tag:theconversation.com,2011:/ca-fr/topics/game-of-thrones-6730/articles
Game of Thrones – La Conversation
2024-01-18T16:49:12Z
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/220426
2024-01-18T16:49:12Z
2024-01-18T16:49:12Z
Replacing shipbuilding with creative industries won’t be without risk for Northern Ireland’s economy
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569539/original/file-20240116-17-g3kwfn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=62%2C0%2C5928%2C3988&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Ruins of Dunluce Castle, a location familiar to fans of Game of Thrones.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/sunset-ruins-dunluce-castle-located-on-2054023973">Dawid K Photography/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>If you’ve ever <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2014/may/11/tv-noir-finds-new-home-in-northern-ireland">watched</a> <a href="https://discovernorthernireland.com/things-to-do/game-of-thrones-studio-tour-p770571">Game of Thrones</a>, The Fall, or <a href="https://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/life/features/whats-the-word-on-the-street-about-line-of-duty/37964730.html">Line of Duty</a>, you’ve already witnessed Northern Ireland’s growing role in the global film and TV industry. But its popularity as a location for film shoots is only one part of a growing role within the creative industries sector. </p>
<p>The launch of a £72 million film-making complex in Belfast this year, <a href="https://www.studioulster.com">Studio Ulster</a>, is another big step towards the region’s aim to become a creative industries hub. The new studios will offer virtual production, alongside traditional facilities for film, animation, video games and broadcasting. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/creative-industries-sector-vision/creative-industries-sector-vision-a-joint-plan-to-drive-growth-build-talent-and-develop-skills#:%7E:text=By%202030%20we%20want%20to,and%20create%20pride%20in%20place">The idea</a> is to give an extra boost to the burgeoning Northern Irish film and TV industry, which has already contributed <a href="https://news.sky.com/story/100m-studio-makes-belfast-global-hub-for-virtual-production-13022657">£330 million</a> to the region’s economy over the past five years. Studio Ulster is part of a £50 billion <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-northern-ireland-65916027">expansion plan</a> which aims to make Northern Ireland a modern hub of creative industries for local, regional and international co-productions. </p>
<p>So, could modern day creatives replace the shipbuilders that made Belfast the <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-northern-ireland-49234995">home of ocean liners</a> in the early 20th century? </p>
<h2>Virtual production</h2>
<p>Developed by <a href="https://www.studioulster.com">Ulster University</a> in partnership with Belfast Harbour and Northern Ireland Screen, Studio Ulster boasts of links with higher education institutions and regional industry partners. It promises to use research, education and economic growth to create much needed new jobs while transforming Northern Ireland into a pinnacle of modern film-making. </p>
<p>The studio is being billed primarily as a <a href="https://www.unrealengine.com/en-US/explainers/virtual-production/what-is-virtual-production">virtual production</a> studio, offering a relatively new way of film-making that combines virtual and real-world elements. It will specialise in CGI, augmented reality and motion capture. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Belfast's Titanic Museum, with Titanic Studios located at the rear." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569083/original/file-20240112-21-575fwr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5171%2C3442&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569083/original/file-20240112-21-575fwr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569083/original/file-20240112-21-575fwr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569083/original/file-20240112-21-575fwr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569083/original/file-20240112-21-575fwr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569083/original/file-20240112-21-575fwr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569083/original/file-20240112-21-575fwr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Belfast’s Titanic Museum commemorates the city’s role as a shipbuilding hub. It’s also home to Titanic Studios, pictured here behind the museum.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/belfast-northern-ireland-july-14-2018-1392116375">OldskoolDesign/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>But relying so heavily on virtual production could be a risky move. Investing in new technologies brings great potential for success but also for failure. It’s always difficult to predict which way a new technology will go. </p>
<p>Virtual production is complex – in its current stage of development – not without <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/375074005_VIRTUAL_PRODUCTION_INTERACTIVE_AND_REAL-TIME_TECHNOLOGY_FOR_FILMMAKERS">flaws and limitations</a>. For example, although the integration of the LED panel backgrounds and studio environment allows for unlimited types of environments, it restricts the scope for filming movement. In other words, actors can’t walk long distances in one shot without a cut, which can be frustrating for film-makers. </p>
<p>The emergence and rapid development of AI could also see virtual production replaced with an entirely new technology, making such expensive facilities unnecessary. There is always a danger that it could become another cinematic misstep – <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/315301297_Why_Did_the_3D_Revolution_Fail_The_Present_and_Future_of_Stereoscopy_Commentary">like 3D cinema</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Long shot of dark hedges with people walking along the road." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569076/original/file-20240112-25-q4k8cu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=8%2C8%2C5982%2C3979&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569076/original/file-20240112-25-q4k8cu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569076/original/file-20240112-25-q4k8cu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569076/original/file-20240112-25-q4k8cu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569076/original/file-20240112-25-q4k8cu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569076/original/file-20240112-25-q4k8cu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569076/original/file-20240112-25-q4k8cu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Locations like the Dark Hedges in Country Antrim already attract tourists and filmmakers alike to NI.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/dark-hedges-antrim-northern-ireland-aug-2052506714">Dawid K Photography/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>Then there is the risk of an expensive new studio just not being used enough. Studio Ulster needs to avoid meeting the same fate as the City of Lights, a state-of-the-art film studio in Alicante, Spain, that was <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/feb/13/alicantes-ciudad-de-la-luz-film-studio-sell-off-draws-hollywood-big-guns">subsequently abandoned</a>. </p>
<p>Once the most modern film studio in Europe, it was praised by the Hollywood director Ridley Scott, and hosted Game of Thrones and Black Mirror productions before it was forced to shut by the EU on grounds of unfair competition. A decade later, the owners now hope to <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/jul/06/spain-ciudad-de-la-luz-film-studios-reopen-valencia">reopen it</a>, but after all this time, it will not be the brand new modern studio it once was.</p>
<h2>Another Titanic?</h2>
<p>But it’s not all about the facilities and the technology. The human talent – the producers, the camera operators, the editors, the lighting experts – have already been hard at work in Northern Ireland. Hopefully, with the latest project’s educational and research links, and planned international collaborations, they will remain, bringing optimism and job opportunities. </p>
<p>With the Irish film industry booming – the short film <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T0YVueR5ho0">An Irish Goodbye</a> won an Oscar in 2022 – Studio Ulster will be hoping to build on this momentum to cement the status of the film industry in this part of the world.</p>
<p>It certainly has a bold vision. As well as turning Northern Ireland into a promised land for contemporary film-making, it wants to boost the economy, enrich lives and strengthen the UK’s global image as a film and television hub. </p>
<p>But relying on virtual production could turn out to be a gamble. We’ll have to wait and see whether the project becomes a heart-warming economic success story – or end up as an expensive and ill-fated launch that reminds locals of the most famous of Belfast-built ships, the Titanic.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/220426/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Agata Lulkowska does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Could filmmaking become the new shipbuilding for Northern Ireland?
