19-4yk0mp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432293/original/file-20211116-19-4yk0mp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432293/original/file-20211116-19-4yk0mp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432293/original/file-20211116-19-4yk0mp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432293/original/file-20211116-19-4yk0mp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432293/original/file-20211116-19-4yk0mp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">If you need to store a partly-used bottle, go and buy a proper sparkling wine stopper.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/vineyard-tourism-is-a-big-source-of-carbon-emissions-want-to-help-then-buy-more-wine-164600">Vineyard tourism is a big source of carbon emissions. Want to help? Then buy more wine</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Minimising contact between wine and oxygen</h2>
<p>From my years researching wine chemistry and wine oxidation, I know minimising contact between wine and oxygen is vital for stopping the onset of oxidative spoilage. Sealing the bottle is essential.</p>
<p>The carbon dioxide in sparkling wine is more soluble in wine at a lower temperature, so storing the wine in the refrigerator is also beneficial. In other words, you’ll retain more bubbles if you stick it in the fridge.</p>
<p>Some even claim the teaspoon must be <a href="https://www.thekitchn.com/can-a-silver-spoon-keep-champagne-bubbly-i-decided-to-find-out-200505">silver</a>, not stainless steel, although the basis for this seems highly speculative. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/432294/original/file-20211116-21-ohsx2h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="People clink champagne glasses together at a party." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/432294/original/file-20211116-21-ohsx2h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/432294/original/file-20211116-21-ohsx2h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432294/original/file-20211116-21-ohsx2h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432294/original/file-20211116-21-ohsx2h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432294/original/file-20211116-21-ohsx2h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432294/original/file-20211116-21-ohsx2h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432294/original/file-20211116-21-ohsx2h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">If you plan to keep your leftover sparkling wine, store it properly.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Bubble behaviour</h2>
<p>It is important to note some of the critical features of sparkling wine bubbles. </p>
<p>In his book <a href="https://www.booktopia.com.au/uncorked-gerard-liger-belair/book/9780691158723.html">Uncorked: The Science of Champagne</a>, champagne researcher <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/gerard-liger-belair-141973">Gérard Liger-Belair</a> demonstrated the amount of carbon dioxide lost depends on the way the wine is poured into the glass.</p>
<p>Pouring into a tilted glass retains more carbon dioxide than pouring into a vertical glass. Using bubble imaging techniques, Liger-Belair was able to track the flow of the bubbles in a glass. </p>
<p>He separately showed the bubbles are in fact aerosols (a suspension of fine solid particles or liquid droplets in air) containing aroma compounds that affect the taster’s impression. The release of bubbles even depends on the inside surface of the glass.</p>
<p>Bubble behaviour is therefore complex. Any study on them needs to be replicated to ensure one is measuring a real effect and a one-off.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434052/original/file-20211126-1794-1qv57en.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A person pours champagne into a tilted glass." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434052/original/file-20211126-1794-1qv57en.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434052/original/file-20211126-1794-1qv57en.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434052/original/file-20211126-1794-1qv57en.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434052/original/file-20211126-1794-1qv57en.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434052/original/file-20211126-1794-1qv57en.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434052/original/file-20211126-1794-1qv57en.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434052/original/file-20211126-1794-1qv57en.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The release of bubbles even depends on the inside surface of the glass.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A key study on ‘the myth of the teaspoon’</h2>
<p>One such <a href="https://cdn.theconversation.com/static_files/files/1877/Valade_et_al.pdf?1638229505">study</a> on champagne by Michel Valade and colleagues was published in the periodical Le Vigneron Champenois in 1994. </p>
<p>The work, titled <em>Le mythe de la petite cuillère</em> – the myth of the teaspoon – was designed to address the claim that a teaspoon, preferably a silver one, could (according to my translation):</p>
<blockquote>
<p>defy all the laws of physics and possess some legendary efficiency to protect the bubbles escaping from an open bottle.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>These researchers used three strategies to assess the impact of bubble conservation on the wine: the change in pressure, the loss of weight and sensory analysis. </p>
<p>After opening, the wine was decanted, leaving 500 millilitres in one set and 250 millilitres in a second set.</p>
<p>The wines were then stored at 12°C with four methods to conserve the bubbles: open bottle, silver teaspoon, stainless steel teaspoon, cork stopper (which uses a hermetic seal) and crown seal (a metal lid with crimped edges, like you often see on a beer bottle). Each approach was performed in triplicate.</p>
<p>The researchers then analysed how pressure inside the bottle changed (measured in a unit called atmospheres; 1 atmosphere is about 101 kilopascals). The initial bottle pressure was 6 atmospheres, dropping after decanting to 4 atmospheres when there was 500 millilitres remaining. When only 250 millilitres remained, the pressure was just 2 atmospheres.</p>
<p>After 48 hours storage, the pressure in open bottles and those with a teaspoon inserted in the neck had dropped by a further 50%, indicating a significant loss of bubbles. </p>
