tag:theconversation.com,2011:/au/topics/water-treatment-14801/articles
Water treatment – The Conversation
2024-01-02T20:16:45Z
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/215452
2024-01-02T20:16:45Z
2024-01-02T20:16:45Z
Is cold water bad for you? What about drinking from the hose or tap? The facts behind 5 water myths
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557689/original/file-20231106-25-np8o5o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=11%2C25%2C2449%2C1600&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/little-girl-drink-water-public-drinking-1543468013">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>We know the <a href="https://www.health.qld.gov.au/news-events/doh-media-releases/releases/stay-hydrated-and-sun-safe-during-the-summer-months">importance of staying hydrated</a>, especially in hot weather. But even for something as simple as a drink of water, conflicting advice and urban myths abound. </p>
<p>Is cold water really bad for your health? What about hot water from the tap? And what is “raw water”? Let’s dive in and find out.</p>
<h2>Myth 1: Cold water is bad for you</h2>
<p>Some recent <a href="https://www.tiktok.com/discover/drinking-cold-water-is-bad-for-you">TikToks</a> have suggested cold water causes health problems by somehow “contracting blood vessels” and “restricting digestion”. There is <a href="https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/325038#risks">little evidence</a> for this. </p>
<p>While a <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1046/j.1468-2982.2001.00211.x">2001 study</a> found 51 out of 669 women tested (7.6%) got a headache after drinking cold water, most of them already suffered from migraines and the work hasn’t been repeated since. </p>
<p>Cold drinks were shown to <a href="https://www.jnmjournal.org/journal/view.html?doi=10.5056/jnm.2012.18.4.391">cause discomfort</a> in people with achalasia (<a href="https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/achalasia">a rare swallowing disorder</a>) in 2012 but the study only had 12 participants. </p>
<p>For most people, the temperature you drink your water is down to personal preference and circumstances. Cold water after exercise in summer or hot water to relax in winter won’t make any difference to your overall health. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/dont-like-drinking-plain-water-10-healthy-ideas-for-staying-hydrated-this-summer-191859">Don’t like drinking plain water? 10 healthy ideas for staying hydrated this summer</a>
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<h2>Myth 2: You shouldn’t drink hot tap water</h2>
<p>This belief has a grain of scientific truth behind it. Hot water is generally a <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK431100/">better solvent than cold water</a>, so may dissolve metals and minerals from pipes better. Hot water is also often stored in tanks and may be heated and cooled many times. Bacteria and other disease-causing microorganisms tend to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0301421514000172">grow better in warm water</a> and can build up over time. </p>
<p>It’s better to fill your cup from the cold tap and get hot water for drinks from the kettle. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557687/original/file-20231106-29-605ipk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=5%2C10%2C3616%2C2579&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="woman drinks from bottle" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557687/original/file-20231106-29-605ipk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=5%2C10%2C3616%2C2579&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557687/original/file-20231106-29-605ipk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557687/original/file-20231106-29-605ipk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557687/original/file-20231106-29-605ipk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557687/original/file-20231106-29-605ipk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=540&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557687/original/file-20231106-29-605ipk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=540&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557687/original/file-20231106-29-605ipk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=540&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Hot or cold, so long as the water is treated it probably won’t affect your health.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/woman-drinking-water-241325890">Shutterstock</a></span>
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<h2>Myth 3: Bottled water is better</h2>
<p>While bottled water might be safer in <a href="https://press.un.org/en/2003/sgsm8707.doc.htm">certain parts of the world</a> due to pollution of source water, there is no real advantage to drinking bottled water in Australia and similar countries. </p>
<p>According to <a href="https://sustainability.uq.edu.au/projects/recycling-and-waste-minimisation/real-cost-bottled-water">University of Queensland</a> researchers, bottled water is not safer than tap water. It <a href="https://www.campaignlive.co.uk/article/cokes-bottled-water-dasani-revealed-tap/203811">may even be tap water</a>. Most people <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30189556/">can’t tell the difference</a> either. Bottled water usually costs (substantially) more than turning on the tap and is <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969721039565#bb0120">worse for the environment</a>.</p>
<p>What about lead in tap water? This problem hit the headlines after a <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/casper/pdf-html/flint_water_crisis_pdf.html">public health emergency</a> in Flint, Michigan, in the United States. But Flint used lead pipes with a corrosion inhibitor (in this case orthophosphate) to keep lead from dissolving. Then the city switched water sources to one <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/full/10.1021/acs.est.6b04034">without a corrosion inhibitor</a>. Lead levels rose and a public emergency was declared.</p>
<p>Fortunately, lead pipes haven’t been used in Australia since the 1930s. While lead might be present in some old plumbing products, it is <a href="https://www.health.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/2020/02/enhealth-guidance-lead-in-drinking-water-from-some-plumbing-products-enhealth-guidance-lead-in-drinking-water-from-some-plumbing-products.pdf">unlikely to cause problems</a>.</p>
<h2>Myth 4: Raw water is naturally healthier</h2>
<p>Some people bypass bottled and tap water, going straight to the source. </p>
<p>The “<a href="https://www.sbs.com.au/food/article/raw-water-is-it-a-healthy-trend-or-a-dangerous-fad/5mqtpmxmy">raw water</a>” trend emerged a few years ago, encouraging people to drink from rivers, streams and lakes. There is even a <a href="https://findaspring.org">website</a> to help you find a local source. </p>
<p>Supporters say our ancestors drank spring water, so we should, too. However, our ancestors also often died from dysentery and cholera and their <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5719695/#:%7E:text=The%20first%20encounters%20began%20about,approximately%2033%20years%20of%20age">life expectancy was low</a>. </p>
<p>While it is true even highly treated drinking water can contain low levels of things like <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6449537/">microplastics</a>, unless you live somewhere very remote, the risks of drinking untreated water are <a href="https://press.un.org/en/2003/sgsm8707.doc.htm">far higher</a> as it is more likely to contain pollutants from the <a href="https://www.epa.vic.gov.au/for-community/current-projects-issues/water-quality-alerts">surrounding area</a>.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/travelling-around-australia-this-summer-heres-how-to-know-if-the-water-is-safe-to-drink-196294">Travelling around Australia this summer? Here's how to know if the water is safe to drink</a>
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<h2>Myth 5: It’s OK to drink directly from hoses</h2>
<p>Tempting as it may be, it’s probably best not to drink from the hose when watering the plants. Water might have sat in there, in the warm sun for weeks or more potentially leading to <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1021/es502652n">bacterial buildup</a>.</p>
<p>Similarly, while drinking water fountains are generally perfectly <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-06-01/are-public-drinking-taps-a-health-risk/102415840">safe to use</a>, they can contain a <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/14/6/908">variety of bacteria</a>. It’s useful (though not essential) to run them for a few seconds before you start to drink so as to get fresh water through the system rather than what might have been sat there for a while.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557688/original/file-20231106-21-ssiwkb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="drop of water suspended below tap" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557688/original/file-20231106-21-ssiwkb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557688/original/file-20231106-21-ssiwkb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=379&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557688/original/file-20231106-21-ssiwkb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=379&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557688/original/file-20231106-21-ssiwkb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=379&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557688/original/file-20231106-21-ssiwkb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=477&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557688/original/file-20231106-21-ssiwkb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=477&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557688/original/file-20231106-21-ssiwkb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=477&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">There is a tiny risk that hot water might come with some contaminants from pipes or tanks.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/drop-pure-water-dripping-tap-selective-1312274558">Shutterstock</a></span>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/drinking-fountains-in-every-town-wont-fix-all-our-water-issues-but-its-a-healthy-start-204912">Drinking fountains in every town won't fix all our water issues – but it's a healthy start</a>
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<p>We are fortunate to be able to take safe drinking water for granted. Billions of people around the world are <a href="https://www.who.int/multi-media/details/5-years-into-the-race-to-the-2030-targets-safe-drinking-water">not so lucky</a>. </p>
<p>So whether you like it hot or cold, or somewhere in between, feel free to enjoy a glass of water this summer. </p>
<p>Just don’t drink it from the hose.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/215452/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Oliver A.H. Jones is Deputy Director of the Water: Emerging Technology and Tools (WETT) Research Centre at RMIT University. He has received funding from Melbourne Water and EPA Victoria for research into water pollution.</span></em></p>
There are a lot of myths and strongly held beliefs around one of life’s simplest activities – drinking water.
Oliver A.H. Jones, Professor of chemistry, RMIT University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/215753
2023-12-15T13:18:59Z
2023-12-15T13:18:59Z
How to provide reliable water in a warming world – these cities are testing small-scale treatment systems and wastewater recycling
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564629/original/file-20231209-21-270hhg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5615%2C3715&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Water treatment doesn't have to be one large, citywide system.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/kitchen-sink-with-running-water-royalty-free-image/168583229">Deepblue4you/E+ via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>A lot can go wrong in a large urban water system. Pumps malfunction. Valves break. Pipes leak. Even when the system is functioning properly, water can sit in pipes for long periods of time. Water shortages are also a <a href="https://e360.yale.edu/features/on-site-distributed-premise-graywater-blackwater-recycling">growing problem in a warming world</a>, as communities across the Southwestern U.S. and in many developing nations are discovering. </p>
<p>That’s why cities have started experimenting with small-scale alternatives – including wastewater recycling and localized water treatment strategies known as decentralized or distributed systems.</p>
<p>I <a href="https://www.ccee.iastate.edu/liugroup-human-env-research/">study large- and small-scale water systems</a>, focusing on innovative system designs that allow local use of water sources that might otherwise go to waste. As technology improves, cities are discovering something that <a href="https://www.epa.gov/small-and-rural-wastewater-systems/about-small-wastewater-systems">rural communities have long known</a>: Small-scale water treatment, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.1c04708">properly engineered</a>, can be cheaper and easier to maintain than a centralized system, and it can improve water security and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/7/2/024007">even the environment</a>.</p>
<h2>Cleaning water – nature’s lessons</h2>
<p>Almost all water has value and can be cleaned and put to use. </p>
<p>Nature does a <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZwQeTJEeedk">great job of cleaning water naturally</a> as it flows through the ground. The soil physically filters water, and chemical and biological processes help strip away contaminants over time. </p>
<p>Those processes <a href="https://smartwatermagazine.com/news/rice-university/making-wastewater-drinkable-again">can be mimicked</a> by water treatment plants and filters that are becoming increasingly effective. </p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/KsVfshmK0Ak?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">An illustrated tour of how water treatment systems generally work.</span></figcaption>
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<p>Traditionally, cities have relied on <a href="https://infrastructurereportcard.org/cat-item/drinking-water-infrastructure/">centralized water systems</a> that treat freshwater from a river or aquifer at a central facility, then distribute it through a large network of pipes. But that infrastructure becomes increasingly vulnerable to disruptions as it ages. And climate change, water scarcity and population growth increase stress on the system.</p>
<p>So, some <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17239060">cities are experimenting</a> with what are known as distributed systems. These are small-scale water treatment, reclamation and recycling plants that are designed to collect, treat and reuse water in close proximity to both the source and the user. <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17239060">Some are separate operations</a>. Others are connected to the larger system in a hybrid model. </p>
<p>For example, a decentralized system might treat wastewater in an urban area and recycle it for reuse within that area by the same users, as <a href="https://www.epwater.org/about_us/newsroom/news_from_the_pipeline/new_facility_funds_help_lead_way_in_reuse">El Paso, Texas</a>, is doing. Or it could <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.111639">collect storm runoff and wastewater</a> from homes and <a href="https://smartwatermagazine.com/news/orange-county-water-district/people-are-willing-get-over-yuck-factor-have-a-safe-and-reliable">redirect it specifically for irrigation or to recharge groundwater</a>, as <a href="https://www.austintexas.gov/faq/rainwater-harvesting">Austin, Texas</a>, and <a href="https://www.sfexaminer.com/archives/after-the-storm-how-san-francisco-utilizes-rainwater/article_2870a292-6576-5fb9-8eb3-caf14d853a79.html">San Francisco</a> do. </p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/vTNWYeTtnLM?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Water recycling in Windhoek, Namibia, where freshwater is scarce.</span></figcaption>
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<p><a href="https://www.umontpellier.fr/en/articles/ces-pays-qui-recyclent-les-eaux-usees-en-eau-potable">Windhoek, Namibia</a>, a city of about 430,000 people surrounded by an arid landscape, has been treating wastewater to achieve a drinking standard and returning it to homes since 1968 for all kinds of uses, including cooking and drinking. Storm water runoff, industrial water, wastewater and even agricultural runoff <a href="https://efcnetwork.org/one-water-approach-for-improvement-in-water-resource-management/">can be treated and recycled with modern technology</a> to become drinkable. California’s State Water Resources Control Board <a href="https://calmatters.org/environment/2023/12/california-rules-turn-sewage-into-drinking-water/">approved regulations</a> in December 2023 to eventually allow water systems there to convert wastewater to drinking water, following a similar move in Colorado. </p>
<p>All of these approaches, whether connected to the main system or as separate closed systems, can reduce the community’s overall demand for freshwater from rivers or aquifers.</p>
<h2>Technology is making more water more reusable</h2>
<p>Small-scale treatment can range from advanced filters inside individual homes to treatment at tanks serving clusters of homes or commercial, industrial and agricultural facilities. </p>
<p>Often, the treated water goes to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aabef0">non-potable uses like toilet flushing</a> or to replenish groundwater. But <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wroa.2021.100094">advances in technology</a> are making these decentralized water systems more feasible and expanding their uses.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A man stands on a walkway overlooking wastewater in a small treatment facility." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564627/original/file-20231209-25-52ol2p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564627/original/file-20231209-25-52ol2p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564627/original/file-20231209-25-52ol2p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564627/original/file-20231209-25-52ol2p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564627/original/file-20231209-25-52ol2p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564627/original/file-20231209-25-52ol2p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564627/original/file-20231209-25-52ol2p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Murcia, Spain, an arid agriculture region, built dozens of water treatment plants to process and disinfect wastewater from the sewage system for reuse on farm fields. The plants use sand filters and ultraviolet rays. Almost all of the region’s wastewater is reused.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/responsible-for-exploitation-at-edar-water-treatment-news-photo/1258840091">Jose Jordan/STR/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
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<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41565-018-0203-2">Membrane-based and electrochemical processes</a> have shown great potential for recovering fresh water, nutrients – which can be used for fertilizer – and energy from wastewater. These processes include reverse osmosis, which pushes water through a semipermeable membrane to remove impurities, and electrodialysis, which uses an electric field.</p>
<p>Microbial fuel cells go a step further and use the microbes present in wastewater to both produce electricity and facilitate the treatment of wastewater simultaneously. Another energy recovery method involves capturing biogas, primarily methane, from decomposing organic matter in wastewater in the absence of oxygen.</p>
<p>Unlike conventional treatment technologies, which work on a large scale, these emerging treatment processes use modular designs that can be easily scaled up or down. </p>
<p>They can also be used to create hybrid systems by supplementing large centralized systems with treated water, particularly in arid regions where water supplies are scarce.</p>
<h2>How a hybrid system might help Houston</h2>
<p>To test how a hybrid system might help avoid water shortages due to disruptions to the system, my colleagues and I created <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s44221-023-00166-6">a model of Houston</a>, a city with 7,000 miles of pipelines and 2.2 million residents. We simulated the impact that different types of water outages can have on that large centralized water supply and how distributed sources could help reduce the impact. </p>
<p>Overall, we found that installing hybrid systems did a better job supplying water and avoiding low flows across the city than the centralized system alone, particularly in areas where low water pressure is common.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="An overhead view of 6 round water treatment tanks at a large water treatment facility next to solar panels." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564631/original/file-20231209-19-x7y8b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564631/original/file-20231209-19-x7y8b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564631/original/file-20231209-19-x7y8b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564631/original/file-20231209-19-x7y8b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564631/original/file-20231209-19-x7y8b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=473&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564631/original/file-20231209-19-x7y8b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=473&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564631/original/file-20231209-19-x7y8b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=473&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Large centralized water treatment plants can have thousands of miles of pipes and cause widespread problems when equipment fails. In smaller systems, there are fewer components that can go awry.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/aerial-view-solar-cells-near-a-wastewater-treatment-royalty-free-image/1423253122">Songphol Thesakit/Moment via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The pressurized flow from reclaimed water could also limit the spread of contamination from sources such as a terrorist attack in the vicinity of the reclaimed water source. </p>
<p>That doesn’t mean new water sources are risk-free, of course. Additional sources connecting to a large water system can also introduce new potential sources of contamination, so the design of the system is important.</p>
<p>Several <a href="https://doi.org/10.1029/2022WR033758">factors determine how effective distributed water can be</a>. Population and building density, local water demand, soil characteristics, climate conditions, infrastructure and the state of existing water infrastructure all play a role. Research indicates that regions with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.1c04708">high energy demands</a> for water distribution, significant local water requirements and the capacity to reuse wastewater <a href="https://doi.org/10.1029/2022WR033758">stand to gain the most</a>. </p>
<p>Notably, <a href="https://smartwatermagazine.com/news/smart-water-magazine/san-franciscos-decentralised-approach-water-recycling">San Francisco has emerged as a pioneer</a> in <a href="https://e360.yale.edu/features/on-site-distributed-premise-graywater-blackwater-recycling">extreme decentralization</a>, with initiatives extending down to the individual building level. In some buildings, water tanks, filters and treatment in the basement make water <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/sanfrancisco/news/reuse-system-turns-wastewater-at-san-francisco-high-rise-into-clean-water-soil-energy/">reusable for activities such as flushing toilets</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564628/original/file-20231209-17-26anzm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="The rooftop of a building looks like a park, with walking paths, trees and other plants." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564628/original/file-20231209-17-26anzm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564628/original/file-20231209-17-26anzm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564628/original/file-20231209-17-26anzm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564628/original/file-20231209-17-26anzm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564628/original/file-20231209-17-26anzm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564628/original/file-20231209-17-26anzm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564628/original/file-20231209-17-26anzm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Salesforce Transit Center in San Francisco filters wastewater from sinks, showers, toilets and other sources for reuse.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/davidyuweb/29062452107">David Yu/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What’s standing in the way?</h2>
<p>Despite the benefits, water reuse accounts for less than 1% of total water use in the U.S. today.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2021.633841">Public perceptions concerning recycled water</a> are one challenge, including <a href="https://decentralizedwater.waterrf.org/documents/04-DEC-2/04-DEC-2full.pdf">enduring skepticism</a> regarding the safety, reliability and appropriate use of reclaimed water.</p>
<p>Wastewater recycled properly is considered safe to drink and <a href="https://engineering.stanford.edu/magazine/cleanest-drinking-water-recycled">may even contain less toxic risk</a> than the sources of water we already drink. However, water that is not treated to the appropriate level <a href="https://nap.nationalacademies.org/read/13303/chapter/8#103">can pose significant human health risks</a>. A <a href="https://straitsresearch.com/report/decentralized-water-treatment-market">robust business model</a> is also <a href="https://www.wateronline.com/doc/best-practices-for-decentralized-wastewater-treatment-system-upgrades-and-replacements-0001">needed to make decentralized systems</a> cost-effective, coupled with a supportive governance structure.</p>
<p>As <a href="https://www.epa.gov/infrastructure/water-infrastructure-investments">federal funds</a> pour in to revitalize America’s water infrastructure, U.S. communities have a golden opportunity to bolster their large water systems with a decentralized approach. Globally, with climate change fueling extreme storms and making water supplies less reliable in many areas, small-scale decentralized systems could provide water security and increase water access in areas that are underserved today. </p>
<p><em>This article, originally published Dec. 15, 2023, has been updated with California’s new regulation.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/215753/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lu Liu does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Water shortages are one of the greatest problems created by a warming world. A decentralized water system is a compelling counterargument to the notion that bigger is better.
Lu Liu, Assistant Professor of Civil, Construction and Environmental Engineering, Iowa State University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/216250
2023-10-30T12:32:38Z
2023-10-30T12:32:38Z
Collaborative water management can be a building block for peace between Israelis and Palestinians
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556353/original/file-20231027-30-ejjbrv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=24%2C6%2C4015%2C2677&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Palestinians fill drinking water containers at a distribution site in Khan Yunis, south Gaza, on Oct. 8, 2023. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/october-2023-palestinian-territories-khan-yunis-news-photo/1731176176">Mohammed Talatene/picture alliance via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Water is a central element of the war between Israel and Hamas in the Gaza Strip. Israel <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2023/10/24/middleeast/gaza-water-war-climate-intl-cmd/index.html">controls several water pipelines entering Gaza</a>, much as it controls <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-gaza-strip-why-the-history-of-the-densely-populated-enclave-is-key-to-understanding-the-current-conflict-215306">most of life there</a>. But water can also be a source of hope for an alternative future. </p>
<p>The Middle East is an arid region that is highly vulnerable to the effects of climate change. There is an essential need for solutions that offer equitable access to water and sanitation, and that protect Israel and the Palestinian territories’ shared water resources. </p>
<p>We study approaches to <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=JZBqTFcAAAAJ&hl=en">managing water</a> and <a href="https://scholar.google.co.th/citations?user=X778XU0AAAAJ&hl=en">other environmental resources</a> and conduct work at the <a href="https://arava.org/">Arava Institute for Environmental Studies</a>, a
nonprofit teaching and research center in the south of Israel. At the institute, students and academics from Israel, the Palestinian territories and Jordan come together to learn from each other and work together, developing technologies and programs that meet the region’s water needs.</p>
<p>Our experience has shown us that working together creates understanding and friendships that defy the ongoing conflict. </p>
<p>We are not naïve. We recognize that water is central to the struggle between Israelis and Palestinians. Yet, as we see it, continuing to weaponize water will not make peace more likely. What it will do is amplify the suffering that is already taking place.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/yaHvpovpMoc?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The Middle East is facing a water crisis, and divisions between Israelis and Palestinians have only exacerbated the problem. Experts argue that regional cooperation is the only practical strategy.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A dry region with a growing population</h2>
<p>The combined population of Israelis and Palestinians living in Israel, Gaza and the West Bank is roughly 14 million. Both populations are growing at <a href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/israel/">nearly 2% annually</a>, compared with <a href="https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/SPPOPGROWOED">0.4% per year for high-income countries</a>. As the populations grow, so does demand for water. </p>
<p>The average yearly per capita water supply for the region is less than 500 cubic meters per capita. According to the United Nations and other experts, this amount is at the <a href="https://archive.unescwa.org/absolute-water-scarcity">upper threshold of absolute water scarcity</a> – the level at which nations can’t meet all demand, especially the large amounts needed for agriculture, and have to restrict water use. </p>
<p>For comparison, in 2015 the U.S. used <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/263156/water-consumption-in-selected-countries/">1,207 cubic meters of water per capita</a>. One cubic meter is equal to 264 gallons.</p>
<p>Israel and the Palestinian territories’ main fresh water resources are the Jordan River system and two groundwater aquifers – one along the Mediterranean coast and the other beneath the central Judean mountain range. Palestinians in the West Bank have access mainly to the mountain aquifer system, and those in Gaza to the coastal aquifer. Israel uses both. </p>
<p>The 1993 Oslo peace accords included provisions <a href="https://www.europarl.europa.eu/thinktank/en/document/EPRS_BRI(2016)573916">allocating water between Israelis and Palestinians</a>, but ongoing conflict and continued disagreements have hindered updating these agreements to reflect rising water demand.</p>
<h2>Unequal access to water</h2>
<p>From the foundation of the state of Israel, access to water resources has been as central to the nation’s conflict with the Palestinian people as competing claims to land. Israel has partially decoupled itself from water scarcity by <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-arizona-and-other-drought-ridden-states-can-learn-from-israels-pioneering-water-strategy-212816">building desalination plants</a> along the Mediterranean coast. </p>
<p>In the West Bank, Israel’s continued occupation has impeded Palestinians’ ability to develop their own water network that could distribute water across the population. The situation in Gaza is even more dire. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556354/original/file-20231027-21-hypzuz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Map of Gaza showing population centers and water treatment plants." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556354/original/file-20231027-21-hypzuz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556354/original/file-20231027-21-hypzuz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=846&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556354/original/file-20231027-21-hypzuz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=846&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556354/original/file-20231027-21-hypzuz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=846&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556354/original/file-20231027-21-hypzuz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1063&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556354/original/file-20231027-21-hypzuz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1063&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556354/original/file-20231027-21-hypzuz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1063&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Gaza has only a handful of desalination and wastewater treatment plants. Due to the ongoing war with Israel, all of these main plants now lack fuel and many are inoperable.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.un.org/unispal/document/auto-insert-200679/">United Nations</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Even before the Israel-Hamas war, Gaza had a massive water deficit. Its main source is groundwater, which has been significantly overpumped, and now is <a href="https://www.unicef.org/sop/stories/175000-additional-parents-and-children-are-getting-access-safe-drinking-water-gaza-strip">so salty as to be undrinkable</a> due to <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-seawater-intrusion-a-hydrogeologist-explains-the-shifting-balance-between-fresh-and-salt-water-at-the-coast-214620">seawater intrusion into the aquifer</a>. </p>
<p>Before the war, most Gazans relied on <a href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/2398073-why-the-gaza-water-crisis-is-decades-in-the-making/">private water vendors and a few small desalination plants</a> for drinking water. Israel also piped about 10 million cubic meters of water each year into Gaza. But all told, the water supply is not large enough to meet the entire population’s needs. Now, because of the war, <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2023/10/24/middleeast/gaza-water-war-climate-intl-cmd/index.html">no fuel is entering</a> Gaza to run the desalination plants, leaving them inoperable. </p>
<h2>Weaponizing water</h2>
<p>Israel has <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/10/9/israel-announces-total-blockade-on-gaza">turned off water and fuel shipments to Gaza</a> in order to punish Hamas. We believe this strategy has turned a disaster into a catastrophe that is only likely to get worse. </p>
<p>We do not expect that lack of access to drinking water and sanitation will cause Hamas to lay down its arms. But it already is bringing <a href="https://apnews.com/article/israel-palestinians-gaza-hamas-water-4cc305b209437eec7235e975cf4c47d6">additional misery to the civilians of Gaza</a> and giving them further reason to hate Israel, and will add to international condemnation of Israel. </p>
<p><a href="https://apnews.com/article/gaza-israel-water-humanitarian-crisis-cfeabcda00fefdd03c2877495c4dcd09">U.N. officials are warning</a> that lack of water and sanitation will precipitate an enormous health crisis that will particularly affect women and children. It could lead to outbreaks of waterborne disease that will spread rapidly across Gaza’s crowded and besieged population. Gazan <a href="https://theconversation.com/decades-of-underfunding-blockade-have-weakened-gazas-health-system-the-siege-has-pushed-it-into-abject-crisis-215679">hospitals are already overwhelmed</a> with casualties, and lack water and electricity.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556355/original/file-20231027-23-ugjv4g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A line of large containers on wagons, one pulled by a horse" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556355/original/file-20231027-23-ugjv4g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556355/original/file-20231027-23-ugjv4g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556355/original/file-20231027-23-ugjv4g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556355/original/file-20231027-23-ugjv4g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556355/original/file-20231027-23-ugjv4g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556355/original/file-20231027-23-ugjv4g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556355/original/file-20231027-23-ugjv4g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A drinking water treatment station in Deir al Balah, central Gaza, Oct. 27, 2023.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/IsraelPalestinians/cc5cd331870c432db02dc04e786f5b42/photo">AP Photo/Hassan Eslaiah</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Collaborative water projects</h2>
<p>From 2019 until 2023, the Arava Institute worked together with a Palestinian nonprofit group, which we are not naming here out of concern for its members’ safety; an <a href="https://www.watergen.com/">Israeli water tech company called Watergen</a>; and the <a href="https://arava.org/about-our-community/about-fai/">Friends of the Arava Institute</a>, a U.S.-based nonprofit, to install seven <a href="https://arava.org/bringing-new-atmospheric-water-generators-to-gaza/">atmospheric water generators</a> to Gaza. These devices, which pull humidity from the atmosphere and turn it into high-quality drinking water, run on solar power to ensure around-the-clock operation in the energy-poor Gaza Strip. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556356/original/file-20231027-26-owtpe1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A mad carries a large water container past a cube-shaped machine." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556356/original/file-20231027-26-owtpe1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556356/original/file-20231027-26-owtpe1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556356/original/file-20231027-26-owtpe1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556356/original/file-20231027-26-owtpe1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556356/original/file-20231027-26-owtpe1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556356/original/file-20231027-26-owtpe1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556356/original/file-20231027-26-owtpe1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A water generator installed by the Arava Institute in Gaza.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Arava Institute</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We installed the first generator in a small municipality in central Gaza, along the border with Israel, in 2019. The second, larger generator was installed in a major hospital in central Gaza in 2020. During May 2021 hostilities between Hamas and Israel, when water supplies were cut off to many communities, these generators were the only sources of drinking water for many people in the surrounding communities.</p>
<p>In 2023, we raised funds to install five more water generators at medical facilities throughout Gaza. According to <a href="https://arava.org/david-lehrer/">David Lehrer</a>, director of the Arava Institute’s Track II Environmental Forum, two generators in south Gaza are still working and are the only sources of clean drinking water in the region. The fate of the other units is unclear. </p>
<h2>Treating wastewater</h2>
<p>In a separate project in 2020, we and our Palestinian partners installed a pilot mobile wastewater treatment plant in a Gazan village. The plant treats about 26,500 gallons (100 cubic meters) of wastewater per day, serving around 1,000 residents, and produces treated wastewater that is of sufficiently high quality to be used in agriculture. We estimate that about 25 of these mobile treatment plants could cover all of the village’s needs.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556357/original/file-20231027-28-n69su.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A large cube-shaped machine on the open roof of a building." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556357/original/file-20231027-28-n69su.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556357/original/file-20231027-28-n69su.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556357/original/file-20231027-28-n69su.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556357/original/file-20231027-28-n69su.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556357/original/file-20231027-28-n69su.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556357/original/file-20231027-28-n69su.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556357/original/file-20231027-28-n69su.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An atmospheric water generator on a building in Gaza.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Arava Institute</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Many rural villages in Gaza have no centralized wastewater treatment system. Wastewater is collected in unsanitary cesspits in the middle of the road between houses. Raw sewage runs in open ditches from homes to the cesspits, which residents pump out around once a month. </p>
<p>Sewage then would normally be transported to a wastewater facility to be treated. But now, because of the war, without fuel for electricity, wastewater plants in Gaza are not working. Raw sewage is being dumped into ecologically important <a href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5722/">coastal wetlands, called wadis</a>, and <a href="https://news.un.org/en/story/2023/10/1142882">into the Mediterranean Sea</a>. </p>
<p>This environmental and public health catastrophe also affects Israel. The Israeli seawater desalination plant in Ashkelon is only a few kilometers north of Gaza and cannot operate if it risks pulling in polluted seawater. Over the years, lack of adequate sewage treatment in Gaza has caused the plant to <a href="https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20190604-israeli-report-warns-of-environmental-implications-of-gaza-crisis/">periodically halt operations</a>. </p>
<p>Working closely with Israeli and Palestinian partners is not easy. People from all sides have histories of trauma and grief, and in most cases, very little experience of the other. But working together on shared water challenges can bring people together. </p>
<p>We know that an alternative future is possible – a future that is grounded in a sense of shared humanity and respect. Indeed, we believe it is the only future that is possible for the intertwined reality of Israelis and Palestinians.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/216250/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Clive Lipchin directs the Center for Transboundary Water Management at the Arava institute for Environmental Studies. He receives funding from private, national and international funding and donor organizations, including USAID and the European Union. He is affiliated with Tel Aviv University where he serves as adjunct faculty at the Porter School for Environmental Studies and at the School of Conflict Management and Mitigation.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Richard Friend is an Associate Professor in Human Geography and Environment at the University of York (UK). He has received funding from the British Council to support research partnership with the Arava Institute for Environmental Studies. He currently receives funding from Worldwide Universities Network for research in Thailand.</span></em></p>
As the war between Hamas and Israel grinds forward, two experts explain how Israelis and Palestinians have cooperated to tackle their region’s water challenges.