Agata Lulkowska, Senior Lecturer in Film Directing and Producing, Staffordshire University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/200891
2023-03-14T17:18:49Z
2023-03-14T17:18:49Z
Why Old Norse myths endure in popular culture
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/514666/original/file-20230310-14-72f1pc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=20%2C10%2C3477%2C1841&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Chris Hemsworth as Thor in Marvel Studios' The Dark World from 2013.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.alamy.com/chris-hemsworth-thor-the-dark-world-2013-image472865537.html?imageid=0BB208C1-FE37-4C76-9731-904462B5103E&p=1913542&pn=1&searchId=21f2e4a6290695fa2c8a3ce8bf511534&searchtype=0">Maximum Film / Alamy</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>From <a href="https://www.eno.org/composers/richard-wagner/">Wagner</a> to <a href="https://morrisarchive.lib.uiowa.edu/exhibits/show/translations/anderson-oldnorse/anderson-oldnorse-ch1">William Morris</a> in the late 19th century, via Tolkien’s dwarves and CS Lewis’s <a href="https://www.tor.com/2021/03/17/better-things-ahead-the-last-battle-and-the-end-of-narnia/">The Last Battle</a>, through to last year’s <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/film/2022/apr/22/norse-code-white-supremacists-reading-the-northman-robert-eggers">controversial film The Northman</a>, Scandinavian gods and heroes have been central to the stories we tell ourselves.</p>
<p>As professor of medieval European literature, I have been exploring Old Norse mythology since my undergraduate days. I have always been fascinated by the ways in which the old myths remain vital and relevant in the present, particularly now in various pop-cultural forms. In my new book, <a href="https://thamesandhudson.com/the-norse-myths-that-shape-the-way-we-think-9780500252345">The Norse Myths That Shape The Way We Think</a>, I explore how 10 key Norse myths and legends have been reworked over the last 200 years.</p>
<p>Although these stories have been influential since their discovery in 17th-century Europe, in recent years Norse narratives have exploded across fiction, Hollywood blockbusters, rock albums, opera, video games and TV shows – these are just a few of the cultural spheres in which Norse myths have been put to work. Here I introduce three of the most important gods, the feminine divine in the form of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Valkyrie-Norse-mythology">valkyries</a> and shield-maidens, and finally, the looming threat of <em>ragna rök</em> – the end of the world.</p>
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<h2>Gods and monsters</h2>
<p>The main gods – not so much the goddesses unfortunately – offer ways to think about different stages of masculinity. <a href="https://historiska.se/norse-mythology/odin-en/">Odin</a>, the all-father, is the leader of the Norse pantheon, creator of humankind and god of wisdom. He will die at <em>ragna rök</em>, devoured by the great wolf Fenrir.</p>
<p>Starting with the main character <a href="https://norse-mythology.org/gods-and-creatures/the-aesir-gods-and-goddesses/odin/">Wotan</a> in Das Rheingold, the first part of Wagner’s <a href="https://www.classicfm.com/composers/wagner/guides/wagner-ring-cycle-where-start/">Ring Cycle</a> – and also in Neil Gaiman’s 2001 epic <a href="https://www.neilgaiman.com/works/Books/American+Gods/">American Gods</a>, and Douglas Adams’ 1988 comic novel <a href="https://hitchhikers.fandom.com/wiki/The_Long_Dark_Tea-Time_of_the_Soul">The Long, Dark Teatime of the Soul</a> – Odin is a figure who senses that power is draining away from him. Yet he ingeniously seeks out ways of clinging to his waning authority, cutting dodgy deals and manipulating his own flesh and blood through cunning and deceit.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.marvel.com/explore">Marvel Comic Universe</a> has already killed off the aged god, for he embodies an older patriarchal principle, one that refuses to step aside for the next generation. </p>
<p>In Norse myth, <a href="https://norse-mythology.org/gods-and-creatures/the-aesir-gods-and-goddesses/thor/">Thor’s</a> main role is smiting giants with his great hammer Mjöllnir, patrolling the borders of the gods’ and human territory to keep out enemies. An indomitable performer of mighty feats, he is not always taken seriously in the myths: a favourite story involves him being forced to cross-dress as a reluctant and implausible bride.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A stained-glass window showing a viking warrior looks at the sea." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/514504/original/file-20230309-570-xg4o05.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/514504/original/file-20230309-570-xg4o05.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514504/original/file-20230309-570-xg4o05.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514504/original/file-20230309-570-xg4o05.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514504/original/file-20230309-570-xg4o05.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514504/original/file-20230309-570-xg4o05.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514504/original/file-20230309-570-xg4o05.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Viking warrior detail from stained-glass window at Miss Maud Swedish Hotel, Perth, Australia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">John Davis</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>So too, the modern Thor is often depicted as a bumbling loutish thug, reaching for his hammer instead of thinking things through. Contemporary writers, such as Joanne Harris and Francesca Simon, make him the butt of their tales for younger readers – the cross-dressing story makes for great comedy.</p>
<p>The god’s image has been rescued through his incarnation as the Mighty Thor. In Marvel comics and movies, he has learned maturity, how to wield and to restrain his power, and has come to care for others, both humans and his own people, the semi-divine Asgardians. Marvel’s Thor is constructing a new kind of masculinity, one that understands that violence is not always the answer and which has learned the value of forethought and compromise. </p>
<p>Half-god, half-giant, <a href="https://norse-mythology.org/gods-and-creatures/the-aesir-gods-and-goddesses/loki/">Loki</a> is a strangely ambiguous being; in the Marvel Universe he is Thor’s adoptive brother, though not in the original myth. He gets the gods out of tight situations – often ones that he himself has caused – but he will march against them with their enemies at <em>ragna rök</em>. For novelist AS Byatt, he is the intellectual’s god, questioning and nonconformist, while Marvel and Disney have made Loki into a shape-changing, gender-bending cult hero, always ready with a quip as he double-crosses Thor once again.</p>
<h2>A female perspective</h2>
<p>Loki is also the father of monsters: his daughter Hel, goddess of death, is the heroine of Gavin Higgins and Francesca Simon’s chamber opera from 2019, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/music/2019/feb/22/the-monstrous-child-review-linbury-theatre-london">The Monstrous Child</a>. Hel is a sparky teenager living with disability and consigned to a grim underworld, a girl whose story takes in love, vengeance and learning the true extent of her powers.</p>
<p>Warrior-maidens and fate-goddesses rolled in one, the valkyries range high above the battlefield, determining who shall live and who shall die. Wagner’s <a href="https://thenorsegods.com/brunhilde/">Brünnhilde</a> is the most remarkable of the valkyries, the true heroine of his <a href="https://www.classicfm.com/composers/wagner/guides/wagner-ring-cycle-where-start/">Ring Cycle</a>, fulfilling her father Wotan’s will and finally bringing down the gods. </p>
<p>Valkyries were also imagined as the battle-trained women warriors who now throng such TV shows as <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt2306299/">Vikings</a> and <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt4179452/">The Last Kingdom</a>, skilled fighters who battle on an equal footing with men. These women vividly dramatise aspects of contemporary femininity: effective in traditional masculine domains, wielding power and choosing their own lovers, yet still working out how to manage sexual relationships and motherhood alongside their professional identities.</p>
<p>Literally “the doom of the gods”, <em>ragna rök</em> lies in the mythic future for gods and humans: the powers of ice and fire will destroy the earth. Tolkien suggests that this inevitable ending shapes the northern spirit, kindling courage and resignation in the face of certain doom.</p>
<p>Wagner saw his Götterdämmerung (the twilight of the gods) as sweeping away the corrupt divine order, leaving a purified, empty world where free human beings could build anew. In HBO’s <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0944947/">Game of Thrones</a>, humanity’s apocalyptic clash with the icy power of the Night King is resolved by one young woman’s courage and determination.</p>
<p>The Norse myths envisage a cleansed green world that rises again from the ocean, but the climate cataclysm towards which we are heading admits no such renewal. Perhaps we can learn from the gods’ bad faith and carelessness in time to avert the downfall that <em>ragna rök</em> foreshadows for us all.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/200891/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Carolyne Larrington has recently published The Old Norse Myths that Shape the Way We Think with Thames and Hudson.</span></em></p>
Ancient tales of gods and heroes and medieval Scandinavia help us make sense of things like masculinity, betrayal, revenge and the end of the world.
Carolyne Larrington, Professor and Tutorial Fellow in English, University of Oxford
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/197753
2023-02-08T18:39:55Z
2023-02-08T18:39:55Z
Netflix: is mainstream content squeezing out the daring plots viewers originally fell for?
