tag:theconversation.com,2011:/au/topics/water-demand-6117/articlesWater demand – The Conversation2023-02-13T13:23:45Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1973822023-02-13T13:23:45Z2023-02-13T13:23:45ZA new strategy for western states to adapt to long-term drought: Customized water pricing<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509212/original/file-20230209-28-cecwzt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=6%2C6%2C4486%2C2984&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Prompts like this sign in Coalinga, California, may get people to use less water – but paying them could be more effective. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/sign-informs-residents-to-conserve-water-on-saturday-august-news-photo/1243860618">Matt McClain/The Washington Post via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Even after <a href="https://www.npr.org/2023/01/22/1150197343/why-heavy-winter-rain-and-snow-wont-be-enough-to-pull-the-west-out-of-a-megadrou">heavy snow and rainfall in January</a>, western states still face an ongoing drought risk that is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2006323117">likely to grow worse</a> thanks to climate change. A whopping snowpack is good news, but it doesn’t reduce the need for long-term planning.</p>
<p>Confronted with a shrinking supply of water for agriculture, industry and residential uses, water agencies have pursued different strategies to encourage water conservation. They have <a href="https://environment-review.yale.edu/water-conservation-gentle-nudge-can-go-long-way-0">nudged customers</a> to reduce water use, <a href="https://www.ladwpnews.com/phase-3-water-restrictions-frequently-asked-questions/">limited outdoor watering</a> and offered incentives to <a href="https://www.ladwpnews.com/rebate-increase-gives-ladwp-customers-5-per-square-foot-to-replace-lawns-with-sustainable-landscaping/">rip out lawns</a>. On the supply side, there are innovative ideas about <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-california-could-save-up-its-rain-to-ease-future-droughts-instead-of-watching-epic-atmospheric-river-rainfall-drain-into-the-pacific-197168">using heavy rains to recharge groundwater</a>.</p>
<p>Basic economics teaches us that a higher price for water would encourage conservation. Up until now, however, <a href="https://www.latimes.com/california/story/2022-10-24/millions-of-californians-are-struggling-to-pay-for-water">concerns about harming low-income households</a> have limited discussions about raising water prices to reduce demand. </p>
<p>We know that it’s hard to pay more for essential goods such as food, energy and water, especially for lower-income households. Rather than raising everyone’s water prices, we propose a customized approach that lets individual consumers decide whether to pay higher prices. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">In August 2022, the federal government declared an unprecedented drought emergency on the Colorado River and ordered Arizona, Nevada and Mexico to sharply reduce their water usage.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Who is most able and willing to conserve?</h2>
<p>One of the most common challenges involved in making markets work well is what economists call <a href="https://www.investopedia.com/terms/a/asymmetricinformation.asp">asymmetric information</a> – when one party has more access to relevant information than the other party. Think about buying or selling a car before online tools like <a href="https://www.carfax.com/value/">Carfax</a> were available. Owners and dealers knew more about what each car was really worth, so they had greater bargaining power than buyers. </p>
<p>The West has millions of water users with a broad range of incomes who consume water at widely varying levels. These consumers, including urban households, businesses and farmers, know more than water agencies do about how readily they can conserve water. </p>
<p>For example, a person who owns a home with a large green lawn and who is conservation-minded may need only a small incentive to switch to <a href="https://spectrumnews1.com/ca/la-west/environment/2022/03/21/socal-water-districts-urge-water-conservation">native, low-water plants</a>. Some farmers may need only a small incentive to replace <a href="https://www.uidaho.edu/-/media/UIdaho-Responsive/Files/cals/centers/Kimberly/forage/Alfalfa-Irrigation-Facts-2013.pdf">water-intensive alfalfa production</a> with a less water-intensive crop.</p>
<p>Water agencies could elicit this private information by making a “take it or leave it” offer to water consumers. Some of California’s electric utilities have already <a href="https://www.nber.org/papers/w23553">experimented with this opt-in approach</a> to encourage energy conservation. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509214/original/file-20230209-166-3o38ks.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A large house with a pool, bordered by brown dirt" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509214/original/file-20230209-166-3o38ks.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509214/original/file-20230209-166-3o38ks.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509214/original/file-20230209-166-3o38ks.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509214/original/file-20230209-166-3o38ks.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509214/original/file-20230209-166-3o38ks.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509214/original/file-20230209-166-3o38ks.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509214/original/file-20230209-166-3o38ks.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Water officials in the Las Vegas area want to cap the size of new swimming pools like this one at a home abutting desert land in Henderson, Nev.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/ColoradoRiverUsersWesternDrought/752a24416a174bcd8bb8fcbaed0a2b9b/photo">AP Photo/John Locher</a></span>
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<h2>Target the big users</h2>
<p>Every western water district has access to customer-level big data on monthly and even daily water consumption. Agencies could use this information to identify the top 10% of water consumers in their territories, based on volume used – like the household in the Bel Air neighborhood of Los Angeles that used <a href="https://la.curbed.com/2015/10/1/9915330/california-biggest-water-user">11.8 million gallons of water</a> in 2014.</p>
<p>Water agencies could randomly select customers among the largest water users in their service areas to participate in a small pilot study. Each invitee would receive an opt-in contract offering to pay them an annual fee for enrolling for three years in a water conservation program. In return, the price the consumer paid for each gallon of water would triple. This approach would give the consumer a guaranteed payment for participating and a clear incentive to use less water.</p>
<p>Data scientists would collect information on who accepted the offer and could survey invitees to learn how they decided whether or not to participate. Combining these two data sets would make it possible to test hypotheses about which factors determined willingness to accept the opt-in offer. </p>