<p>Clearly there was no teaspoon effect. Those sealed with a cork stopper or crown seal had a pressure drop of only 10%, demonstrating the significant advantage of using a proper closure.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/432292/original/file-20211116-13-zomvf2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An open champagne bottle emits fizz and gas." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/432292/original/file-20211116-13-zomvf2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/432292/original/file-20211116-13-zomvf2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=316&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432292/original/file-20211116-13-zomvf2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=316&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432292/original/file-20211116-13-zomvf2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=316&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432292/original/file-20211116-13-zomvf2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432292/original/file-20211116-13-zomvf2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432292/original/file-20211116-13-zomvf2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The source of bubbles in sparkling wine is the carbon dioxide released during the secondary fermentation.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These researchers also measured the change in the weight of bottles stored three different ways: fully open, tightly sealed or with an inserted teaspoon.</p>
<p>No decrease in weight was observed for the tightly sealed bottles. But for the fully open bottles and those with a teaspoon in the neck, the loss in weight was significant.</p>
<p>To finalise the evidence to dispel the myth of the teaspoon, the wines were subjected to sensory analysis by expert champagne tasters.</p>
<p>All wines showed some characteristics of oxidation, due to oxygen getting in during opening. However, those sealed with a hermetic seal were clearly more effervescent and livelier than those unsealed or with an inserted teaspoon.</p>
<p>Clearly, the teaspoon effect is a myth.</p>
<p>So, if you need to store a partly-used bottle, go and buy a proper sparkling wine stopper.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/pass-the-shiraz-please-how-australias-wine-industry-can-adapt-to-climate-change-140024">Pass the shiraz, please: how Australia's wine industry can adapt to climate change</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/171823/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Geoff Scollary has received funding from Wine Australia.
I have discussed bubble behaviour with Gerard Liger-Belair at conferences and have written about his work for Chemistry in Australia</span></em></p>From my years researching wine chemistry and wine oxidation, I know making every attempt to minimise contact between wine and oxygen is vital. Sealing the bottle is essential.Geoff Scollary, Adjunct Professor, Charles Sturt UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/891162018-02-13T11:45:07Z2018-02-13T11:45:07ZPrehistoric wine discovered in inaccessible caves forces a rethink of ancient Sicilian culture<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206085/original/file-20180212-58318-1dt1mer.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C58%2C5304%2C3673&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Deep inside Monte Kronio, hot, humid and sulfurous caves held an ancient secret.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Giuseppe Savino, La Venta Esplorazioni Geografiche</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Monte Kronio rises 1,300 feet above the geothermally active landscape of southwestern Sicily. Hidden in its bowels is a labyrinthine system of caves, filled with hot sulfuric vapors. At lower levels, these caves average 99 degrees Fahrenheit and 100 percent humidity. Human sweat cannot evaporate and heat stroke can result in less than 20 minutes of exposure to these underground conditions.</p>
<p>Nonetheless, people have been visiting the caves of Monte Kronio since as far back as 8,000 years ago. They’ve left behind vessels from the Copper Age (early sixth to early third millennium B.C.) as well as various sizes of ceramic storage jars, jugs and basins. In the deepest cavities of the mountain these artifacts sometimes lie with human skeletons.</p>
<p>Archaeologists debate what unknown religious practices these artifacts might be evidence of. Did worshipers sacrifice their lives bringing offerings to placate a mysterious deity who puffed gasses inside Monte Kronio? Or did these people bury high-ranking individuals in that special place, close to what was probably considered a source of magical power?</p>
<p>One of the most puzzling of questions around this prehistoric site has been what those vessels contained. What substance was so precious it might mollify a deity or properly accompany dead chiefs and warriors on their trip to the underworld?</p>
<p>Using tiny samples, scraped from these ancient artifacts, my analysis came up with a surprising answer: wine. And that discovery has big implications for the story archaeologists tell about the people who lived in this time and place.</p>
<h2>Analyzing scraping samples</h2>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/204944/original/file-20180205-14078-1rjx3n4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/204944/original/file-20180205-14078-1rjx3n4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/204944/original/file-20180205-14078-1rjx3n4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=785&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/204944/original/file-20180205-14078-1rjx3n4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=785&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/204944/original/file-20180205-14078-1rjx3n4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=785&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/204944/original/file-20180205-14078-1rjx3n4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=986&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/204944/original/file-20180205-14078-1rjx3n4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=986&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/204944/original/file-20180205-14078-1rjx3n4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=986&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The storage jars and their mysterious contents, left millennia ago in the recesses of Monte Kronio.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Davide Tanasi et al. 2017</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In November 2012, a team of <a href="http://www.laventa.it">expert geographers</a> <a href="http://www.boegan.it">and speleologists</a> ventured once again into the <a href="http://hdl.handle.net/2318/1524671">dangerous underground complex of Monte Kronio</a>. They escorted archaeologists from the Superintendence of Agrigento down more than 300 feet to document artifacts and to take samples. The scientists scraped the inner walls of five ceramic vessels, removing about 100 mg (0.0035 ounces) of powder from each.</p>