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/507117/original/file-20230130-8935-9ng6vm.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C2%2C2000%2C1134&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">_Emily in Paris_ is a pure Netflix product, and has received less than glowing reviews.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Allociné</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Since the field of cultural studies got its start in the 1950s, academics have been investigating what different pop cultures have to say about society. While popular culture has often been criticised as a sort of dumbing-down of “real” culture driven by <a href="https://www.cairn.info/revue-hermes-la-revue-2005-2-page-60.htm">purely commercial interests</a>, research has provided important insight into modern sociology through study of subjects as diverse as <a href="https://books.openedition.org/editionscnrs/19368">Andy Warhol, hip-hop and punk music, Beyoncé, and Lady Gaga</a>.</p>
<p>Netflix launched in 1997 and by 2007 it began its transformation into a true ‘video on demand’ platform. It’s now the world’s largest streaming platform, putting it front and centre in the pop culture universe. <a href="https://edition.cnn.com/2022/10/18/media/netflix-earnings/index.html">Despite a dip in popularity in 2022</a>, the platform has managed to accrue 220 million users and more than 5,000 titles to date.</p>
<p>Netflix has been able to crush its competition, even snuffing out certain services right from the outset. But is this <a href="https://www.cairn.info/revue-nectart-2021-2-page-124.htm">superstore for series</a> promoting diverse narratives and plots or is it nothing more than a gigantic conformity-producing machine? A series that’s received less praise than most of the platform’s offerings is <em>Emilie in Paris</em>, which has been widely panned since its release. As Iva Dixit of <em>The New York Times</em> wrote, <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/12/23/magazine/emily-in-paris-netflix.html">“Emily Is Still in Paris. Why Are We Still Watching?”</a></p>
<h2>A bold spark in a drab landscape</h2>
<p>When Netflix launched its US streaming service in 2007, its immediate concern was distancing itself from competitors such as HBO – which began broadcasting the iconic series <em>Game of Thrones</em> in 2011. To do so, Netflix presented a bold offer of complex plots, strong characters (such as Carrie in <em>Homeland</em> and Piper in <em>Orange Is the New Black</em>) and polished productions.</p>
<p>Three years later, Netflix reached deals with Paramount, Lionsgate and Metro Goldwyn Mayer to provide high-quality, more diverse programming. <em>House of Cards</em> and <em>Orange Is the New Black</em> were the first of the made-by-Netflix offerings, and their success proved that this was the right decision. Original creations soon became the platform’s focus, <a href="https://www.latimes.com/business/hollywood/la-fi-ct-netflix-programming-surge-20180812-story.html">increasing by 88%</a> between 2017 and 2018 to reach over 5,000 titles. It was also during this year that the platform acquired its first major production studio in Albuquerque, New Mexico.</p>
<p>Netflix Originals have since become the brand’s trademark, bringing in directors such as Martin Scorsese and Bong Joon-Ho, and demanding sizeable budgets. Bold series such as <em>Orange Is the New Black</em> shook up audiences’ expectations, shedding light on important issues like feminism, gender and sexual violence – a real first in an audiovisual universe long overpowered by the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/screen/article-abstract/16/3/6/1603296?redirectedFrom=fulltext">“male gaze”</a>. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Original trailer for the series <em>Squid Game</em>.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Staying local yet universal</h2>
<p>As it has grown, Netflix has been able to go global, while taking into account local factors both in its original productions and through its partnerships. The platform relies on a certain universalisation of expectations, in a world where pop culture is largely dominated by US productions, but plays on differences, specific traits and regional identities in line with the spirit of <a href="https://www.cairn.info/revue-reseaux-2021-2-page-45.htm">“glocalisation”</a>. Its approach involves purchasing and broadcasting creations made by local studios, the most notable example being <em>Money Heist</em>. With an initial budget of $600,000 per episode – one-tenth that of <em>Game of Thrones</em> – this “minor” Spanish series reached icon status thanks to the platform.</p>
<p>Netflix Original series are often deeply incisive, taking aim at the Modi administration in India with <em>Leila</em> and at the Erdoğan regime in Turkey with <em>Ethos</em>. Since 2020, 18% of Netflix Originals have been produced or co-produced in Europe, 12% in Asia, 5% in Latin America and 2% in Oceania. To date, some 40 countries have been enlisted <a href="https://www.cairn.info/revue-nectart-2021-2-page-124.htm">in Netflix original productions</a>, which have been filmed in around 20 languages.</p>
<p>For now, this “Tower of Babel” strategy is paying off. As Cindy Holland, the platform’s then-vice president of original series, stated in 2018, <a href="https://www.latimes.com/business/hollywood/la-fi-ct-netflix-programming-surge-20180812-story.html">“the most powerful promotional vehicle… is the Netflix service itself”</a>. Put simply, Netflix <a href="https://www.fypeditions.com/brand-success-50-reussites-exceptionnelles-marketing-de-communication-preface-de-maurice-levy-ouvrage-dirige-marc-drillech/">constructs its own autonomy</a> in order to maintain full control over all the inner workings of the service, from creations to in-house writers, production and distribution.</p>
<h2>The attention economy</h2>
<p>Although the <a href="https://econreview.berkeley.edu/paying-attention-the-attention-economy/">“attention economy”</a> has always existed, it has become the be-all and end-all of any audiovisual or editorial production. As with other platforms, the goal at Netflix is to capture our attention, which is the very <a href="https://www.cairn.info/l-economie-de-l-attention--9782707178701-page-7.htm?contenu=resume">basis of its profitability</a>. </p>
<p>Algorithms help Netflix and other services fine tune their attention-economy strategy, all to keep us locked inside our bubbles. They want to attract audiences and keep them engaged as long as possible, concentrating this sly tactic into the one almighty “Next Episode” button. The Netflix algorithm is immensely powerful, profiling users with every site visit, making ever more accurate suggestions and predictions and driving addiction. And so the trap snaps shut and we are turned into mere consumers, helped merrily along by the potent algorithm.</p>
<p>Another trap operates through the narrative arcs constructed essentially around the infamous cliff-hanger - the “to be continued” of <a href="https://journals.openedition.org/narratologie/7570">yesteryear’s soap operas</a>. This is how subtitled Korean series such as <a href="https://theconversation.com/transformer-la-serie-squid-game-en-jeu-de-telerealite-est-ce-trahir-sa-portee-critique-186407"><em>Squid Game</em></a> have become smash hits for Netflix, relying on fierce political and social critique. <em>Extraordinary Attorney Woo</em> follows the story of an autistic lawyer, while <em>The Penthouse</em> charts the lives of Seoul’s wealthiest and often most corrupt residents. These three series have achieved spectacular numbers, clocking in at 46 million viewing hours for <em>Extraordinary Attorney Woo</em> and 142 million for <em>Squid Game</em>. The latter represents twice the number of viewing hours enjoyed by <em>Bridgerton</em>, which was itself a huge success.</p>
<p>These series consistently feature highly emotional climaxes that encourage binge-watching. The same trend can be found in cinema, with multiplexes featuring much-hyped productions alongside more difficult works. For instance, the heist movie <em>Ocean’s Eleven</em> ($450 million at the box office) is a far cry from the more discreet, artistic cinema of Peter Greenaway. Whether we are dealing with a series, a film or a book, “accessibility” is the watchword.</p>
<h2>When algorithms bite back</h2>
<p>Netflix relies on <a href="https://www.huffpost.com/entry/the-netflix-addiction_b_8473094">neuro-marketing</a> to generate powerful sensory responses. As soon as we stop watching, the dopamine hit subsides, and so we feel “required” to keep watching. In other words, it is difficult on an emotional level for us to miss the next part and the next episode. Evidently, the series-watching phenomenon obeys the stimulation-addiction logic.</p>
<p>Until now Netflix has been able to create daring content, broadening the scope of plots and imagined horizons. But its algorithm-driven success depends largely on binge-watching fuelled by cliff-hangers, the oldest of tropes. There are already series “recipes”, but these push less for conformity than for the ease that is at the heart of attention economics.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Virginie Martin is the author of <a href="https://www.humensciences.com/livre/Le-charme-discret-des-series/85">“Le Charme discret des séries”</a> (“The Understated Charm of the TV Series”), published in French by Humensciences in 2021</em>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/197753/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Virginie Martin is the author of Le Charme discret des séries ("The Understated Charm of the TV Series"), published in French by Humensciences in 2021</span></em></p>
Ever since it launched, the streaming platform has made its name by spearheading ever more daring innovations. But could this model be hurtling toward uniform plots and worldviews?