Clive Lipchin, Adjunct Professor of Environmental Studies, Tel Aviv University
Richard Friend, Senior Lecturer in Human Geography, University of York
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/207538
2023-06-14T13:34:37Z
2023-06-14T13:34:37Z
Water quality in South Africa: reports show what needs to be fixed, and at what cost
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531921/original/file-20230614-15-99hkpp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Michele Spatari /AFP via Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The citizens of Hammanskraal, a small town north of South Africa’s capital, Tshwane, have been dealing with the deaths of 23 residents from cholera since 23 May 2023. Tests to find the source are continuing. The initial assumption by residents and authorities was that poor quality water led to the outbreak. In one week in May, 163 patients were <a href="https://www.gov.za/speeches/minister-joe-phaahla-updates-cholera-outbreak#:%7E:text=The%20current%20outbreak%20of%20Cholera,returned%20on%2030%20January%202023.">admitted</a> to the Jubilee Hospital with diarrhoea and vomiting.</p>
<p>In 2019 the South African Human Rights Commission <a href="https://www.sahrc.org.za/index.php/sahrc-media/news/item/2089-water-warning-for-hammanskraal-residents-issued-by-sahrc">confirmed</a> what residents already knew. The samples the commission drew from Temba Water Treatment Works, Kekana Primary School, Refentse Clinic and Hammanskraal Secondary School revealed that the water was unfit for human consumption.</p>
<p>Hammanskraal illustrates a much wider and deeper problem in the country. The problem is highlighted by <a href="https://ws.dws.gov.za/IRIS/latestresults.aspx">reports recently released</a> by the Department of Water and Sanitation. These watch reports give an update on the status of water treatment, wastewater treatment and water losses. The Blue Drop, Green Drop, and No Drop Watch Reports each present an interim analysis of the deteriorating status of water services in the country.</p>
<p>These latest reports are welcomed and place the spotlight on South Africa’s capability to deal with water resources. The reporting programme was <a href="https://www.gov.za/speeches/minister-senzo-mchunu-release-blue-drop-watch-report-no-drop-watch-report-and-green-drop">introduced</a> in 2008. The reports were not published since 2014.</p>
<p>However, recent Drop Water Reports suggest a fresh leadership is emerging within the Department of Water and Sanitation. And, from the language in the introduction, the department appears to be better positioned than before in demanding greater accountability from municipalities as well as offering them support. </p>
<p>All three reports are very specific in identifying the condition of treatment plants and water infrastructure. They identify what needs to be fixed or maintained and at what cost. This level of intent hasn’t been visible before.</p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/south-africas-drinking-water-quality-has-dropped-because-of-defective-infrastructure-and-neglect-new-report-207267">South Africa's drinking water quality has dropped because of defective infrastructure and neglect – new report</a>
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<p>It is also worth recognising how some municipalities are performing well in difficult circumstances. The Linton water treatment works in the Nelson Mandela Bay municipality is a good example. The city and region have been in the grip of prolonged drought <a href="https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/south-africas-nelson-mandela-bay-water-crisis/">since 2015</a> but have managed to achieve excellent water quality standards. </p>
<p>The reports are the first stage in informing actions and mitigation measures. Overall they identify the need for better governance, monitoring and reporting and an improvement of systems.</p>
<h2>Latest update</h2>
<p>The summary findings of the Department of Water and Sanitation’s reports recently <a href="https://www.gov.za/speeches/minister-senzo-mchunu-release-blue-drop-watch-report-no-drop-watch-report-and-green-drop">released</a> are as follows:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>The <a href="https://ws.dws.gov.za/IRIS/releases/BDWR.pdf">Blue Drop Watch Report</a> is about microbiological and chemical water quality. It shows that only 38% of water treatment systems achieved excellent microbiological water quality for more than 99% of the time, while 11% achieved good microbiological quality between 97% and 99% of the time. The remaining 51% of 151 water supply systems in the sample had poor to bad microbiological water quality status. The majority of treatment plants (71%) failed to achieve chemical compliance. But in 2012 only <a href="https://www.gov.za/speeches/minister-senzo-mchunu-release-blue-drop-watch-report-no-drop-watch-report-and-green-drop">10% of municipalities</a> had bad or poor microbiological water quality. The decline is staggering.</p></li>
<li><p>The <a href="https://ws.dws.gov.za/iris/releases/Report_DPW_Rev02_29Mar22_MN%20web.pdf">Green Drop Watch Report</a> identified 334 municipal wastewater treatment works that showed a general deterioration from medium (65.4%) status of compliance to high risk (70.1%). More evidence of decline. What’s more, the Department of Water and Sanitation <a href="https://www.dws.gov.za/documents/Watch%20Reports%206%20June%202023sp7.pptx">issued</a> directives to these failing municipalities with plants in a critical state, but only 50% responded with plans to address the issues at these plants. </p></li>
<li><p>The <a href="https://ws.dws.gov.za/IRIS/releases/NDWR.pdf">No Drop Watch Report</a> is the final element in a volley of bad news. It accounts for the country’s water losses from leakages and non-revenue water. The report refers to the situation in 2015 when it was estimated that 35% of South Africa’s water was unaccounted for; new estimates in the most recent report suggest that it has risen to around 50%.</p></li>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/cholera-in-south-africa-a-symptom-of-two-decades-of-continued-sewage-pollution-and-neglect-206141">Cholera in South Africa: a symptom of two decades of continued sewage pollution and neglect</a>
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</em>
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<h2>Overwhelming challenges</h2>
<p>South Africa’s <a href="https://www.gov.za/documents/national-water-act">National Water Act 36 of 1998</a> was hailed by the <a href="https://www.wrc.org.za/wp-content/uploads/mdocs/14%20Water%20law%20p%2038-41.pdf">international community</a> as one of the most progressive, radical and admired legislative measures worldwide. </p>
<p>It established the right to clean water for everyone. And it addressed the issue of equality of access.</p>
<p>But in the intervening years the well-intentioned legislation has been hobbled by poor strategic planning, limited investments and governance.</p>
<p>The Department of Water and Sanitation <a href="https://ws.dws.gov.za/iris/releases/Report_DPW_Rev02_29Mar22_MN%20web.pdf">acknowledges</a> that water services are being hampered by several factors. These include:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>a lack of funding, </p></li>
<li><p>vandalism and theft, </p></li>
<li><p>sewage losses before reaching the treatment works, </p></li>
<li><p>construction and contractor issues such as not meeting deadline or quality objectives, </p></li>
<li><p>lack of cooperation by municipalities, </p></li>
<li><p>lack of capacity among Department of Water and Sanitation enforcement officials, and </p></li>
<li><p>ongoing deterioration of infrastructure, processes and effluent quality. </p></li>
</ul>
<h2>Way forward</h2>
<p>The Watch Drop Water interim reports confirm that the government recognises the scale of the problems. The water and sanitation minister, Senzo Mchunu, <a href="https://ws.dws.gov.za/IRIS/latestresults.aspx">confirms</a> that the reports identify the urgent need for better governance, monitoring, reporting, operating procedure and investment in infrastructure. Revealing the truth and reporting the evidence is a step in the right direction.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/basic-water-services-in-south-africa-are-in-decay-after-years-of-progress-185616">Basic water services in South Africa are in decay after years of progress</a>
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<p>But there needs to be greater cooperation between the Department of Water and Sanitation and municipalities that are struggling to deliver services. Provincial governments are important bridge builders in improving cooperation, but it is going to take a lot more determination from multiple stakeholders, including the private sector, academia and willing citizens. Cooperation comes in many forms, but is most likely to be strengthened by an approach to governance that is open to collaboration, innovation, strategic leadership and transparency in reporting. Transparency is one reason why the watch reports are necessary and critical to inform the public and the department.</p>
<p>Lastly, South Africa needs to build a stronger economy as a key priority so that it can invest in water infrastructure and services. It should be obvious that better investment in water infrastructure and services means better healthcare and prevention of diseases.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/207538/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kevin Winter does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Good legislation has been undermined by poor planning, limited investment and governance, but recent water reports suggest the government recognises the scale of the problems.
Kevin Winter, Senior Lecturer in Environmental & Geographical Science, University of Cape Town
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/203235
2023-04-19T20:08:18Z
2023-04-19T20:08:18Z
Floods of nutrients from fertilisers and wastewater trash our rivers. Could offsetting help?
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521780/original/file-20230419-22-4cypca.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=32%2C48%2C5384%2C3946&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The rivers running through the hearts of Australia’s major cities and towns are often carrying heavy loads of nutrients and sediments. </p>
<p>This is a problem. While nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus are essential to life in small quantities, in large quantities they become destructive to river and ocean ecosystems. </p>
<p>When rivers are pumped too full of nutrients washing out from farms or from wastewater treatment, bacteria and algae numbers soar. We see the effects in dangerous blue-green algal blooms and in oxygen levels dropping so low that millions of fish can die, as we <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-did-millions-of-fish-die-gasping-in-the-darling-after-three-years-of-rain-202125">saw recently</a> in Menindee, New South Wales. </p>
<p>Fixing the problem can be expensive and difficult for landholders. That’s where a new idea could help: nutrient offsetting. Here, large wastewater plants can meet stringent requirements to keep nutrient levels low by fixing eroded riverbanks and gullies upstream, creating wetlands, and preventing fertiliser runoff. The end result: cleaner rivers. </p>
<p>While offsetting schemes for carbon have come under <a href="https://theconversation.com/now-we-know-the-flaws-of-carbon-offsets-its-time-to-get-real-about-climate-change-181071">significant scrutiny</a>, nutrient offsetting is a simpler market, with fewer participants and clear ways of measuring success. </p>
<p>Early trials in southeast Queensland by water utilities have proven it can work, as our <a href="https://www.wsaa.asn.au/publication/how-nutrient-trading-regime-can-deliver-environmental-outcomes">new report</a> shows. </p>
<h2>Why are our rivers too full of nutrients?</h2>
<p>In the early industrial period, rivers around the world were seen as dumping grounds, from factory chemicals to tannery waste. Since then, many countries have worked hard to clean up their waterways, with major successes including the UK’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/from-biologically-dead-to-chart-toppingly-clean-how-the-thames-made-an-extraordinary-recovery-over-60-years-180895">Thames river</a>. </p>
<p>It’s comparatively easy to stop the dumping of chemicals. You can see the pipes and pinpoint who’s doing it. But nutrient overloading is a harder problem, which is why we’re still wrestling with it. </p>
<p>Our cities and towns are growing. Almost seven million more people live in Australia now compared to the year 2000. As our population grows, we need more food, and we create more human waste. Our agriculture sector has also boomed and is exporting more and more food. To make our famously poor soils fertile requires fertiliser. When too much fertiliser is applied, heavy rains can wash it into rivers. Erosion on riverbanks and in gullies make the problem worse. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/would-a-nature-repair-market-really-work-evidence-suggests-its-highly-unlikely-199975">Would a nature repair market really work? Evidence suggests it's highly unlikely</a>
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<p>Some rivers, estuaries and coastal waters are in real trouble, such as parts of the Murray-Darling, and some urban creeks in our capital cities. We’ve hit their natural limit to handle nutrient loads and gone past it. This can cause algal blooms, fish kills and water too disgusting to drink without expensive treatment. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521793/original/file-20230419-16-4qon4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Erosion in queensland" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521793/original/file-20230419-16-4qon4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521793/original/file-20230419-16-4qon4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521793/original/file-20230419-16-4qon4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521793/original/file-20230419-16-4qon4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521793/original/file-20230419-16-4qon4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521793/original/file-20230419-16-4qon4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521793/original/file-20230419-16-4qon4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Erosion accelerates nutrient runoff from farms.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Why do we need offsetting at all?</h2>
<p>Chemical dumping can be solved with laws and enforcement. But while we can fix degraded river catchments to reduce nutrient loads, this is rarely done. That’s because the costs are too high to be borne by any one sector, such as farmers. </p>
<p>By contrast, regulations on nutrients discharged by sewage treatment plants place limits of how much can be released into rivers and estuaries. The costs of further upgrades to sewage treatment plants to reduce nutrients to the required low levels is prohibitively expensive, because ratepayers would end up paying much more for water treatment. </p>
<p>That’s why offsetting can be useful, as it offers a win-win. Urban polluters like wastewater treatment plants can meet their regulatory requirements by restoring eroded and degraded catchment areas upstream to reduce nitrogen and phosphorus flows from farmland. Better, this can be done reasonably cheaply when done at scale. Depending on the available sites, this can be done along rivers and creeks on rural properties, or on council owned land in cities and towns. </p>
<p>Making this viable means using a market. Polluters looking for low-cost ways to comply with regulation of nutrient flows are linked with landholders upstream with degraded land. </p>
<p>This is an emerging solution, but early trials show it has promise. Population-dense south east Queensland has large waterways like the Brisbane and Logan Rivers. Wastewater plant operators such as Logan Water, Urban Utilities and Unity Water have replanted shrubs, grasses and trees along riverbanks, as well as undertaking engineering work to stabilise eroding banks. </p>
<p>This led to significant cost savings. Urban Utilities avoided spending A$8 million in upgrading a sewage treatment plant to cut nutrients and got the same result by spending $800,000 in <a href="https://www.wsaa.asn.au/sites/default/files/publication/download/Case%20study%206%20Using%20nutrient%20offsets%20to%20improve%20the%20Logan%20River.pdf">erosion control and revegetation</a> upriver, which prevented five tonnes of nitrogen entering waterways. Operational costs were also much lower, saving $5 million over ten years. </p>
<p>Controlling erosion keeps nutrients in the soil to help crops and grasses to grow, benefiting farmers, rather than having it washed downstream. Healthier riverbanks create better habitat for birds, reptiles and mammals and makes rivers healthier for fish and other species. </p>
<h2>What’s next?</h2>
<p>Nutrient offsetting is still new in Australia. For it to gain traction across Australia means working to make sure the systems and science are mature. </p>
<p>To maximise benefits and give participants certainty, we’ll need to shift from a piecemeal trial approach to a coordinated trading scheme. Successful overseas examples typically have a third party coordinating buying and selling, and ensure there’s a robust structure to set up and assess these projects. </p>
<p>Canada has seen successes here, such as the South Nation River <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1752-1688.2010.00511.x">trading program</a> which has reduced phosphorus in the river, while America has examples such as the nutrient credit trading program in Chesapeake Bay. In Australia, a voluntary <a href="https://www.qld.gov.au/environment/coasts-waterways/reef/reef-credit-scheme">reef trading scheme</a> is underway in the catchments of rivers flowing into the waters of the Great Barrier Reef, involving farmers and a range of investors. </p>
<p>To make sure this works, we need detailed scientific knowledge on comparing nutrient pollution from different sources. Catchment runoff nutrients are mostly bound to soil particles, while sewage treatment plants have much more dissolved nutrients. As yet we don’t know how these sources differ. </p>
<p>We also need to know what methods of land management are best suited to stopping nutrients from washing into rivers, to ensure the best outcome for the money spent. </p>
<h2>Creative solutions are necessary</h2>
<p>Despite our efforts in cleaning up many of our rivers, traditional approaches haven’t been enough to stop nutrient pollution. It’s time to explore creative new approaches to make our rivers and reefs healthier.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-did-millions-of-fish-die-gasping-in-the-darling-after-three-years-of-rain-202125">How did millions of fish die gasping in the Darling – after three years of rain?</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/203235/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michele Burford receives funding from an Australian Research Council Linkage grant, and a Water Services Association of Australia grant</span></em></p>
Many of our rivers are overloaded with nutrients from fertiliser run off and wastewater. Algal blooms, fish kills and poor water follow. One solution? Nutrient offsetting.
Michele Burford, Professor - Australian Rivers Institute, and Dean - Research Infrastructure, Griffith University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/189761
2022-09-07T19:20:09Z
2022-09-07T19:20:09Z
Intense heat and flooding are wreaking havoc on power and water systems as climate change batters America’s aging infrastructure
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483337/original/file-20220907-14-w43w1h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C13%2C3000%2C1980&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Volunteers distributed bottled water after Jackson, Mississippi's water treatment plant failed during flooding in August 2022.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/cases-of-bottled-water-are-handed-out-at-a-mississippi-news-photo/1242850326?adppopup=true">Brad Vest/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The 1960s and 1970s were a <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1746-1049.1986.tb00082.x">golden age of infrastructure development</a> in the U.S., with the expansion of the interstate system and widespread construction of new water treatment, wastewater and flood control systems reflecting national priorities in public health and national defense. But infrastructure requires maintenance, and, eventually, it has to be replaced.</p>
<p>That hasn’t been happening in many parts of the country. Increasingly, extreme heat and storms are putting roads, bridges, water systems and other infrastructure under stress.</p>
<p>Two recent examples – an intense heat wave that pushed California’s <a href="https://www.kcra.com/article/live-coverage-california-rolling-outages-pge-smud/41097480">power grid to its limits</a> in September 2022, and the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2022/09/01/us/mississippi-water.html">failure of the water system</a> in Jackson, Mississippi, amid flooding in August – show how a growing maintenance backlog and increasing climate change are turning the 2020s and 2030s into a golden age of infrastructure failure.</p>
<p>I am a <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/ceae/paul-chinowsky">civil engineer</a> whose work focuses on the impacts of climate change on infrastructure. Often, low-income communities and communities of color like Jackson see the least investment in infrastructure replacements and repairs.</p>
<h2>Crumbling bridge and water systems</h2>
<p>The United States is consistently falling short on funding infrastructure maintenance. A report by former Federal Reserve Board Chairman Paul Volcker’s Volcker Alliance in 2019 estimated the U.S. has a <a href="https://www.volckeralliance.org/resources/americas-trillion-dollar-repair-bill">US$1 trillion backlog of needed repairs</a>.</p>
<p>Over 220,000 bridges across the country – about 33% of the total – <a href="https://artbabridgereport.org/">require rehabilitation or replacement</a>.</p>
<p>A water main break now occurs somewhere in the U.S. <a href="https://infrastructurereportcard.org/">every two minutes</a>, and an estimated 6 million gallons of treated water are lost each day. This is happening at the same time the western United States is implementing water restrictions amid the driest 20-year span in 1,200 years. Similarly, drinking water distribution in the United States relies on over 2 million miles of pipes that have limited life spans.</p>
<p>The underlying issue for infrastructure failure is age, resulting in the failure of critical parts such as pumps and motors.</p>
<p>Aging systems have been blamed for failures of the water system in Jackson, <a href="https://www.scribd.com/document/577861021/MDE-Report#from_embed">wastewater treatment plants in Baltimore</a> that leaked dangerous amounts of sewage into the Chesapeake Bay and <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2020/05/20/catastrophic-flooding-underway-as-dam-failures-in-michigan-force-evacuation.html">dam failures in Michigan</a> that have resulted in widespread damage and evacuations.</p>
<h2>Inequality in investment</h2>
<p>Compounding the problem of age is the lack of funds to modernize critical systems and perform essential maintenance. Fixing that will require systemic change.</p>
<p>Infrastructure is primarily a city and county responsibility financed through local taxes. However, these entities are also <a href="https://www.nlc.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/NLC_2016_Infrastructure_Report.pdf">dependent on state and federal funds</a>. As populations increase and development expands, local governments have cumulatively had to <a href="https://www.cbo.gov/system/files/2018-10/54539-Infrastructure.pdf">double their infrastructure spending</a> since the 1950s, while federal sources remained mostly flat.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483327/original/file-20220907-9722-659s2n.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483327/original/file-20220907-9722-659s2n.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483327/original/file-20220907-9722-659s2n.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483327/original/file-20220907-9722-659s2n.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483327/original/file-20220907-9722-659s2n.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=523&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483327/original/file-20220907-9722-659s2n.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=523&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483327/original/file-20220907-9722-659s2n.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=523&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.cbo.gov/system/files/2018-10/54539-Infrastructure.pdf">Congressional Budget Office</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Inequity often underlies the growing need for investment in low-income U.S. communities.</p>
<p>Over <a href="http://uswateralliance.org/sites/uswateralliance.org/files/publications/Closing%20the%20Water%20Access%20Gap%20in%20the%20United%20States_DIGITAL.pdf">2 million people</a> in the United States lack access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation. The <a href="https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5e80f1a64ed7dc3408525fb9/t/6092ddcc499e1b6a6a07ba3a/1620237782">greatest predictor of those who lack this access</a> is race: 5.8% of Native American households lack access, while only 0.3% of white households lack access. In terms of sanitation, studies in predominantly African American counties have <a href="https://www.montgomeryadvertiser.com/story/news/local/solutions-journalism/2018/07/26/what-solutions-wastewater-treatment-crisis-rural-south-and-black-belt/820533002/">found disproportionate impacts</a> from nonworking sewage systems.</p>
<p><iframe id="9CpR1" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/9CpR1/2/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>Jackson, a majority-Black state capital, has dealt with water system breakdowns for years and has repeatedly <a href="https://htv-prod-media.s3.amazonaws.com/files/urgent-request-for-assistance-1614888467.pdf">requested infrastructure funding</a> from the state to upgrade its struggling water treatment plants.</p>
<h2>Climate change exacerbates the risk</h2>
<p>The consequences of inadequate maintenance are compounded by climate change, which is accelerating infrastructure failure with increased flooding, extreme heat and growing storm intensity.</p>
<p>Much of the world’s infrastructure was designed for an environment that no longer exists. The historic precipitation levels, temperature profiles, extreme weather events and storm surge levels those systems were designed and built to handle are now exceeded on a regular basis.</p>
<p>Unprecedented rainfall in the California desert in 2015 <a href="https://dot.ca.gov/-/media/dot-media/programs/risk-strategic-management/documents/mm-2016-q3-project-spotlight-a11y.pdf">tore apart a bridge</a> over Interstate 10, one of the state’s most important east-west routes. Temperatures near 120 degrees Fahrenheit (49 C) forced the <a href="https://phys.org/news/2022-03-extreme-disrupts-air-climate-worse.html">Phoenix airport to cancel flights</a> in 2017 out of concern the planes might not be able to safely take off. </p>
<p>A heat wave in the Pacific Northwest in 2020 <a href="https://abcnews.go.com/Business/wireStory/northwest-us-braces-hottest-day-intense-heat-wave-78543625">buckled roads and melted streetcar cables</a> in Portland. <a href="https://abcnews.go.com/US/us-heat-wave-force-delays-amtrak-service/story?id=86664902">Amtrak slowed its train</a> speeds in the Northeast in July 2022 out of concern that a heat wave would cause the overhead wires to expand and sag and rails to potentially buckle.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Washed out road in Yellowstone National Park" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483341/original/file-20220907-22-ty1x7j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483341/original/file-20220907-22-ty1x7j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483341/original/file-20220907-22-ty1x7j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483341/original/file-20220907-22-ty1x7j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483341/original/file-20220907-22-ty1x7j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483341/original/file-20220907-22-ty1x7j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483341/original/file-20220907-22-ty1x7j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Fast-moving floodwater obliterated sections of major roads through Yellowstone National Park in June 2022.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/yellowstonenps/52167350392">Jacob W. Frank/National Park Service</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://www.latimes.com/california/story/2022-09-02/southern-california-braces-for-a-scorching-labor-day-weekend-as-crews-continue-battling">Power outages</a> during California’s September 2022 heat wave are another potentially life-threatening infrastructure problem.</p>
<h2>The rising costs of delayed repairs</h2>
<p>My research with colleagues shows that the vulnerability of the national transportation system, energy distribution system, water treatment facilities and coastal infrastructure <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-021-03179-w">will significantly increase over the next decade</a> due to climate change.</p>
<p>We estimate that rail infrastructure faces additional repair costs of $5 billion to $10 billion annually by 2050, while road repairs due to temperature increases could reach a cumulative $200 billion to $300 billion by the end of the century. Similarly, water utilities are facing the possibility of <a href="https://www2.nacwa.org/images/stories/public/2009-10-28ccreport.pdf">a trillion-dollar price tag by 2050</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483338/original/file-20220907-9639-29nv9f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483338/original/file-20220907-9639-29nv9f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483338/original/file-20220907-9639-29nv9f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483338/original/file-20220907-9639-29nv9f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483338/original/file-20220907-9639-29nv9f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483338/original/file-20220907-9639-29nv9f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483338/original/file-20220907-9639-29nv9f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A city bus was caught and several people were injured when a bridge collapsed in Pittsburgh in January 2022.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/vehicles-including-a-port-authority-bus-are-left-stranded-news-photo/1238039302">Jeff Swensen/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>After studying the issue of climate change impacts on infrastructure for two decades, with climate projections getting worse, not better, I believe addressing the multiple challenges to the nation’s infrastructure requires systemic change.</p>
<p>Two items are at the top of the list: national prioritization and funding.</p>
<p>Prioritizing the infrastructure challenge is essential to bring government responsibilities into the national conversation. Most local jurisdictions simply can’t afford to absorb the cost of needed infrastructure. The recent <a href="https://theconversation.com/big-new-incentives-for-clean-energy-arent-enough-the-inflation-reduction-act-was-just-the-first-step-now-the-hard-work-begins-188693">infrastructure bill and the Inflation Reduction Act</a> are starting points, but they still fall short of fixing the long-term issue.</p>
<p>Without systemic change, Jackson, Mississippi, will be just the start of an escalating trend.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/189761/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Paul Chinowsky does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
A heat wave that pushed California’s power grid to the limit, and the water system failure in Jackson, Mississippi, are just two examples.