<p>I led an international team of scholars, which hoped analyzing this dark brown residue could shed some light on what these Copper Age containers from Monte Kronio originally carried. Our plan was to use cutting-edge chemical techniques to characterize the organic residue.</p>
<p>We decided to use three different approaches. <a href="https://www.chemguide.co.uk/analysis/nmr/background.html">Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy</a> (NMR) would be able to tell us the physical and chemical properties of the atoms and molecules present. We turned to <a href="http://blog.phenom-world.com/edx-analysis-scanning-electron-micrscope-sem">scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy</a> (SEM/EDX) and the <a href="https://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=5958">attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy</a> (ATR FT-IR) for the elemental analysis – the chemical characterization of the samples.</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/205775/original/file-20180209-51706-15x15km.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/205775/original/file-20180209-51706-15x15km.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/205775/original/file-20180209-51706-15x15km.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=765&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205775/original/file-20180209-51706-15x15km.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=765&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205775/original/file-20180209-51706-15x15km.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=765&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205775/original/file-20180209-51706-15x15km.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=962&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205775/original/file-20180209-51706-15x15km.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=962&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205775/original/file-20180209-51706-15x15km.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=962&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">There were no second chances with the tiny amount of samples that had been scraped from the ancient vessels.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Davide Tanasi</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These analysis methods are destructive: The sample gets used up when we run the tests. Since we had just that precious 100 mg of powder from each vessel, we needed to be extremely careful as we prepared the samples. If we messed up the analysis, we couldn’t just run it all over again.</p>
<p>We found that four of the five Copper Age large storage jars <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2017.08.010">contained an organic residue</a>. Two contained animal fats and another held plant residues, thanks to what we inferred was a semi-liquid kind of stew partially absorbed by the walls of the jars. But the fourth jar held the greatest surprise: pure grape wine from 5,000 years ago.</p>
<h2>Presence of wine implies much more</h2>
<p>Initially I did not fully grasp the import of such a discovery. It was only when I vetted the scientific literature on alcoholic beverages in prehistory that I realized the Monte Kronio samples represented the oldest wine known so far for Europe and the Mediterranean region. An incredible surprise, considering that the Southern Anatolia and Transcaucasian region were traditionally believed to be the <a href="https://press.princeton.edu/titles/7591.html">cradle of grape domestication and early viticulture</a>. At the end of 2017, research similar to ours using <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1714728114">Neolithic ceramic samples from Georgia</a> pushed back the discovery of trace of pure grape wine even further, to 6,000-5,800 B.C.</p>
<p>This <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2017/aug/30/traces-of-6000-year-old-wine-discovered-in-sicilian-cave">idea of the “oldest wine”</a> <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2017/08/30/europe/sicily-6000-year-old-wine-discovered/index.html">conveyed in news</a> headlines captured the public’s attention when we <a href="https://www.archaeology.org/news/5872-170825-italy-wine-residue">first published our results</a>.</p>
<p>But what the media failed to convey are the tremendous historical implications that such a discovery has for how archaeologists understand Copper Age Sicilian cultures.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/205978/original/file-20180212-58344-z9466j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=485%2C311%2C3179%2C2245&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/205978/original/file-20180212-58344-z9466j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=485%2C311%2C3179%2C2245&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/205978/original/file-20180212-58344-z9466j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205978/original/file-20180212-58344-z9466j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205978/original/file-20180212-58344-z9466j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205978/original/file-20180212-58344-z9466j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205978/original/file-20180212-58344-z9466j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205978/original/file-20180212-58344-z9466j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A view of Monte Kronio today.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Gianni Polizzi, 2018</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>From an economic standpoint, the evidence of wine implies that people at this time and place were cultivating grapevines. Viticulture requires specific terrains, climates and irrigation systems. Archaeologists hadn’t, up to this point, included all these agricultural strategies in their theories about settlement patterns in these Copper Age Sicilian communities. It looks like researchers need to more deeply consider ways these people might have transformed the landscapes where they lived.</p>