Virginie Martin, Docteure sciences politiques, HDR sciences de gestion, Kedge Business School
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/192906
2022-10-25T12:54:54Z
2022-10-25T12:54:54Z
Six models of successful team leadership from Game of Thrones and House of the Dragon
<p>As anybody who has been in a leadership position knows, no single style fits every situation. In <a href="https://www.elgaronline.com/view/book/9781839105272/9781839105272.xml">my book</a>, Management Lessons from Game of Thrones: Organization Theory and Strategy in Westeros, I examine how characters, organisations and situations in that fictional world have surprising parallels to the way business is done in the real world. I also explore how we can learn valuable lessons for our daily working lives from these stories. </p>
<p>I look at how managers can learn from the way some of George RR Martin’s characters tackled and overcame their own leadership and team management problems, using strategies that fit their personalities and situations. </p>
<p>So, if you’re struggling with a team management project, here are six different approaches from Game of Thrones and House of the Dragon that might help you find your perfect leadership style.</p>
<h2>1. Daenerys Targaryen</h2>
<p>In Game of Thrones, Daenerys is the exiled heir to the Iron Throne. She manages to fight back to Westeros with the aid of dragons and an army of supporters. She is a charismatic leader. </p>
<p>Daenerys is someone who inspires others simply by the force of her personality and vision. However, she finds the day-to-day business of management boring and is always looking for new challenges.</p>
<p>In a team management situation, you would want Daenerys in charge whenever quick and drastic decisions need to be made. She is also good when you need the team to be united and follow a specific plan or vision. Bringing a new and controversial product to market on time, for instance, or carrying out a project with a certain element of risk.</p>
<h2>2. Jon Snow</h2>
<p>Jon Snow is the heroic youth who brings the forces of the north and the south together to fight the incursion of the monstrous White Walkers.</p>
<p>Jon Snow is a transformational leader. He excels in bringing out the best in the people around him and seeing organisations through a time of change. Transformational leaders don’t generally seek out leadership but are often just what a struggling organisation needs to get back on track.</p>
<p>You’d want Jon Snow in charge when a team is having trouble finding form or purpose, or meeting its established goals. Jon would be the sort of leader who can analyse what the team’s strengths and weaknesses are, can organise it to play to its strengths, and focus it away from the problem areas.</p>
<h2>3. Tyrion Lannister</h2>
<p>Tyrion is an intellectual who describes himself aptly by saying “I drink, and I know things”. He is a transactional leader, someone who gains the trust of their supporters by making deals and compromises. While he may not be glamorous and exciting, people trust him always to get the job done.</p>
<p>Tyrion would excel in a situation of day-to-day team management, where there is either a project of indefinite duration or where the projects renew cyclically. You could see Tyrion heading up an audit team or a tax consultancy: something that needs to be done consistently, reliably and well, with plenty of challenges but no surprises.</p>
<h2>4. Sansa Stark</h2>
<p>Sansa is the eldest daughter of House Stark. She eventually becomes Queen of the North in her own right. She is an emergent leader but also a background figure who slowly develops into a leadership role over time. Because of her gender and her personality, Sansa’s talents are not immediately apparent. She struggles to be accepted in a leadership role. But, when in charge she’s focused and willing to do whatever it takes to succeed. She takes a long view of success and it generally pays off.</p>
<p>Sansa is the person you want in charge of a team working on a project with long-term objectives. Sansa is good at taking difficult decisions and sticking by them. She’s also very good at bringing together people with very different interests and getting them to work together. The biggest problem you might have with Sansa is if you underestimate her; then you might lose her to the competition.</p>
<h2>5. Corlys Velaryon</h2>
<p>Corlys is the seafaring lord of House Velaryon in House of the Dragon. He is a pragmatic leader. He does what it takes to get the job done, even when this means making questionable alliances or difficult compromises. At times when others are concerned about short-term pride and prestige, he is concerned about the longer-term consequences.</p>
<p>Corlys excels in any situation where there is the opportunity to develop a strategy and see it through. He is also strong in situations where difficult, even painful, decisions might need to be made. He can weigh up costs and benefits rationally and choose the most appropriate path – even if it involves accepting the second best option. His decisions are made to pursue strategic success over a more extended period.</p>
<h2>6. Rhaenyra Targaryen</h2>
<p>Rhaenyra from House of the Dragon is the controversial female heir to the Iron Throne. She provides a good example of what we call “servant leadership”: a leader who puts the needs of the team first and encourages both her followers and her organisation to grow and develops. She accepts that everything she does has to be what’s best for the throne and her house, and tries to find ways of doing so that make herself and the people around her happy.</p>
<p>Rhaenyra is the sort of person you’d want in charge of any team that needs to develop to meet new challenges, while at the same time keeping the team together. On the show, her elevation to Queen of Westeros faces huge opposition. This is ironic because – purely from a managerial point of view – she might just be the most suitable person to lead the kingdom to greater success.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/192906/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Fiona Moore does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
The battle for the Iron throne throws up all sorts of leaders that each has different leadership styles.
Fiona Moore, Professor of Business Anthropology, Royal Holloway University of London
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/192859
2022-10-24T19:02:41Z
2022-10-24T19:02:41Z
The foot scene in House of the Dragon was upsetting, but it’s nothing compared to the real history of the fetish
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491260/original/file-20221024-21-qlcwmm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=40%2C0%2C1237%2C718&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Unsplash/HBO</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>From the day it first graced our screens, the Game of Thrones franchise became infamous for depicting rather shocking and taboo sexual proclivities. From incest and necrophilia, to sadism and borderline-cannibalism, viewers have truly been exposed to (an often disturbing) range of erotic desires. Yet, even after a decade on our screens, the lasciviousness of the Seven Kingdoms still holds the power to shock us. </p>
<p>The most recent episode of House of the Dragon, the prequel set 200 years before the main events of Game of Thrones, depicted a fetish which caused <a href="https://www.elle.com/culture/movies-tv/a41651192/house-of-the-dragon-foot-scene-larys-alicent/">some fans</a> to declare the show-runners had finally gone “too far.” </p>
<p>In exchange for information which may secure her son’s reign, Queen Alicent must appease the sexual appetite of Lord Larys Strong – by removing her socks and shoes, displaying her bare, naked feet for him to strenuously admire. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/O_qErTQH8_A?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<h2>Feet throughout history</h2>
<p>Foot fetishes are no new feat. In fact, we find evidence of this desire throughout the ancient world. </p>
<p>At least three of the love letters of the great philosopher Philostratus evidence a particular interest in feet. In <a href="https://www.loebclassics.com/view/philostratus_elder-letters/1949/pb_LCL383.451.xml">To A Barefoot Boy</a>, Philostratus worships the shape of his lover’s feet and implores them to always walk barefoot so he may kiss the footprints left behind: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>O perfect lines of feet most dearly loved! O flowers new and strange! O plants sprung from earth! O kiss left lying on the ground! </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Things take a turn for the slightly kinkier once we get to his 37th letter. Philostratus describes the feet of a woman even better than those of Aphrodite (who, according to Hesiod’s origin story, had feet so perfect the grass grew beneath them) and wishes he could be dominated by these feet:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>O thrice charmed would I be and blessed, if you [feet] would tread on me. </p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Starting on the right foot</h2>
<p>Worship of feet wasn’t solely linked to the bedroom. It sometimes played quite a prominent role in public life. </p>
<p>The emergence of foot-washing as a custom is a prime example of this, intimately tied to displays of reverence and love. During his reign as Pope in the 9th century, Eugene II began the custom of kissing the feet of the Pope, which still continues today. </p>
<p>In the century following this, the torturous practice of foot-binding was brought to life in 10th century China during the reign of Emperor Li Yu. He was said to have been entranced by a court dancer, Yao Niang, who bound her feet into the shape of a moon, and danced on her toes inside a six-foot golden lotus. </p>