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<p>Using customer-level water consumption data over time, water agencies could track usage and compare customers who participated in the price increase program with others who turned down the offer. This would make it possible to estimate the water conservation benefits of introducing customized water prices.</p>
<p>There are many different ways in which water users could cut back, including swapping out <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.0741-6261.2008.00026.x?casa_token=SVO72Cz4sloAAAAA%3AlmARK8MIBvgi-S_fk4Vx9JuRPiH0IunV7iQ82_H4x7WI3OZBpOXZbyyqL1Ma69IioXgcVA4cGTF1ef5C3w">old appliances</a> or watering their gardens less often. Farmers could <a href="https://theconversation.com/a-water-strategy-for-the-parched-west-have-cities-pay-farmers-to-install-more-efficient-irrigation-systems-185820">install more efficient irrigation systems</a>. Customers who <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wre.2020.100169">chose the payment in return for higher prices</a> would decide which conservation strategies worked best for them. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509217/original/file-20230209-18-5griet.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Children use an open-air shower at a public beach." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509217/original/file-20230209-18-5griet.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509217/original/file-20230209-18-5griet.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509217/original/file-20230209-18-5griet.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509217/original/file-20230209-18-5griet.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509217/original/file-20230209-18-5griet.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=512&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509217/original/file-20230209-18-5griet.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=512&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509217/original/file-20230209-18-5griet.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=512&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">In 2015, California temporarily shut off showers at state beaches to conserve water, a strategy that mainly affected less affluent households.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/ryanh-morales-from-left-and-his-brother-dereck-use-the-news-photo/480116758">Genaro Molina/Los Angeles Times via Getty Images</a></span>
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<h2>Big potential insights</h2>
<p>Conducting a pilot study using a randomly chosen sample of high-usage customers is a low-stakes strategy. If it fails to promote water conservation at a low cost, then a valuable lesson has been learned. If it succeeds, the same opt-in offer could be made to more high-usage customers. </p>
<p>Water agencies would need funds to support the pilot study, possibly from state or federal sources. Since pumping, treating and heating water uses energy, and thus <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/10/11/114002">creates greenhouse gas emissions</a>, funds from the <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/cleanenergy/inflation-reduction-act-guidebook/#:%7E:text=The%20Inflation%20Reduction%20Act%20is,technology%2C%20manufacturing%2C%20and%20innovation.">Inflation Reduction Act</a> might be an option. Successful water conservation would <a href="https://19january2017snapshot.epa.gov/climatechange/what-you-can-do-home_.html">help to slow climate change</a>.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">A farmer in California’s Central Valley explains how he started directing floodwaters onto his fields in wet years to recharge groundwater and buffer his lands against dry years.</span></figcaption>
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<p>Today, most water agencies don’t know how responsive individual customers would be to higher prices. By conducting the type of pilot study that we have described, agencies could answer that question without raising prices for vulnerable households. If such initiatives succeeded, they could be replicated in other drought-prone areas of the West. Since farms <a href="https://www.climatecentral.org/climate-matters/water-in-the-west">consume the largest share of water</a> in western states, it is especially important to learn more about farmers’ willingness to conserve. </p>
<p>Water is essential for life, but westerners have different abilities and willingness to conserve it. We recommend a strategy that rewards those who are most able to reduce their usage without punishing those who are least able.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/197382/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Even after January’s storms, California faces a water-scarce future. An economist and an engineer propose a way to test higher water prices as a conservation strategy without hurting low-income users.Matthew E. Kahn, Provost Professor of Economics and Spatial Sciences, USC Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and SciencesBhaskar Krishnamachari, Ming Hsieh Faculty Fellow and Professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Southern CaliforniaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1520662021-03-22T14:58:01Z2021-03-22T14:58:01ZHow the UK’s first lockdown changed water habits – and risked shortages<p>Though it may have escaped the public’s attention at the time, the three months from late March to June 2020 were exceptionally challenging for water providers all across the UK. The sudden changes in personal routines that greeted the onset of lockdown influenced when people showered, cleaned and looked after their homes and gardens. </p>
<p>With offices, restaurants and other public places closed and everyone but essential workers told to stay at home, water companies struggled to balance supply with the unusual patterns of domestic demand.</p>
<p>It didn’t help that the period was also particularly <a href="https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/about-us/press-office/news/weather-and-climate/2020/2020-spring-and-may-stats">sunny and dry</a>. By the end of May, the daily peak in water consumption was <a href="https://www.artesia-consulting.co.uk/blog/New%20Waterwise%20article!%20The%20effect%20of%20the%20coronavirus%20lockdown%20on%20water%20use">35% higher</a> than before lockdown and came in the evening, whereas it previously peaked around 8am. About 2,000 homes in the Midlands <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-birmingham-52875417">suffered water shortages</a> and several water companies had to ask clients to <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-52890535">reduce how much water they used</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://artesia.shinyapps.io/Artesia-Reports/">We charted</a> this unique period by speaking with people living in England and Wales and tracking water use in data, news articles and scientific studies. While some of these changes may only be temporary, some in the water sector worry that demand patterns and increased home water use may become locked into everyday routines as more people opt to work from home.</p>