<p>The discovery of wine from this time period has an even bigger impact on what archaeologists thought we knew about commerce and the trade of goods across the whole Mediterranean at this time. For instance, Sicily completely lacks metal ores. But the discovery of little copper artifacts – things like daggers, chisels and pins had been found at several sites – shows that Sicilians somehow <a href="https://doi.org/10.1515/opar-2017-0025">developed metallurgy by the Copper Age</a>.</p>
<p>The traditional explanation has been that Sicily engaged in an embryonic commercial relationship with people in the Aegean, especially with the northwestern regions of the Peloponnese. But that doesn’t really make a lot of sense because the Sicilian communities didn’t have much of anything to offer in exchange for the metals. The lure of wine, though, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1558/jmea.v8i1.1">might have been what brought the Aegeans to Sicily</a>, especially if other settlements hadn’t come this far in viticulture yet.</p>
<p>Ultimately, the discovery of wine remnants near gaseous crevices deep inside Monte Kronio adds more support to the hypothesis that the mountain was a sort of prehistoric sanctuary where purification or oracular practices were carried out, taking advantage of the cleansing and intoxicating features of sulfur.</p>
<p>Wine has been known as a magical substance since its <a href="http://doi.org/10.3406/antiq.2009.3735">appearances in Homeric tales</a>. As red as blood, it had the unique power to bring euphoria and an altered state of consciousness and perception. Mixed with the incredible physical stress due to the hot and humid environment, it’s easy to imagine the descent into the darkness of Monte Kronio as a transcendent journey toward the gods. The trek likely ended with death for the weak, maybe with the conviction of immortality for the survivors.</p>
<p>And all of this was written in the grains of 100 milligrams of 6,000-year-old powder.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/89116/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Davide Tanasi does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Growing grapes and making wine come with a lot of implications about a culture’s capabilities. Apparently, Sicily of 6,000 years ago was more sophisticated than archaeologists had given it credit for.Davide Tanasi, Professor of Digital Humanities, Department of History, University of South FloridaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/670282016-10-18T06:45:53Z2016-10-18T06:45:53ZWine and climate change: 8,000 years of adaptation<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/141657/original/image-20161013-3944-6yq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Wine has been adapting since the Little Ice Age.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/Coiron%2C_Ard%C3%A8che%2C_feuille_de_vigne_fossile_du_Plioc%C3%A8ne_vitis_previnifera_sap..jpg">JPS68/Wikimedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>These days it is almost impossible to say anything moderately optimistic about climate change. </p>
<p>But geographers, archaeologists, historians, agronomists and biologist can show some positive effects, because they allow for the immense creativity and resilience of human societies, and of living things in general, as demonstrated throughout the ages and across the great variety of different habitats on the planet. One of those positive effects could be the evolution of wine.</p>
<h2>Continual advancements in wine-making</h2>
<p>Wine-making is a branch of agriculture that arose from whim rather than necessity, as an expression of cultural identity. It has shown itself capable of adapting to the various climatic changes that have occurred in the last 8,000 years, since <em>Vitis vinifera</em> was first domesticated and disseminated. As a result, its methods – and the quality of the wine produced – never ceased to improve. </p>
<p>The <a href="http://www.franceculture.fr/emissions/la-fabrique-de-l-histoire/les-grandes-crises-climatiques-34-le-petit-age-glaciaire">Little Ice Age</a> (from the 15th to 19th century) is a good example of this phenomenon. Northern Europeans had learned to grown vines under sunny skies. But the falling temperatures of the Little Ice Age forced them to abandon what had become an increasingly uncertain crop, and look to the south to satisfy the requirements of Christian worship, via Holy Communion, and the emerging taste for good wine, which had become an essential part of life in more refined circles. </p>
<p>This is why we now have beautiful vineyards on the Atlantic (<a href="http://www.visit-saintes.com/things-to-do/cognac-pineau/">Saintonge</a>, where wine is distilled to make cognac; Bordeaux in France; Alto Douro and Madeira in Portugal; Jerez and Constanti in Spain) and the Mediterranean in Spain, Sicily and Cyprus.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/140754/original/image-20161006-32734-supwfq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/140754/original/image-20161006-32734-supwfq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/140754/original/image-20161006-32734-supwfq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=896&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140754/original/image-20161006-32734-supwfq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=896&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140754/original/image-20161006-32734-supwfq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=896&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140754/original/image-20161006-32734-supwfq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1125&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140754/original/image-20161006-32734-supwfq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1125&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140754/original/image-20161006-32734-supwfq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1125&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A cork oak being stripped from its bark.