<p>This obsession was linked to sexual desire from the very beginning. It was quickly taken up as a fashion by ladies of the court, and became a symbol of high status feminine refinement. The last shoe factory only ceased to make “lotus” shoes in 1999.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491234/original/file-20221024-13-r9fw6s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491234/original/file-20221024-13-r9fw6s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491234/original/file-20221024-13-r9fw6s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=871&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491234/original/file-20221024-13-r9fw6s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=871&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491234/original/file-20221024-13-r9fw6s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=871&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491234/original/file-20221024-13-r9fw6s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1095&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491234/original/file-20221024-13-r9fw6s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1095&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491234/original/file-20221024-13-r9fw6s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1095&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">18th century illustration showing Yao Niang binding her own feet.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia Commons</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>By the 13th century, troubadour poets began singing praise of the beautiful feminine foot, desiring arches that were high, and toes that were slender and long. One group of researchers have suggested feet surged in erotic interest during this time as a result of the 13th century gonorrhoea epidemic. Their <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.2466/pr0.1998.83.2.491">1998 study</a> found erotic literature about feet rises exponentially during major sexually transmitted epidemics in history. </p>
<p>For instance, during the syphilis epidemic of the 16th century, a movement in popular fashion began to draw eroticised attention to women’s feet. The term “toe-cleavage” became used to describe shoes which displayed the base of the first two toes. Similarly, by the 19th century epidemic, brothels began to specialise in foot-eroticisation.</p>
<p>When genital-contact proves to dangerous, feet are (historically) the next most-likely body part to be eroticised. </p>
<h2>Tickling your fancy</h2>
<p>F. Scott Fitzgerald (or, Feet-zgerld, if you will) is believed to have been one patron of this new specialisation. Fitzgerald repeatedly visited one sex-worker because of her feet, and was even described by her as a “foot fetishist”. </p>
<p>While he loved feet (at least the feet of this particular woman), he detested his own and refused to let anyone see them naked. He admitted he was plagued by a “Freudian shame about his feet”. </p>
<p>Sigmund Freud, of course, had a very insightful take on foot fetishes. As with all things Freud, it all had to do with the penis – lusting after feet was so common because the feet and toes resemble the shape of the penis. (I honestly believe it would be harder to find a part of the body that Freud does not think looks like the penis.)</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491235/original/file-20221024-18-w6xqi7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491235/original/file-20221024-18-w6xqi7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491235/original/file-20221024-18-w6xqi7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=742&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491235/original/file-20221024-18-w6xqi7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=742&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491235/original/file-20221024-18-w6xqi7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=742&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491235/original/file-20221024-18-w6xqi7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=933&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491235/original/file-20221024-18-w6xqi7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=933&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491235/original/file-20221024-18-w6xqi7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=933&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">F. Scott Fitzgerald, potentially looking at a pair of beautiful feet.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia Commons</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It wasn’t until the 1980s, however, that the connection between foot fetishes and the contemporary epidemic was explicitly recognised. As foot-pornography emerged in magazines, some editorials advertised “foot-sex” could be regarded as a pleasurable, safe alternative to penetrative sex, which ran the risk of sexually transmitted diseases. </p>
<p>After completing their review of historical literature, the researchers of the 1998 study went on to review issues from eight of the largest pornographic magazines in the United States, released between 1965 to 1994. </p>
<p>Their <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.2466/pr0.1998.83.2.491">investigation</a> proved the number of foot-orientated pictures in pornographic magazines rose exponentially over the course of the AIDS epidemic. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/madness-miscarriages-and-incest-as-in-house-of-the-dragon-real-life-royal-families-have-seen-it-all-throughout-history-189225">Madness, miscarriages and incest: as in House of the Dragon, real-life royal families have seen it all throughout history</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>If you’re thinking of getting into this fetish, don’t get cold feet</h2>
<p>If this is true, it may explain why queer men are most likely to have fantasised about feet. According to <a href="https://www.menshealth.com/sex-women/a19523651/foot-fetish/">data collected</a> by social psychologist Justin Lehmiller, one in seven people today have had a sexual fantasy in which feet or toes played a prominent role. </p>
<p>The fantasy was most common amongst gay and bisexual men (21%), followed by heterosexual men (18%), lesbian and bisexual women (15%), and finally heterosexual women (5%). </p>
<p>With such a prevalent amount of the population having fantasised about feet, it is perhaps surprising the representation of this fetish-interest in The House of the Dragon was met with such shock. </p>
<p>Despite its pervasiveness, both today and throughout history, this erotic desire has rarely found itself feet-ured by many historical accounts. The decision for show is perhaps radical for this reason – a decision which may well have left one in every seventh viewer very happy.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/192859/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Esmé Louise James does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
From Popes and philosophers to writers and emperors, the foot fetish has a long and storied history in our world.
Esmé Louise James, Doctor of Philosophy, The University of Melbourne
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/191732
2022-10-19T12:38:52Z
2022-10-19T12:38:52Z
HBO’s ‘House of the Dragon’ was inspired by a real medieval dynastic struggle over a female ruler
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490432/original/file-20221018-14-vr83j4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=379%2C8%2C1537%2C1069&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">In Westeros, Rhaenyra finds herself in a power struggle akin to that of the real-life Empress Matilda, who lived from 1102 to 1167.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://cdn.mos.cms.futurecdn.net/bpYWArbor7k9UvsAzeUn2P.jpg">HBO</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In three decades of teaching medieval European history, I’ve noticed my students are especially curious about the intersection of the stories told in class and the depictions of the Middle Ages they see in movies and television. </p>
<p>Judged by their historical accuracy, <a href="https://www.routledge.com/A-Knight-at-the-Movies-Medieval-History-on-Film/Aberth/p/book/9780415938860">cinematic portrayals are a mixed bag</a>. </p>
<p>However, popular fantasy, unencumbered by the competing priority of “getting it right,” can, in broad strokes, reflect the values of the medieval society that inspires it. </p>
<p>“<a href="https://www.hbo.com/house-of-the-dragon">House of the Dragon</a>” is one of those TV shows. A king, lacking a male heir to his throne, elevates his teenage daughter to be his named successor, and a complex dynastic drama ensues.</p>
<p>This storyline reflects the real obstacles facing women who aspired to exercise royal authority in medieval society.</p>
<h2>The queen as a conduit to power</h2>
<p><a href="https://georgerrmartin.com/">George R. R. Martin</a>, whose novels were the foundation for the HBO series “<a href="https://www.hbo.com/game-of-thrones">Game of Thrones</a>,” has made <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/history/2022/09/04/house-dragon-anarchy-england/">no secret of his inspiration</a> for “House of the Dragon”: <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-anarchy-of-king-stephens-reign-9780198203643?cc=us&lang=en&">the Anarchy</a>, a two-decade period, from 1135 to 1154, when a man and a woman vied with each other for the English throne.</p>
<p>The story went like this: <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/history/british-history-1066-1450/henry-i-king-england-and-duke-normandy?format=HB&isbn=9780521591317">Henry I</a> sired two dozen or more children out of wedlock. But with his queen, <a href="https://boydellandbrewer.com/9780851159942/matilda-of-scotland/">Matilda</a>, he had only a daughter, the future <a href="https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300251470/matilda/">“Empress” Matilda</a>, and a son, <a href="https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300228700/tales-from-the-long-twelfth-century/">William</a>. With William’s birth, the foremost responsibility of <a href="https://archive.org/details/medievalqueenshi0000unse/page/n3/mode/2up">medieval queenship</a> was fulfilled: There would be a male heir.</p>
<p>Then tragedy struck. In 1120, a drunken 17-year-old William attempted a nighttime channel crossing. <a href="https://www.harpercollins.com/products/the-white-ship-conquest-anarchy-and-the-wrecking-of-henry-is-dream-charles-spencer?variant=39721558081570">When his also-inebriated helmsmen hit a rock, the prince drowned</a>. </p>