Paul Chinowsky, Professor of Civil Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/167734
2021-09-14T12:54:05Z
2021-09-14T12:54:05Z
What contaminants lurk in the UK’s drinking water? An expert explains
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421091/original/file-20210914-27-1ww0rt6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C1917%2C1279&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The lead pipes in some old buildings could contaminate drinking water.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://pixabay.com/photos/water-fountain-water-fountain-197334/">AnnaER/Pixabay</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Recently, a school project made an alarming discovery: the presence of five times the recommended maximum amount of <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/sep/05/science-project-reveals-high-lead-levels-in-schools-water">lead</a> in water samples taken from 14 schools across the UK. Lead is a toxin which even at <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40572-018-0193-0">low levels</a> is capable of affecting children’s brain development and reducing their IQ. The news might well make the British public worry about what exactly is lurking in their drinking water.</p>
<p>Installing lead pipes in the UK’s drinking-water network has been banned for decades, but about <a href="https://www.abcb.gov.au/sites/default/files/resources/2020//Lead_in_Plumbing_Products_and_Materials.pdf">eight million old buildings</a> may still have lead pipes in service. Usually, external lead pipes connect the building to the main water pipe, but in some cases, internal plumbing can also contain lead pipes. </p>
<p>Brass plumbing fittings, such as those used in water fountains, can contain <a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/11/101111141849.htm">low levels</a> of lead and can release that lead if water sits in them for a <a href="https://awwa.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/j.1551-8833.2010.tb11340.x">long time</a> – or if chemicals like chloride make the water corrosive, meaning bits of pipe start leaking into the water. To help prevent this, water companies in the UK add corrosion inhibitors, such as <a href="https://ehsdailyadvisor.blr.com/2018/03/drinking-water-phosphate-corrosion-inhibitors/#:%7E:text=Phosphate%2Dbased%20corrosion%20inhibitors%20are,and%20not%20dissolve%20into%20water.">orthophosphate</a>, to drinking water. </p>
<p>Meanwhile, UK water companies are working to identify and remove lead pipes across the country – but this work is slow and expensive. Fundamentally, while lead pipes are in service, there remains a risk of contamination. </p>
<p>Building owners should <a href="https://www.watersafe.org.uk/news/latest_news/watersafe-urges-take-the-scratch-test/">take action</a> to protect vulnerable people, particularly children, by checking for the presence of lead pipes and testing their water. This can be done by private laboratories, but many water companies will also perform this test if asked to do so. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A row of old English houses" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421093/original/file-20210914-13-hhfkdh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421093/original/file-20210914-13-hhfkdh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421093/original/file-20210914-13-hhfkdh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421093/original/file-20210914-13-hhfkdh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421093/original/file-20210914-13-hhfkdh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421093/original/file-20210914-13-hhfkdh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421093/original/file-20210914-13-hhfkdh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Some older houses may still be fitted with lead pipes, potentially contaminating drinking water.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://pixabay.com/photos/village-houses-street-old-houses-3735180/">Bittermuir/Pixabay</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The US has announced a high-profile infrastructure renewal plan that commits to removing <a href="https://edition.cnn.com/2021/07/28/politics/infrastructure-bill-explained/index.html">all lead pipes</a> as part of a £39.7 billion water system upgrade fund over the next five years: an example the UK government should consider following.</p>
<p>But lead is not the only contaminant that might be leaking into people’s homes. An increasingly polluted environment means that many contaminants make their way into rivers, lakes and, ultimately, drinking water.</p>
<h2>Emerging contaminants</h2>
<p>One example of contaminants that have emerged as a health concern in drinking water is a group of chemicals collectively referred to as perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances <a href="https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/pfc/index.cfm">(PFAS)</a>. Historically used as nonstick coatings for items such as cooking pans and in fire-fighting foams, PFAS can now be found wherever <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/sep/14/forever-chemicals-the-hidden-threat-from-the-pfas-toxins-on-your-shelf">humans live</a>. </p>
<p>PFAS are sometimes called “<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/sep/14/forever-chemicals-the-hidden-threat-from-the-pfas-toxins-on-your-shelf">forever chemicals</a>” because they don’t naturally degrade in the environment, instead they accumulate in the bodies of organisms like fish. </p>
<p>There is considerable scientific debate around the world about how many <a href="https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/news/pfas-food-efsa-assesses-risks-and-sets-tolerable-intake">PFAS</a> can be present in drinking water and food before they pose a danger to <a href="https://cdn.dwi.gov.uk/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/12110137/PFOS-PFOA-guidance-2021.pdf">human health</a>.</p>
<p>In England, the <a href="https://www.dwi.gov.uk/">Drinking Water Inspectorate</a> has set guidance levels for two PFAS compounds: perfluorooctane sulphonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA). If either compound is detected above <a href="https://cdn.dwi.gov.uk/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/12110137/PFOS-PFOA-guidance-2021.pdf">0.01 micrograms</a> per litre of water, water companies must perform a risk assessment, test all their drinking water supplies, and report their findings to local health authorities.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Fisherman haul in a catch on a beach" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421094/original/file-20210914-27-wttfu8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421094/original/file-20210914-27-wttfu8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421094/original/file-20210914-27-wttfu8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421094/original/file-20210914-27-wttfu8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421094/original/file-20210914-27-wttfu8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421094/original/file-20210914-27-wttfu8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421094/original/file-20210914-27-wttfu8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">PFAS are now found across the world, from remote beaches to the slopes of Mount Everest.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://pixabay.com/photos/fishermen-beach-boat-fishing-sea-2983615/">Quangpraha/Pixabay</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Keeping up with contaminants</h2>
<p>The water industry is continually trying to keep up with the latest potential contaminants – including microbiological contaminants including diarrhoea-causing parasites such as <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/crypto/index.html#:%7E:text=Cryptosporidium%20is%20a%20microscopic%20parasite,of%20which%20also%20infect%20humans."><em>cryptosporidium</em></a>, and ever-increasing volumes of <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/microplastics-in-virtually-every-crevice-on-earth">microplastics</a> – to understand where they come from, how to remove them, and what they do inside the human body.</p>
<p>It takes years to study a new contaminant: from determining how best to detect it, understanding how much of it is present in water compared with other sources such as food, and quantifying its effect on public health to justify spending money on regulation.</p>
<p>Drinking water treatment continues to improve, but many of the <a href="https://www.wqpmag.com/pfas/pfas-removal-technologies">newer technologies</a> needed to remove contaminants like PFAS require even more energy and chemicals than current methods use. From a sustainability perspective, the best course of action is to prevent these contaminants from entering drinking water sources in the first place. </p>
<p>In the UK, many contaminants are both legally and illegally <a href="https://www.endsreport.com/article/1712683/illegal-sewage-dumping-water-firms-widespread-frequent-investigation-reveals">dumped</a> in waterways in much higher concentrations than are allowed for drinking water. Regulations should be coordinated to make sure that unsafe levels of contaminants don’t get anywhere near the water systems. </p>
<p>Historically, the approach to pollution was to rely on dilution in rivers and lakes to reduce concentrations of potentially dangerous substances. Now, as we understand more about the potential environmental and human health effects of the <a href="https://chemtrust.org/pfas-food-packaging-uk/">toxins</a> around us, it’s time to introduce more stringent controls.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/167734/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Vanessa Speight receives funding from UKRI and a number of UK water companies.</span></em></p>
High levels of lead were unexpectedly found in 14 UK schools’ drinking water: so how much do we really know about what’s in our pipes?
Vanessa Speight, Professor of Integrated Water Systems, University of Sheffield
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/136168
2020-05-15T12:12:32Z
2020-05-15T12:12:32Z
Solar farms, power stations and water treatment plants can be attractions instead of eyesores
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/334817/original/file-20200513-156651-13qpfmc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C1024%2C843&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Infrastructure as art: Jacob van Ruisdael, 'Windmill at Wijk bij Duurstede,' c. 1670. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://hart.amsterdam/collectie/object/amcollect/38744">Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Amid the economic and social fallout of the COVID-19 pandemic, many people see the process of restarting society as a chance to do things differently. Some organizations are calling for big investments in infrastructure, both to <a href="https://www.spglobal.com/en/research-insights/featured/infrastructure-productivity-boost-coronavirus">generate jobs</a> and to promote <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/03/a-green-reboot-after-the-pandemic/">green economic growth</a>. </p>
<p>But projects that sound worthy in the abstract can meet stiff resistance when it’s time to break ground locally. For example, in 2012 I served on a committee tasked with choosing an energy provider to build a solar farm on an old landfill in the progressive town of Amherst, Massachusetts. Neighbors, who were not consulted, fought to preserve a bucolic meadow that had grown up on the landfill site. After several lawsuits, the project died an unhappy death.</p>
<p>This debacle got me thinking. As an <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=K9EF21oAAAAJ&hl=en">architectural historian</a>, I knew that Americans had not always been so disconnected from facilities that produced necessities like food, energy and clean water. My new book, “<a href="https://www.bloomsbury.com/us/landscape-and-infrastructure-9781350071094/">Landscape and Infrastructure: Re-Imagining the Pastoral Paradigm for the 21st Century</a>,” explores how Western views of the systems that sustain society have evolved. It also highlights contemporary projects that successfully marry infrastructure and community into places where people want to be.</p>
<h2>Art objects and tourist attractions</h2>
<p>In European landscape paintings from the 17th and 18th centuries, such as <a href="https://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/artists/jacob-van-ruisdael">Jacob Ruisdael’s Dutch landscapes</a>, windmills compete with church spires for prominence on the skyline. This wasn’t just an aesthetic choice. Painters focused on windmills because they generated wealth and prosperity.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/334805/original/file-20200513-156665-uw4kqo.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/334805/original/file-20200513-156665-uw4kqo.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/334805/original/file-20200513-156665-uw4kqo.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/334805/original/file-20200513-156665-uw4kqo.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/334805/original/file-20200513-156665-uw4kqo.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/334805/original/file-20200513-156665-uw4kqo.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/334805/original/file-20200513-156665-uw4kqo.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/334805/original/file-20200513-156665-uw4kqo.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The ha-ha in front of Heaton Hall, Heaton Park, Manchester, U.K.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Heaton_Hall_Ha-Ha_%28filtered%29.JPG">Richerman/English Wikipedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Classic English landscape gardens include a feature called <a href="https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/features/what-is-a-ha-ha">a ha-ha</a> – a grassy trench running across a lawn, reinforced by a sunken wall that was invisible from the main house. This created a view of what looked like unbroken lawn, grazed by sheep and cattle – key sources of wealth and prosperity – while separating visitors from the animals and their waste.</p>
<p>In the 19th and 20th centuries a handful of architects and artists wrangled with weaving infrastructure and nature together. Frederick Graff’s 1823 <a href="https://www.visitphilly.com/things-to-do/attractions/water-works-restaurant-and-lounge/">Fairmount Water Works</a> protected Philadelphia’s water supply and drew hordes of visitors to admire its Neo-Palladian architecture and landscape park along the Schuylkill River. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/334816/original/file-20200513-156641-seia91.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/334816/original/file-20200513-156641-seia91.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/334816/original/file-20200513-156641-seia91.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=409&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/334816/original/file-20200513-156641-seia91.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=409&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/334816/original/file-20200513-156641-seia91.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=409&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/334816/original/file-20200513-156641-seia91.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=514&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/334816/original/file-20200513-156641-seia91.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=514&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/334816/original/file-20200513-156641-seia91.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=514&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Thomas Doughty, ‘View of the Fairmount Waterworks, Philadelphia, from the West Bank of the Schuylkill River,’ 1826.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.philamuseum.org/collections/permanent/343835.html?mulR=64047836%7C6">Philadelphia Museum of Art</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>And in the 1930s Frank Lloyd Wright envisioned a utopian community called <a href="https://franklloydwright.org/revisiting-frank-lloyd-wrights-vision-broadacre-city/">Broadacre City</a> – his Depression-era answer to urban planning. This project, which was never built at scale, wove together gardens, industry and residences into what he called a <a href="https://99percentinvisible.org/episode/usonia-the-beautiful/">Usonian society</a> – one that offered Americans deeper connections with nature and productivity. </p>
<h2>Going industrial</h2>
<p>Yet as societies industrialized, artists and landscape architects began to downplay or separate industry and infrastructure from their views of nature. People came to understand nature as something unspoiled and separate from modern communities – a view that still dominates today.</p>
<p>As cities and suburbs expanded in the 19th and 20th centuries, so did power stations, water treatment plants and waste facilities. Increasingly, these structures were built on the industrial fringes of metropolitan areas, out of sight and out of mind. Often they were located in underserved communities that lacked the political clout to object. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/329536/original/file-20200421-82654-17b5ujt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/329536/original/file-20200421-82654-17b5ujt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/329536/original/file-20200421-82654-17b5ujt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/329536/original/file-20200421-82654-17b5ujt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/329536/original/file-20200421-82654-17b5ujt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/329536/original/file-20200421-82654-17b5ujt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/329536/original/file-20200421-82654-17b5ujt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/329536/original/file-20200421-82654-17b5ujt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A solar farm in Hadley, Massachusetts, that produces renewable electricity but does nothing for the land it sits on.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Margaret Vickery</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Even renewable energy systems, for all of their green cachet, often perpetuate this destructive tradition. Many solar farms across the U.S. are lifeless slabs encircled by chain link fences, taking up land and habitat. For most of us, the idea that infrastructure can be inviting and aesthetic seems contradictory.</p>
<h2>Productive and attractive</h2>
<p>What’s the alternative? In my book I highlight recent infrastructure projects whose creative teams included artists, architects or landscape architects and invited community input. These facilities don’t just generate electricity or process waste: They also offer recreation and education, and connect visitors to the sources of their energy and drinking water.</p>
<p>Hampden, Connecticut’s <a href="https://sah-archipedia.org/buildings/CT-01-009-0098">water filtration plant</a>, completed in 2005, is one such ecological and aesthetic asset. The structure, which resembles an inverted silver teardrop, emerges from a landscape carefully designed to mimic the filtering processes that happen within the building. Paths and ponds around the site provide recreation, education and wildlife habitat. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335141/original/file-20200514-77235-1ro2zib.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335141/original/file-20200514-77235-1ro2zib.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335141/original/file-20200514-77235-1ro2zib.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335141/original/file-20200514-77235-1ro2zib.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335141/original/file-20200514-77235-1ro2zib.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335141/original/file-20200514-77235-1ro2zib.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335141/original/file-20200514-77235-1ro2zib.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335141/original/file-20200514-77235-1ro2zib.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Lake Whitney Water Purification Plant, Hamden, Connecticut, 2005. Steven Holl Architects, Michael van Valkenburgh Landscape Architects.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Elizabeth Felicella</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The <a href="http://www.hooddesignstudio.com/solarstrand">Solar Strand</a> at the University at Buffalo, New York, designed in 2012, is a dramatic contrast to fields of solar panels arranged in unbroken rows. Laid out like a strand of DNA, irregular placement of arrays creates breakout spaces for outdoor classrooms. Paths meander through, wildflowers bloom and rabbits graze. It is a place of learning and recreation that showcases the school’s commitment to clean energy. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/-7nI98b1R8I?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Landscape architect Walter Hood describes his concept for the UB Solar Strand.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Copenhagen’s <a href="http://www.volund.dk/Waste_to_Energy/References/ARC_Amager_Bakke_Copenhagen">Amager Bakke</a> waste-to-energy plant, completed in 2019, converts trash to electricity and provides an <a href="https://archinect.com/news/article/150162866/big-s-waste-to-energy-ski-slope-amager-bakke-is-now-open">artificial ski slope</a> and climbing walls for visitors who come to recycle their washing machines, paper and plastics. The ski track on the plant’s sloping roof is bordered by green plantings that spread seeds across the surrounding landscape. Waste-to-energy plants are <a href="https://theconversation.com/garbage-in-garbage-out-incinerating-trash-is-not-an-effective-way-to-protect-the-climate-or-reduce-waste-84182">highly unpopular in many places</a>, but developers built a new apartment complex near Amager Bakke to take advantage of the recreational opportunities it offers.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335144/original/file-20200514-77239-ms84yq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335144/original/file-20200514-77239-ms84yq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335144/original/file-20200514-77239-ms84yq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=309&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335144/original/file-20200514-77239-ms84yq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=309&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335144/original/file-20200514-77239-ms84yq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=309&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335144/original/file-20200514-77239-ms84yq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335144/original/file-20200514-77239-ms84yq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335144/original/file-20200514-77239-ms84yq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">On the sloping roof of the Amager Bakke Waste to Energy Plant, Copenhagen, 2018 (artist’s rendition).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">© SLA Landscape Architects</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The <a href="https://www.cfmoller.com/p/Energy-Climate-and-Environmental-Park-i3034.html#">Solrøgård Energy, Climate and Environmental Park</a>, opened in 2019 in Hillerød, Denmark, is home to a recycling center, geothermal energy system and state-of-the-art <a href="https://www.designraid.net/11126/solrodgard-water-treatment-plant-by-henning-larsen-architects/">wastewater treatment plant</a>. The plant features two buildings, bifurcated by rainwater gardens and flowering trees, tucked within the landscape. <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uHj3kA2Ay_E&feature=youtu.be">Paths lead over their grassy roofs</a>, and large windows offer views of the treatment processes taking place inside. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335146/original/file-20200514-77255-ayr0ps.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335146/original/file-20200514-77255-ayr0ps.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335146/original/file-20200514-77255-ayr0ps.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335146/original/file-20200514-77255-ayr0ps.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335146/original/file-20200514-77255-ayr0ps.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335146/original/file-20200514-77255-ayr0ps.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335146/original/file-20200514-77255-ayr0ps.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335146/original/file-20200514-77255-ayr0ps.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Hillerød Renseanlaeg Water Treatment Plant, 2019.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">© Henning Larsen Architects A/S/</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>All of these facilities involve the surrounding community, educate the public and include nature and the landscape. Such creative approaches could have avoided the bitter dispute Amherst experienced in 2012. </p>
<p>Projects like these demonstrate that infrastructure can do more than provide energy and water: It can also create aesthetically welcoming spaces for society. As U.S. leaders consider how to restart the economy, I believe they should consider investing in projects that are not only productive, but enhance and revitalize the communities around them. </p>
<p>[<em>Insight, in your inbox each day.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=insight">You can get it with The Conversation’s email newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/136168/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Meg Vickery receives funding from the University of Massachusetts Amherst for research. </span></em></p>
Are facilities that produce necessities like energy and clean water doomed to be ugly? Not when artists and landscape architects help design them.
Margaret Birney Vickery, Lecturer in Art History, UMass Amherst
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/128776
2020-01-14T13:48:48Z
2020-01-14T13:48:48Z
Microwaving sewage waste may make it safe to use as fertilizer on crops
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/309125/original/file-20200108-107231-ence2y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=20%2C20%2C3395%2C2227&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Water purification at a modern urban wastewater treatment plant involves removing undesirable chemicals, suspended solids and gases from contaminated water. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/modern-urban-wastewater-treatment-plant-purification-530497726">arhendrix/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>My team has discovered another use for microwave ovens that will surprise you.</p>
<p>Biosolids – primarily dead bacteria – from sewage plants are usually dumped into landfills. However, they are rich in nutrients and can potentially be used as fertilizers. But farmers can’t just replace the normal fertilizers they use on agricultural soil with these biosolids. The reason is that they are often contaminated with toxic heavy metals like arsenic, lead, mercury and cadmium from industry. But dumping them in the landfills is wasting precious resources. So, what is the solution?</p>
<p><a href="http://www.eng.fsu.edu/%7Egchen/">I’m an environmental engineer</a> and an expert in wastewater treatment. My colleagues and I have figured out how to treat these biosolids and remove heavy metals so that they can be safely used as a fertilizer. </p>
<h2>How treatment plants clean wastewater</h2>
<p>Wastewater contains organic waste such as proteins, carbohydrates, fats, oils and urea, which are derived from food and human waste we flush down in kitchen sinks and toilets. Inside treatment plants, bacteria decompose these organic materials, cleaning the water which is then discharged to rivers, lakes or oceans.</p>
<p>The bacteria don’t do the work for nothing. They benefit from this process by multiplying as they dine on human waste. Once water is removed from the waste, what remains is a solid lump of bacteria called biosolids. </p>
<p>This is complicated by the fact that wastewater treatment plants accept not only residential wastewater but also industrial wastewater, including the liquid that seeps out of solid waste in landfills – called leachate – which is contaminated with toxic metals including arsenic, lead, mercury and cadmium. During the wastewater treatment process, heavy metals are attracted to the bacteria and accumulate on their surfaces. </p>
<p>If farmers apply the biosolids at this stage, these metals will separate from the biosolids and contaminate the crop for human consumption. But removing heavy metals isn’t easy because the chemical bonds between heavy metals and biosolids are very strong. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/309129/original/file-20200108-107249-x9uck3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/309129/original/file-20200108-107249-x9uck3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/309129/original/file-20200108-107249-x9uck3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/309129/original/file-20200108-107249-x9uck3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/309129/original/file-20200108-107249-x9uck3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/309129/original/file-20200108-107249-x9uck3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/309129/original/file-20200108-107249-x9uck3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/309129/original/file-20200108-107249-x9uck3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Gang Chen microwaves some biosolids, separating the organic material from the toxic metals.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Gang Chen/FAMU-FSU College of Engineering</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Microwaving waste releases heavy metals</h2>
<p>Conventionally, these metals are removed from biosolids using chemical methods involving acids, but this is costly and generates more dangerous waste. This has been practiced on a small scale in some agricultural fields.</p>
<p>After a careful calculation of the energy requirement to release the heavy metals from the attached bacteria, I searched around for all the possible energy sources that can provide just enough to break the bonds but not too much to destroy the nutrients in the biosolids. That’s when I serendipitously noticed the microwave oven in my home kitchen and began to wonder whether microwaving was the solution.</p>
<p>My team and I tested whether microwaving the biosolids would break the bonds between heavy metals and the bacterial cells. We discovered it was efficient and environmentally friendly. The work has been <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.118342">published in the Journal of Cleaner Production</a>. This concept can be adapted to an industrial scale by using electromagnetic waves to produce the microwaves.</p>
<p>This is a solution that should be beneficial for many people. For instance, managers of wastewater treatment plants could potentially earn revenue by selling the biosolids instead of paying disposal fees for the material to be dumped to the landfills. </p>
<p>It is a better strategy for the environment because when biosolids are deposited in landfills, the heavy metals seep into landfill leachate, which is then treated in wastewater treatment plants. The heavy metals thus move between wastewater treatment plants and landfills in an endless loop. This research breaks this cycle by separating the heavy metals from biosolids and recovering them. Farmers would also benefit from cheap organic fertilizers that could replace the chemical synthetic ones, conserving valuable resources and protecting the ecosystem. </p>
<p>Is this the end? Not yet. So far we can only remove 50% of heavy metals but we hope to shift this to 80% with improved experimental designs. My team is currently conducting small laboratory and field experiments to explore whether our new strategy will work on a large scale. One lesson I would like to share with everyone: Be observant. For any problem, the solution may be just around you, in your home, your office, even in the appliances you are using. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/309126/original/file-20200108-107204-16wqxhx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/309126/original/file-20200108-107204-16wqxhx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/309126/original/file-20200108-107204-16wqxhx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/309126/original/file-20200108-107204-16wqxhx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/309126/original/file-20200108-107204-16wqxhx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/309126/original/file-20200108-107204-16wqxhx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/309126/original/file-20200108-107204-16wqxhx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/309126/original/file-20200108-107204-16wqxhx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Biosolids after collection from a waste treatment facility.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Gang Chen/FAMU-FSU College of Engineering</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>[ <em><a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=expertise">Expertise in your inbox. Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter and get a digest of academic takes on today’s news, every day.</a></em> ]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/128776/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gang Chen receives funding from the Hinkley Center for Solid and Hazardous Waste Management. </span></em></p>
The solids from wastewater plants are usually dumped into landfills because they are contaminated with heavy metals. Now there is a way to remove the metals so the waste can be used as fertilizer.