<h2>Working from home</h2>
<p>Throughout lockdown, people did most of their drinking, cooking, dish washing and toilet flushing at home. Those working from home slipped into more flexible domestic routines without the commute determining when they needed to rise and shower. This meant that water use didn’t spike first thing on weekday mornings as it normally would. The morning peak shifted from 9am to 10am, while more generally, water use was higher during lockdown on average.</p>
<p><strong>Average hourly consumption before and during lockdown</strong></p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/390913/original/file-20210322-19-1d3vi2b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A line graph showing daily peaks and troughs in water use." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/390913/original/file-20210322-19-1d3vi2b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/390913/original/file-20210322-19-1d3vi2b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=311&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390913/original/file-20210322-19-1d3vi2b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=311&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390913/original/file-20210322-19-1d3vi2b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=311&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390913/original/file-20210322-19-1d3vi2b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390913/original/file-20210322-19-1d3vi2b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390913/original/file-20210322-19-1d3vi2b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.artesia-consulting.co.uk/">Artesia</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
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<p>Water use increased most during evenings, when homeworkers had more free time to invest in cooking and other activities without the commute. That meant people consuming more water washing fresh produce, boiling rice and pasta and cleaning dishes. </p>
<p>These thirsty lifestyle changes during lockdown were eventually tempered somewhat as people staying at home showered, washed their hair and did their laundry less often – and used less water and energy in the process. Compared to the workplace, working from home demanded fewer social expectations to be presentable. </p>
<h2>Leisure and gardening</h2>
<p>Cleanliness routines structured leisure time and relaxation in otherwise monotonous days. People who were no longer able to visit cinemas, pubs and restaurants replaced these treats with a relaxing bath or an invigorating shower. With the “one journey outside” <a href="https://theconversation.com/daily-exercise-rules-got-people-moving-during-lockdown-heres-what-the-government-needs-to-do-next-143773">policy</a>, the people we spoke to were exercising more and taking extra showers to freshen up throughout the day.</p>
<p>Domestic gardens became important spaces for recreation and socialising too. Throughout the spring and early summer of 2020, <a href="https://www.business-live.co.uk/retail-consumer/garden-furniture-retailer-moda-reports-18267964">sales of garden furniture</a>, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/business/2020/aug/23/pool-sales-covid-19-backyard-swimming">paddling pools</a> and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/may/17/how-lockdown-has-created-veg-growing-revolution-uk-coronavirus">plant seeds</a> rocketed. </p>
<p>The government’s Office for National Statistics <a href="https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/healthandsocialcare/conditionsanddiseases/articles/anewnormalhowpeoplespenttheirtimeafterthemarch2020coronaviruslockdown/2020-12-09">reported that</a> the amount of time people spent gardening doubled in March and April 2020 compared with the same period in 2015. Many people relied on hosepipes as water butts used for collecting rainwater ran dry.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-analysed-electricity-demand-and-found-coronavirus-has-turned-weekdays-into-weekends-134606">We analysed electricity demand and found coronavirus has turned weekdays into weekends</a>
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<h2>Adapting to change</h2>
<p>With the full return of students to school in September, patterns of water use returned to something resembling life pre-lockdown.</p>
<p>But the new habits that people picked up during lockdown will potentially linger for months and even years after the pandemic. Many people we spoke to as part of our study expected to continue working from home after government restrictions were lifted. Prior to the outbreak, 68% of British employees <a href="https://yougov.co.uk/topics/economy/articles-reports/2020/09/22/most-workers-want-work-home-after-covid-19">never worked from home</a>. As the country prepares to emerge from its third national lockdown, the <a href="https://voxeu.org/article/working-home-revolutionising-uk-labour-market">evidence suggests</a> that more than 40% want to continue working from home for a few days a week.</p>
<p>Before the pandemic, the <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/escaping-the-jaws-of-death-ensuring-enough-water-in-2050">Environment Agency was warning</a> that the UK is at risk of running short of water by 2050 due to climate change and population growth. Water companies are preparing with efficiency measures and long-term planning, but the large shifts in where water was consumed and how much during spring 2020 caught many of them by surprise.</p>
<p>Water helped preserve a semblance of normal life for many during lockdown, by helping people discover the relative freedom of their own gardens and in offering an escape from boredom and a chance to relax. For others, greater water use at home will have meant <a href="https://www.nea.org.uk/publications/covid-water-use-and-the-impact-on-poverty-in-the-uk/">higher bills</a> which some struggled to afford. </p>
<p>Lockdowns have shown how wider social trends influence water demand. Flexible working arrangements encouraged people to move their most water-intensive routines outside peak hours, but new routines made many people use more water in daily life. And if a new generation of gardeners emerges from the pandemic, there’s an opportunity to encourage water-wise gardening practices. Water butts which pool rainwater could help households cut their water demand in future by using hosepipes less often.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/152066/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Cecilia Alda Vidal received funding from the University of Manchester’s Collaboration Labs programme, the Economic and Social Research Council, Artesia, Anglian Water and the Anglian Centre for Water Studies at the University of East Anglia.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alison Browne has received funding from ESRC, EPSRC, Innovate UK, Artesia Consulting, Anglian Water and the Anglian Centre for Water Studies at the University of East Anglia. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ruby Smith has received funding from Artesia Consulting, Anglian Water and the Anglian Centre for Water Studies at the University of East Anglia.