<p>The queen had died two years earlier, so Henry I remarried – <a href="https://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-165;jsessionid=62DD366D3E1A9D1D00CEEF5CF6C918F3">Adeliza of Louvain</a> – but they had no children together. The cradle sat empty and the sands in Henry I’s hourglass ran low, so he resolved that his lone legitimate child, Matilda, would have the throne as a ruling queen.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Old painting of woman holding cross." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490431/original/file-20221018-6087-wjugig.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490431/original/file-20221018-6087-wjugig.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=953&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490431/original/file-20221018-6087-wjugig.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=953&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490431/original/file-20221018-6087-wjugig.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=953&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490431/original/file-20221018-6087-wjugig.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1198&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490431/original/file-20221018-6087-wjugig.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1198&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490431/original/file-20221018-6087-wjugig.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1198&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Empress Matilda.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Empress_Matilda.png">Wikimedia Commons</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The move was unprecedented in medieval England. A queen could exert influence in her husband’s physical absence or when, after a king’s death, their son was a minor. <a href="https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/530179/queens-of-the-conquest-by-alison-weir/">Her role, moreover, as an intimate confidant and counselor could be consequential.</a></p>
<p>But a queen was not expected to swing a sword or lead troops into battle and forge the personal loyalties on which kingship rested, to say nothing of <a href="https://www.weidenfeldandnicolson.co.uk/titles/henrietta-leyser/medieval-women/9781780226538/">the misogyny inherent to medieval English society</a>. The queen was the conduit through which power was transferred by marriage and childbirth, not its exclusive wielder.</p>
<h2>Viserys and Henry I share the same plight</h2>
<p>A similar scenario drives the plot of “House of the Dragon.” The absolute preference in the fictional kingdom Westeros for a male ruler is expressed in the series’ opening scene.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.hbo.com/house-of-the-dragon/character-guide#jaehaerys-i-targaryen">old king</a>, having outlived his sons, empowers a council of nobles to choose his successor between two of his grandchildren, the cousins <a href="https://www.hbo.com/house-of-the-dragon/character-guide#rhaenys-targaryen">Rhaenys</a> and <a href="https://www.hbo.com/house-of-the-dragon/character-guide#viserys-i-targaryen">Viserys</a>. Rhaenys, a female, is the older of the two. </p>
<p>Yet the male Viserys becomes king and Rhaenys, “the queen who never was,” later ruefully concedes that this represented “the order of things.”</p>
<p>Once installed, however, Westeros’ new king would have understood the plight of England’s Henry I. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.hbo.com/house-of-the-dragon/character-guide#aemma-arryn">Aemma</a>, Viserys’ queen, suffers stillbirths and miscarriages and produces only a daughter, <a href="https://www.hbo.com/house-of-the-dragon/character-guide#jaehaerys-i-targaryen">Rhaenyra</a>. A fading hope for a son is dashed when a breached birth and a brutal Caesarian section, intended to save the child, ends up killing Aemma. The boy – the desperately desired heir – doesn’t live out the day.</p>
<p>Sonless, Visery’s named heir is his younger brother, the debauched, sinister <a href="https://www.hbo.com/house-of-the-dragon/character-guide#daemon-targaryen">Daemon</a>. When Daemon’s conduct becomes intolerable, Viserys disinherits and banishes him. Left with his young daughter Rhaenyra, he decides to make her a ruling queen, a role the girl relishes as she seeks to change “the order of things.”</p>
<h2>Building support for a ruling queen</h2>
<p>The challenge for a medieval king, whether Henry I or the fictional Viserys, was to persuade the nobles to overcome their prejudices and not just accept but actively support a woman’s ascension to power. </p>
<p>Henry I pursued measures to make his daughter palatable to them. Matilda, who had married the Holy Roman Emperor Henry V in 1114, returned to England a widow in 1125. Henry I, determined to forge a sacramental bond between his daughter and England’s magnates, <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/history/british-history-1066-1450/aristocracy-norman-england?format=PB&isbn=9780521524650">compelled his barons</a> in 1127 to swear their support for her as his successor. Henry I then turned to arranging a marriage for Matilda so she could give birth to a grandson and buttress her position. </p>
<p>After Matilda’s nuptials with <a href="https://boydellandbrewer.com/9780851152653/the-ideals-and-practice-of-medieval-knighthood-volume-iii/">Geoffrey, count of Anjou</a>, the barons were summoned to renew their oath to her in 1131. A son, Henry, was born two years later, and a third pledge followed. Henry I died two years later of food poisoning <a href="https://assets.cambridge.org/97805215/91317/excerpt/9780521591317_excerpt.pdf">after eating eels</a>, a favorite dish of his.</p>
<p>The durability of his arrangements for Matilda’s rise to authority was immediately tested.</p>
<p>Viserys in “House of the Dragon” works from a similar playbook. The worthies of Westeros vow their loyalty to Rhaenyra as royal successor. Once Rhaenyra becomes marriageable, Viserys fields a plethora of suitors for her hand. A reluctant bride, Rhaenyra finally accedes to a union in which she would “dutifully” produce a male heir but then let her heart have what it wanted. </p>
<p>The unfortunate result is her inability to conceive with her husband while having three sons by a lover. Her situation is further complicated by Viserys’ remarriage to the lady <a href="https://www.hbo.com/house-of-the-dragon/character-guide#alicent-hightower">Alicent</a>, who gives him sons. Dangers stalk Rhaenyra’s path to power. In Westeros, as in England, a princess is expected to guard her chastity closely until marriage and, once wed, to be monogamous and not to “sully” herself in order to ensure the legitimacy of her children – a blatant double standard when noblemen frequently had children out of wedlock.</p>
<p>Yet even rumors of female infidelity could threaten succession. Lineage matters. Blood binds, as evident in the streams of it running from family crest to family crest in the series’ opening credits.</p>
<h2>War ensues</h2>
<p>Did these strategies work? </p>
<p>Not for Matilda. <a href="https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300181951/king-stephen/">Stephen of Blois</a>, a son from the marriage of Henry I’s sister Adela to a French count, aggressively registered a claim to the crown after Henry I’s death. Many English magnates conveniently forgot their oaths to Matilda, and Stephen became king. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.thehistorypress.co.uk/publication/stephen-and-matilda/9780752471921/">Matilda was not without supporters</a> – her half-brother Robert, earl of Gloucester; her husband, the count of Anjou; nobles disaffected by Stephen’s rule; and opportunists seeking personal gain from the conflict. Matilda resisted and the Anarchy ensued.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Three marble statues of men wearing robes and crowns appear side by side." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490429/original/file-20221018-8895-4ckzp3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490429/original/file-20221018-8895-4ckzp3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=512&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490429/original/file-20221018-8895-4ckzp3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=512&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490429/original/file-20221018-8895-4ckzp3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=512&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490429/original/file-20221018-8895-4ckzp3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=644&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490429/original/file-20221018-8895-4ckzp3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=644&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490429/original/file-20221018-8895-4ckzp3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=644&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The succession, from left to right: Henry I, Stephen and Henry II.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Statues_of_the_Kings_of_England,_York.jpg">Wikimedia Commons</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Forces supporting Matilda invaded England in 1139 but, <a href="https://blackwells.co.uk/bookshop/product/The-Empress-Matilda-by-Marjorie-Chibnall/9780631190288">save for a moment in 1141</a>, she never ruled. She then focused instead on elevating her son to the crown.</p>
<p>Prosecution of the war ultimately passed to the young Henry. His mounting military successes jogged the barons’ memory of their past commitments, and the contending parties reached a settlement. Henry would succeed Stephen. With Stephen’s death, Henry became <a href="https://www.yalebooks.co.uk/page/detail/?k=9780300084740">Henry II</a>. England wouldn’t have another ruling queen until <a href="https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300194166/mary-i/">the ascension of Queen Mary I in 1553</a>, nearly four centuries later.</p>
<p>But what of Rhaenyra?</p>
<p>Westeros is not 12th century England. For Martin, the author, the Anarchy does not serve to establish historical fact but is a wellspring for his creative vision. The fire-breathing dragon – that denizen of the medieval imagination – exists in Westeros. Rhaenyra’s pursuit of the throne may be fraught with difficulties, but she is a dragon-rider, and dragons were the most fearsome military asset in the kingdom.</p>
<p>This makes her dangerous in a way Matilda of England could hardly have conceived. Nonetheless, “House of the Dragon,” through the lens of fantasy, reflects a slice of the English medieval experience.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/191732/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Routt does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
During a two-decade period of English history known as the Anarchy, a woman sought to make the then-unprecedented move of ascending to the English throne.