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AIAPH_Saca_del_corcho.jpg">Instituto Andaluz del Patrimonio Histórico</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Shipping delicate wines by means of long sea journeys also sparked ingenuity. This is how the Dutch invented the sulfur stick that was burned to sterilise the barrels. The English began fortifying wines with spirits in order to stabilising wines containing a great deal of residual sugar post-fermentation and, along with the Flemish, invented thick <a href="http://avis-vin.lefigaro.fr/connaitre-deguster/o28482-la-bouteille-de-vin-trois-siecles-de-bons-et-loyaux-services">black wine bottles</a> made in coal-fired furnaces. These were useful for portioning out the contents of a barrel and could prolong the ageing process – as long as they were capped with a <a href="http://www.atlantico.fr/decryptage/bouchon-liege-cette-invention-sans-laquelle-vins-francais-auraient-jamais-ete-aussi-bons-jean-robert-pitte-915253.html">cork</a> made of a natural material discovered by the English in Portugal.</p>
<p>In the remaining northernmost vineyards, the cold prevented the grapes from ripening properly. The resulting wines were often terribly sour. In addition, the final stages of fermentation were hindered by the arrival of the first cold front and would not resume until the following spring. </p>
<p>These two problems eventually led to invention of the bubbles in Champagne, by adding sugar from the Caribbean to the very young wine and keeping it in tightly corked bottles, causing second fermentation and heavy carbonation.</p>
<h2>Roasted grapes</h2>
<p>The opposite phenomenon has now been occurring for some time. Rising temperatures – interspersed with climatic anomalies such as the late frosts that occurred across Europe last spring, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/aug/26/french-wine-production-to-fall-10-this-year-after-fierce-spring-weather">devastating many vineyards</a> – are having troubling effects.</p>
<p>At the other extreme, varieties of grapes with very thin skin are roasting in the sun in hot weather. Until now, the leaves of these vines were thinned so as to let in more sunlight. Grapes are <a href="http://www.nature.com/nclimate/journal/vaop/ncurrent/fig_tab/nclimate2960_ft.html">ripening too early</a> overall, and the harvest must be carried out quickly so as to maintain some level of acidity and eschew heavy, flat-tasting wines with a high level of alcohol and a short shelf-life.</p>
<p>This trend is not only visible in southern regions but also far north, in <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212977414000222">France’s Alsace region</a>, for example. And during very hot summers, water scarcity can be so severe that many grapes dry on the vine before ripening.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/25Y74v8aTIY?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">A closer look at grape varieties (France 3 Burgundy, 2014).</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The emergence of new methods</h2>
<p>New methods must be developed, and this is very much an ongoing process. To begin with, vineyards with too much sun exposure (such as those in southern plains and slopes facing south) should be discarded in favour of higher ground (for example, the upper areas in the Napa and Sonoma Valleys in California, the mountains of Cévennes and Priorat in France and the Golan Heights or the Judean Hills in Israel); or areas facing north (Ventoux, Lubéron, Alpilles, Corbières in France). Eventually, this could also apply to regions further north (France’s Valais, Condrieu, the northern part of Côtes-du-Rhône, Beaujolais, and even Burgundy).</p>
<p>Newly planted vines will have to be irrigated to ensure their survival, but cautiously and just for a few years, for deeper rooting.</p>
<p>Soils will need to be carefully selected to reflect changing circumstances. Total or partial ground cover could prove to be an effective means of preventing excess evaporation in certain kinds of soils.</p>
<p>The way we train vines – pruning and trimming in particular – should be adapted so that ripening occurs at regular intervals. And we should not be so dogmatic about vine varieties.</p>
<h2>Northern bound</h2>
<p>Moving vines further north could produce benefits. Pilot plantations of Marsanne and Syrah grapes in Beaujolais show promise which, once confirmed, should lead us to reconsider the <a href="http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/iprenforcement/docs/observatory/gi-designations_en.pdf">current legislation on protected designation of origin</a>. Making red wine out of Pinot-Noir grapes in Champagne would probably result in some very good wines, as it already has in Oregon, southern Germany, Austria, and the Czech Republic.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/140757/original/image-20161006-32723-1rwuogh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/140757/original/image-20161006-32723-1rwuogh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140757/original/image-20161006-32723-1rwuogh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140757/original/image-20161006-32723-1rwuogh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140757/original/image-20161006-32723-1rwuogh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140757/original/image-20161006-32723-1rwuogh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/140757/original/image-20161006-32723-1rwuogh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A vineyard in Hokkaido, in northern Japan.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/14degrees/14975911220">Robert Thomson/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Traditionally, <a href="http://www.persee.fr/doc/geo_0003-4010_1983_num_92_510_20178">the Japanese Island of Hokkaido</a>, with its Siberian-like winters, only produced mediocre hybrid varieties of wine. Today, forward-thinking winemakers are producing very fine wines using white grape varieties from the Rhine region. England is once again being covered with vineyards, producing great wines.</p>
<p>One fact is particularly telling: Queen Elizabeth had 16,000 vines of Pinot-Noir, Pinot Meunier and Chardonnay planted in <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/theroyalfamily/8492607/Royal-family-to-produce-its-own-wine-from-Windsor-Great-Park-grapes.html">Windsor Great Park</a> to produce her own sparkling wine. Champagne, which up until now hasbeen used for royal toasts, had better watch out.</p>