</span></em></p>With fewer people commuting, home water use changed radically overnight in March 2020.Cecilia Alda Vidal, PhD student in Human Geography, University of ManchesterAlison Browne, Lecturer in Human Geography, Sustainable Consumption Institute, University of ManchesterRuby Smith, Research Assistant in Geography, University of ManchesterLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/926122018-03-01T14:09:46Z2018-03-01T14:09:46ZCape Town’s plans for what happens after Day Zero just won’t work. Here’s why<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/208454/original/file-20180301-152572-1fg32mc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Capetonians wait to fill up water containers.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">EPA/Nic Bothma</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The world <a href="http://www.bbc.com/news/business-42626790">is watching Cape Town</a>, counting down to Day Zero. This represents the point at which the municipality will turn off most of the city’s water distribution system. The date is not certain; it has shifted several times, and is currently predicted <a href="http://coct.co/water-dashboard">to arrive on July 9</a>.</p>
<p>There are measures in place to manage Day Zero and beyond. The city has broadcast a <a href="http://www.capetown.gov.za/Family%20and%20home/Residential-utility-services/Residential-water-and-sanitation-services/critical-water-shortages-disaster-plan">disaster management strategy</a>. It will establish 200 water distribution points across the city, at which citizens can collect their 25 litre daily water allocation.</p>
<p>But is this strategy robust or even feasible? </p>
<p>We used system dynamics, a modelling approach, to understand how the water collection plan might work. The idea was to simulate water collection as per the city’s plan over the course of a single day (24 hours).</p>
<p>We made some key assumptions about population size, the number of taps per distribution site and other factors. Taking these into account, the model found that it would require 12.5 hours to provide water to Cape Town’s entire population per day. And the real figure might be even higher if “random shocks” like conflict happen at the water points. </p>
<p>Our findings suggest that the city’s best technical intervention would be to double the number of distribution points to 400. This would save time and ensure that Cape Town’s whole population can be serviced. Another, perhaps more practical approach, would be to keep 200 distribution points but increase the number of taps and the water pressure at each of them.</p>
<p>But even these strategies won’t help if Cape Town doesn’t address the reality of conflict and related delays. These are unpredictable and incalculable. They are also the greatest indication for why Day Zero should be avoided at all costs.</p>
<h2>Assumptions and insights</h2>
<p>These are the assumptions we made in developing the model:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Cape Town’s population is estimated at <a href="https://www.westerncape.gov.za/assets/departments/treasury/Documents/Socio-economic-profiles/2016/City-of-Cape-Town/city_of_cape_town_2016_socio-economic_profile_sep-lg.pdf">4 million people</a>. Of these, 700 000 live in two areas that won’t have their taps turned off. These include strategic sites, like hospitals, and informal settlements. Another 800 000 people live in close proximity to informal settlements and could potentially source water there. Based on these assumptions we calculated that 2.5 million people will be required to collect water at designated water points.</p></li>
<li><p>The city plans to set up 200 distribution points with an <a href="http://resource.capetown.gov.za/documentcentre/Documents/Procedures,%20guidelines%20and%20regulations/Disaster%20and%20demand%20FAQ.pdf">average of 50 taps</a> per site. Equal distribution of people per water distribution point is assumed. </p></li>
<li><p>Water distributed is <a href="http://www.capetown.gov.za/Family%20and%20home/Residential-utility-services/Residential-water-and-sanitation-services/critical-water-shortages-disaster-plan">25 litres per person</a>. Individuals are able to collect up to 100 litres a day to cover four days of consumption or share with other members of their household. The model assumes that the whole population must receive their allocation. </p></li>
<li><p>Initial water pressure is assumed at a level which allows outflow of 10 litres per minute, which implies it requires 2.5 minutes to fill 25 litres or service one person</p></li>
<li><p>A waiting delay of half a minute (30 seconds) from changing between containers and people is assumed.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Once the model had been run using the above assumptions, and the result of 12.5 hours was observed, we ran possible scenarios to shorten the time. These are outlined in figure 1 below.</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/208503/original/file-20180301-152564-22w4sm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/208503/original/file-20180301-152564-22w4sm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/208503/original/file-20180301-152564-22w4sm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208503/original/file-20180301-152564-22w4sm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208503/original/file-20180301-152564-22w4sm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208503/original/file-20180301-152564-22w4sm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208503/original/file-20180301-152564-22w4sm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208503/original/file-20180301-152564-22w4sm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Figure 1: Population serviced per distribution point scenarios.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A combined scenario of 75 taps per site and increasing water pressure to 20 litres to 30 litres per minute, while maintaining the 200 sites (as indicated by the green line), shows that the population would be serviced much faster: within six hours. Doubling distribution points would drop the service time to five hours, which suggests that the combined scenario is more practical. </p>