Gang Chen, Professor of Civil & Environmental Engineering, FAMU-FSU College of Engineering
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/112173
2019-08-16T12:53:22Z
2019-08-16T12:53:22Z
A cyberattack could wreak destruction comparable to a nuclear weapon
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/280113/original/file-20190618-118501-10orapc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C293%2C4552%2C2732&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Digital attacks can cause havoc in different places all at the same time.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/network-connection-city-scape-tokyo-561623041">Pushish Images/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>People around the world may be worried about nuclear tensions rising, but I think they’re missing the fact that a major cyberattack could be just as damaging – and hackers are already laying the groundwork.</p>
<p>With the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/01/world/europe/inf-treaty.html">U.S. and Russia</a> pulling out of a <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/russia-to-pull-plug-on-nuclear-arms-pact-after-u-s-backs-out/">key nuclear weapons pact</a> – and <a href="https://allthingsnuclear.org/emacdonald/demise-of-inf">beginning to develop new nuclear weapons</a> – plus <a href="https://www.usnews.com/news/world-report/articles/2019-06-17/iran-threatens-nuclear-escalation-as-war-tensions-increase-with-us">Iran tensions</a> and North Korea <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-geology-reveals-about-north-koreas-nuclear-weapons-and-what-it-obscures-114055">again test-launching missiles</a>, the <a href="https://thebulletin.org/doomsday-clock/">global threat to civilization</a> is high. Some fear a <a href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/is-the-u-s-entering-a-new-arms-race-with-russia">new nuclear arms race</a>.</p>
<p>That threat is serious – but another could be as serious, and is less visible to the public. So far, <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/11/us/politics/trump-china-trade.html">most of the well-known hacking incidents</a>, even those with <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2019/02/13/equifax-mystery-where-is-the-data.html">foreign government backing</a>, have done little more than <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidvolodzko/2018/12/04/marriott-breach-exposes-far-more-than-just-data/#393503cc6297">steal data</a>. Unfortunately, there are signs that <a href="https://arstechnica.com/information-technology/2019/06/hackers-behind-dangerous-oil-and-gas-intrusions-are-probing-us-power-grids/">hackers have placed malicious software</a> inside U.S. power and water systems, where it’s <a href="https://www.technologyreview.com/s/613054/cybersecurity-critical-infrastructure-triton-malware/">lying in wait</a>, ready to be triggered. The U.S. military has also reportedly penetrated the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/06/15/us/politics/trump-cyber-russia-grid.html">computers that control Russian electrical systems</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/283534/original/file-20190710-44466-r5ezzf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/283534/original/file-20190710-44466-r5ezzf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/283534/original/file-20190710-44466-r5ezzf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283534/original/file-20190710-44466-r5ezzf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283534/original/file-20190710-44466-r5ezzf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283534/original/file-20190710-44466-r5ezzf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=593&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283534/original/file-20190710-44466-r5ezzf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=593&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283534/original/file-20190710-44466-r5ezzf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=593&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Students and their teacher practice ‘duck and cover’ during the Cold War.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Return-of-the-Nuclear-Era/f6a2a235cb6444a494855c873e3bc1c5/1/0">AP Photo/Dan Grossi</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Many intrusions already</h2>
<p>As someone who studies <a href="https://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=2810109">cybersecurity</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/artificial-intelligence-cyber-attacks-are-coming-but-what-does-that-mean-82035">information warfare</a>, I’m concerned that a cyberattack with widespread impact, an intrusion in one area <a href="https://i-hls.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/Critical-Infrastructure-Protection-against-Cyber-Threats-Lior.pdf">that spreads to others</a> or a <a href="http://tedkoppellightsout.com/">combination</a> of lots of smaller attacks, could cause significant damage, including mass injury and death rivaling the death toll of a nuclear weapon. </p>
<p>Unlike a nuclear weapon, <a href="https://nymag.com/intelligencer/2018/06/what-a-nuclear-attack-in-new-york-would-look-like.html">which would vaporize people within 100 feet and kill almost everyone within a half-mile</a>, the death toll from most cyberattacks would be slower. People might die from a <a href="https://theconversation.com/space-weather-threatens-high-tech-life-92711">lack of food, power or gas for heat</a> or from car crashes resulting from a <a href="https://theconversation.com/connected-cars-can-lie-posing-a-new-threat-to-smart-cities-95339">corrupted traffic light system</a>. This could happen over a wide area, resulting in mass injury and even deaths.</p>
<p>This might sound alarmist, but look at what has been happening in recent years, in the U.S. and around the world.</p>
<p>In early 2016, hackers <a href="https://www.theregister.co.uk/2016/03/24/water_utility_hacked/">took control of a U.S. treatment plant</a> for drinking water, and <a href="https://www.securityweek.com/attackers-alter-water-treatment-systems-utility-hack-report">changed the chemical mixture</a> used to purify the water. If changes had been made – and gone unnoticed – this could have led to poisonings, an unusable water supply and a lack of water.</p>
<p>In 2016 and 2017, hackers shut down <a href="https://www.wired.com/2016/03/inside-cunning-unprecedented-hack-ukraines-power-grid/">major sections</a> of the <a href="https://www.wired.com/story/crash-override-malware/">power grid in Ukraine</a>. This attack was milder than it could have been, as no <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurora_Generator_Test">equipment was destroyed during it</a>, despite the ability to do so. Officials think it was <a href="https://www.wired.com/2016/03/inside-cunning-unprecedented-hack-ukraines-power-grid/">designed to send a message</a>. In 2018, unknown cybercriminals gained access <a href="https://unearthed.greenpeace.org/2018/06/11/dragonfly-uk-energy-hacker-cybersecurity/">throughout the United Kingdom’s electricity system</a>; in 2019 a similar incursion may have <a href="https://www.eenews.net/stories/1060281821">penetrated the U.S. grid</a>. </p>
<p>In August 2017, a Saudi Arabian petrochemical plant was hit by <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/15/technology/saudi-arabia-hacks-cyberattacks.html">hackers who tried to blow up equipment</a> by taking control of the same types of electronics used in industrial facilities of all kinds throughout the world. Just a few months later, hackers shut down <a href="https://threatpost.com/insecure-scada-systems-blamed-in-rash-of-pipeline-data-network-attacks/130952/">monitoring systems for oil and gas pipelines</a> across the U.S. This primarily caused logistical problems – but it showed how an insecure contractor’s systems could potentially cause problems for primary ones.</p>
<p>The FBI has even warned that <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/07/06/technology/nuclear-plant-hack-report.html">hackers are targeting nuclear facilities</a>. A compromised nuclear facility could result in the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/08/us/three-mile-island-shut-down.html">discharge of radioactive material</a>, chemicals or even possibly a reactor meltdown. A cyberattack could cause an event similar to the <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/photo/2016/04/still-cleaning-up-30-years-after-the-chernobyl-disaster/476748/">incident in Chernobyl</a>. That explosion, caused by inadvertent error, <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/photo/2016/04/still-cleaning-up-30-years-after-the-chernobyl-disaster/476748/">resulted in</a> 50 deaths and evacuation of 120,000 and has left parts of the region uninhabitable for thousands of years into the future. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/283551/original/file-20190710-44453-1q2mfzs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/283551/original/file-20190710-44453-1q2mfzs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/283551/original/file-20190710-44453-1q2mfzs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=459&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283551/original/file-20190710-44453-1q2mfzs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=459&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283551/original/file-20190710-44453-1q2mfzs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=459&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283551/original/file-20190710-44453-1q2mfzs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=577&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283551/original/file-20190710-44453-1q2mfzs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=577&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283551/original/file-20190710-44453-1q2mfzs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=577&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A test of a North Korean missile.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/North-Korea-Koreas-Tensions/6fc3424b48f8447c93c0fa4c86f0f93c/24/0">KRT via AP Video</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Mutual assured destruction</h2>
<p>My concern is not intended to downplay the devastating and immediate effects of a nuclear attack. Rather, it’s to point out that some of the international protections against nuclear conflicts don’t exist for cyberattacks. For instance, the idea of “<a href="https://ssi.armywarcollege.edu/pdffiles/PUB585.pdf">mutual assured destruction</a>” suggests that no country should launch a nuclear weapon at another nuclear-armed nation: The launch would likely be detected, and the target nation would launch its own weapons in response, destroying both nations.</p>
<p>Cyberattackers have <a href="https://twitter.com/RobertMLee/status/1153214812052250624">fewer inhibitions</a>. For one thing, it’s much easier to disguise the source of a digital incursion than it is to hide where a missile blasted off from. Further, cyberwarfare can start small, targeting even a single <a href="https://theconversation.com/with-usb-c-even-plugging-in-can-set-you-up-to-be-hacked-102296">phone or laptop</a>. Larger attacks might target <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/06/us/politics/north-korea-sony-hack-wannacry-indictment.html">businesses</a>, such as <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2019/03/01/politics/north-korea-cyberattacks-cash-bank-heists/index.html">banks</a> or <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/thomasbrewster/2018/12/03/revealed-marriotts-500-million-hack-came-after-a-string-of-security-breaches/#3e46227a546f">hotels</a>, or a <a href="https://gizmodo.com/someone-hacked-nasa-1831199862">government agency</a>. But those aren’t enough to escalate a conflict to the nuclear scale.</p>
<h2>Nuclear grade cyberattacks</h2>
<p>There are three basic scenarios for how a nuclear grade cyberattack might develop. It could start modestly, with one country’s intelligence service stealing, deleting or compromising another nation’s military data. Successive rounds of retaliation could expand the scope of the attacks and the severity of the damage to civilian life.</p>
<p>In another situation, a nation or a terrorist organization could unleash a massively destructive cyberattack – targeting several electricity utilities, water treatment facilities or industrial plants at once, or in combination with each other to compound the damage.</p>
<p>Perhaps the most concerning possibility, though, is that it might happen by mistake. On several occasions, human and mechanical errors very <a href="https://taskandpurpose.com/5-cold-war-mistakes-nearly-killed-us">nearly destroyed the world</a> during the Cold War; something analogous could happen in the software and hardware of the digital realm.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/283192/original/file-20190709-51312-qbloxa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/283192/original/file-20190709-51312-qbloxa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/283192/original/file-20190709-51312-qbloxa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283192/original/file-20190709-51312-qbloxa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283192/original/file-20190709-51312-qbloxa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283192/original/file-20190709-51312-qbloxa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283192/original/file-20190709-51312-qbloxa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/283192/original/file-20190709-51312-qbloxa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A cyberattack wouldn’t be launched from a nuclear operator’s console, like the one shown here from the decommissioned Oscar Zero site, but rather through cyberspace. A human might not even be required.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jeremy Straub</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Defending against disaster</h2>
<p>Just as there is no way to completely protect against a nuclear attack, there are only ways to make devastating cyberattacks less likely.</p>
<p>The first is that governments, businesses and regular people need to secure their systems to prevent outside intruders from finding their way in, and then exploiting their connections and access to dive deeper. </p>
<p>Critical systems, like those at public utilities, transportation companies and firms that use hazardous chemicals, need to be much more secure. One analysis found that <a href="https://www.darkreading.com/threat-intelligence/ics-scada-attackers-up-their-game/d/d-id/1333893">only about one-fifth of companies that use computers to control industrial machinery</a> in the U.S. even monitor their equipment to detect potential attacks – and that in 40% of the attacks they did catch, the intruder had been <a href="https://www.darkreading.com/threat-intelligence/ics-scada-attackers-up-their-game/d/d-id/1333893">accessing the system for more than a year</a>. Another survey found that <a href="https://www.automation.com/automation-news/article/why-energy-and-scada-meters-for-utility-industrial-and-commercial-applications-need-cyber-secure-encryption">nearly three-quarters of energy companies</a> had experienced some sort of network intrusion in the previous year.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/279885/original/file-20190617-118535-xutq6o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/279885/original/file-20190617-118535-xutq6o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/279885/original/file-20190617-118535-xutq6o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=383&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/279885/original/file-20190617-118535-xutq6o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=383&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/279885/original/file-20190617-118535-xutq6o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=383&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/279885/original/file-20190617-118535-xutq6o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=481&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/279885/original/file-20190617-118535-xutq6o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=481&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/279885/original/file-20190617-118535-xutq6o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=481&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Industrial control rooms like this often contain vulnerable computer systems.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/work-place-system-control-room-515865325">nostal6ie/Shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But all those systems can’t be protected without skilled cybersecurity staffs to handle the work. At present, <a href="https://www.cyberseek.org/heatmap.html">nearly a quarter</a> of all cybersecurity jobs in the U.S. are vacant, with <a href="https://www.csoonline.com/article/3238745/cybersecurity-skills-shortage-creating-recruitment-chaos.html">more positions opening up</a> than there are people to fill them. One recruiter has expressed concern that even some of the jobs that are filled are <a href="https://www.csoonline.com/article/3120998/zero-percent-cybersecurity-unemployment-1-million-jobs-unfilled.html">held by people who aren’t qualified</a> to do them. The solution is more training and education, to teach people the skills they need to do cybersecurity work, and to keep existing workers up to date on the latest threats and defense strategies.</p>
<p>If the world is to <a href="https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/ywy3z7/no-need-to-panic-about-cyber-911">hold off major cyberattacks</a> – including some with the potential to be as damaging as a nuclear strike – it will be up to each person, each company, each government agency to work on its own and together to secure the vital systems on which people’s lives depend.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/112173/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jeremy Straub is the associate director of the NDSU Institute for Cyber Security Education and Research. He has received funding related to cybersecurity from the U.S. National Science Foundation, the U.S. National Security Agency and the North Dakota State University. The views presented are his own and do not necessarily represent the views of NDSU or funding agencies.</span></em></p>
Nuclear threats are serious – but officials, the media and the public keep a close eye on them. There’s less attention to the dangers of cyberattacks, which could cripple key utilities.
Jeremy Straub, Assistant Professor of Computer Science, North Dakota State University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/113264
2019-03-19T10:44:06Z
2019-03-19T10:44:06Z
Wastewater is an asset – it contains nutrients, energy and precious metals, and scientists are learning how to recover them
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/264422/original/file-20190318-28479-189zeqg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Aeration tanks at the Oaks wastewater treatment plant in New Providence, Penn.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/2aA2E9C">Montgomery County Planning Commission</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Most people think as little as possible about the wastewater that is produced daily from their showers, bathtubs, sinks, dishwashers and toilets. But with the right techniques, it can become a valuable resource.</p>
<p>On average, every Americans uses <a href="http://www.waterrf.org/PublicReportLibrary/4309A.pdf">about 60 gallons of water per day</a> for purposes that include flushing toilets, showering and doing laundry. This figure can easily double if outdoor uses, such as watering lawns and filling swimming pools, are also included. </p>
<p>Most of the used water will eventually become wastewater that must be <a href="https://water.usgs.gov/edu/wuww.html">treated before it can be discharged into nature</a>. And that treatment uses a lot of energy. According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, water and wastewater facilities account for <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-08/documents/wastewater-guide.pdf">more than a third of municipal energy budgets</a>. </p>
<p>My research focuses on <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=5Zv3mM0AAAAJ&hl=en">recovering resources from wastewater</a>. This process is difficult because wastewater contains many different types of contaminants. But researchers in our fields are exploring many creative ways to make valuable products from them. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/264424/original/file-20190318-28496-cvbo9s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/264424/original/file-20190318-28496-cvbo9s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/264424/original/file-20190318-28496-cvbo9s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=418&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/264424/original/file-20190318-28496-cvbo9s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=418&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/264424/original/file-20190318-28496-cvbo9s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=418&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/264424/original/file-20190318-28496-cvbo9s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=526&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/264424/original/file-20190318-28496-cvbo9s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=526&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/264424/original/file-20190318-28496-cvbo9s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=526&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.epa.gov/watersense/how-we-use-water">EPA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Energy from organic materials</h2>
<p>Diehard wastewater engineers understand the value of wastewater, which they view as an asset rather than a waste. That’s why some of them call it “used water” instead, and refer to what most people call wastewater treatment plants as water resource recovery facilities. </p>
<p>In fact, wastewater can contain <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es2014264">more than three times the amount of energy needed to treat it</a>. One simple and mature technique for recovering part of this energy is <a href="https://www.epa.gov/anaerobic-digestion/basic-information-about-anaerobic-digestion-ad">anaerobic digestion</a>, a natural process in which microorganisms feed on grease and other organic materials in wastewater and produce biogas, just as yeast can eat up barley and spit out beer. Biogas contains <a href="https://www.epa.gov/agstar/benefits-anaerobic-digestion">roughly 50 percent methane</a>, which can be used as a renewable fuel for boilers, furnaces and heating systems or to turn turbines and generate electricity.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/264431/original/file-20190318-28499-104k6ig.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/264431/original/file-20190318-28499-104k6ig.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/264431/original/file-20190318-28499-104k6ig.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/264431/original/file-20190318-28499-104k6ig.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/264431/original/file-20190318-28499-104k6ig.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/264431/original/file-20190318-28499-104k6ig.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/264431/original/file-20190318-28499-104k6ig.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/264431/original/file-20190318-28499-104k6ig.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Inside these anaerobic ‘egg’ digesters at the Deer Island Treatment Plant on Boston Harbor, microbes break down sewage sludge and scum into methane gas, carbon dioxide, water and organic solids that are processed into fertilizer.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deer_Island_Waste_Water_Treatment_Plant#/media/File:Deerislandeggs.jpg">Frank Hebbert/Wikimedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>More advanced techniques, such as <a href="http://www.genifuel.com/process.html">hydrothermal processes</a>, take sewage sludge – the solids removed from wastewater during treatment – and convert it into biobased fuels that can be used to replace gasoline and diesel fuel. This process is currently at the <a href="https://www.thesourcemagazine.org/genifuel-to-pilot-biofuel-processing-technology-in-vancouver/">demonstration stage</a>. </p>
<p>In additional to sewage sludge, many researchers – including me – are very interested in microalgae. Microalgae are <a href="https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2016/06/f33/national_algal_biofuels_technology_review.pdf">promising feedstocks for biofuels</a>, and some of them can grow in wastewater. My colleagues and I have designed hydrothermal systems to <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.8b04035">turn wastewater-grown microalgae into biofuels</a>. They are still being tested in the lab, but we hope to scale them up in the near future.</p>
<h2>Mining nutrients from wastewater</h2>
<p>Wastewater also contains nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus, which are essential elements that plants need to grow. In current wastewater treatment processes, we use energy to <a href="https://www.barnstablecountyhealth.org/resources/publications/compendium-of-information-on-alternative-onsite-septic-system-technology/basics-of-wastewater-treatment">convert ammonia in the wastewater</a>, which comes <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/es0301018">mostly from urine</a>, into nitrogen gas. However, industries then use large quantities of natural gas to convert nitrogen gas back into ammonia, predominantly for producing fertilizer, through the <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080424083111/http://www.fertilizer.org/ifa/statistics/indicators/ind_reserves.asp">Haber-Bosch process</a>. </p>
<p>Clearly, it would be much more efficient to directly extract the ammonia from wastewater without converting it. One way is to use urine-diverting toilets, which already are <a href="https://www.toilettech.com/udseats">commercially available</a>, to <a href="https://theconversation.com/reinventing-the-toilet-urine-diversion-where-its-needed-most-9576">separate urine from other sources of wastewater</a>. Then the collected urine could be used as fertilizer after sanitizing it to remove pathogens. </p>
<p>Sanitized urine also contains other nutrients like phosphorus and potassium. The <a href="http://richearthinstitute.org/our-work/">Rich Earth Institute</a>, a Vermont-based nonprofit supported by federal agencies and foundations, is researching ways to turn human urine into fertilizer. The institute is testing harvested urine on real crops, and has found that <a href="https://www.npr.org/2018/02/01/582338635/could-harvesting-urine-ease-demand-for-phosphorus">it works effectively</a>.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/xAUL8ySO1l8?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Using pasteurized urine as fertilizer reduces waste and resource extraction.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Alternatively, we can recover these nutrients as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Struvite">struvite</a>, or magnesium ammonium phosphate, a mineral that contains magnesium, nitrogen and phosphorus. Struvite can naturally form during wastewater treatment processes, but tends to deposit in tanks and pipes and will damage the equipment if left unattended. By controlling the formation of struvite, it can be recovered in separate reactors. </p>
<p>Researchers have tested recovered struvite on crops in laboratories and achieved yields <a href="https://phosphorusplatform.eu/scope-in-print/scope-in-press/1346-scope-struvite-as-fertiliser">comparable to commercial fertilizers</a>. The technique is still maturing, but companies are developing <a href="http://www.veoliawatertech.com/news-resources/datasheets/53931.htm">commercial versions for wastewater treatment plants</a>.</p>
<h2>More possibilities</h2>
<p>Want more valuable stuff? Wastewater is <a href="https://theconversation.com/mining-for-metals-in-societys-waste-43766">literally a gold mine</a>. It contains metals <a href="http://dx.doi.org/%2010.1021/es505329q">valued up to millions of U.S. dollars per year</a>. These metals are often toxic to aquatic life, so they need to be removed. But conventional removal technologies <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arabjc.2010.07.019">require a lot of energy and produce toxic sludge</a>. </p>
<p>Researchers are developing new ways to remove and reuse these metals, including membrane systems that can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nnano.2015.310">selectively remove precious metals from water</a> and biosystems that <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/358/1/012024">use microorganisms to recover them</a>. These techniques are at a very early stage and it is not clear yet whether they will make economic sense, but they have the potential to make wastewater more valuable.</p>
<p>In addition, wastewater is generally warmer than natural water supplies, especially in the winter, so it can serve as a heat source. This technique is <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_heat_recycling">well-established</a> and is not limited to commercial scale. You can install <a href="https://www.energy.gov/energysaver/water-heating/drain-water-heat-recovery">drain-water heat recovery systems</a> at home to lower your energy bill.</p>
<p>To me, this is just a beginning. With proper techniques, “wastewater” can offer us much more – and I very much look forward to the day when there is no “wastewater,” just “used water.”</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/113264/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Yalin Li does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
The ‘used water’ that flows from our showers, dishwashers and toilets isn’t a waste to engineers – it contains valuable materials. The challenge is recovering them and turning them into products.