<p>The bottom line is, nothing is lost, and no tragedy will befall good wine growers and wine lovers should climate change continue. </p>
<p>It will be quite a while before Greenland becomes a wine-growing region. In the meantime, we won’t be short of a drink. It’s also worth noting that we now produce more good local wines across all latitudes than ever before in the history of winemaking.</p>
<p><em>Translated from the French by Alice Heathwood for <a href="http://www.fastforword.fr/en/">Fast for Word</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/67028/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jean-Robert Pitte does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Wine lovers can rest assured. Wine will adapt to climate change.Jean-Robert Pitte, Professeur émérite en géographie, ancien président de l’Université Paris-Sorbonne, Sorbonne UniversitéLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/564072016-03-21T16:51:23Z2016-03-21T16:51:23ZGlobal warming is pushing wine harvests earlier – but not necessarily for the better<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/115636/original/image-20160318-4450-1t9nc8g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Droughts have traditionally yielded good vintages in France, but changing conditions are forcing wine growers to adapt.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/lewismd13/21911822180/in/photolist-zogPkA-vX7HTF-yo2BoG-ffDjWd-fTft3-fTeLm-jw8w2t-ffDjYq-ffDQC1-fTfqA-ffDjLN-8j7TRU-uzmVm-a36FTz-hgyUp-6RVNGU-5eUWb8-99EzdH-fTeFy-fTe6k-9e6Lgn-ffDC3d-fTeYn-9d6ZNW-6Pb2v3-fTf4n-fTenL-ffDjJ9-6Pb44Y-fTeum-fTfie-ffDjQs-ffDjSN-9d3TSg-5eUSKz-ffD4ZA-gC4YUe-5fHSEj-5eUU3i-fTejC-a8HWiJ-9d3U1t-ffD53q-fTee4-fTe2k-fTebW-fTe7H-9d6ZAQ-4F14yA-fTf94">lewismd13/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Wine grapes are one of the most <a href="https://www.svb.com/uploadedFiles/Content/Blogs/Wine_Report/2015_Wine_Report/wine-report-2015-pdf.pdf">valuable horticultural crops</a> in the world, a globally important <a href="http://www.statista.com/statistics/232948/value-of-global-wine-consumption/">industry</a> with commercial vineyards on six continents and all 50 U.S. states. Like many crops, these vineyards, and their grapes, are extremely sensitive to temperature and rainfall during the growing season. </p>
<p>Climate and weather can affect the timing of harvest, the amount of fruit produced and even the ultimate quality of the wine. And with warming from human greenhouse gas emissions already manifesting in many regions, there are concerns about how climate change will affect wine-making and the wine industry in the coming decades.</p>
<p>My colleague Elizabeth Wolkovich of Harvard University and I analyzed 400 years (1600-2007) of data from France and Switzerland to show that climate change is already affecting wine grape harvests. These data are drawn from different historical sources and provide an unparalleled opportunity to look at recent changes compared to a time before the human climate change signal emerged. </p>
<p>Our analysis showed that wine harvests are happening earlier, which has historically been a harbinger of high-quality wines. But we also found that changing local weather conditions could make it harder to determine when to expect high-quality wines, and that higher temperatures could force wine growers to use different grape varieties. </p>
<h2>Centuries of harvest dates</h2>
<p>We examined the historical records of harvest dates from many famous wine regions in France, including Bordeaux, Burgundy and the Loire Valley. Then we used reconstructions of climate – temperature, rainfall, soil moisture – from other historical documents and growth patterns in tree rings from the region.</p>
<p>We first noticed a remarkable shift in recent decades toward earlier wine grape harvests. Since 1981, harvests are occurring about 10 days earlier than the average for the last 400 years, with only two years since 1981 occurring late. </p>
<p>This trend toward earlier harvests is caused by recent warming that can be mostly attributed to human emissions of greenhouse gases from burning fossil fuels. Warmer summers mean that the grapes mature and ripen more quickly, translating to harvests that must happen earlier. </p>
<p>Importantly, our analysis also revealed that the way climate is affecting harvests has also been changing.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/115639/original/image-20160318-4432-bhwrw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/115639/original/image-20160318-4432-bhwrw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/115639/original/image-20160318-4432-bhwrw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115639/original/image-20160318-4432-bhwrw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115639/original/image-20160318-4432-bhwrw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115639/original/image-20160318-4432-bhwrw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115639/original/image-20160318-4432-bhwrw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115639/original/image-20160318-4432-bhwrw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Researchers were able to use hundreds of years of harvest dates to see changes in the start date and recreate climate using tree rings and other data.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/sam_and_ian/252666276/in/photolist-ojYT7-aw6Liu-pr7iTe-69anZE-denPSv-fZgkWz-5TZezV-6ZNNDn-49fpm6-3a4zAh-5MWdS-39Z4J6-39Z4Rp-pAPo6s-8PwK8R-yaDszS-pCS8Ar-pAPnyL-pCQ4WU-8G7BRL-7DfNyz-cYMp9o-3RLUp8-3e39b5-hJ8y5-6Ph4aS-3etj98-375WcF-nakVyK-8fW4xC-nJAu3f-pmm9kH-8PwFRn-yE7DY8-8PwGuz-7gJw9G-pCS5rk-pmn3jJ-pmn12s-pmnNRr-pCS8NF-8FJoYe-pmn1m5-pCQ33J-pmnKTc-pmnkhE-pmnLZF-cteuro-pmmZEq-pmnmgy">sam_and_ian/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The temperature during the growing season is the single most important driver of fruit ripening, and thus when the harvest begins. But before 1981, you also needed a drought (low rainfall and soil moisture) to get a summer hot enough to cause an early harvest. </p>
<p>If the summer is rainy and the soils are wet, energy absorbed at the surface is mostly used to evaporate water. The process of evaporation takes up heat from the surface and keeps the soils and air near the surface relatively cool. </p>