<h2>Social factors</h2>
<p>The insights outlined in figure 1 would function perfectly as technical solutions. But what happens when social and political factors are introduced into the model?</p>
<p>For instance, how can the city ensure that people are taking the allocated amount of water? How would military order, which has <a href="https://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/police-army-will-help-secure-day-zero-water-distribution-points-zille-20180124">been proposed</a> at distribution points, look in practice? What is the extent of conflict arising at the water points due to long queues? How does this compromise the ability to service people at a distribution point? </p>
<p>These dynamics change the aggregate impact from the well-organised technical solutions proposed above. They can be represented as random shocks, referred to here as “<a href="http://www2.bi.no/library/tadc/ELE3744_9780071179898_191-230.pdf">disruption noise</a>”. This could dramatically increase the time needed to service each person, implying that fewer people are serviced per hour. This is illustrated in figure 2. </p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/208504/original/file-20180301-152555-96qm39.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/208504/original/file-20180301-152555-96qm39.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/208504/original/file-20180301-152555-96qm39.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208504/original/file-20180301-152555-96qm39.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208504/original/file-20180301-152555-96qm39.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208504/original/file-20180301-152555-96qm39.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208504/original/file-20180301-152555-96qm39.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208504/original/file-20180301-152555-96qm39.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Figure 2: Average population serviced per hour due to disruption noise.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>And, if random shocks happen, the time needed to service the population per distribution point will shoot up to 25 hours. </p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/208506/original/file-20180301-152584-1r2iibl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/208506/original/file-20180301-152584-1r2iibl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/208506/original/file-20180301-152584-1r2iibl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208506/original/file-20180301-152584-1r2iibl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208506/original/file-20180301-152584-1r2iibl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208506/original/file-20180301-152584-1r2iibl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208506/original/file-20180301-152584-1r2iibl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208506/original/file-20180301-152584-1r2iibl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Figure 3: Comparison of Population Serviced per Distribution in Base and Disruption Noise Scenarios.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Lessons for other cities</h2>
<p>Cape Town has managed the use of water from the demand side, for a long time. But hasn’t made many interventions on the supply side, which partly has led to the crisis. </p>
<p>Other cities need to learn from this. Better planning is needed, through focusing on the root cause of problems and not their symptoms, identifying the most desirable interventions, and understanding its effect.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/92612/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>There are measures in place to manage Day Zero and beyond. Models show that these will not work.Josephine Kaviti Musango, Associate Professor, Stellenbosch UniversityPaul Currie, Researcher, Stellenbosch UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/863012017-11-05T19:16:36Z2017-11-05T19:16:36ZThis is what Australia’s growing cities need to do to avoid running dry<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192742/original/file-20171031-18738-ximymd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The Thomson Dam, Melbourne's largest water storage, dropped to only 16% of capacity in the last big drought.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/melbournewater/5028903801/in/album-72157624917339153/">Melbourne Water/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The increasing thirst of Australia’s biggest cities routinely exceeds our capacity to rely on rainfall for drinking water. Australia is facing a fast-approaching “perfect storm” of growing urban populations and declining rainfall to supply storage reservoirs. </p>
<p>Despite these challenges, our capital cities’ rapid population growth is forecast to continue in coming decades. Sydney, for example, is expected to grow by <a href="http://www.planning.nsw.gov.au/Plans-for-your-area/Sydney/A-Plan-for-Growing-Sydney">1.6 million people in 20 years</a>, but is predicted to be <a href="http://www.news.com.au/finance/melbourne-will-be-australias-biggest-city-by-2037/news-story/ac7ca88a29fe1c1d026de2c7d24e81eb">overtaken by Melbourne</a> as the nation’s largest city by then. </p>
<p>How is Australia going to ensure the swelling urban population has enough water? The last two decades provide some important clues. </p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Further reading:</strong> <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-lessons-we-need-to-learn-to-deal-with-the-creeping-disaster-of-drought-68172">The lessons we need to learn to deal with the ‘creeping disaster’ of drought</a></em></p>