David Routt, Adjunct Professor of History, University of Richmond
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/190469
2022-09-13T16:48:41Z
2022-09-13T16:48:41Z
House of the Dragon: how virtual production is helping actors say goodbye to green screens
<p>Based on George R.R. Martin’s book Fire and Blood, House of the Dragon is set roughly 200 years before the events of Game of Thrones. A much-anticipated prequel, the series focuses on the the House Targaryen (the House of the Dragon), the family from which Game of Thrones’ Daenerys Targaryen descends. It follows the family (and their accompanying dragons) through a civil war of succession between Princess Rhaenyra Targaryen and her half-brother Aegon II.</p>
<p>The show has already received critical acclaim, the opening episode described as “gorgeous, opulent television” <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2022/aug/22/house-of-the-dragon-review-this-game-of-thrones-prequel-is-gorgeous-opulent-television">by the Guardian</a>. Since the airing of the first episode, House of Dragon has released <a href="https://twitter.com/HouseofDragon/status/1563277163670827010">content on Twitter</a> giving fans a behind-the-scenes look at how the episodes are created.</p>
<p>The first of these “behind-the-scenes” tours focused on the tournament incident in the first episode and discussed some of the challenges around creating the physical set – including its eye-watering cost. Yet, some of House of the Dragon is filmed without much of a physical set at all.</p>
<p>Instead, the series is filmed, in part, within a “volume” or “virtual set”, using a relatively new film-making tool and technique known as virtual production.</p>
<h2>A new way to shoot</h2>
<p>In broad terms, virtual production is a way of making film and television which harnesses computer-generated content that allows real-time visualisation and control of the digital environment in which you are shooting, for example by projecting them on a wall of LED screens. Importantly, virtual environments and special effects are typically captured on set, within the camera in real-time, rather than being added in post-production. </p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/blHoET7H0TY?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>Virtual production draws on a range of technologies including real-time game engine technology (such as Epic’s Unreal Engine). A game engine is a software development programme which was originally developed to create video games but which is now used to control virtual sets and environments in virtual production.</p>
<p>Virtual production also includes systems such as motion capture and camera tracking. These are important for ensuring that the imagery displayed on the LED volumes reacts appropriately to the movement of the physical camera, calculating the correct relative position of the virtual camera and therefore the angle of the object being displayed on the LED wall. </p>
<p>Virtual production has recently been used on projects such as Netflix’s new upcoming <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5vWt49oXINg">mystery-horror series 1899</a> and Disney’s <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gUnxzVOs3rk">Star Wars series The Mandalorian </a>. The creators of House of the Dragon were the first to use the new virtual production stage at <a href="https://www.screendaily.com/news/game-of-thrones-prequel-house-of-the-dragon-first-to-shoot-on-warner-bros-uk-virtual-stage/5160997.article">Warner Brothers Studios in Leavesden in the UK</a>. </p>
<p>This LED volume stage is one of the biggest in the world, comprising more than 2,000 LED screens and 92 motion capture cameras. The scale of this LED volume means that production cast and crew are immersed in a moving CGI environment in real time, and are able to respond to the virtual environment as it changes before their eyes. </p>
<p>One of the key uses of virtual production in the show so far has come in episode two with Princess Rhaenyra’s flight to Dragonstone (the castle which forms the ancestral seat of House Targaryen), where her Uncle Daemon has fled with the dragon egg she had chosen for her late brother Baelon.</p>
<p>In the Dragonstone bridge scene, where Otto and Deamon have a stand off, the actors are real and are standing on a physical unadorned bridge set. However, Dragonstone itself and the rocky environment surrounding the bridge is entirely virtual, having been designed in pre-production and projected onto the LED walls via the game engine during production. </p>
<p>The arrival of Rhaenyra on her dragon Syrax is also entirely virtual, up until the point you see Rhaenyra up-close, dismounting from Syrax and walking through the middle of the king’s guards. </p>
<p>At this point all of the actors and the bridge in the foreground are once again real but the background remains entirely virtual. The lighting of the entirety of this scene is also likely to come directly from the LED volume, which can be adjusted to recreate the light at different times of day. </p>
<h2>The benefits of virtual production</h2>
<p>For a show like House of the Dragon, virtual production also offers the opportunity to create fantastical sets, which do not exist or would be difficult or costly to film within real locations. This includes <a href="https://www.spain.info/en/activities/san-juan-de-gaztelugatxe/">the site of San Juan de Gaztelugatxe in Spain</a>, on which the Dragonstone bridge in the Game of Thrones series is based. </p>
<p>As one of the show’s stars, <a href="https://www.tiktok.com/@hbomax/video/7137677954259225902?is_from_webapp=v1&item_id=7137677954259225902&refer=embed&referer_url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.inverse.com%2Fentertainment%2Fhouse-of-the-dragon-shows-how-the-volume-should-be-used&referer_url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.inverse.com%2Fentertainment%2Fhouse-of-the-dragon-shows-how-the-volume-should-be-used&referer_video_id=7137677954259225902">Rhys Ifans, explained</a>, virtual production was used to shoot the bridge scenes at Dragonstone as it offered the ability to shoot dawn or dusk scenes repeatedly. As opposed to filming “on location” where you are limited by hours of daylight, virtual production enables the crew to shoot with any lighting and atmosphere they require for as long as needed. This is because the LED volume itself provides the majority of the dynamic lighting needed for a scene. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="An island with a bridge in the sea." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/484281/original/file-20220913-18-1p0v15.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/484281/original/file-20220913-18-1p0v15.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/484281/original/file-20220913-18-1p0v15.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/484281/original/file-20220913-18-1p0v15.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/484281/original/file-20220913-18-1p0v15.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/484281/original/file-20220913-18-1p0v15.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/484281/original/file-20220913-18-1p0v15.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">San Juan de Gaztelugatxe island and its bridge were digitally recreated for House of Dragons.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/view-bridge-san-juan-de-gaztelugatxe-606948389">Daliusposus/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Although this bridge proved logistically impractical to shoot on for House of the Dragon, the virtual production team were able to recreate the bridge virtually through LIDAR (laser) scans of it, and then shooting with it virtually within the LED volume. This ability to shoot scenes with the bridge virtually may also have been particularly beneficial given the travel restrictions and social distancing rules prompted by the pandemic. </p>
<p>The real-time element of these fictional sets being projected onto the LED walls also presents another benefit of virtual production: the ability for the actors to be able to see and react to scenes in real time. This is something which was not previously available with technologies such as green screens where scenes and special effects had to be added in post-production. We’ve all seen behind-the-scenes footage of actors talking to a ball held by a man in a full green morph suit. </p>
<p>During the pandemic, virtual production also enabled film and TV production to continue despite social distancing and travel restriction measures, as it removed the need to film on-location. As we move into a post-pandemic era of filmmaking (and further into the House of the Dragon series), it will be interesting to see what the “<a href="https://twitter.com/HouseofDragon/status/1565731282218270722">alternative tool</a>” of virtual production means for the future of film and TV.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/190469/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nina Willment is employed as Research Associate by XR Stories / University of York. </span></em></p>
No green screens or chasing after balls, the actors in House of Dragons are interacting with virtual environments.
Nina Willment, Research Associate, XR Stories, University of York
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/190021
2022-09-06T15:04:00Z
2022-09-06T15:04:00Z
House of Dragons – an introduction to the stories and British history that inspired the beasts of Westeros
<p>Dragons have inspired awe and wonder since the beginning of human imagination. Most recently, these fire-spitting flying creatures – in modern western culture at least – have come alive in Game of Thrones and its new spin off, House of Dragons.</p>
<p>These winged beasts are particularly important in the new series. Set 200 years before Game of Thrones, the series follows the Targaryen family who rules Westeros with the help of their dragons. </p>
<p>In the medieval west, dragons feature both in literature and in political history and prophecy. They reached their heyday in Arthurian stories, most notably in Merlin’s legendary prophecies of two dragons fighting for the sovereignty of two warring peoples. This story was later used and reused for centuries for political gain by real historical people.</p>
<p>The beasts of Westeros, the fictional land in which these series are set, owe a debt to these tales. So, for those who want to stand out from the crowd in online debates about the new series, here is an introduction to the dragons of Westeros that takes in Arthurian legend, a handful of battles and wars, the Tudors and the story of a contested heir. </p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Quarter life, a series by The Conversation" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><em><strong><a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/quarter-life-117947?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=UK+YP2022&utm_content=InArticleTop">This article is part of Quarter Life</a></strong>, a series about issues affecting those of us in our twenties and thirties. From the challenges of beginning a career and taking care of our mental health, to the excitement of starting a family, adopting a pet or just making friends as an adult. The articles in this series explore the questions and bring answers as we navigate this turbulent period of life.</em></p>
<p><em>You may be interested in:</em></p>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/lord-of-the-rings-rings-of-power-a-cheats-guide-to-middle-earth-before-you-watch-the-new-show-189644?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=UK+YP2022&utm_content=InArticleTop">Lord of the Rings: Rings of Power – a cheat’s guide to Middle-earth before you watch the new show</a></em></p>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/salman-rushdie-where-to-start-with-this-pioneering-and-controversial-author-188707?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=UK+YP2022&utm_content=InArticleTop?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=UK+YP2022&utm_content=InArticleTop">Salman Rushdie: where to start with this pioneering and controversial author</a></em></p>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/five-dating-tips-from-the-georgian-era-186847?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=UK+YP2022&utm_content=InArticleTop">Five dating tips from the Georgian era</a></em></p>
<hr>
<h2>Dragons in western literature</h2>
<p>The dragon’s roots in medieval lore go back to their image as menacing animals, such as the dragon at the end of the Germanic story of <a href="https://www.bl.uk/collection-items/beowulf">Beowulf</a>. In this epic poem, Beowulf, a Scandinavian hero defeats Grendel, an outcast creature of gigantic stature in order to defend the Geats. After years of peace, Beowulf dies in combat against a new enemy, a dragon that holds power and a hoard of precious treasures – possibly in an act that symbolises the faults of a bad king in early culture.</p>