Yalin Li, Ph.D. Candidate/Research Assistant, Colorado School of Mines
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/109217
2019-01-10T11:49:51Z
2019-01-10T11:49:51Z
Tumor-free flounder are just 1 dividend from the cleanup of Boston Harbor
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/253075/original/file-20190109-32133-bc40uk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Hull Peninsula and part of the Boston Harbor Islands National Recreation Area. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/21jVy7J">Eric Kilby/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Thirty years ago, during the 1988 presidential campaign, then-Vice President George H.W. Bush took a boat ride across Boston Harbor and derided the environmental record of his rival, Massachusetts Gov. Michael Dukakis, calling the polluted waters a “<a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1988/09/02/us/bush-in-enemy-waters-says-rival-hindered-cleanup-of-boston-harbor.html">harbor of shame</a>.” Bush was right. For decades Boston had been dumping barely treated sewage into the harbor, although a court-ordered cleanup was just starting.</p>
<p>Since 1986 colleagues and I have studied tumors in Boston Harbor flounder, which were a major driver of public outcry over the state of the harbor. Flounder are tasty and easy to catch, and have long been <a href="http://www.eregulations.com/massachusetts/fishing/saltwater/commonly-caught-species/">a popular commercial and recreational species</a> in Massachusetts coastal waters. But a 1984 study showed that 8 percent of <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/species/winter-flounder">winter flounder</a> sampled from Boston Harbor had <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.228.4699.587">liver tumors</a>. Another study found tumors in <a href="https://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/doi/pdf/10.1289/ehp.90-1519495">15 percent of winter flounder</a> and suggested that they were caused by exposure to sewage-borne pollutants.</p>
<p>Today the picture is very different. In a <a href="https://doi.org/10.3354/dao03299">recent study</a>, we provided evidence that the goal of cleaning up toxic chemicals from Boston Harbor has been met. Boston Harbor flounder are dramatically healthier, even those caught near an <a href="http://www.mwra.state.ma.us/harbor/html/outfall_update.htm">offshore outfall</a> where treated sewage is now discharged into Massachusetts Bay. In fact, levels of disease associated with contaminant exposure are lower in flounder caught near the outfall than they were in the early 1990s. Boston Harbor’s turnaround shows that heavily damaged ecosystems can recover and provide benefits far larger than their cleanup costs.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/253078/original/file-20190109-32133-1pq9asd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/253078/original/file-20190109-32133-1pq9asd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/253078/original/file-20190109-32133-1pq9asd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=409&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/253078/original/file-20190109-32133-1pq9asd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=409&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/253078/original/file-20190109-32133-1pq9asd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=409&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/253078/original/file-20190109-32133-1pq9asd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=513&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/253078/original/file-20190109-32133-1pq9asd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=513&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/253078/original/file-20190109-32133-1pq9asd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=513&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Vice President George H.W. Bush gestures from a boat in Boston Harbor during a campaign stop in Boston, Sept. 1, 1988.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Associated-Press-Domestic-News-Massachusetts-Un-/2fb3a8be5ce4da11af9f0014c2589dfb/1/0">AP Photo/J. Scott Applewhite</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Impact of the Clean Water Act</h2>
<p>In 1972 Congress passed the <a href="https://www.epa.gov/laws-regulations/history-clean-water-act">Clean Water Act</a>, which established the legal framework for regulating pollutant discharges into U.S. waters. At that time, Boston Harbor was severely polluted. </p>
<p>Raw sewage discharges had made local beaches risky for swimmers since the late 1800s. By the mid-20th century, heavy loads of pesticides, <a href="https://www.epa.gov/pcbs/learn-about-polychlorinated-biphenyls-pcbs">PCBs</a> and <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-7643-8340-4_6">heavy metals</a> were also flowing into the harbor, contaminating sediments and marine organisms. Two overloaded treatment plants discharged largely untreated sewage and sludge into shallow harbor waters. </p>
<p>Finally, in 1982 the Boston suburb of Quincy, the nonprofit <a href="https://www.clf.org/">Conservation Law Foundation</a> and the federal government all sued Boston under the Clean Water Act for failing to update its sewage treatment systems. Evidence of tumors in flounder helped convince presiding Judge Paul Garrity that dramatic action was required. As Garrity <a href="http://bostonglobe.newspapers.com/image/436982881">asserted</a>: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“The current and potential impact of pollution upon the health, welfare and safety of persons who live and work nearby Boston Harbor and who use it for commercial, recreational, and other purposes is staggering. The damage to that environment and to the creatures who live in it may very well become irreversible unless measures are taken to control, and at some point preclude, the pollution and consequent destruction of that very valuable resource.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>As a result, the <a href="http://www.mwra.com/">Massachusetts Water Resources Authority</a> was established in 1985, and a court-ordered cleanup began. The <a href="http://www.mwra.state.ma.us/harbor/html/soh_2.htm">timeline</a> called for ending sewage sludge discharges by December 1991, developing secondary sewage treatment by 1997, and building a 9.5-mile tunnel that would carry treated effluent offshore by 2000. The cost for constructing the new secondary treatment plant and discharge tunnel was US$3.8 billion.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/253080/original/file-20190109-32142-1kk69ir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/253080/original/file-20190109-32142-1kk69ir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/253080/original/file-20190109-32142-1kk69ir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/253080/original/file-20190109-32142-1kk69ir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/253080/original/file-20190109-32142-1kk69ir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/253080/original/file-20190109-32142-1kk69ir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/253080/original/file-20190109-32142-1kk69ir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/253080/original/file-20190109-32142-1kk69ir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Metals in MWRA treatment plant discharges to Boston Harbor and Massachusetts Bay have declined by more than 80 percent as a result of the harbor cleanup.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.mwra.state.ma.us/01news/2008/bhpenvironentalsuccess/figure4.htm">MWRA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The changing flounder fishery</h2>
<p>Even at its dirtiest in the 1970s and 1980s, Boston Harbor was a mecca for recreational flounder fishing. At one time, six businesses rented fishing skiffs out of Hough’s Neck in Quincy Bay, the southern arm of Boston Harbor, to anglers pursuing flounder that spent cold-weather months in Boston Harbor. This peninsula was referred to as the “flounder capital of the world.”</p>
<p>I began studying the genetics of flounder tumors as a doctoral student working with Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution biologist <a href="http://www.whoi.edu/page.do?id=jstegeman&pid=82520&tid=4462">John Stegeman</a> in the mid-1980s. When I presented data from this work in 1987 at the New England Aquarium, Massachusetts Water Resources Authority officials were interested in our findings. The MWRA started funding our work in 1988, and continues to support it today. In my view, it is a good example of fundamental research that has produced a very long-term applied benefit. </p>
<p>We researched the underlying disease process in flounder, and showed that some tumor-associated cells were excellent predictors of tumor risk. We also found that winter flounder around the pre-cleanup sewage discharge points fed significantly on <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/0025-326X(96)84962-9">organic matter derived from sewage sludge</a> – mainly worms feasting on nutrients in the sludge – before sludge discharges ended in 1991. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/mq6f1gDU1lo?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Landing winter flounder in Boston Harbor, 2017.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>By annually examining flounder from four different sites in and beyond the harbor, we were able to show that the prevalence of tumors in the fish declined with time after the cleanup began, to the point where <a href="https://doi.org/10.3354/dao03299">we did not detect tumors after 2004</a>. Tumor precursor cells in the fish also decreased remarkably. The decreasing prevalence of liver tumors was a good indicator that the harbor cleanup also reduced human health risk, especially for seafood consumers.</p>
<p>Interestingly, winter flounder thrived on the abundant food in sewage sludge, even though it caused liver tumors. In the 1990s, once sludge was no longer discharged on outgoing tides, the flounder lost this food source. In response they shifted their movements so that they did not arrive in the harbor from deeper waters in Massachusetts Bay until they were ready to spawn in late April, and appeared in fewer numbers. This trend was also partly driven by region-wide reductions in the flounder population. </p>
<p>Today flounder are less notable in Boston Harbor than striped bass and seals, but are <a href="http://www.patriotledger.com/article/20150808/NEWS/150807286">making a slow comeback</a>. In another sign of how much cleaner the harbor is, humpback whales were recently filmed breaching in front of the upgraded sewage treatment plant on Deer Island. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/p1apg8AbuY8?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">A juvenile humpback whale breaches in front of the Deer Island sewage treatment plant, August 28, 2018.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A substantial payoff</h2>
<p>A staggering amount of human effort and resources went into the Boston Harbor cleanup, but the results demonstrate that long-term investments to improve regional environmental quality can pay off. A recent study led by my colleague Di Jin estimates that Boston Harbor now provides a capital value of <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2018.00478">$30 billion to $100 billion in ecosystem services</a>, such as recreation opportunities and habitat for fish and shellfish, thanks to a cleanup with a total price tag of $4.7 billion (for the measures discussed above plus sewer system improvements). I would not have eaten fish from Boston Harbor 30 years ago, but I would eat them today.</p>
<p>However, environmental conservation is never finished. New water quality challenges are emerging – notably, <a href="https://www.bostonglobe.com/opinion/editorials/2018/12/07/boston-harbor-clean-but-could-face-new-threats-marine-life-plastics-and-drugs/pRw2DPI8KXDVgpz3iIq4JP/story.html#comments">microplastics and pharmaceuticals in wastewater</a>, which are not currently regulated. As the Trump administration pushes to <a href="https://theconversation.com/epa-staff-say-the-trump-administration-is-changing-their-mission-from-protecting-human-health-and-the-environment-to-protecting-industry-96256">reduce environmental regulation</a>, it bears emphasizing that without federal legislation and legal action, Boston might still have the nation’s dirtiest harbor today.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/109217/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The research described in this article was funded by the Massachusetts Water Resources Authority, a state agency that provides wholesale water and sewer services across greater Boston, though a contract with Normandeau Associates, Inc. </span></em></p>
A few decades ago Boston Harbor was one of the nation’s dirtiest water bodies. Now, healthier fish in the harbor underscore that a multibillion-dollar cleanup has succeeded.
Michael Moore, Senior Scientist, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/107923
2018-12-20T21:37:17Z
2018-12-20T21:37:17Z
Finding a fix for Newfoundland’s troubled drinking water
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251361/original/file-20181218-27764-1g5l7ew.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Many towns in Newfoundland and Labrador have issues with disinfection byproducts created by chlorination.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Nothing better symbolizes the state of a community’s public health than the availability of clean and safe water. Yet recent water quality tests in Newfoundland and Labrador <a href="https://www.thewesternstar.com/news/local/pasadena-st-pauls-among-the-towns-grappling-with-unacceptable-thm-levels-in-its-drinking-water-260207/">have found high levels of disinfection byproducts in the drinking water of 119 communities</a>.</p>
<p>Unfortunately, these are not new concerns. CBC first drew attention to the issue of <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/newfoundland-labrador/thm-troubles-grow-in-n-l-water-supplies-tests-show-1.1341437">chlorine and disinfection byproducts in the municipal drinking water in 1999</a>. The number of affected communities has since doubled.</p>
<p>Chlorine has been used to disinfect drinking water and prevent waterborne disease since the early 1900s. It has been a great success, preventing millions of deaths and making potable water widely available at a low cost. </p>
<p>Although federal and provincial agencies say <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/newfoundland-labrador/thm-troubles-grow-in-n-l-water-supplies-tests-show-1.1341437">the benefits of chlorination outweigh the possible risks associated with disinfection by-products</a>, <a href="https://www.lenntech.com/processes/disinfection/regulation-eu/eu-water-disinfection-regulation.htm">much of Europe has moved away</a> from disinfectants based on chlorine and other similar chemicals for <a href="http://www.doi.org/10.1126/science.aaf0953">health reasons</a>.</p>
<p>Canada has the opportunity to adopt a similarly pragmatic approach. </p>
<h2>Health risks?</h2>
<p>Regulated drinking water systems, including municipal utilities, require a minimum level of treatment. Many water utilities add chlorine twice during treatment. Primary disinfection kills the pathogens found in untreated, raw water drawn from rivers, lakes and other sources. Secondary disinfection maintains drinking water quality within the distribution system. </p>
<p>However, when disinfectants such as chlorine come into contact with naturally occurring organic matter, including algae, bacteria, soil, decomposed plant material or animal feces, they form compounds called disinfection byproducts, including <a href="http://www.waterrf.org/knowledge/dbps/FactSheets/DBP-Regulated-FactSheet.pdf">trihalomethanes (THMs) and halogenic acetic acids (HAAs)</a>.</p>
<p>Long-term exposure to disinfection byproducts is associated with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwj364">an increased risk of bladder cancer</a>. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.11513">Asthma and other breathing issues</a> have also been linked to exposure to disinfection byproducts in swimming pools. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-that-clean-swimming-pool-smell-is-actually-bad-for-your-health-73936">Why that 'clean swimming pool' smell is actually bad for your health</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Many of the communities in Newfoundland and Labrador are remote, and their drinking water is often sourced from ponds and rivers with high levels of natural organic matter and delivered over long distances. Newfoundland surface water is also heavily influenced by extreme and variable weather, creating optimal conditions for the formation of disinfection byproducts. </p>
<h2>A Canada-wide problem</h2>
<p>Newfoundland and Labrador Municipal Affairs and Environment Minister Graham Letto has said that municipalities should <a href="https://www.thewesternstar.com/news/local/municipal-affairs-and-environment-minister-graham-letto-says-communities-should-notify-residents-and-take-action-to-correct-water-quality-issues-262315/">inform residents when THM levels exceed the Health Canada standard</a> of 100 milligrams per litre and take measures to correct the problem. </p>
<p>For example, residents can install NSF-certified filters in water pitchers or under the sink to reduce the disinfection byproducts, or <a href="http://www.saskh20.ca/pdf/epb211b.pdf">they can boil their water or leave it in an open container</a> in a refrigerator overnight. But these can’t remove all the disinfection byproducts or prevent exposure to them when swimming, showering or bathing. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251768/original/file-20181220-103676-j6kgdt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251768/original/file-20181220-103676-j6kgdt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251768/original/file-20181220-103676-j6kgdt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251768/original/file-20181220-103676-j6kgdt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251768/original/file-20181220-103676-j6kgdt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251768/original/file-20181220-103676-j6kgdt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251768/original/file-20181220-103676-j6kgdt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Frequent swimming in swimming pools disinfected with chlorine may increase the risk of asthma and some allergies.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Pixabay)</span>, <a class="license" href="http://artlibre.org/licence/lal/en">FAL</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>An alternative approach is to use carbon or membranes to filter the organic matter from the water before chlorination. Many municipalities do this, but it does require a large capital investment and well-trained operators and engineers for ongoing maintenance. This may not be practical for small communities, nor does it eliminate the use of chlorine. </p>
<h2>The pathway to safer water</h2>
<p>There are other disinfectants available including ozone, chloramines, chlorine dioxide and ultraviolet (UV) light. While these may lower or eliminate the production of disinfection byproducts, some don’t provide enough protection from pathogens along the distribution system, must be produced on site, are expensive or form other undesirable byproducts. </p>
<p>But the pathway to safer water is already in place in Newfoundland and Labrador. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0131345">A series of pilot projects</a> tested the <a href="https://esemag.com/water/pilot-project-improves-sunnyside-nls-water-quality/">SanEcoTec AVIVE water treatment system in several municipalities in Newfoundland and Ontario</a>. Instead of chlorine, the system uses a form of hydrogen peroxide combined with silver to provide disinfection with <a href="http://www.cwwa.ca/pdf_files/16DWC_presentations/G3-Balch.pdf">fewer harmful disinfection byproducts as well as better water colour and smell</a>. (Disclosure: I have received research support from SanEcoTec.)</p>
<p>Within two weeks of use, this hydrogen-peroxide water-treatment system met or exceeded disinfection standards, and disinfection byproduct levels were within Health Canada guidelines. The benefit comes from eliminating chlorine from the disinfection process.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/can-drinking-water-be-delivered-without-disinfectants-like-chlorine-and-still-be-safe-55476">Can drinking water be delivered without disinfectants like chlorine and still be safe?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>It can be used in pools, and no disinfection byproducts with any environmental or health impacts have been identified. This approach also produces water that is less corrosive, resulting in fewer heavy metals leaking from piping into the water system, and may extend the useful life of community water infrastructure. </p>
<p>All of this research points to an alternative approach for water treatment that is more robust, effective and healthy. This system can replace the one that has produced crisis conditions for residents of Newfoundland and Labrador and is burdening public health and infrastructure. </p>
<p>Municipalities hesitate to adopt alternative disinfection strategies due their lack of understanding and unwillingness to change. In part, this is due to perceptions the alternative approach is more costly and/or complex. But making the switch could have important public health and economic outcomes.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/107923/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Steven N. Liss receives funding from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, Southern Ontario Water Consortium, and research support from Queen's University and Ryerson University. He has received research support from SanEcoTec Ltd, a water treatment company advancing alternative disinfection strategies and the application of stabilized hydrogen peroxide. </span></em></p>
Chlorine has been used to disinfect drinking water for more than a hundred years. But new alternatives may be safer.
Steven Liss, Vice-President Research & Innovation; professor of chemistry and biology, Faculty of Science, Toronto Metropolitan University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/94661
2018-04-10T04:49:09Z
2018-04-10T04:49:09Z
Why does some tap water taste weird?
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/213985/original/file-20180410-114109-147ul50.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Which council has Australia's best-tasting water?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/arthur_chapman/3004845340/">Arthur Chapman/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Every year Australia’s councils contest the academy awards of the water industry: the <a href="https://wioa.org.au/awards/national-awards/australias-best-tap-water/">Best Tasting Tap Water in Australia</a>. Entrants compete on clarity and colour as well as taste and odour.</p>
<p>This week the NSW/ACT representative will be selected to go on to compete against other state winners in October for the coveted Australian crown. (As in Eurovision, the previous winner hosts the final, so it will be held in Toowoomba, which swept the competition last year with its <a href="https://wioa.org.au/awards/national-awards/australias-best-tap-water/">Mt Kynock Water Treatment Plant</a> vintage.)</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/mondays-medical-myth-drink-eight-glasses-of-water-a-day-905">Monday's medical myth: drink eight glasses of water a day</a>
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</em>
</p>
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<p>It’s a not-so-serious business (apart from bragging rights and a nice trophy, the Australian winner will go to an international competition in the US next year) but it raises an interesting question. All tap water has its own tang, imparted by the source, the plumbing and any treatments. How do you think the water coming out of your tap will go?</p>
<h2>What makes water taste good?</h2>
<p>The odour of tap water is strongly linked to its taste. No surprises there – the combination of taste and odour is <a href="https://theconversation.com/warming-decanting-and-swirling-do-they-make-wine-taste-better-30505">well established</a>. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/warming-decanting-and-swirling-do-they-make-wine-taste-better-30505">Warming, decanting and swirling: do they make wine taste better?</a>
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</em>
</p>
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<p>One of the most common complaints about tap water taste and odour involves chlorine, which is an essential disinfectant used around the world. Chlorine might have an offensive smell, but it is a major weapon against pathogens spreading in our water supplies. Areas with very old and corroded pipes might add more chlorine to counter the risk of microbial contamination entering the system. </p>
<p>Chlorine is highly volatile and you might particularly notice this smell when you run a hot shower. If you want to enjoy drinking water without the chlorine taste or smell, boil it slowly for several minutes. That will remove much of the chlorine. (And then put it in a container in the refrigerator to get much more appealing ice-cold water.)</p>
<h2>The taste test</h2>
<p>The competition, run by the Water Industry Operators Association of Australia, uses “blind” testing, so the judges do not know the source. All samples need to be at room temperature. The testers use a <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-10-18/water-tasting-wheel/9062414">testing wheel</a> to rate attributes including sweet, sour, salty and bitter. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/213972/original/file-20180409-114098-4iv13p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/213972/original/file-20180409-114098-4iv13p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/213972/original/file-20180409-114098-4iv13p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/213972/original/file-20180409-114098-4iv13p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/213972/original/file-20180409-114098-4iv13p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/213972/original/file-20180409-114098-4iv13p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/213972/original/file-20180409-114098-4iv13p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/213972/original/file-20180409-114098-4iv13p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Water Industry Operators Association</span></span>
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<p>The water will also be judged on clarity, colour, odour and “mouthfeel”. Perhaps the most obvious mouthfeel character of water is effervescence or “sparkling bubbles”, something that consumers will pay plenty for in bottles sourced from exotic-sounding locations.</p>
<h2>Hard vs soft</h2>
<p>These qualities often reflect water’s origins, which affects aspects like its mineral content. Groundwater generally has a higher mineral content, particularly from areas of limestone rich in calcium and magnesium carbonates. This is called “hard” water. </p>
<hr>
<p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/your-future-food-will-be-grown-with-waste-water-74009">Your future food will be grown with waste water</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Water with high levels of hardness may be frustrating when you wash your hands as it can stop a soapy lather forming. Very hard water might also have a salty taste. Hard water can create other issues, such as imparting an unusual flavour in tea and causing a build-up of scale minerals in hot water appliances and water pipes. </p>
<p>The opposite of hard water is “soft” water. This is often from water supplies fed by stored rainfall, which generally contains very dilute sodium chloride (also known as table salt; it’s largely responsible for making seawater salty).</p>
<p>If you live close to the coast and have a tank collecting runoff from your roof you will probably have more salt in your water. You might not actually taste the salt, but you may notice a metallic tang from corrosion of the roof, tank and plumbing triggered by the salt.</p>
<p>Water supplied by rainwater tanks can provide odd tastes and odours. This can be the first sign of a major problem, and you should always <a href="https://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/Content/0D71DB86E9DA7CF1CA257BF0001CBF2F/$File/enhealth-raintank.pdf">investigate the source</a>. Dead animals in the tanks and accumulated vegetation from overhanging trees can be unwelcome tank water quality hazards. It is worth remembering that homes using rainwater tanks often do not treat or disinfect the water before consumption. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/four-myths-about-water-fluoridation-and-why-theyre-wrong-80669">Four myths about water fluoridation and why they're wrong</a>
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</em>
</p>
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<p>A sulphur taste and odour can also occur in some water supplies. This is often termed “rotten-egg gas”, and is caused by hydrogen sulphide. Similar to chlorine, its odour might be detected when running a hot shower. The source of sulphur can be from the water supply geology or from the decay of organic matter.</p>
<p>More and more of Australia’s water supply is highly treated by the local or regional water industry. We have increasing populations and a <a href="https://theconversation.com/this-is-what-australias-growing-cities-need-to-do-to-avoid-running-dry-86301">possibly drying climate</a>. Some areas have a relatively natural supply of high-quality raw water from very clean catchments and storages. Melbourne, Brisbane and Sydney and many locations across Tasmania are fortunate to have very clean and mostly natural water supplies. Other places, like <a href="http://www.bom.gov.au/water/nwa/2017/urban/index.shtml">Alice Springs or Perth</a>, rely heavily on treated groundwater.</p>
<p>Desalination has also emerged as a major new water supply source over the last 20 years. It is often used only when lack of rainfall depletes natural water storage, but it is a permanent factor in Perth’s water supply. </p>
<p>It will be a major victory for the Australian water industry if the winning water sample comes from a recycled water supply, particularly if the source includes some component of <a href="https://theconversation.com/more-of-us-are-drinking-recycled-sewage-water-than-most-people-realise-92420">recycled sewage</a>! </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/more-of-us-are-drinking-recycled-sewage-water-than-most-people-realise-92420">More of us are drinking recycled sewage water than most people realise</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/94661/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ian A. Wright does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Every year councils around Australia compete to prove they have the best-tasting tap water in the country.
Ian A. Wright, Senior Lecturer in Environmental Science, Western Sydney University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/82822
2018-02-12T02:54:27Z
2018-02-12T02:54:27Z
Fixing cities’ water crises could send our climate targets down the gurgler
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/205223/original/file-20180207-74501-hkvy6c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Water treatment plants can't afford not to think about electricity too.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">CSIRO/Wikimedia Commons</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Two cities on opposing continents, <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2017/02/28/americas/chile-flooding-drinking-water/index.html">Santiago</a>
and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2018/feb/03/day-zero-cape-town-turns-off-taps">Cape Town</a>, have been brought to their knees by events at opposing ends of the climate spectrum: flood and drought. </p>
<p>The taps ran dry for Santiago’s 5 million inhabitants in early 2017, due to contamination of supplies by a massive rainfall event. And now Cape Town is heading towards “<a href="http://www.news.com.au/technology/environment/climate-change/cape-town-receives-glimmer-of-hope-as-nervous-countdown-to-day-zero-continues/news-story/1e8db65b14416c7184c7d32e70765579">day zero</a>” on May 11, after which residents will have to collect their drinking water from distribution points. </p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/cape-town-is-almost-out-of-water-could-australian-cities-suffer-the-same-fate-90933">Cape Town is almost out of water. Could Australian cities suffer the same fate?</a>
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<p>It’s probably little comfort that Santiago and Cape Town <a href="https://theconversation.com/cape-towns-water-crisis-driven-by-politics-more-than-drought-88191">aren’t alone</a>. Many other cities around the world are <a href="https://www.sbs.com.au/news/from-cape-town-to-melbourne-taps-run-dry-in-crisis-cities">grappling with impending water crises</a>, including in Australia, where <a href="https://www.watercorporation.com.au/water-supply/rainfall-and-dams/streamflow/streamflowhistorical">Perth</a> and <a href="http://www.theage.com.au/victoria/prediction-melbourne-could-begin-to-run-short-of-water-by-2028-20170722-gxgm2q.html">Melbourne</a> both risk running short. </p>
<p>In many of these places governments have tried to hedge their bets by turning to increasingly expensive and energy-ravenous ways to ensure supply, such as <a href="https://www.technologyreview.com/s/534996/megascale-desalination/">desalination plants</a> and bulk water transfers. These two elements have come together in Victoria with the pumping of desalinated water 150km from a treatment plant at Wonthaggi, on the coast, to the Cardinia Reservoir, which is 167m above sea level.</p>
<p>But while providing clean water is a non-negotiable necessity, these strategies also risk delivering a blowout in greenhouse emissions.</p>
<h2>Water pressure</h2>
<p>Climate change puts many new pressures on water quality. Besides the effects of floods and droughts, temperature increases can boost evaporation and promote the growth of toxic algae, while catchments can be <a href="http://www.ecosmagazine.com/?act=view_file&file_id=EC120p8.pdf">contaminated by bushfires</a>.</p>
<p>Canberra experienced a situation similar to Santiago in 2003, when a bushfire burned through 98% of the Cotter catchment, and then heavy rain a few months later washed <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13241583.2006.11465291">huge amounts of contamination into the Bendora Dam</a>. The ACT government had to commission a A$40 million <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Membrane_bioreactor">membrane bioreactor treatment plant</a> to restore water quality.</p>
<p>At the height of the <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/millennium-drought-22237">Millennium Drought</a>, household water savings and restrictions lowered volumes in sewers (by up to 40% in Brisbane, for example). The resulting increase in salt concentrations put extra pressure on wastewater treatment and reclamation. </p>
<p>The energy needed to pump, treat, distribute and heat water – and then to convey, pump, reclaim or discharge it as effluent, and to move biosolids – is often overlooked. Many blueprints for <a href="https://d231jw5ce53gcq.cloudfront.net/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Insight-brief_Net-zero-energy8_2.pdf">zero-carbon cities</a> underplay or neglect entirely the carbon footprint of water supply and sewage treatment. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.urbanwateralliance.org.au/publications/UWSRA-tr100.pdf">Some analyses</a> only consider the energy footprint of domestic water heating, rather than the water sector as a whole – which is rather like trying to calculate the carbon footprint of the livestock industry by only looking at cooking.</p>
<p>Yet the growing challenge of delivering a reliable and <a href="http://theconversation.com/the-water-industry-needs-to-join-the-fight-against-superbugs-37233">safe</a> water supply means that energy use is growing. The United States, for example, experienced a 39% increase in electricity usage for drinking water supply and treatment, and a 74% increase for wastewater treatment <a href="http://www.waterrf.org/Pages/Projects.aspx?PID=4454">over the period 1996-2013</a>, in spite of improvements in energy efficiency.</p>
<p>As climate change puts yet more pressure on water infrastructure, responses such as desalination plants and long-distance piping threaten to add even more to this energy burden. The water industry will increasingly be both a contributor to and a casualty of climate change.</p>
<p>How much energy individual utilities are actually using, either in Australia or worldwide, will vary widely according to the source of supply – such as rivers, groundwater or mountain dams – and whether gravity feeds are possible for freshwater and sewage (Melbourne shapes up well here, for example, whereas the Gold Coast doesn’t), as well as factors such as the level of treatment, and whether or not measures such as desalination or bulk transfers are in place.</p>
<p>All of this increases the water sector’s reliance on the electricity sector, which as we know has a <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-electricity-sector-needs-to-cut-carbon-by-45-by-2030-to-keep-australia-on-track-80883">pressing need to reduce its greenhouse emissions</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/205222/original/file-20180207-28333-18qd6w9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/205222/original/file-20180207-28333-18qd6w9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/205222/original/file-20180207-28333-18qd6w9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=243&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205222/original/file-20180207-28333-18qd6w9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=243&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205222/original/file-20180207-28333-18qd6w9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=243&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205222/original/file-20180207-28333-18qd6w9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=305&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205222/original/file-20180207-28333-18qd6w9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=305&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205222/original/file-20180207-28333-18qd6w9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=305&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Desalination plants: great for providing water, not so great for saving electricity.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Moondyne/Wikimedia Commons</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>One option would be for water facilities to take themselves at least partly “off-grid”, by installing large amounts of solar panels, onsite wind turbines, or Tesla-style batteries (a few plants also harness <a href="https://theconversation.com/biogas-smells-like-a-solution-to-our-energy-and-waste-problems-36136">biogas</a>). Treatment plants are not exactly bereft of flat surfaces – such as roofs, grounds or even ponds – an opportunity <a href="http://www.adelaidenow.com.au/news/south-australia/sa-water-to-put-floating-solar-panels-in-happy-valley-water-treatment-plant-to-bring-down-power-bills/news-story/8585a5f009ad15b381f1bff71457dc1c">seized upon by South Australian Water</a>. </p>
<p>But this is a large undertaking, and the alternative – waiting for the grid itself to become largely based on renewables – will take a long time.</p>
<p>A <a href="https://www.wsaa.asn.au/publication/energy-efficiency-benchmarking-pump-stations-project-fact-sheet">2012 study</a> found large variations in pump efficiency between water facilities in different local authorities across Australia. Clearly there is untapped scope for collaboration and knowledge-sharing in our water sector, as is done in Spain and Germany, where water utilities have integrated with municipal waste services, and in the United States, where the water and power sectors have gone into partnership in many places.</p>
<h2>The developing world</h2>
<p>Climate change and population growth are seriously affecting cities in middle-band and developing countries, and the overall <a href="https://www.technologyreview.com/s/609974/how-nuclear-weapons-research-revealed-new-climate-threats/">outlook is grim</a>. Many places, such as <a href="https://www.nap.edu/read/4937/chapter/6">Mexico City</a>, already have serious water contamination problems. Indeed, in developing nations these problems are worsened by existing water quality issues. Only one-third of wastewater is treated to <a href="https://www3.epa.gov/npdes/pubs/bastre.pdf">secondary standard</a> in Asia, less than half of that in Latin America and the Caribbean, and a minute amount in Africa. </p>
<p>The transfer of know-how to these places is critical to reaching clean energy transitions. Nations making the energy transition – especially China, the world’s largest greenhouse emitter – need to take just as much care to ensure they avoid a carbon blowout as they transition to clean water too.</p>
<p>Just as in the electricity sector, carbon pricing can potentially provide a valuable incentive for utilities to improve their environmental performance. If utilities were monitored on the amount of electricity used per kilolitre of water processed, and then rewarded (or penalised) accordingly, it would encourage the entire sector to up its game, from water supply all the way through to sewage treatment.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/this-is-what-australias-growing-cities-need-to-do-to-avoid-running-dry-86301">This is what Australia's growing cities need to do to avoid running dry</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Water is a must for city-dwellers – a fact that Cape Town’s officials are now nervously contemplating. It would be helpful for the industry to participate in the strategic planning and land-use debates that affect its energy budgets, and for its emissions (and emissions reductions) to be measured accurately.</p>
<p>In this way the water industry can become an influential participant in decarbonising our cities, rather than just a passive player.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>This article is based on a journal article (in press) co-authored by David Smith, former water quality manager for South East Water, Melbourne.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/82822/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Peter Fisher does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Cities all over the world are facing growing challenges to provide clean, reliable water. And many of the fixes, such as desalination plants, have a huge carbon footprint.