<hr>
<p>The largest east coast centres (Melbourne, Canberra, Brisbane and Sydney) have all faced water supply challenges, but Perth and Adelaide have really been pushed to extreme levels. Current <a href="http://www.bom.gov.au/water/dashboards/#/water-storages/summary/state">water storage levels</a> in Australian capital cities range from 94.2% in Hobart and 69.7% in Melbourne through to 40.4% in Perth – the lowest of the capital cities. Only a year ago it was an alarming 28.5%. </p>
<p>Why are Perth’s water storages so low? Because of steep <a href="https://www.watercorporation.com.au/water-supply/rainfall-and-dams/streamflow/streamflowhistorical">declines in rainfall and catchment runoff</a> into the city’s dams. </p>
<p>The world is watching Perth and its water supply crisis. The long-term volume of water flowing into the Perth supply has plummeted from an annual average of 338 gigalitres (1911 to 1974) to less than 50 GL/year (2010-2016). During this 43-year “big dry”, the number of people served by the Perth water supply has increased steeply. </p>
<p>How has Perth managed to survive? <a href="http://www.water.wa.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0016/8521/110200.pdf">Desalination and groundwater</a> have come to the rescue. Perth relies less on catchment runoff and surface storages, and now has two giant desalination plants. It also has tapped into groundwater as a major source of domestic water.</p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Further reading:</strong> <a href="https://theconversation.com/drought-proofing-perth-the-long-view-of-western-australian-water-36349">‘Drought-proofing’ Perth: the long view of Western Australian water</a></em></p>
<hr>
<h2>Solutions have been costly</h2>
<p>All water utilities across Australia struggle with increased population growth and extended periods of low rainfall. The <a href="https://theconversation.com/australia-is-not-ready-for-the-next-big-dry-12819">Millennium Drought</a> caused widespread problems for all Australian urban water supplies. The levels in major east coast storages shrivelled to the lowest levels in decades. </p>
<p>Melbourne’s water storages fell to a perilous low of 26% in June 2009. A large part of Adelaide’s water supply has relied on declining flows in the Murray River. The drought combined with extractions by upstream water users reduced the Murray to a trickle in 2006-07.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-03-19/victoria-desalination-plant-finally-delivers-water/8367554">All</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydney_Desalination_Plant">of</a> <a href="http://www.goldcoastbulletin.com.au/news/gold-coast/rustbucket-perception-dogs-tugun-desalination-plant-a-decade-after-its-conception/news-story/e59034a89a5d0ae1112876ad087c5e9a">the</a> <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-10-28/adelaide-desal-plant-too-big-and-too-expensive/9096046">mainland</a> <a href="https://thewest.com.au/news/perth/dry-winters-to-force-1b-desal-hit-ng-b88527052z">states</a> have built huge desalination plants, but these come with <a href="https://www.google.com.au/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=7&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwizro3-v5zXAhUMHJQKHSzTAiwQFghLMAY&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.afr.com%2Fbusiness%2Finfrastructure%2Ftaxpayers-left-holding-the-desalination-bag-20170110-gtoqqz&usg=AOvVaw2QH61iMnnaB_3KzPnAkPZ6">huge price tags</a>. The Melbourne plant cost about A$4 billion.</p>
<p>Operational costs are enormous, even if the plants sit idle. The Sydney plant’s costs are more than <a href="http://www.smh.com.au/nsw/535m-paid-to-keep-desalination-plant-in-state-of-hibernation-20150410-1miuw6.html">A$500,000 a day</a>, although it has not supplied any water since 2012 as the city’s stored water supply remains higher than 60% of capacity. </p>
<p>Desalination also uses enormous quantities of electricity to extract fresh water from salt water. During his time as NSW premier, Bob Carr referred to desalination as “bottled electricity”. This is important to consider given the <a href="https://theconversation.com/gas-crisis-energy-crisis-the-real-problem-is-lack-of-long-term-planning-74705">power crisis</a> facing eastern Australia. </p>
<h2>Urban growth affects water quality</h2>
<p>The growth of the urban populations and other human activities is linked to water quality issues in urban water supplies. Melbourne’s water catchments are mostly “closed” – minimal private landholdings and human activity are permitted. In contrast, Sydney and Brisbane have more “open” catchments, which include private lands. </p>
<p>Three Brisbane storages (Wivenhoe, North Pine and Somerset) have water quality issues linked to agriculture and other human activity in the catchments. Sydney’s massive Warragamba Dam has a huge catchment that includes more than 110,000 people. The settlements are served by nine sewage treatment plants, most of which <a href="https://www.parliament.nsw.gov.au/lc/papers/DBAssets/tabledpaper/WebAttachments/71475/Sydney%20Catchment%20Audit%20Vol%201.pdf">discharge treated sewage</a> into drinking water catchment rivers. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192535/original/file-20171030-18735-1ow21hw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192535/original/file-20171030-18735-1ow21hw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=307&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192535/original/file-20171030-18735-1ow21hw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=307&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192535/original/file-20171030-18735-1ow21hw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=307&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192535/original/file-20171030-18735-1ow21hw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192535/original/file-20171030-18735-1ow21hw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192535/original/file-20171030-18735-1ow21hw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">New South Wales’ hydroelectric Warragamba Dam.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Taras Vyshnya / Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A recent audit of the Sydney catchments and storages <a href="https://www.parliament.nsw.gov.au/lc/papers/DBAssets/tabledpaper/WebAttachments/71475/Sydney%20Catchment%20Audit%20Vol%201.pdf">reported</a> that sewage treatment plant upgrades had improved water quality. The audit recommended that future upgrades improve sewage treatment for the growing urban population in the NSW Southern Highlands (Bowral, Mittagong and Moss Vale). </p>