<p>In contrast, during a drought the soils are dry and the heat from the atmosphere reduces moisture at the surface. Very little evaporation can occur, and the excess heat instead goes into warming up the soils and the air. Dry summers therefore mean hot summers, making it much easier to reach the critical heat thresholds needed for an early ripening and harvest. It’s these conditions that have historically led to higher-quality wines.</p>
<p>Since 1980, however, climate change has made the last several decades significantly warmer in many regions of the world, including Western Europe. This extra heat and warming now means that summers in France and Western Europe can get hot enough to cause an early harvest even without drought conditions. </p>
<p>This shift can be very consequential to wine-growing and wine quality. Early harvests in recent decades no longer mean warm and dry; they can also mean warm and wet. Harvest timing has, effectively, been disconnected from moisture, thanks to global warming.</p>
<h2>Heat threshold</h2>
<p>What does this change to local conditions mean for the wine industry? </p>
<p>Traditionally, in regions like France, early harvests have meant better wines. (In our study, we used rankings from a book that rated French wines in order to control for factors like age since bottling.) But because of the close connection between drought and early harvests, this has meant that higher-quality wines have also been associated with hot and dry summers. Now that early harvests can be wet or dry, drought is no longer a good predictor of wine quality.</p>
<p>Still, thanks in part to these warming-induced trends toward earlier harvests in recent decades, there has also been an overall trend toward increased wine quality, despite the change in drought effects. And we expect, with continued future warming from climate change, for harvest dates to continue advancing. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/115638/original/image-20160318-4425-49gc4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/115638/original/image-20160318-4425-49gc4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/115638/original/image-20160318-4425-49gc4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115638/original/image-20160318-4425-49gc4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115638/original/image-20160318-4425-49gc4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115638/original/image-20160318-4425-49gc4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115638/original/image-20160318-4425-49gc4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115638/original/image-20160318-4425-49gc4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Hot weather has typically led to dry weather, which is has led to high-quality wines in France, but changing patterns from climate change could cause problems for wine growers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/hagengraf/7948193076/in/photolist-d7myTE-dtDRfo-6NL8oY-5hMPt-5TZdRM-5TZ9op-5TZ9re-5TZeyg-imePvT-kXnR6-axzksT-8BjyYL-axyzSg-8BjFmd-5TZ9EP-5TZ8nD-5U4zaL-5TZezV-5U4uuU-5TZe42-5TZ8pk-49fpm6-5U4tsC-5U4ufL-8BgsGH-8PwK8R-pAPo6s-8FJoYe-acCKuM-pCS8Ar-pAPnyL-pCQ4WU-8PwFRn-8Bjz3Y-ozGNig-5TZ948-pmm9kH-5MWdS-8BgsCg-nJAu3f-8PwGuz-7gJw9G-pCS5rk-8G7BRL-pmn3jJ-pmn12s-5U4tA1-5TZ9uK-pmnNRr-pCS8NF">hagengraf/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There is likely a limit, however, to how much earlier the fruit can mature and the harvest occur and still have this translate to higher-quality wines. </p>
<p>The harvest in 2003 provides a clear example of this. A record-breaking heat wave during this summer caused the earliest harvest in our 400-year record, about one month earlier than average. </p>
<p>But despite such an exceptionally early harvest, this year did not produce <a href="http://www.frenchscout.com/wine-vintages">especially exceptional wines</a>. With climate change expected to make events like the summer of 2003 – with very early harvest times compared to the historical record – more likely, this extreme year may be a good example of where the region is headed. </p>
<p>As temperatures rise, it suggests there may be some kind of threshold beyond which the continuing advancement of harvest dates is not going to help yield high-quality vintages. </p>
<p>Certainly, the science of viticulture and wine-making involves much more than the weather and climate, and our results do not forecast an inevitable future in which we are doomed to drinking inferior wines. </p>
<p>Wine production and quality depend on many factors, human and natural, including soils, topography, climate and the skill of the wine maker and vineyard manager. </p>
<p>But our results demonstrate that climate change is already affecting harvests, and that previous patterns – with droughts signaling early harvests and high-quality wines – have begun to change in the face of global warming. </p>
<p>What can viticulture actually do about this? Wine growers will need to consider changing their practices to a world that is rapidly moving to a place where the old climate rules may no longer apply.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/56407/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Benjamin I. Cook receives funding from NASA's Modeling, Analysis, and Prediction and Climate Measurement programs. </span></em></p>Using historical records, researchers determine that wine harvests are happening earlier in France and that the changing climate could make it harder to grow in today’s wine regions.Benjamin I. Cook, Climate Scientist, Columbia UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/453612015-07-29T20:05:28Z2015-07-29T20:05:28ZMessage in a bottle: the wine industry gives farmers a taste of what to expect from climate change<p>Wine, as we have <a href="http://www.smh.com.au/business/the-economy/climate-change-hitting-where-it-hurts-your-wine-20150726-gikmuc.html">seen once again this week</a>, seems to be a handy way to galvanise concerns about the future ill-effects of climate change. It’s perhaps telling that the prospect of losing a favourite tipple attracts media coverage so readily, when the bigger issue is surely about securing food for the billions who rely on subsistence farming. </p>
<p>Those concerns aside, viticulture delivers important messages about a changing climate, for several reasons. High-quality wine is extraordinarily sensitive to the vagaries of the weather. Grape growers and wine producers (vignerons) are observant and responsive to any impacts on their product, especially when it comes to signs that a particular grape variety or vineyard is not performing. </p>