Peter Fisher, Adjunct Professor, Global, Urban and Social Studies, RMIT University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/78254
2017-08-22T19:19:32Z
2017-08-22T19:19:32Z
Curious Kids: Where does my poo go when I flush the toilet? Does it go into the ocean?
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/171981/original/file-20170602-8045-fshg3s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Big sewer pipes take all sewage to a place where it is treated. This place is called a sewage treatment plant.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/deanhochman/16995650680/in/photolist-rTR9Q1-i7seB8-81JzLb-ibDp8Y-eXXrz4-oTznsE-bQ4ji-oErtMv-fx6XBa-81ZEqG-58qipt-oodH8s-8S8F1c-6auiUv-4iTb4G-9UzWh3-6yc2p7-7LYTgu-5m8dFZ-4Qg6e2-6e6986-8VussZ-6eajjJ-7tJt19-rvJLBp-9UkdDr-eWP15b-4pwiTz-4iP9pP-FRxpQ-btWgSX-agxMoz-7cG7Zp-88dnYx-4BtYU9-5LKagj-kYQp6a-7KTMD8-4iTejN-7u9jEK-7cG7V6-2vm44n-roCJtM-eSZh2S-7qo4YD-coi8EL-fs64e-pDc88t-ag8xWM-8f4UXD">Flickr/Dean Hochman</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>This is an article from <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/curious-kids-36782">Curious Kids</a>, a series for children. The Conversation is asking kids to send in questions they’d like an expert to answer. All questions are welcome – serious, weird or wacky!</em> </p>
<hr>
<blockquote>
<p><strong>Where does my poo go when I flush the toilet? Does it go into the ocean? – Clancy, age 4, Austinmer, NSW.</strong></p>
</blockquote>
<p>When you press the flush button, your wee, poo, toilet paper and water go down a pipe called a sewer. The toilet flushes the wastes down the sewer pipe. The sewer pipe from your house also collects and removes other wastes. This might be soapy water from baths and showers, or water left over from washing dishes and clothes. Together, all of these wastes are called “sewage”. The pipes they travel through are called “sewerage pipes”. People sometimes get “sewage” and “sewerage” mixed up.</p>
<p>The wastes from your house flow downhill. They join those from other homes and flow into bigger sewer pipes. Some of these pipes are bigger than a bus! If you live in a big city the wastes from thousands of people looks like a river of sewage. </p>
<p>The big sewer pipes take all the sewage to a place where it is treated. This place is called a sewage treatment plant. All towns and cities have these. They are like a big factory where any harmful materials are removed. This is a very important part of our city life. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/YW6GBciRHLg?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">This video shows how a sewage treatment plant in England works.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/171288/original/file-20170529-25247-1jjp0le.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/171288/original/file-20170529-25247-1jjp0le.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/171288/original/file-20170529-25247-1jjp0le.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/171288/original/file-20170529-25247-1jjp0le.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/171288/original/file-20170529-25247-1jjp0le.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/171288/original/file-20170529-25247-1jjp0le.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/171288/original/file-20170529-25247-1jjp0le.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/171288/original/file-20170529-25247-1jjp0le.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Flushing is fun, but there are some things you should never flush down the toilet – like baby wipes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/sarah606/464386459/in/photolist-H36V6-gwmAC2-RNThcu-gwmN7H-pLgzWT-g1EDcJ-9NEtYQ-9NGKrb-81qmKN-roCJtM-9zycgy-9NEwpU-QMpKNo-oJVhV1-6BxAua-8UfVsH-RV7pvg-4YDEcH-9Nv8dj-cVpac9-fc8Rn-auJbdm-9n7QUR-7Z7ZHR-nor29N-f9Wm2i-fpZDoK-Chreb-HCNvY-RM92wA-auJafY-5BJXRh-pripqq-5BYsA-auFuqx-9NC5eF-auJ9Vm-7MA9rY-auJbi7-9WQfFe-FHEhG9-auJaZA-auFuRZ-auJaSq-5DsF1W-dD7wZD-77ogfH-z4NMV7-4JvWvc-9euagj">Flickr/GoonSquadSarah</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Sewage contains lots of germs and if people come into contact with it, it can make them very sick. The treatment also removes things that people have flushed down the toilet. This includes things like toys, jewellery or even money. There are some things you should never flush down the toilet, like baby wipes – even if it says “flushable” on the packet – because they clump up and cause big problems for the sewerage system.</p>
<p>The sewage is cleaned in the treatment plant. This can take many days. It makes sure that harmful parts of the sewage are removed. Chemicals are added to kill as many germs as possible. Then the treated water is released into a local river or even the ocean. If you live near the coast your treated sewage probably goes into the ocean. </p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/171939/original/file-20170602-25673-jwlyjh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/171939/original/file-20170602-25673-jwlyjh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/171939/original/file-20170602-25673-jwlyjh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=906&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/171939/original/file-20170602-25673-jwlyjh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=906&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/171939/original/file-20170602-25673-jwlyjh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=906&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/171939/original/file-20170602-25673-jwlyjh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1139&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/171939/original/file-20170602-25673-jwlyjh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1139&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/171939/original/file-20170602-25673-jwlyjh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1139&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This is a bottle of recycled water from Singapore. It was made from treated sewage and is safe to drink.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/kewl/6903183981/in/photolist-fTVUyW-bw1C6t-fTVSBZ-fTVQ3G-fTVScm-9Vn6vk-fTXb6M">Flickr/Tristan Schmurr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The treated sewage is cleaned to make sure that it does not cause environmental problems. This means that it should not harm the plants and fish that live in the river or ocean where it is released. If the sewage is not fully treated it can cause water pollution. It also should not make people sick if they swim in the river or ocean. Scientists test the water and the sewage wastes to make sure that it is OK.</p>
<p>Some treated sewage can be used to make energy or <a href="https://www.watercorporation.com.au/water-supply/water-recycling/water-recycling-around-the-world">recycled to make water</a> that can be used in factories or farms. Some countries, including parts of Australia, can even make water from treated sewage that is safe enough to drink. Singapore makes “recycled” drinking water out of treated sewage that is even purer than the level that the World Health Organisation (which is a group that makes a lot of suggestions about what’s healthy and what’s not) says is safe to drink. </p>
<hr>
<p><em>Hello, curious kids! Have you got a question you’d like an expert to answer? Ask an adult to send your question to us. You can:</em></p>
<p><em>* Email your question to curiouskids@theconversation.edu.au
<br>
* Tell us on <a href="https://twitter.com/ConversationEDU">Twitter</a> by tagging <a href="https://twitter.com/ConversationEDU">@ConversationEDU</a> with the hashtag #curiouskids, or
<br>
* Tell us on <a href="http://www.facebook.com/conversationEDU">Facebook</a></em></p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/168011/original/file-20170505-21620-huq4lj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/168011/original/file-20170505-21620-huq4lj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/168011/original/file-20170505-21620-huq4lj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/168011/original/file-20170505-21620-huq4lj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/168011/original/file-20170505-21620-huq4lj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/168011/original/file-20170505-21620-huq4lj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/168011/original/file-20170505-21620-huq4lj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><em>Please tell us your name, age and which city you live in. You can send an audio recording of your question too, if you want. Send as many questions as you like! We won’t be able to answer every question but we will do our best.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/78254/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ian A. Wright does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
You flush the toilet. Down it goes. What happens after that? Clancy, age four, wants to know.
Ian A. Wright, Senior Lecturer in Environmental Science, Western Sydney University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/71260
2017-04-20T23:20:31Z
2017-04-20T23:20:31Z
There’s a new generation of water pollutants in your medicine cabinet
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/165707/original/image-20170418-10221-ajxgkl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/download/success?src=9B1xN6JOaDcz-zzO4GicIg-1-9">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Every day we each use a variety of personal care products. We wash our hands with antibacterial soaps and clean our faces with specialty cleansers. We wash and maintain our hair with shampoo, conditioner and other hair care products. We use deodorant and perfume or cologne to smell nice. Depending on the day, we may apply sunscreen or insect repellent. </p>
<p>All of these products contribute to our quality of life. But where do they go after we use them?</p>
<p>When we bathe, personal care products wash off of our bodies and into sewer systems that carry them to regional wastewater treatment plants. However, these plants are not designed to treat the thousands of specialty chemicals in pharmaceuticals and personal care products. Many of the active and inactive ingredients present in these products pass through our wastewater treatment plants and ultimately end up in rivers, streams or oceans. </p>
<p>Once in the environment, these chemicals may cause hormonal effects and toxicity in aquatic animals. In my laboratory we are studying these emerging water pollutants, which are turning up in surface water, groundwater and even treated drinking water. Although they are typically found at low concentrations, they may still threaten human and ecological health. </p>
<h2>New pollutants, present worldwide</h2>
<p>Personal care products and their ingredients are widely distributed throughout our environment. In one <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2016.04.026">recent study</a>, our lab aggregated over 5,000 measurements of active ingredients from a variety of personal care products that were found in untreated wastewater, treated wastewater and surface waters such as rivers and streams. They included N,N-diethyl-3-methylbenzamide, or DEET, an insect repellent; galaxolide, a fragrance; oxybenzone, a sunscreen; and triclosan, an antibacterial compound. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/165431/original/image-20170415-10077-1jhdnrl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/165431/original/image-20170415-10077-1jhdnrl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/165431/original/image-20170415-10077-1jhdnrl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/165431/original/image-20170415-10077-1jhdnrl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/165431/original/image-20170415-10077-1jhdnrl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=563&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/165431/original/image-20170415-10077-1jhdnrl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=563&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/165431/original/image-20170415-10077-1jhdnrl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=563&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">UMBC Ph.D. student Ke He collecting raw wastewater for analysis of contaminants of emerging concern, such as antibiotics, hormones and personal care products.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Lee Blaney</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Other studies conducted near the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.03.197">Mario Zucchelli</a> and <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2014.10.019">McMurdo & Scott</a> research bases confirmed that chemicals in personal care products were even present in Antarctic seawater. Those reports identified the presence of plasticizers, antibacterials, preservatives, sunscreens and fragrances in the Antarctic marine environment. Together, these studies suggest that the active ingredients in personal care products can be found in any water body influenced by human activity.</p>
<p>These substances are typically present in the aquatic environment at concentrations of 10 to 100 nanograms per liter, which is equivalent to 1 to 2 drops in an Olympic-sized swimming pool. But even at these low levels, some still pose a risk.</p>
<h2>Moving up the food chain</h2>
<p>Depending on their chemical properties, we can classify some of these products as hydrophilic (“water-loving”) or lipophilic (“lipid-loving”). The fat layers in our bodies are comprised of lipids, so lipophilic personal care products can accumulate in the tissue and organs of aquatic animals like fish, birds and even <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es400675y">dolphins</a>. </p>
<p>Our group has recently detected a suite of sunscreen agents and 17α-ethinylestradiol, a synthetic form of the hormone estrogen that is the active ingredient in birth control pills, in crayfish from urban streams near Baltimore, Maryland. We have also measured sunscreens in oysters and mussels collected from the Chesapeake Bay. The uptake of these chemicals by aquatic animals raises environmental concerns. </p>
<p>Specifically, as lipophilic chemicals from personal care products accumulate in animals at higher concentrations, there is a greater potential for them to cause toxic effects. For instance, many personal care products disrupt hormone systems in the body. Some chemicals used in personal care products affect reproductive systems and function, causing the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.2533/chimia.2008.368">feminization of male fish</a>.</p>
<p>These reproductive effects can have important consequences for aquatic animals in the environment, and they may even represent a potential health risk for humans. Last year, the Food and Drug Administration <a href="https://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm517478.htm">banned the use of triclosan</a> and a number of other antibacterial agents in antiseptic wash products <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-you-should-dispense-with-antibacterial-soaps-65297">due, in part, to health risks associated with hormonal effects</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/165911/original/file-20170419-2423-14zo06g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/165911/original/file-20170419-2423-14zo06g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/165911/original/file-20170419-2423-14zo06g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/165911/original/file-20170419-2423-14zo06g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/165911/original/file-20170419-2423-14zo06g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/165911/original/file-20170419-2423-14zo06g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/165911/original/file-20170419-2423-14zo06g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">U.S. Geological Survey hydrologists sampling shallow groundwater near septic systems on New York’s Fire Island in 2011. The scientists found hormones, detergent degradation products, fragrances, insect repellent, sunscreen additives, a floor cleaner and pharmaceuticals, indicating that contaminants were moving from the septic systems into groundwater.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://toxics.usgs.gov/highlights/2015-06-02_ecs_from_septics.html">Chris Schubert, USGS</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00244-015-0227-7">Recent research</a> has shown that oxybenzone, a sunscreen agent used in many personal care products, is toxic to corals. For many coastal communities, coral reefs are critical to local economies. For example, the net value of Hawaii’s coral reefs is estimated to be <a href="https://www.coris.noaa.gov/activities/hawaii_econeval/">US$34 billion</a>. </p>
<p>Earlier this year <a href="http://www.nature.com/news/hawaii-seeks-to-ban-reef-unfriendly-sunscreen-1.21332">Hawaii introduced legislation</a> to ban the sale of sunscreens containing oxybenzone and octinoxate in order to protect coral reefs. While research and policymaking are still ongoing in this area, it is important to note that a number of new consumer products have started using labels like “coral safe” and “reef safe.” </p>
<h2>Multiple solutions</h2>
<p>Typical wastewater treatment plants are designed to treat multiple pollutants, including organic carbon from human and food waste; nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus; and pathogenic bacteria and viruses that cause disease. However, they are not equipped to handle the many ingredients of concern that are present in personal care products.</p>
<p>Protecting the environment and human health from these substances will require progress in several areas. They include improving technologies for wastewater treatment plants; conducting more testing and regulation of personal care products to avoid unintended toxicity to aquatic animals; and designing “green chemicals” that do not pose toxicity concerns. This multi-pronged approach will help us to ensure that personal care products continue to improve our quality of life without harming the environment.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/71260/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lee Blaney does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Ingredients from shampoo, sunscreens and other personal care products are turning up in water supplies. Some are toxic or cause hormonal damage to aquatic life, and could threaten human health.
Lee Blaney, Assistant Professor of Environmental Engineering, University of Maryland, Baltimore County
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/73815
2017-03-22T06:36:48Z
2017-03-22T06:36:48Z
How recycled water could revolutionise sustainable development
<p>By 2025, absolute water scarcity will be a <a href="http://www.unwater.org/statistics/statistics-detail/en/c/246692/">daily reality for an estimated 1.8 billion people</a>. </p>
<p>In a world where vital resources are increasingly scarce, nations cannot afford to flush them down the drain. But that is exactly what we do. After we use water in our homes and businesses, <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-world-needs-more-toilets-but-not-ones-that-flush-74007">it is washed away</a>, and takes many valuable resources with it. </p>
<p>Waste water is rich in carbon and nutrients and – if collected and treated properly – it could provide new water, fertiliser, and energy. A number of nations and major cities have already built sophisticated waste water treatment plants that effectively recover nutrients and bioenergy, and produce “new water” that can be reused. But <a href="http://www.un.org/en/events/waterday/">more than 80% of all waste water</a> still currently flows into natural ecosytems, polluting the environment and taking valuable nutrients and other recoverable materials with it.</p>
<h2>Think smaller</h2>
<p>While waste-water systems in large cities are often effective, they are also very expensive to construct and costly to maintain and operate. This is still better than the situation in smaller cities. There, you frequently find badly adapted systems that lack the necessary staff to perform the needed maintenance and operation.</p>
<p>In Latin American countries, those living in small and medium-sized cities have, at most, onsite treatment, in the form of septic tanks that lack regular and proper maintenance.</p>
<p>In Guatemala, only about <a href="http://www.tidskriftenvatten.se/mag/tidskriftenvatten.se/dircode/docs/48_article_3287.pdf">5% of cities with fewer than 2,000 inhabitants</a> have centralised treatment plants; and in the Atitlan Lake Basin in Guatemala, roughly 12% of the population is not connected to any kind of sanitation system at all. If any infrastructure exists in these areas, its main goal is to collect waste water, not to treat it and reintroduce it into the water cycle.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/161770/original/image-20170321-5377-1v9p9hc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/161770/original/image-20170321-5377-1v9p9hc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161770/original/image-20170321-5377-1v9p9hc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161770/original/image-20170321-5377-1v9p9hc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161770/original/image-20170321-5377-1v9p9hc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161770/original/image-20170321-5377-1v9p9hc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161770/original/image-20170321-5377-1v9p9hc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Around 12% of the population of the Atitlan Basin is connected to sanitation.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This is even more problematic if we consider that, according to the <a href="https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/695_filename_sowp2007_eng.pdf">United Nations Population Fund</a>, the populations of small and medium-sized towns will double in Latin America over the next 15 years and double again in the coming 30 years. And yet, most efforts to improve waste-water management focus on the region’s big cities.</p>
<h2>Using waste water to save trees</h2>
<p>Imagine that outside one of these small cities lies a lovely piece of land: on the surface it is aesthetically pleasing and provides refuge for local wildlife. Beneath the surface is a wetland that is treats waste water and produces energy. The energy produced saves families from having to resort to using firewood collected in the wild or manure for cooking purposes. What’s more, the outflow of this wetland can be used safely in crop irrigation.</p>
<p>This is not a dream scenario. It is called a “<a href="https://flores.unu.edu/en/news/news/constructed-wetlands-to-turn-wastewater-into-energy.html">constructed wetland environment</a>” and is already in practice on a small scale worldwide.</p>
<p>As part of a team looking into the potential of constructed wetland environments, <a href="https://flores.unu.edu/en/news/news/constructed-wetlands-to-turn-wastewater-into-energy.html">we have analysed 800 examples of biomass in more than 20 countries</a>. </p>
<p>We found that, depending on climate and the type of plant used in the construction of this type of wetland, up to 45 hectares of land could be irrigated using waste water a daily basis. This would reduce the need for fresh water for irrigation and energy for pumping. </p>
<p>Under this system, a hypothetical community of 60 people would require a wetland area of about 420 square metres. And this wetland could supply the community with 630 kilograms per year of dry biomass, which could go on to produce ten gigajules per year of energy.</p>
<p>To put that in perspective, an average household in Ethiopia <a href="http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/8/9/9565">requires about seven gigajules for cooking</a> and there are about <a href="https://www.dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/TR4/TR4.pdf">five people per home</a>, so the annual energy requirement for cooking in this community of 12 homes is about 84 gigajules. </p>
<p>The biofuel produced by the wetland can therefore supply about 12% of the cooking fuel needs of the village. And by reducing cooking fuel needs by 12%, this village can save half a hectare of forest per year on average.</p>
<h2>We can stop wasting water</h2>
<p>Another solution is constructing <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-06/documents/mou-intro-paper-081712-pdf-adobe-acrobat-pro.pdf">decentralised waste-water treatment plants</a> in affected communities. Unlike city waste-water treatment plants, in decentralised plants, raw waste water is treated directly where it is produced instead of being confined in the sewer system. In rural areas, this setup can provide ready access to clean water and reduce environmental pollution.</p>
<p>Due to their relatively small size and low carbon footprints, the negative impact these plants have on the environment is lower than traditional plants. Another bonus is that each site can be tailor-made to suit local climatic conditions, aesthetic requirements, water quality demands, and intended use of the water.</p>
<p>There is no longer any good reason to waste any type of water. Collecting and exploiting waste water is both technically feasible and financially justifiable. </p>
<p>If properly managed, the water we have already used stops being an environmental hazard and becomes an affordable and sustainable source of energy, nutrients, and other recoverable materials.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/73815/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tamara Avellán receives funding from Bundesministerium fuer Bildung und Forschung and the Sächsisches Staatsministerium für Wissenschaft und Kunst. </span></em></p>
There is no longer any good reason to waste any type of water. We have the technology to turn waste water into a vital resource.
Tamara Avellán, Research Fellow- Water Resource Management Unit, United Nations University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/74315
2017-03-09T14:50:16Z
2017-03-09T14:50:16Z
Why a Canadian town’s water supply turned pink
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/160150/original/image-20170309-21026-15in9in.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Pink water.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/94861633@N04/16241718598/in/photolist-qKe461-dRkLMg-qKGC2D-oVRB96-6RVg6y-4UAnSK-7nHmEG-dFYGQL-eVMMHP-bQzfJa-S7rqQA-4NB6Y8-84t2Z1-muR4cu-7qYuRv-dN7Ubi-S5fodq-6LfcnK-j8NPiy-9oeTaw-q4DYsM-bpNY9z-9a2i63-PcnTY-feNgK8-eXzn45-nZCrR9-RpTNpe-ea34Vz-GzoXdD-q72Vdo-muPwZr-4fND1o-a3gPvo-dmKUBt-dG5daA-ScaJbA-paHnys-gBqJKL-7JaWan-7xTnLB-7e9Drz-851iYK-arUCiG-S5fnY7-dUxWqz-aBSWqB-7WDzt-7qY5BB-fHmzPD">Magic Momentz/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Most of us take it for granted that the taps in our homes will deliver safe and clean water for drinking, cooking, showering and cleaning. This means there is usually little interest from the public in how the water gets there. However, it took less than a day for a story from Onoway, a small town in Alberta, Canada, with just over 1,000 residents, to make it <a href="http://edition.cnn.com/2017/03/08/americas/canada-pink-water-trnd/">from social media to global newsfeeds</a>. “<a href="http://news.sky.com/story/bright-pink-water-comes-out-of-taps-in-canadian-town-of-onoway-10794521">Bright pink water comes out of taps in Canada!</a>” – suddenly we are all interested in water treatment methods.</p>
<p>To enjoy the benefits of clear and safe water, a hidden but valuable infrastructure of water treatment exists in our cities and villages. These are operated and maintained by engineers and scientists, and among them are water chemists. These chemists have been investigating the use of <a href="http://www.harvesth2o.com/adobe_files/Chlorine%20Necessary.pdf">neat chemical reactions</a> to remove undesired chemicals and potential pathogens from naturally sourced water and to prepare the water for its safe journey through distribution systems. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"839219819052294144"}"></div></p>
<p>The local drinking water treatment plant of Onoway treats its water using <a href="http://www.onoway.com/content/march-6-2017-water-report">potassium permanganate</a>. This is an almost black looking solid which forms a bright purple solution in water and also removes dissolved iron and another metal called manganese.</p>
<p>Iron and manganese are <a href="https://www.dwrcymru.com/%7E/media/Files/Publications/ci_iron_and_manganese.ashx">not harmful to human health</a> but if these metals are present at high concentrations it can <a href="http://www.filterclean.co.uk/iron_manganese_removal.asp">lead to deposits</a> in the water distribution system and discolouration of the water. However, the auburn tints of iron seem boring compared to the spectacular pink that has raised global interest and lively social media discussions.</p>
<p>Customers are very sensitive to the colour, taste and odour of drinking water – these are the human senses used to assess water quality – so this incident has understandably caused alarm. The pink colour stems from some potassium permanganate that escaped through a failed valve and into the drinking water distribution system, eventually ending up with the customers. </p>
<p>Potassium permanganate has been used in drinking water treatment for <a href="http://jramc.bmj.com/content/jramc/57/6/442.full.pdf">more than 100 years</a>. In addition to iron and manganese removal, it is used to remove taste and odour as well as to control <a href="https://iaspub.epa.gov/tdb/pages/treatment/treatmentOverview.do">undesired algal or mussel</a> growth in treatment works. It also has disinfecting properties. Permanganate forms solid, black <a href="https://www.webelements.com/compounds/manganese/manganese_dioxide.html">manganese dioxide</a> when it reacts with the water contaminants – and this can then be filtered out of the water. </p>
<h2>A little goes a long way</h2>
<p>Potassium permanganate has the chemical structure KMnO4 and is a compound that is electron deficient – it doesn’t have enough electrons. This lack of electrons makes it a strong oxidant that readily reacts with a wide range of unwanted compounds in water. It belongs to an established group of water treatment chemicals that can be summarised under the term “<a href="http://iwtc.info/2005_pdf/02-5.pdf">conventional chemical oxidants</a>”, which also include oxygen, chlorine, chlorine dioxide, ozone, hydrogen peroxide and, in the wider sense, UV light. </p>
<p>Water is typically treated with a dose of <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/book/10.1002/9781118131473">1-3mg of potassium permanganate per litre of water</a>, which is quite a small amount. But only unreacted potassium permanganate has a visible pink colour in water and is visible even at very low concentrations – as low as 0.05 mg per litre of water – so it doesn’t take much to add colour. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/160147/original/image-20170309-21022-1xics00.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/160147/original/image-20170309-21022-1xics00.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/160147/original/image-20170309-21022-1xics00.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/160147/original/image-20170309-21022-1xics00.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/160147/original/image-20170309-21022-1xics00.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/160147/original/image-20170309-21022-1xics00.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/160147/original/image-20170309-21022-1xics00.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Potassium permanganate in water.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/initial-color-change-chemical-chameleon-reaction-535524037?src=0MJI6UfByFAK39nt1kowvg-1-0">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Since only small quantities of permanganate can change the colour of water, <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S3SWzwaqce4C&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=snippet&q=pink&f=false">customer complaints </a>relating to residual permanganate are known to occur . This means treatment works usually take care to remove any unreacted, coloured permanganate before the water reaches consumers. </p>
<p>The pink water does not pose a threat to human health but skin irritation related to potassium permanganate is known at a certain concentration. Onoway’s mayor claimed that <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-03-08/pink-water-in-canadian-town-no-risk-to-public-safety/8337426">customers were not at risk</a>, however these concentrations seemed to vary – some had water merely tinted pink whereas some water was bright purple. Regardless of what shade of pink they receive, customers are advised to rely on alternative drinking water sources until the permanganate is flushed out of the distribution system. </p>
<h2>Water treatment isn’t simple</h2>
<p>For water treatment, there is no one-size fits all approach. Drinking water treatment processes vary due to different local water resources and what the traditional and established technologies are. Iron and manganese can be removed by <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/book/10.1002/9781118131473">alternative methods</a>, such as aeration, which uses the oxygen present in the air, or by running the water over catalytic granules consisting of manganese dioxide. But every method has its specific advantages and disadvantages. </p>
<p>Many parameters need to be evaluated before making an informed decision on which method to use to treat a water supply – but there’s no doubt that potassium permanganate is one of the more colourful methods.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/74315/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jannis Wenk receives funding from The Royal Society and the Newton Fund. </span></em></p>
An expert in water science explains the mysterious chemistry behind water treatment.