<h2>The case for water conservation and recycling</h2>
<p>Perth and Adelaide are the two capitals under most water supply stress. They are an example for all Australian capitals to consider when planning future water supply challenges and solutions. Both Perth and Adelaide now heavily rely on recycled water and desalination. </p>
<p>Recycling waste water for use in urban water supplies is important for all urban centres, particularly Perth and Adelaide. The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization points out that waste water has numerous <a href="http://www.fao.org/docrep/w5367e/w5367e04.htm">public health risks</a>, so risk management is essential for all recycled water schemes. </p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Further reading:</strong> <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-we-can-get-over-the-yuck-factor-when-it-comes-to-recycled-water-65108">Why we can get over the ‘yuck factor’ when it comes to recycled water</a></em></p>
<hr>
<p>Perth and Adelaide are both using more groundwater than the other capital cities. Perth is extracting more groundwater from deep aquifers north of the city. Perth is also <a href="https://www.watercorporation.com.au/-/media/files/about-us/planning-for-the-future/wa-10-year-water-supply-strategy.pdf">pumping treated waste water</a> into shallower groundwater aquifers to replenish the supply. </p>
<p>No new large water supply dam has been built in Australia since the 1980s. The challenge of meeting future urban water demand is not likely to be solved by building new dams.</p>
<p>While desalination, groundwater and recycling are all growing in importance, our individual actions to conserve and use less water are key. For example, the consumption of water per person in Sydney has dropped from 500 litres a day in 1990 to <a href="http://www.planning.nsw.gov.au/%7E/media/Files/DPE/Plans-and-policies/a-plan-for-growing-sydney-2014-12.ashx">less than 300 litres</a>. Melbourne has a <a href="http://target155.vic.gov.au/">daily target</a> of 155 litres per person. </p>
<p>There is plenty of room for improvement. According to <a href="http://www.data360.org/dsg.aspx?Data_Set_Group_Id=757">United Nations data</a>, Australia still has the second-highest daily water consumption per person. The US has the world’s highest at 575 litres a day. The UK is already exceeding Melbourne’s target with 149 litres per day. Tragically, in Mozambique, water is in such short supply that people there use a paltry four litres per day.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/86301/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ian Wright has previously done consulting work for local, NSW and Australian government agencies on a broad range of water-related projects. </span></em></p>Australian cities have turned to some very costly solutions when water is scarce. But as the world’s second-highest users of water per person, more efficient use and recycling are key.Ian A. Wright, Senior Lecturer in Environmental Science, Western Sydney UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/469962015-09-03T04:42:09Z2015-09-03T04:42:09ZGeosciences as a means to address water shortages in Africa<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/93646/original/image-20150902-6149-1jqm84b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Hand pumps are used in Africa to help people get access to clean water.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Reuters</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Geoscience or earth science, is mainly focused on studying the world around us by using various tools like satellites, ground based measurements and chemical analyses at different scales. </p>
<p>While the research area is firmly planted in the earth, it sometimes drifts off into space. Geoscientists also occasionally turn their attention to other elements - like water.</p>
<p>The tools mentioned above can be used to search for water, extract it, check its quality, supply it to the masses and maintain its integrity in a sustainable manner. In this way, geosciences may hold the answer to maintaining a sustainable water supply for Africa’s rural poor.</p>
<h2>A history of geosciences and water</h2>
<p>Henry Darcy, who is considered the <a href="http://biosystems.okstate.edu/darcy/">father of hydrogeology</a>, was a French engineer who looked at problems related to water flow in the mustard making town of Dijon. Darcy’s work has formed the fundamental basis for work related to water flow in porous media over the past 150 years and has spilled over into other sciences as well.</p>
<p>It is a fact that arid areas of the world have limited surface water resources. In the past people have therefore explored and drilled for the precious blue gold below the subsurface. The <a href="http://www.shaduf-eu.org/">shadoof</a> and <a href="http://akvopedia.org/wiki/Traditional_hand-dug_wells">hand dug well</a> are prime examples of the ancient methods used to extract groundwater and are still utilised today.</p>