<p>One example is in South Australia, where high-quality wine producers are using their expertise to adapt as the state’s climatic conditions change. </p>
<h2>Change is in the wind</h2>
<p>Over the past decade, my colleagues and I have studied changes in the McLaren Vale wine region, south of Adelaide. This region’s wines regularly win international awards, particularly for shiraz, which dominates varietal selection. Like other farmers, vignerons here are noticing more extreme heat and humid weather in summer, and less rain, stronger storms and milder temperatures in winter. </p>
<p>But unlike some other crops, viticulture has an enormous range of adaptation options and the capacity to apply them – and in the McLaren Vale change is underway. </p>
<p>The region’s growers have banded together to organise a <a href="http://mclarenvale.info/association/water-management/">recycled water scheme</a> to secure their irrigation resources. This has largely eliminated the risk of groundwater depletion, for the near future at least. </p>
<p>They have also worked together with governments to strengthen planning policy and protect rural land from the expansion of Adelaide’s southern suburbs. As a result, the rural land here is as secure as anywhere similarly close to a major Australian city. This is crucial because the McLaren Vale is a unique patch of land with complex geology, set between the southern Mount Lofty Ranges and the moderating climatic influences of the St Vincent Gulf. </p>
<p>Growers have strong networks, from the formal <a href="http://mclarenvale.info/">McLaren Vale Grape, Wine and Tourism Association</a> through to the <a href="http://www.willungafarmersmarket.com.au/">Willunga farmers’ market</a> and the <a href="http://www.fowb.net/">Friends of Willunga Basin</a>. The region’s wine is defined by a globally recognised <a href="http://www.wineaustralia.com/en/Production%20and%20Exporting/Register%20of%20Protected%20GIs%20and%20Other%20Terms/Geographical%20Indications.aspx">Geographical Indication mark</a>. That is being strengthened with the <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167880912003830">mapping of the region’s unique soils</a> and wine consumers’ increasing knowledge of the terroir of the McLaren Vale.</p>
<h2>The sour taste of Australian climate policy</h2>
<p>In effect, the whole socio-ecological system of the McLaren Vale is being <a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10745-011-9453-4">made more resilient</a>. Even before individual producers make choices about what grape varieties to use, or about techniques such as mulching, pruning, harvesting and blending, they know they have strengthened their production system enormously by working together to secure their natural resources. Vignerons have also worked together to market their products in ways that <a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10708-012-9464-8">reflect the uniqueness of their place</a>. </p>
<p>Yes, growers are also looking to the warmer southern parts of Europe for varieties that might better fit their future climate and have <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167880912003830">experimented with them</a> on their fields and in their wineries. </p>
<p>Yes, they are developing new ways of farming using methods that conserve water and maximise the quality of the soils. And yes, they are spreading the risk by diversifying into other regions and industries, especially tourism. </p>
<p>But there is a bigger message than risks to wine quality that needs to get through to the people making decisions about our ecological futures. Wine quality is only an indicator of future risk and we are only in the early stages of a massive ecological shift that will require a <a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00267-010-9487-1">different type of thinking</a> about our environment. </p>
<p>While some of the most resourced, educated, informed and organised farmers in Australia are adjusting successfully in the short term, they are also looking to the future and noting that adaptation will <a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10668-014-9541-x">meet new thresholds in the longer term</a>. </p>
<p>Everyone needs to work to minimise the rate of climate change. We can learn from early adapters such as the vignerons of the McLaren Vale, but it is not going to be easy to adapt, because bit by bit climate change will change everything. </p>
<p>The heatwaves that are burning the grapes of the McLaren Vale will get worse and make summers less comfortable for everyone. Dry summers will <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0143622815001563">add to the bushfire risk</a> on the periphery of our cities, just as they limit the complexity of flavours in our wines. The storms that strip leaves or cause mildew outbreaks in the McLaren Vale will also damage houses across southern Australia. </p>
<p>Yet, at the moment, Australia is <a href="https://theconversation.com/australia-in-the-spotlight-at-climate-talks-for-all-the-wrong-reasons-42882">acting like a pariah state</a> on climate change – it is <a href="https://theconversation.com/visualising-australias-carbon-emissions-23816">up there with the worst performers</a> on per capita greenhouse emissions and has a history of using <a href="https://theconversation.com/australia-hit-its-kyoto-target-but-it-was-more-a-three-inch-putt-than-a-hole-in-one-44731">accounting tricks</a> to make its efforts seem more palatable. </p>
<p>It is not good enough to aim low on this issue, because we are going to lose things we value – not just our favourite wines, but the very security of the places where we live and grow our food. That is the real message in the bottle.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/45361/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Douglas Bardsley receives funding from the Federal and South Australian Governments to support his climate change research.</span></em></p>The wine industry is sensitive to climate change, but grape growers also have the funding and knowledge to put themselves at the forefront of climate adaptation. Other farmers should watch with interest.Douglas Bardsley, Senior Lecturer, Geography, Environment and Population, University of AdelaideLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.