Jannis Wenk, Lecturer in Water Science & Engineering, University of Bath
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/65698
2016-09-22T00:40:56Z
2016-09-22T00:40:56Z
Superbugs evolve in waste water, and could end up in our food
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/138677/original/image-20160921-21711-1icqn08.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Many antibiotics simply no longer work.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>We are heading into a post-antibiotic era, where common infections could once again be deadly. A phenomenon known as antimicrobial resistance threatens the heart of modern medicine. </p>
<p>Antimicrobial resistance occurs when an antibiotic cannot do its job: killing bacteria. Bacteria become “resistant” to the drugs and continue to reproduce even at high dosages.</p>
<p>This is already happening. We are failing to treat infections, and patients are forced to stay longer in care facilities to overcome them. <a href="https://amr-review.org/sites/default/files/AMR%20Review%20Paper%20-%20Tackling%20a%20crisis%20for%20the%20health%20and%20wealth%20of%20nations_1.pdf">By 2050</a>, antimicrobial resistance will cause ten million human fatalities annually and lead to a US$100 trillion loss in GDP worldwide. </p>
<p>The misuse and overuse of antibiotics in human medicine and animal husbandry to treat bacterial infections or to promote growth are placing our well-being at risk. </p>
<p>This is why global leaders gathered at the United Nations General Assembly this week to discuss the problem, and accepted an <a href="http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2016/commitment-antimicrobial-resistance/en/">action plan to address it</a>. To date, the only other health topics discussed at this level are HIV, <a href="https://theconversation.com/non-communicable-diseases-come-to-the-united-nations-3480">non-communicable diseases</a> and <a href="http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/69/1">Ebola</a>. </p>
<h2>What’s the big deal?</h2>
<p>Everywhere in the world, common infections are becoming resistant to the antimicrobial drugs used to treat them. Urinary tract infections and sexually transmittable diseases such as <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1038/clpt.2014.106/abstract;jsessionid=DE70EC415250AC4DF5DB2138CA18CBF7.f03t02">chlamydia, gonorrhoea and syphilis</a>, once curable with antibiotics, are now highly resistant. Few or none of the antibiotics are effective any more. Put simply, this means longer illnesses and more deaths. </p>
<p>Meanwhile, pharmaceutical companies are <a href="https://www.statnews.com/2015/11/25/drug-industry-antibiotics-resistance/">not showing enough interest</a> in new drug discovery because often the time necessary for a strain of bacteria to develop resistance is shorter than the time needed to test and validate new drugs.</p>
<h2>What can the UN achieve?</h2>
<p>Implementing change is not possible without concerted action from all states. The meeting in New York is perfectly timed to escalate the issue to a level that befits the magnitude of the problem.</p>
<p>Action to change how antibiotics are used requires proper monitoring. No single country will be able help without coordination from international organisations. To help, the UN should ask for support from member states on data and awareness.</p>
<p>International regulations should be adopted immediately by member states and legally binding global surveillance requested. There is no time to wait – antibiotic resistance is a real threat and is fast reaching the point of no return.</p>
<h2>Still missing from the picture</h2>
<p>While the conversation on antibiotic resistance has started, one part of the story has not been highlighted. The risks to human and ecosystem health are strongly connected to poor water quality. </p>
<p>After we take an antibiotic to treat bacterial infections, the resistant bacteria in our bodies are excreted, and eventually reach a wastewater treatment plant. Sewers and treatment plants are the principal collectors of household and hospital waste, where mixtures of different types of bacteria create the optimal conditions for the <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23396083">spread of antibiotic resistance genes between bacteria</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/138678/original/image-20160921-21689-y6xa6q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/138678/original/image-20160921-21689-y6xa6q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=344&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/138678/original/image-20160921-21689-y6xa6q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=344&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/138678/original/image-20160921-21689-y6xa6q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=344&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/138678/original/image-20160921-21689-y6xa6q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=432&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/138678/original/image-20160921-21689-y6xa6q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=432&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/138678/original/image-20160921-21689-y6xa6q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=432&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Breeding ground.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">www.shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Treatment plants bridge the gap between human and natural environments, so both resistant and non-resistant bacteria are able to reach the freshwater ecosystem.
Studying wastewater represents a critical part of understanding the spread of antibiotic resistance, especially if treated wastewater is used as reclaimed water. With <a href="http://collections.unu.edu/eserv/UNU:2661/proceedings-no-11_WEB.pdf">treated wastewater</a> increasingly being used in agriculture to achieve sustainable water management in arid regions, resistant bacteria may find its way into our food as well.</p>
<p>What is required is a shift from a human health perspective to a systems perspective, taking into account these important environmental aspects. </p>
<h2>Where do we go from here?</h2>
<p>The <a href="http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5996e.pdf">action plan</a> from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and World Health Organization declares that the health of all forms of life and the health of the environment are interconnected. </p>
<p>Taking it one step further, the strategy adopted for human and animal health should also include special regard to wastewater. </p>
<p>Water governs most of our activities, and only a comprehensive approach is capable of building an effective global resilience to this problem. By including wastewater to the global action plan, we might be able to slow down the process of developing and spread antibiotic resistance.</p>
<p>While we advocate for awareness, policy, and global standards, at the individual level, you can also take action. At your next doctor’s visit, be informed about antibiotics and take them only with prescription, and only if really necessary.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/65698/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Serena Caucci does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
There’s one important piece of the puzzle we’re missing when it comes to antimicrobial resistance.
Serena Caucci, Researcher, United Nations University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/63172
2016-08-07T23:55:27Z
2016-08-07T23:55:27Z
Brazil’s sewage woes reflect the growing global water quality crisis
<p>All eyes are turned toward Rio de Janeiro to watch top athletes from all over the world compete. Yet the headlines continue to highlight the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2016/aug/03/pollution-fears-taint-rio-bay-olympic-games">problems with the water quality</a> and the risks to the athletes who swim, row and sail, and even to tourists simply visiting the beaches. </p>
<p>Large concentrations of disease-causing viruses <a href="http://hosted.ap.org/dynamic/stories/O/OLY_RIO_FILTHY_WATER?SITE=AP&SECTION=HOME&TEMPLATE=DEFAULT&CTIME=2016-08-01-00-57-14">have been found</a> in the aquatic venues, particularly in the Rodrigo de Freitas Lagoon, where Olympic rowing will take place, and the Gloria Marina, the starting point for the sailing races. These viruses – adenoviruses, rotaviruses and noroviruses – are coming from human fecal wastes, <a href="http://www.scielo.br/pdf/mioc/v107n6/12.pdf">untreated and/or inadequately treated sewage</a>, and cause a variety of health problems, ranging from milder symptoms such as headache, respiratory infection or diarrhea to severe illness impacting the heart, liver and central nervous system. </p>
<p>But Brazil’s wastewater woes are hardly unique. The water quality of lakes, rivers and coastal shorelines around the world is degrading at an alarming rate. In fact, pollution of the 10 largest rivers on earth is so significant that it affects <a href="http://riverthreat.net/">five billion people</a>.</p>
<p>One of the root problems in Rio and other places is how water quality is tested. Monitoring for a broader set of viruses and other microbes in water would be a big step in improving public health. </p>
<h2>Beyond e.coli testing</h2>
<p>Human fecal waste remains one of the most important sources of pathogens. Today, water quality is most often measured by testing for E.coli bacteria, and this is the standard used around the world. But we have better ways to <a href="http://aem.asm.org/content/68/12/5796.full">identify the microbes that cause problems</a> when pollution, such as sewage, is released in our rivers, lakes and shorelines. </p>
<p>In my own <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.2175/106143008X266742">research</a>, my colleagues and I have tested for the presence of an alternative virus (known as the coliphage) as an inexpensive indicator for evaluating sewage treatment. We also use a whole variety of other tests which allow us to monitor for specific pathogens including viruses. </p>
<p>Our analysis and <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es304284f">others suggest</a> we should be striving at a minimum for 99.9 percent reduction of viruses by the variety of sewage treatment designs. If we rely on testing only for E.coli bacteria, we won’t be able to remove viruses. </p>
<iframe src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/MiQkw/1/" frameborder="0" allowtransparency="true" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen" webkitallowfullscreen="webkitallowfullscreen" mozallowfullscreen="mozallowfullscreen" oallowfullscreen="oallowfullscreen" msallowfullscreen="msallowfullscreen" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>Testing for a broader set of microbes makes it easier to diagnose what the source of pollutants are. For example, these microbial source tracking tools allow one to trace the pollution back to humans, cattle or pigs. We have used these tests throughout the U.S. and Europe, and they are now being used in resource-poor areas including Africa and South America. While these methods are not routine and are slightly more expensive, the results provide valuable information that allows one to better remediate water quality problems. </p>
<p>Studies on how frequently pathogens occur can then be connected back to the sources, with recommendations on treatment in order to reverse pollution trends. Incentives can be used to enhance best management practices such as preventing runoff from farms, composting to reduce pathogens in manure and improved disinfection of wastewater to kill off viruses. </p>
<h2>Moving targets</h2>
<p>Globally, the challenge of implementing new tests and treatments is immense. In the last 60 years we have seen a great acceleration of population growth, and this, in combination with lack of sewage treatment and failing infrastructure, has caused a <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es304284f">continual degradation of water quality</a>, as demonstrated by increasing <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-toxic-algae-blooms-like-floridas-are-so-dangerous-to-people-and-wildlife-61973">toxic algal blooms</a> and fecal contamination that cause microbial hazards. Indeed, one of the United Nations’ Development Goals is “<a href="http://files.unicef.org/publications/files/Progress_on_Sanitation_and_Drinking_Water_2015_Update_.pdf">access to improved sanitation facilities</a>.” </p>
<p>In international rankings, Brazil went from <a href="http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.ACSN?locations=BR">67 percent to 83 percent access</a> (1990 to 2015) for access to sanitation. Yet progress varies geographically across the states in Brazil. While rural areas may have on-site water treatment systems and urban areas are collecting wastewater, government reports show only <a href="http://www.snis.gov.br/diagnostico-agua-e-esgotos/diagnostico-ae-2014">14 percent to 46 percent of the sewage generated in Brazil is treated</a>. </p>
<p>Around the world, the regulations governing water quality for recreation are in urgent need of revisions in part because of the growing array of pathogens in wastewater.</p>
<p>Sewage contains well over 100 different viruses (adenoviruses, astroviruses, coxsackieviruses, enteroviruses, noroviruses and rotaviruses) among other pathogens like the enteric protozoa (Cryptosporidium). Newly emerging viruses such as Cycloviruses, which are causing <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/mBio.00231-13">neurological problems</a> in children in Asia, are also showing up in sewage. Thus, the detection of these large concentrations of adenoviruses such as was found in Brazil is likely the tip of the iceberg. </p>
<p>It must be said clearly that the E.coli test simply does not work for viruses, and we must evaluate whether sewage treatment is properly removing viruses. While the World Health Organization, the U.S. EPA, the EU and the scientific community have known about the deficiencies of the E.coli indicator system for decades, little has been done to address this. Monitoring costs, lack of development of standard methods and no focus on a water diagnostic strategy are among the reasons for this lack of advancement. </p>
<p>Yet to my knowledge, many government agencies and even large nonprofits such as the Gates Foundation are not aware of these limitations. The E.coli approach alone cannot help resolve the questions that need to be answered to improve sanitation, sewage treatment and water reuse while protecting important aquatic ecosystem services. </p>
<h2>Different paths of contact</h2>
<p>New molecular tests can detect both live and dead viruses. Adenoviruses, for example, have been found in raw sewage around the world. If adequate treatment and disinfection are used, this contamination can be reduced to nondetectable levels. </p>
<p>The numbers of adenoviruses found in Rio were reported from 26 million to 1.8 billion per liter, which is essentially the level found in untreated sewage. It is not known how many viruses were alive but <a href="http://hosted.ap.org/dynamic/stories/O/OLY_RIO_FILTHY_WATER?SITE=AP&SECTION=HOME&TEMPLATE=DEFAULT&CTIME=2016-08-01-00-57-14">90 percent of the samples did contain some level of live viruses</a>.</p>
<p>Adenoviruses have been found in U.S. waters as well, posing a threat to public health. Our <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2672.2011.05130.x">studies</a> in Chicago found 65 percent of the Chicago Area Waterways System (CAWS) which receives treated wastewater tested positive for adenoviruses, with average concentrations of 2,600 viruses per liter in the canals and about 110 viruses per liter on the beaches. These data indicate some die-off as viruses move toward the beach, but some remain alive and would be able to cause disease. About 4 percent of the people using these waters for boating and fishing <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2015.06.028">became sick</a>. The presence of these viruses and the subsequent illnesses indicate the need for greater testing and treatment. </p>
<p>Around the world, those who swim in and boat on or use polluted surface waters for hygienic purposes such as bathing, cleaning clothes, washing dishes or even for religious purposes are all at risk of diarrhea, respiratory disease, skin, eye, ear and nose infections. This is the sad state of affairs and the reality for many people throughout the world. This does not even account for the risks associated with irrigation of food crops or use of the water for animals and drinking water. </p>
<p>While the spotlight is shining on the athletes over the next few weeks, let us also shine a spotlight on what we can do to improve and restore water quality around the world through our collective efforts, use of new tools and risk frameworks, moving the political will one step closer toward sewage treatment and protection of the biohealth of the blue planet.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/63172/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Joan Rose receives funding from NSF, Various Water Utilities, UNESCO, USEPA, Water Environment Research Foundation. She is affiliated with Water Quality and Health Council, America Chemistry Council and the External Audit Panel for the Public Utilities Board of Singapore. </span></em></p>
Wastewater treatment systems around the world are hamstrung by outdated tests that don’t identify a growing array of pathogens or identify the sources of pollutants.
Joan Rose, Laboratory Director/Principal Investigator in Water Research, Michigan State University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/55313
2016-03-01T19:05:30Z
2016-03-01T19:05:30Z
Cuts to WaterNSW’s science staff will put Sydney’s water quality at risk
<p>The <a href="http://www.smh.com.au/nsw/major-losses-at-sydney-catchment-authority-prompt-safety-fears-20160221-gmzh94.html">recent axing</a> of five of the six senior scientists charged with protecting the health and safety of Sydney’s drinking water has understandably created concerns.</p>
<p>This follows last year’s <a href="http://www.smh.com.au/environment/water-issues/nsw-to-merge-main-bulk-water-agencies-20140304-3439k.html">merger</a> of the New South Wales State Water Corporation and the Sydney Catchment Authority, creating a single body called <a href="http://www.waternsw.com.au/">WaterNSW</a> to oversee water for the entire state. Later in the year the newly created agency <a href="http://www.smh.com.au/nsw/job-cuts-at-waternsw-bring-fears-for-the-future-of-sydneys-drinking-water-20150901-gjch5v.html">suffered around 80 job cuts</a>.</p>
<p>Domestic water supply systems are generally managed in ways that eliminate or reduce any possible risk to water quality. It appears to be problematic that the new agency loses its specific focus on Sydney’s water supply at the same time that it loses its most knowledgeable and experienced staff.</p>
<h2>Water big deal</h2>
<p>Sydney has Australia’s biggest and most complex domestic water supply network. In 2013-14 the city’s 4.5 million inhabitants used 536,607 million litres of water – roughly equivalent to an Olympic swimming pool of water every hour. </p>
<p>The challenge of supplying the greater Sydney population with clean, safe and reliable water has not always been met. In 1998, Sydneysiders were forced to boil their drinking water when the network was <a href="http://www.dpc.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0016/15361/05_Fifth_Report_-_Final_Report_Volume_2_-_December_1998.pdf">infected with Cryptosporidium and Giardia</a>, after heavy rains washed these chlorine-resistant parasites into the water supply.</p>
<p>The pathogens were detected and nobody became seriously ill. Nevertheless the incident was a great embarrassment for the state government and tarnished Sydney Water’s coveted reputation for water cleanliness and safety.</p>
<p>The <a href="http://www.dpc.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0016/15361/05_Fifth_Report_-_Final_Report_Volume_2_-_December_1998.pdf">subsequent inquiry</a> recommended that the catchments and water supply infrastructure become the responsibility of a separate agency, leading to the creation of the <a href="http://www.water.nsw.gov.au/water-licensing/corporate-licences/major-utilities/sydney-catchment-authority">Sydney Catchment Authority (SCA)</a> in 1999.</p>
<h2>Science plan</h2>
<p>The inquiry also pointed to a lack of scientific certainty about the sources of water supply contaminants, and how they should be dealt with. So the SCA developed an in-house team of scientists, and commissioned others from CSIRO and universities, to gather the expertise needed to provide safe and reliable water in the face of factors such as droughts, deluges, pollution and pathogens. </p>
<p>This scientific effort was no mean feat, given the size of Sydney’s water infrastructure and the SCA’s modest workforce of fewer than 300 staff. Sydney’s catchments collect water from an area covering 16,000 square km of land west and south of the city. The water is stored in 21 dams, including the massive <a href="http://www.waternsw.com.au/supply/visit/warragamba-dam">Warragamba Dam</a>. These are linked to consumers by a complex array of pipelines, tunnels and other infrastructure. </p>
<p>What’s more, the catchments themselves are extensively developed. More than 100,000 people (and many domesticated animals) live in the region. Towns such as Katoomba, Lithgow, Goulburn, Moss Vale, Bowral and Berrima all discharge their treated sewage waste into catchment waterways.</p>
<p>As a result, Sydney’s water catchments have many potential sources of pathogens, including those from human and animal waste. A crucial part of the SCA’s research was to determine which of these contaminants poses a serious threat to humans. </p>
<p>The scientific research improved routine operational monitoring of the effectiveness of the multiple barriers that protect the quality of the water from the headwaters of the catchment through various storages, filtration and treatment systems, to the reticulated network of pipes to the consumer. </p>
<p>The SCA science team has undertaken and published some of the world’s most thorough research on the effects of subsidence from coal mining and its impacts on surface waters, such as <a href="http://www.waternsw.com.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0020/56351/7.-J.-Jankowski-2007.pdf">Waratah Rivulet</a>, an important waterway that feeds the <a href="http://www.waternsw.com.au/supply/visit/woronora-dam">Woranora Dam</a>.</p>
<p>The research thoroughly documents the changes in surface water flows and chemistry as the mine subsidence fractures the sandstone strata. The freshly fractured sandstone “captures” some or all of the stream flow and a complex array of chemical reactions occur, resulting in increased salinity and concentrations of metals zinc, nickel and cobalt. It is less clear how mining was able to inflict such environmental damage in such well-protected catchments.</p>
<p>Other sources of catchment water pollution received less attention from the SCA scientists even though coal mining in Sydney’s water catchments continues to generate considerable community concern. One example is Springvale Colliery in the Warragamba catchment near Lithgow. The mine has <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-10-16/springvale-mine-extension-approved/6860960">just been extended</a> despite having been identified as the largest source of salinity in the Coxs River catchment, the second-biggest waterway that flows into Warragamba Dam. </p>
<h2>Financial flows</h2>
<p>Although the SCA was a government agency, it earned <a href="https://www.opengov.nsw.gov.au/download/14852">revenues of just over A$200 million in 2013-14</a> by selling water to its customers, principally Sydney Water. Rather than costing the NSW government money, it paid the state a dividend of A$27.9 million in 2013-14. </p>
<p>It remains to be seen whether WaterNSW, with its significantly smaller scientific team, can continue this vital research to protect Sydney’s catchments and infrastructure. I expect that its biggest customer, Sydney Water, and NSW Health will demand that rigorous scientific standards continue to be upheld. </p>
<p>In its previous incarnation, the Sydney Catchment Authority had as its motto “Healthy catchments, quality water – always”. It’s an important principle to uphold, and regional areas could benefit if this guiding principle pervades WaterNSW’s operations across the state. It needs to ensure that the high standards that protected Sydneysiders’ water are not sacrificed.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/55313/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ian Wright has previously worked as a scientist with Sydney Water and the Sydney Catchment Authority. </span></em></p>
The cutting of senior staff from WaterNSW, the body that oversees the safety of Sydney’s water supply, poses serious risks to Australia’s most complex water network.
Ian A. Wright, Lecturer in Environmental Science, Western Sydney University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/53607
2016-02-04T11:07:32Z
2016-02-04T11:07:32Z
Toxic lead can stay in the body for years after exposure
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/109888/original/image-20160201-32254-n5ofmr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Lead can linger in bones.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-285903887/stock-photo-x-ray-film-of-shoulder.html?src=jxc8smzMoSWrJlicHG-yfg-1-1">X-ray via www.shutterstock.com.</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The ongoing water crisis in Flint, Michigan has highlighted just how harmful lead contamination is. What you may not realize, however, is that lead exposure is a problem throughout the U.S.</p>
<p>The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention <a href="http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/lead/">estimates</a> that over four million households with children in the U.S. are exposed to elevated levels of lead. At least half a million children have blood lead levels above five micrograms per deciliter, the threshold that prompts a public health response.</p>
<p>Lead used to be commonly used in gasoline, household paints and even coloring pigments in artificial turf through the end of the last century. And although today lead is no longer used in these products, there is still plenty of it out there. Lead does not break down in the home or the environment, and the result is that we still have to be concerned about lead poisoning today. </p>
<p>As a university-based researcher who focuses on children’s health, I have spent the past 30 years trying to understand how exposure to environmental toxins happens, and how to prevent it. </p>
<p>So where and how do people come into contact with lead, and what does it do to their bodies?</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/109870/original/image-20160201-32222-1d2paj5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/109870/original/image-20160201-32222-1d2paj5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/109870/original/image-20160201-32222-1d2paj5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/109870/original/image-20160201-32222-1d2paj5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/109870/original/image-20160201-32222-1d2paj5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/109870/original/image-20160201-32222-1d2paj5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/109870/original/image-20160201-32222-1d2paj5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Lead in water is more readily absorbed by the body.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-352985540/stock-photo-faucet-and-water-flow.html?src=z5rarkbGWYEcQCHOit0WOw-1-18">Faucet via www.shutterstock.com.</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Lead in water is easily absorbed by the body</h2>
<p>Lead is one of the oldest materials utilized for the construction of plumbing systems. In fact, the word “plumbing” even has its origins in the Latin word for lead, “Plumbium.” While Congress banned the use of lead pipes in 1986, with the passage of the Safe Drinking Water Act, the crisis in Flint illustrates that <a href="https://theconversation.com/piping-as-poison-the-flint-water-crisis-and-americas-toxic-infrastructure-53473">lead pipes</a> are still out there.</p>
<p>While lead in soil and in house dust represents significant sources of exposure, drinking contaminated water may represent the greatest risk. Water is readily absorbed through the intestines, quickly resulting in elevated levels of lead in the bloodstream. A child’s gastrointestinal tract absorbs lead more completely than an adult’s. </p>
<p>The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) sets a level for drinking water sources of <a href="http://www.epa.gov/dwreginfo/lead-and-copper-rule">15 parts per billion</a> (ppb) as requiring immediate notification of consumers.</p>
<p>If you have ever seen a large gasoline tanker truck on the highway, 15 ppb would correspond to 15 drops of a chemical, diluted in that entire truck. That is how little an exposure of 15 ppb is. Even these small amounts of lead in the water, over time, can affect people’s behavior and impair intellectual development. </p>
<p>Once lead is in the body, it can can also be stored in bone for years. Even after exposure stops, the lead can come back into the bloodstream and continue to damage the brain and other organs for years to come. </p>
<h2>Lead is a toxin</h2>
<p>Lead is known to cause problems with blood formation, kidney function, heart, reproduction, gastrointestinal symptoms, peripheral nerve damage (tingling in hands and feet) and even death. The effects on <a href="http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/csem/csem.asp?csem=7&po=10">many of these organs can be permanent</a>, and like all toxins the dose is critical. The higher the exposure and the longer it continues, the greater the damage.</p>
<p>Numerous research studies, some in the early 1940s, have shown that <a href="http://www.nchh.org/Portals/0/Contents/Childhood_Lead_Exposure.pdf">lead affects the development of a child’s intelligence</a>. Even minuscule levels can decrease a child’s measured IQ.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/109872/original/image-20160201-32257-2253y2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/109872/original/image-20160201-32257-2253y2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=598&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/109872/original/image-20160201-32257-2253y2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=598&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/109872/original/image-20160201-32257-2253y2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=598&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/109872/original/image-20160201-32257-2253y2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=751&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/109872/original/image-20160201-32257-2253y2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=751&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/109872/original/image-20160201-32257-2253y2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=751&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Lead exposure can affect cognitive development in kids.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-352985540/stock-photo-faucet-and-water-flow.html?src=z5rarkbGWYEcQCHOit0WOw-1-18">Child brainscan image via www.shutterstock.com.</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In the brain, lead can disrupt the function of mitochondria in neurons, preventing the cells from functioning properly. It can also affect the release of neurotransmitters, which is how neurons communicate with each other, and alter the structure of blood vessels in the brain. Taken together this damage can lead to reduced IQ, learning disabilities, decreased growth, hyperactivity and poor impulse controls, and even hearing impairment. This is why lead exposure in children is especially concerning. </p>
<h2>Poor nutrition might make the body absorb more lead</h2>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/109887/original/image-20160201-32240-14qi1v1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/109887/original/image-20160201-32240-14qi1v1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/109887/original/image-20160201-32240-14qi1v1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/109887/original/image-20160201-32240-14qi1v1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/109887/original/image-20160201-32240-14qi1v1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/109887/original/image-20160201-32240-14qi1v1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/109887/original/image-20160201-32240-14qi1v1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Good nutrition is critical.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-296978471/stock-photo-portrait-of-small-male-kid-with-blonde-curly-hair-and-round-cheecks-eating-from-green-plate-with.html?src=QnlFTrx5PlaBLLNHfmqtxA-1-93">Child image via www.shutterstock.com.</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It is recognized that poor nutrition can increase the uptake of lead into the body. For instance, calcium, which is an essential mineral for bone growth in children and for cellular function, <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1566572/">can decrease lead absorption</a>. If an individual has inadequate calcium in their diet, their body will absorb more lead. Additionally, since lead can replace iron in the formation of red blood cells, iron deficiency also leads to more lead being absorbed into the blood.</p>
<p>A <a href="http://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2014-02/documents/fight_lead_poisoning_with_a_healthy_diet.pdf">diet rich in beneficial minerals</a>, particularly iron and calcium, can lower, but not eliminate, the uptake of lead from environmental sources. </p>
<p>However, people with low incomes might have trouble buying enough food or getting a balanced diet, robbing them of the protection <a href="http://www.who.int/bulletin/archives/78(9)1068.pdf">that good nutrition provides</a>. Flint is an economically disadvantaged community, making the lead exposure there of even greater concern.</p>
<h2>Treating lead poisoning</h2>
<p>The damage lead causes cannot be reversed, but there are medical treatments to reduce the amount of lead in the body. The most common is a process called chelation – a patient ingests a chemical that binds to lead, allowing it to be excreted from the body.</p>
<p>Chelation, though, <a href="http://www.who.int/selection_medicines/committees/expert/18/applications/4_2_LeadOralChelators.pdf">is not without its risks</a>. The chemical doesn’t just increase the removal of lead, but also of essential minerals such as calcium. In children, the use of chelation therapy must be carefully monitored to avoid serious complications that can include permanent kidney damage or even death. The treatment is often reserved for only those children with <a href="http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/lead/acclpp/blood_lead_levels.htm">very high lead levels</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/109873/original/image-20160201-32244-hiss2e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/109873/original/image-20160201-32244-hiss2e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/109873/original/image-20160201-32244-hiss2e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/109873/original/image-20160201-32244-hiss2e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/109873/original/image-20160201-32244-hiss2e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/109873/original/image-20160201-32244-hiss2e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/109873/original/image-20160201-32244-hiss2e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Lead paint was banned in 1978.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-191447588/stock-photo-architectural-details-show-peeling-paint-and-an-old-window.html?src=LbbyMlPW6mc2mHw0be7TVQ-1-4">Peeling paint image via www.shutterstock.com.</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Regulations curbed new lead additions to the environment</h2>
<p>Because lead causes irreversible damage, making sure that people aren’t exposed to lead is especially important.</p>
<p>Lead exposure in the U.S. has been minimized by two government actions.