<p>This precious resource has moulded the way we look at many processes on the surface and subsurface and consequently the manner in which we extract, use and manage water resources has lead to the rise and fall of many civilisations, such as the great gardens of <a href="http://www.ancient.eu/article/129/">Babylon</a>. </p>
<p>The problems relating to water scarcity also affect us today and in turn impact every other aspect of our lives. This could be of particular importance in an African context because the majority of the rural water supply stemming from <a href="http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWRD/864188-1171045933145/21215329/31BGSAfricaRuralGW.pdf">groundwater</a>.</p>
<h2>Africa’s water issues</h2>
<p>Sub-Saharan Africa accounts for one of the most water scarce areas in the world. Approximately <a href="http://www.gisclimat.fr/manifestation-scientifique/conf%C3%A9rence-%E2%80%9Cwater-scarcity-africa-issues-and-challenges%E2%80%9D">300 million</a> people live in water stressed areas. That is almost 50% of Sub-Saharan Africa’s population.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/93647/original/image-20150902-6185-8fnkot.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/93647/original/image-20150902-6185-8fnkot.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/93647/original/image-20150902-6185-8fnkot.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/93647/original/image-20150902-6185-8fnkot.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/93647/original/image-20150902-6185-8fnkot.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/93647/original/image-20150902-6185-8fnkot.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/93647/original/image-20150902-6185-8fnkot.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/93647/original/image-20150902-6185-8fnkot.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Water scarcity is a major issue on the African continent.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Zohra Bensemra/Reuters</span></span>
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<p>There are numerous <a href="http://thewaterproject.org/how-to-give-clean-water">projects</a> underway on the continent aimed at addressing the water shortage issue. Hydrogeologists play a vital role in maintaining the world’s water. <a href="http://muslimhands.org.za/schemes/dig-a-well/">Well-digging</a>, <a href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014PIAHS.364..435N">rain catchment systems</a> and hand pumps are all initiatives on the continent to help people have access to clean water. These are all examples of geosciences and how they play a massive role on the continent. </p>
<p>The issue of the climate’s undulating patterns has been under the microscope for some time. It relates directly to water resources; the location, quality and availability thereof. In line with this the International Atomic Energy Agency has published maps related to the distribution of rainfall and also groundwater <a href="http://www-pub.iaea.org/books/IAEABooks/7819/Atlas-of-Isotope-Hydrology-Africa">recharge</a>. </p>
<p>Large scale monitoring of the water storage on the continent has also taken place with the use of <a href="http://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/6/8/7379">satellites</a>. Multiple papers published on the subject matter in major journal articles as well as mainstream media allude to dwindling freshwater resources. It should be highlighted that groundwater exceeds all other freshwater resources in terms of <a href="https://books.google.co.za/books?id=tN132o_AHucC&pg=PA382&lpg=PA382&dq=groundwater+exceeds+freshwater+resources+in+Africa&source=bl&ots=Q70UrN_TwE&sig=MHOt1V5B5F9Bpk-eInvePZ6tig8&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAGoVChMI8ZLSsYrYxwIVA-wUCh0a7go0#v=onepage&q=groundwater%20exceeds%20freshwater%20resources%20in%20Africa&f=false">volume</a>.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-impact-of-savanna-fires-on-africas-rainfall-patterns-46942">changing rainfall</a> has unfortunately lead to changing levels in aquifers being used for water supply. This coupled with unsustainable extraction could be viewed as the major sources for the lowering of groundwater levels. It should however be noted that artificial pumping into aquifers and some locations, floods, have actually led to the recovery of accessible reserves.</p>
<h2>All hope is not lost</h2>
<p>It is with the water crisis in mind that we have to look into the future of geoscience. A fixed amount of the blue gold on this planet and an ever increasing population could lead to a limited amount of water available for every individual. Furthermore the quality of said water should also be analysed in order to determine its suitability for use. In line with this, multiple universities and research centres globally have invested millions of dollars into understanding processes related to the water cycle as well as the quality thereof. </p>
<p>The latter property has been studied in its natural state as well as after we humans have used the precious resource. We have come so far that some universities have applied nanoscience to the problem of wastewater in order to process it for potable use. This integrative thinking with multiple scientists of various backgrounds working in the same lab to solve the one major problem of our time is the future of geoscience research. The more important question which is not in our future but right now: What are we doing to conserve our water?</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/46996/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gaathier Mahed does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Geosciences can be a valuable tool in the fight to provide Sub-Saharan Africa with safe drinking water.Gaathier Mahed, Senior Lecturer of Environmental and Occupational Studies, Cape Peninsula University of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.