In 1973, the Environmental Protection Agency decided to <a href="http://www.epa.gov/aboutepa/epa-requires-phase-out-lead-all-grades-gasoline">begin phasing out lead</a> as a gasoline additive. The phase-out was complete in 1996.</p>
<p>Interestingly, this was not done for health reasons, but to allow the catalytic converters that cars required to meet new air pollution standards to function. However, the phase-out dramatically reduced the amount of lead deposited on the ground, where children could be exposed and ingest it while playing.</p>
<p>Then in 1977, the Consumer Product Safety Commission <a href="http://www.cpsc.gov/en/Recalls/1977/CPSC-Announces-Final-Ban-On-Lead-Containing-Paint/">banned the use of lead paint</a> from residential properties and homes. This action was solely based on health concerns. </p>
<p>Together, these actions greatly reduced lead in the environment, with an added benefit of reducing blood lead levels in children. </p>
<h2>But plenty of lead is still out there</h2>
<p>But there is still plenty of lead out there. And those who are poor or live in the shadow of abandoned industrial sites <a href="http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/pollution-poverty-people-color-living-industry/">are often at greatest risk</a>. </p>
<p>Much of the housing stock in the U.S, especially in eastern cities, dates to before lead paint was banned. Many homes, particularly in poor communities, still <a href="http://www.health.state.mn.us/divs/eh/lead/homes/">contain lead</a>, and if the paint surfaces are not well maintained, the paint may flake off and form dust that can be inhaled and ingested. Another problem is that untrained individuals may attempt to remove the paint, which can make the problem even worse by generating large quantities of dust in the process. </p>
<p>Elevated lead levels can be found in many communities, often associated with metal smelting operations. Plants that manufacture or recycle car batteries can also be a problem. After the companies close, these sites (called Brownfields because they are often not cleaned up) create long-term persistent hazards for children in these communities. </p>
<p>It is no coincidence that these unremediated sites are often located in <a href="https://theconversation.com/flints-water-crisis-is-a-blatant-example-of-environmental-injustice-53553">economically disadvantaged communities of color</a>. Only by concerted community and government action can the sites by identified and cleaned up. This will take many decades, but it will prevent future health hazards for generations to come.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/53607/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stuart Shalat does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Lead might not be in paint or gasoline anymore, but since it doesn’t break down in the home or the environment it remains a problem throughout the U.S.
Stuart Shalat, Professor and Director of the Division of Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Georgia State University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/53776
2016-01-28T10:46:19Z
2016-01-28T10:46:19Z
The science behind the Flint water crisis: corrosion of pipes, erosion of trust
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/109414/original/image-20160127-26778-1cxe5nw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Disinfecting municipal water systems is complex, but Flint made critical errors that led to the lead poisoning crisis.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/thilli0207/5463160784/in/photolist-9jL8nj-5tGHSi-3erGMq-6z6ySY-ornayJ-BuC57s-aXGrHD-9Z2nQc-gxjuqa-vBGhua-dKAefi-8iEArh-hFvaJT-2LL8wx-quP8u3-fQm4XH-jKZdCd-9unXZ9-igg3Cx-qEKzoy-3AcgwW-AztdB5-4SnpJ1-quXmbZ-awDsbC-skQKoM-aprNuq-5jKD6d-5nEad5-54KXsv-oo6XG1-bguSCk-88w7ZC-6qzh81-f5BjtV-9CC6ZM-eSqjwD-6v3PZX-aZ7jbe-ymYYkJ-rpVa5N-mueLAx-niuCA5-oCTEwg-93XUNN-ctr2gy-9dpaJ4-8yJ63P-qRjhAY-9bVMwd">thilli0207/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Flint’s recent water crisis is a stinging reminder that the infrastructure we often take for granted has many vulnerabilities. </p>
<p>The crisis also underscores the complexity of providing communities with safe, high-quality potable water. </p>
<p>Water utilities interested in using a new river water source, as the city of Flint was last year, would normally hire engineering firms to conduct detailed studies of the raw water quality and pilot studies to evaluate various water treatment process options before choosing a treatment approach. </p>
<p>As a researcher on water disinfection and professor of civil and environmental engineering, I know that a planning period of at least two to three years to get to a ribbon-cutting for such a facility is normal. The design of these systems is iterative by its nature and requires input from multiple stakeholders at various points in the design process.</p>
<p>Why is the design of a new surface water treatment facility so complex? </p>
<h2>Fateful mistakes in Flint</h2>
<p>Water quality issues in Flint began with the decision of city officials in 2014 to switch from buying treated drinking water from Detroit to treating Flint River water themselves using a city-owned treatment facility. </p>
<p>The switch was considered a <a href="http://www.detroitnews.com/story/news/michigan/flint-water-crisis/2016/01/26/ex-detroit-official-reignites-flint-water-switch-tiff/79379770/">temporary</a> money-saving “fix” to provide the city with drinking water until they were able to join a new regional system, the Karegnondi Water Authority. A 10-month, US$171,000 engineering effort was undertaken to equip the Flint plant to treat Flint River water before it was put into service. </p>
<p>Sources of drinking water supply, in general, include groundwater and surface waters, such as lakes and rivers. Among those water sources, rivers present the greatest treatment challenge. </p>
<p>Relative to groundwater, surface waters tend to contain more particles, microorganisms, organic matter, taste- and odor-causing compounds, and many types of trace contaminants. On average, surface water also tends to be more corrosive than groundwater.</p>
<p>Beyond the challenges of designing a treatment approach tailored to the source water, water quality engineers must consider myriad engineering, regulatory and financial constraints during design. </p>
<p>In recent years, the cost of chemicals used to treat water has increased at rates well above inflation. Based on a <a href="http://www.waterrf.org/PublicReportLibrary/91264.pdf">2009 report published by the Water Research Foundation</a>, the average price of phosphoric acid, a chemical that can inhibit corrosion, increased by 233 percent in 2008 alone. These anticorrosion chemicals are used to prevent lead and other metals in the pipes from leaching into the water. At the time Flint decided to treat its own water, chemical costs were still increasing.</p>
<p>Many utilities treating surface water are under pressure to look for less costly approaches to perform chemical treatment. Yet particle removal, a critical step used to treat surface waters like the Flint River, is a chemical-intensive operation. </p>
<p>Iron and aluminum salts are typically coagulants added to water supplies to help aggregate particles so they can be effectively removed through settling. There are many types of iron and aluminum coagulants, and they have different degrees of effectiveness depending upon the quality of water being treated. </p>
<p>Coagulant choice is an important design decision; therefore the choice of coagulant should not be based only on cost. For example, each coagulant has to be optimized to enhance removal of natural organic matter in the source water. If too little organic matter is removed, it will react with chlorine disinfectants in the water to form hazardous by-products.</p>
<p>A switch from sulfate-based to chloride-based aluminum or iron coagulant salts also alters the chloride-to-sulfate ratio in water. It was this ratio that Dr.<a href="http://www.vtnews.vt.edu/articles/2015/09/091415-engineering-edwardsflint.html"> Marc Edwards, a faculty member at Virginia Tech</a>, linked in 2010 to <a href="http://www.waterrf.org/publicreportlibrary/4088.pdf">higher lead concentrations</a> in vulnerable distribution systems with pipes made from lead. The Flint treatment plant relied on iron chloride coagulants, which may have contributed to the corrosivity of the water. </p>
<h2>Science of corrosion</h2>
<p>Because of Flint’s method of treating Flint River water, it experienced problems with elevated trihalomethanes, a regulated class of disinfection by-products that are known carcinogens. A domino series of causes and effects were responsible for this problem. </p>
<p>The Flint River is naturally high in corrosive chloride. Therefore, iron pipes in the water distribution system began corroding immediately after the initial switch from Detroit water. The iron that was released from the corroding pipes reacted with residual chlorine that is added to kill microorganisms, making it unavailable to function as a disinfectant. </p>
<p>Because chlorine, which reacted with the iron pipes, could not act as as disinfectant, bacteria levels spiked. When coliform bacteria were detected in distribution system water samples, water utility managers were obliged by law to increase the levels of chlorine. The higher levels of chlorine, while reducing coliform counts, led to the formation of more trihalomethanes. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/109416/original/image-20160127-26796-dgrgjs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/109416/original/image-20160127-26796-dgrgjs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/109416/original/image-20160127-26796-dgrgjs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/109416/original/image-20160127-26796-dgrgjs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/109416/original/image-20160127-26796-dgrgjs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/109416/original/image-20160127-26796-dgrgjs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/109416/original/image-20160127-26796-dgrgjs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/109416/original/image-20160127-26796-dgrgjs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Water utilities need to devise treatments specific to each water source and surface water, such as rivers, requires more chemical treatment.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/publicworksgroup/4138529901/in/photolist-7iH3KP-jHuPY4-5qrmz9-mCL7f-7iH3JH-A4nNnY-a9Q98z-jHLCzi-6rsC75-9NamRq-5VN5uw-7PWUZc-9Ubf4C-jHNjm1-2WAZc-9UpFm8-rujKZB-7iH45M-7T86Q2-7Gc5RC-7TbmqE-7T87i8-7TbkVQ-9ZPEh9-e3hb6T-h9RvT8-93K2zs-HM8Kr-btifsS-9ZGShB-92UX5t-h9SM82-7iH3U4-8DBBNS-awjZyX-auNKdd-93FWGc-iZqiuN-7dPiXw-7iLXtj-7iH42a-bpVnHV-jHwmkd-kW5jkZ-jHLpD8-5kx39n-9UpFxM-9UpFb4-gmHnE5-9zgzPx">publicworksgroup/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Providing adequate disinfection while minimizing disinfection by-products is a challenge faced by most utilities even under the best of circumstances. The problems became intractable in Flint due to the excessive corrosion of the pipes that deliver water to people’s homes.</p>
<p>The science of pipe corrosion in drinking water systems is complex and not completely understood. Corrosion control occurs when naturally forming minerals deposit on pipe walls, thereby protecting the iron pipe surfaces from exposure to oxidants in the water. Changes in water quality sometimes dissolve these mineral coatings, exposing the pipe to corrosion.</p>
<p>In iron pipe systems, the released iron corrosion particles are visible, causing colored and turbid water. In older distribution systems, where lead service lines are often still in place, corrosion then releases lead and copper. Corrosion rates can be affected by many factors that are not well-understood, including the presence of bacteria that colonize the pipe wall, as well as pipe age and water flow rates.</p>
<p>Because of the uncertainties around leaching, the majority of utilities treating surface water add phosphate corrosion inhibitors to control corrosion. They devise doses based on the water industry’s experience, rather than on rigorous scientific calculations. </p>
<h2>False economies</h2>
<p>Empirical tests known as “loop tests” are commonly used to assess the effectiveness of corrosion control strategies applied to a given water distribution system. There is no record that such tests were performed in Flint. </p>
<p>A critical cost-saving <a href="https://www.cityofflint.com/wp-content/uploads/Veolia-REPORT-Flint-Water-Quality-201503121.pdf">decision</a> made by Flint not to use corrosion inhibitors, especially when water previously supplied by Detroit did contain them, should have raised concerns. Evidence to demonstrate that inhibitors were unnecessary was a minimum common-sense requirement.</p>
<p>Ignorance among utility personnel and water quality engineers of the importance of corrosion control management and its subtle linkage to decisions made elsewhere in the treatment plant unfortunately also played a role in <a href="http://www.msnbc.com/msnbc/flint-water-crisis-timeline">this story</a> of unintended consequences. </p>
<p>In many water treatment textbooks, the topic of pipeline corrosion is covered as an afterthought. Flint’s experience should serve as a siren call to the profession of water quality engineers to remedy this oversight.</p>
<p>By not adding a corrosion inhibitor, Flint was going to save <a href="http://www.detroitnews.com/story/news/politics/2016/01/21/deq-director-flint/79145696/">about $140 per day</a>. But the inestimable costs of the errors made in Flint will reverberate through the community for a long time and their magnitude will dwarf the original planned savings. </p>
<p>Replacement of Flint’s lead service lines, which is the <a href="https://theconversation.com/piping-as-poison-the-flint-water-crisis-and-americas-toxic-infrastructure-53473">only permanent solution</a> to address its lead vulnerability, is estimated to cost up to <a href="http://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/2016/01/07/governor-meet-morning-flint-mayor/78402190/">$1.5 billion</a>, according to Flint’s mayor, Karen Weaver. </p>
<p>Investment of funds in infrastructure that might have made a large dent toward solving the problem permanently must now focus on monitoring, alternative water sources, point-of-use treatment filters, health costs and restoring the badly eroded trust of the community.</p>
<p>Given the complexities and uncertainties in producing safe potable drink, a nonnegotiable respect for the necessary planning and testing steps of any new system is paramount to prevent such incidents as we’ve seen in Flint. A lack of due diligence in planning will always cost more in the end.</p>
<p><em>The author acknowledges the contributions of faculty collaborators Lutgarde Raskin, Nancy Love, Glen Daigger, Michele Swanson, Krista Wigginton and Kim Hayes, who are part of a Flint water research team at the University of Michigan.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/53776/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Terese Olson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Treating municipal water, particularly from rivers, is difficult technically and cash-strapped municipalities like Flint don’t always know the latest science.
Terese Olson, Associate Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering , University of Michigan
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/50045
2015-11-19T11:17:50Z
2015-11-19T11:17:50Z
Talking heads: what toilets and sewers tell us about ancient Roman sanitation
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/102339/original/image-20151118-14191-5yzen5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C460%2C4073%2C2379&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Ruin of a second-century public toilet in Roman Ostia.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/paullew/7870818466">Fr Lawrence Lew, OP</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>I’ve spent an awful lot of time in Roman sewers – enough to earn me the nickname “Queen of Latrines” from my friends. The Etruscans laid the first underground sewers in the city of Rome around 500 BC. These cavernous tunnels below the city’s streets were built of finely carved stones, and the Romans were happy to utilize them when they took over the city. Such structures then became the norm in many cities throughout the Roman world. </p>
<p>Focusing on life in ancient Rome, Pompeii, Herculaneum and Ostia, I’m deeply impressed by the brilliant engineers who designed these underground marvels and the magnificent architecture that masks their functional purpose. Sewer galleries didn’t run under every street, nor service every area. But in some cities, including Rome itself, the length and breadth of the main sewer, the Cloaca Maxima, rivals the extent of the main sewer lines in many of today’s cities. We shouldn’t assume, though, that Roman toilets, sewers and water systems were constructed with our same modern sanitary goals in mind.</p>
<p>The streets of a Roman city would have been cluttered with dung, vomit, pee, shit, garbage, filthy water, rotting vegetables, animal skins and guts, and other refuse from various shops that lined the sidewalks. We moderns think of urban sewers as the means to remove such filth from streets – and of course flush away human waste that goes down our toilets.</p>
<p>Researching Roman urban infrastructure for my new book <a href="http://uncpress.unc.edu/books/T-5298.html">The Archaeology of Sanitation in Roman Italy</a> made me question whether the Romans shared the same vision. The archaeological evidence suggests that their finely constructed sewer systems were more about drainage of standing water than the removal of dirty debris. And Romans’ sense of cleanliness and privacy around bathroom matters was quite different from our tender modern sensibilities.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/102334/original/image-20151118-14183-1m8yeu7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/102334/original/image-20151118-14183-1m8yeu7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/102334/original/image-20151118-14183-1m8yeu7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/102334/original/image-20151118-14183-1m8yeu7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/102334/original/image-20151118-14183-1m8yeu7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/102334/original/image-20151118-14183-1m8yeu7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/102334/original/image-20151118-14183-1m8yeu7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/102334/original/image-20151118-14183-1m8yeu7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Inside a tunnel of Rome’s sewer, the Cloaca Maxima.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ann Olga Koloski-Ostrow</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
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<h2>Sewers managed excess water more than waste</h2>
<p>The Cloaca Maxima in Rome was not part of a <a href="https://yalepress.yale.edu/yupbooks/book.asp?isbn=9780300101867">master plan to sanitize the city</a>. Its purpose was removing water that pooled on the city’s uneven streets and draining water from low-lying areas when the adjacent Tiber River flooded, which happened quite frequently. Its main function was drainage – and what it drained ran right back into Rome’s major drinking supply before the aqueducts, the Tiber.</p>
<p>Roman sewers moved filthy water away from where it hindered cleanliness, economic growth, urban development and even industry. My work in the sewers of Herculaneum and Pompeii – both buried by the pyroclastic flow caused by Mount Vesuvius’ volcanic eruption in AD 79 – has brought me to the same conclusion.</p>
<p>At the bottom of one sewer under a street in Herculaneum, the first excavators found an <a href="http://www.quartoknows.com/books/9780711231429/Herculaneum.html">ancient deposit of hardened sludge</a> measuring about 1.35 meters high. No amount of water, however fast-flowing, would have been able to remove that. Several ancient sources state that Roman sewers needed manual cleaning from time to time, a job often done by city slaves or <a href="https://archive.org/stream/letterswithengli02plinuoft/letterswithengli02plinuoft_djvu.txt">prisoners</a>. I’d argue these urban sewer systems provided minimal sanitary benefits overall.</p>
<h2>Plenty of toilets, few sewer hookups</h2>
<p>Public and private toilets were sprinkled throughout the city of Pompeii. But despite the city’s sewer infrastructure, virtually none of these toilets had sewer connections. We have similar evidence for ancient Herculaneum.</p>
<p>In fact, almost every private house in these cities, and many apartment houses in Ostia, had private, usually one-seater, toilets not connected to the main sewer lines.</p>
<p>And these cesspit toilets were often situated in the kitchen, where food was prepared! The comforting smells from a hearty stew would have mingled with the gross odors from the nearby open cesspit. Collected waste was either sold to farmers for fertilizer or used in <a href="http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Columella/de_Re_Rustica/1*.html">household gardens</a> – which must have made for some pretty stinky garden parties from time to time.</p>
<p>According to Ulpian’s Digest, written between AD 211 and 222, connections to the sewers from private dwellings certainly were legal. So why didn’t property owners hook up to the public sewer lines?</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/102332/original/image-20151118-14214-1pedy5t.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/102332/original/image-20151118-14214-1pedy5t.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/102332/original/image-20151118-14214-1pedy5t.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=895&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/102332/original/image-20151118-14214-1pedy5t.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=895&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/102332/original/image-20151118-14214-1pedy5t.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=895&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/102332/original/image-20151118-14214-1pedy5t.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1125&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/102332/original/image-20151118-14214-1pedy5t.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1125&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/102332/original/image-20151118-14214-1pedy5t.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1125&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A private toilet under the stairs in Herculaneum’s Casa del Gran Portale.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ann Olga Koloski-Ostrow</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
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<p>One reason may be tied to that fact that Roman sewer openings had no traps. One never could be sure what might climb out of an open sewer pipe and into your house.</p>
<p>We have at least one dramatic ancient story that illustrates the danger of hooking your house up to a public sewer in the first or second century AD. The <a href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0590%3Abook%3D1%3Achapter%3D13">author Aelian tells us</a> about a wealthy Iberian merchant in the city of Puteoli; every night a giant octopus swam into the sewer from the sea and proceeded up through the house drain in the toilet to eat all the pickled fish stored in his well-stocked pantry.</p>
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<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Broken connections in a Herculaneum house’s terracotta downspout within the wall would have caused stinky leaks.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ann Olga Koloski-Ostrow</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
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<p>Adding to the stench of Roman life, my close examination of ancient plumbing found that many downpipes from house toilets on upper floors would have suffered serious leakage inside the walls as well as oozing onto the outside of the walls too. The fittings of these terracotta downpipes loosened over time, and their contents would have caused stink everywhere.</p>
<p>I was able to identify at least 15 upper-story toilets at Pompeii and others at Herculaneum and elsewhere. In some cases, I <a href="https://books.google.com/books/about/Roman_Toilets.html?id=bF1jXwAACAAJ">obtained proof through scientific testing</a> for urine and/or excrement that the spillage was indeed human waste from these pipes. </p>
<h2>Public toilets held their own hazards</h2>
<p>Even public latrines – multi-seater toilets that were almost always connected to the main sewer lines of a city – posed serious threats to users. Don’t be fooled by the clean white marble and open-air sunniness of the reconstructed ruins we can see today; most Roman public toilets were dark, dank and dirty, and often situated in small spaces. Those who could “hold it” long enough to return to their own houses with their own cesspit toilets certainly would have done so.</p>
<p>One public toilet at Ostia, with its revolving doors for access and fountain basin for cleaning up, could handle more than 20 clients at a time. I have found no evidence that Romans had to pay to use public toilets, and we really don’t know who managed or cleaned them, apart from the possibility of public slaves. To our modern eyes there was almost a complete lack of privacy in such facilities; but bear in mind that Roman men would have been wearing tunics or togas, which would have provided more screening than a modern man would enjoy with pants that have to be pulled down. Perhaps a bigger problem for today’s standards of cleanliness: the Roman version of toilet paper in many cases was a communal sponge on a stick.</p>
<p>Even worse, these public latrines were notorious for terrifying customers when flames exploded from their seat openings. These were caused by gas explosions of hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and methane (CH4) that were rank as well as frightening. Customers also had to worry about rats and other small vermin threatening to bite their bottoms. And then there was the perceived threat of demons that the Romans believed inhabited these black holes leading to the mysterious underbelly of the city.</p>
<p>One late Roman writer tells a particularly exciting story about such a demon. A certain Dexianos was sitting on the privy in the middle of the night, the text tells us, when a demon raised itself in front of him with savage ferocity. As soon as Dexianos saw the “hellish and insane” demon, he “became stunned, seized with fear and trembling, and covered with sweat.” Such superstition would provide another good reason for avoiding sewer connections in private house toilets.</p>
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<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Goddess Fortuna on the wall of a the Suburban Baths in Pompeii.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ann Olga Koloski-Ostrow</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>Going to a public toilet was definitely a dangerous business, so it is no wonder that the Goddess Fortuna often appears as a kind of “guardian angel” on the walls of toilets. We don’t tend to put religious shrines in our toilets, but we find them again and again in both public and private toilets in the Roman world.</p>
<p>One graffito on a side street in Pompeii directs a warning at a toilet-user himself: “Crapper Beware the Evil”… of crapping on the street? Of putting your bare bottom on an open toilet hole for fear of biting demons? Of the ill health you will feel if you do not move your bowels well? We’ll never know for sure, but these are likely possibilities, I think.</p>
<p>When we look at the evidence for Roman sanitary practices, both textual and archaeological, it becomes obvious that their perspectives were quite different from ours. Gaining a better understanding of Roman life on their streets, in their public spaces, and in their private dwellings shows us that they were in the early stages of developing systems that we’ve adopted – with upgrades – for our own problems with sanitation and clean water today.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/50045/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ann Olga Koloski-Ostrow does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Archaeological and textual detective work is filling in some information about how ancient Romans used and thought about their sewers thousands of years ago.
Ann Olga Koloski-Ostrow, Professor of Classical Studies, Brandeis University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.