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_Fathers">Early Christian authors</a> gave dragons human characteristics such as greed and in literature, dragons signalled the sin of avarice – they were creatures to fear and defeat. In later medieval Europe, however, red and white dragons featured in the pre-history of the legendary King Arthur of the Pendragon dynasty. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A medieval painting of people watching two dragons battle." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/482992/original/file-20220906-16-oq0wfa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/482992/original/file-20220906-16-oq0wfa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482992/original/file-20220906-16-oq0wfa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482992/original/file-20220906-16-oq0wfa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482992/original/file-20220906-16-oq0wfa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=630&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482992/original/file-20220906-16-oq0wfa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=630&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482992/original/file-20220906-16-oq0wfa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=630&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An illustration of the battle between the red and white dragon from Historia Regum Britanniae. Vortigern is depicted sitting at the edge of a pool watching.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Lambeth Palace Library/Wikimedia</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>According to Geoffrey of Monmouth’s <em><a href="https://www.bl.uk/collection-items/bnf-english-copy-of-geoffrey-of-monmouths-history-of-the-kings-of-britain">Historia Regum Britanniae</a></em> (History of the Kings of Britain), first written in the 12th century, Arthur’s father, Uther Pendragon, gets his surname from witnessing a comet in the sky (the “pen” in his name meaning “head”) that resembles a fire-spitting dragon. </p>
<p>Prior to Uther’s reign, it is Vortigern, a Celtic leader (said to have invited the Saxons into Britain) who finds that his building of a tower at Dynas Emrys in North Wales is prevented by the underground struggle between a white and red dragon. The red dragon symbolises the Welsh and the white the Saxons. This Arthurian prophecy of these battling beasts was used to tell of a time when a leader would come to liberate the Welsh. This prophecy endured for centuries. </p>
<h2>Dragons and prophecy</h2>
<p>By the time Arthur was written into medieval history books, however, his Welsh ancestry had all but been forgotten, and he had been assimilated into English culture. This erasure led generations of English kings to claim descent from Arthur, if tenuously. This was particularly so during the Wars of the Roses (1455-87) when the white rose and red rose, representing the houses of York and Lancaster, clashed in a dynastic war that decimated the aristocracy. When it came to an end, with Henry Tudor bringing together in his descent the two dynasties and the Welsh line, the fighting white and red dragon could be said to have gone to rest.</p>
<p>Shakespeare’s dramatic rendering of the infamous Machiavellian-style politics during the Wars of the Roses in his series of history plays gave Game of Thrones’s creator, George R.R. Martin, a powerful <a href="https://www.rollingstone.com/culture/culture-news/george-r-r-martin-the-rolling-stone-interview-242487/">source of inspiration</a> for his books. Dynastic wars dominate Game of Thrones but the presence of dragons and their political significance comes to the fore in House of Dragons. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/DotnJ7tTA34?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>In the second episode of House of Dragons, king Viseryis reveals to his heir, princess Rhaenyra, that the Targaryen dynasty has only really held its position thanks to controlling the power dragons yield. The political power struggle that unravels is reminiscent of the period of English history known as <a href="https://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/HistoryofEngland/King-Stephen-Anarchy/">The Anarchy</a> (c. 1138-53), when the only male heir of King Henry I of England died and Matilda, the king’s daughter, was designated heir – the first female in England.</p>
<p>Stephen of Blois, the king’s nephew, contested Matilda’s claim and bitter struggles ensued. It can easily be seen that a period like this brought much anxiety and concern about the future. At this time, Geoffrey’s works, the <em>Historia</em> and also his Prophecies of Merlin, steeped in Arthurian legend as they were, were used to build hope in prophecy as a tool to read the future of politics while the prospect of peace was nowhere in sight.</p>
<p>The Anarchy in England preceded the Wars of the Roses by almost as many years as the action depicted in House of Dragons precedes the events of Game of Thrones. It is easy to see how these periods and their myths inspired Martin. In both of these historical periods of turmoil, and in Martin’s series of novels, human control over prophecy is as difficult as their control over dragons. </p>
<p>Prophetic texts were used to infuse politics with hope for a charismatic leader and dragons could only enhance the enticing aura of mystery around such a future. It is here that Martin’s use of dragons moves to a more modern taste for fantastical power. </p>
<p>Interestingly, dragons of yore had to be dominated or defeated; their occasional use in heraldry and art was meant to impress and inspire awe. The dragons of Westeros, however, are most powerful when lead, in both TV series, by young female characters who nurture rather than destroy or dominate these creatures. In the prequel, we are just getting a look at this relationship. We should expect a lot more legend and violence, but also more inspiring female-dominated politics and more dragon action.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/190021/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Raluca Radulescu does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Dragons have been used for political manoeuvring throughout the history of Britain.
Raluca Radulescu, Professor of Medieval Literature and English Literature, Bangor University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/189529
2022-08-30T20:04:58Z
2022-08-30T20:04:58Z
Torturous births in House of the Dragon dramatise the question of whether women deserve to be more than just a womb
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481670/original/file-20220829-19182-i60s6d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=5%2C0%2C1911%2C1276&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">HBO</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The premiere episode of Game of Thrones prequel House of the Dragon, The Heirs of the Dragon, establishes its central themes of gender and power in a bloody fashion. Its shocking depiction of a fatal cesarean birth is notable for its brutality – but also for how it reflects on histories of pregnant representation and reproductive politics. </p>
<p>The series dramatises a civil war in which factions of the Targaryen family fight for the Iron Throne of Westeros. As we start, young Princess Rhaenyra (Emma D’Arcy) has been overlooked by her father, King Viserys (Paddy Consedine). He desires a male heir, even as queen consort Aemma (Sian Brooke) suffers through stillbirths and miscarriages. </p>
<p>We quickly see how women are at the mercy of men’s decisions. “Here you are surrounded by attendants all focused on the babe – someone must attend to you”, says Rhaenyra to her heavily pregnant mother. “This discomfort is how we serve the realm”, Aemma replies; “The childbed is our battlefield”.</p>
<p>The king calls a tournament to celebrate the impending birth of what he hopes will be a male heir. Violent, rhythmic scenes showing knights jousting and bludgeoning each other to a bloody pulp are crosscut with upsetting images of Aemma’s labour.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481678/original/file-20220830-18-6fvm0b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481678/original/file-20220830-18-6fvm0b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481678/original/file-20220830-18-6fvm0b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481678/original/file-20220830-18-6fvm0b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481678/original/file-20220830-18-6fvm0b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481678/original/file-20220830-18-6fvm0b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481678/original/file-20220830-18-6fvm0b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481678/original/file-20220830-18-6fvm0b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Queen Aemma in childbirth in the premiere episode of House of the Dragon.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">HBO</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Brutality and betrayal</h2>
<p>Showrunner Miguel Sapochnik, <a href="https://www.latimes.com/entertainment-arts/tv/story/2022-08-21/house-of-the-dragon-childbirth-scene-aemma-viserys-targaryen">speaking with the Los Angeles Times</a>, notes that as with Game of Thrones’ battles, each birth on this show will explore a theme. This theme was “torture”. </p>
<p>The baby is breech, and the labour difficult. A male doctor tells the king that fathers must make impossible choices. Viserys quietly approves a plan to cut the baby out, in the hope that it is a boy. </p>
<p>It is a terrible betrayal: he holds Aemma’s hand while she is restrained and sliced open. She bleeds to death – and her newborn son only lives a short while. It is a shocking depiction of the world’s priorities.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/game-of-thrones-prequel-house-of-the-dragon-confirms-there-will-be-no-sexual-violence-on-screen-heres-why-thats-important-188521">Game of Thrones prequel House of the Dragon confirms there will be no sexual violence on screen. Here's why that's important</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Pregnancy in visual culture</h2>
<p>Beyond its brutality, the scene illustrates vividly changes to the visibility of pregnancy in visual culture. </p>
<p>Throughout most of the 20th century, pregnancy and birth were largely invisible in visual media. Pregnancy was deemed private and domestic, even vulgar. Notably, scenes of childbirth were banned and pregnancy deemed taboo in Hollywood films from 1927-68, thanks to various censorship regimes. Later, pregnant actors in television series would be written out, or have their bodies hidden through costuming or editing. </p>
<p>Now, images of pregnancy and childbirth are significantly more visible and varied. A watershed moment came in 1991 when Annie Leibovitz’s impactful (and controversial) portrait of Demi Moore – naked, beatific, and 7 months pregnant – graced the front cover of Vanity Fair. It challenged the notion that pregnant bodies should be hidden. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481676/original/file-20220829-8701-q5adad.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481676/original/file-20220829-8701-q5adad.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481676/original/file-20220829-8701-q5adad.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=840&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481676/original/file-20220829-8701-q5adad.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=840&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481676/original/file-20220829-8701-q5adad.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=840&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481676/original/file-20220829-8701-q5adad.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1055&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481676/original/file-20220829-8701-q5adad.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1055&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481676/original/file-20220829-8701-q5adad.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1055&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The August 1991 Vanity Fair cover, featuring a pregnant Demi Moore.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Vanity Fair</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>More recently, British series such as historical drama <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1983079/">Call the Midwife</a> and the docu-drama <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt11569382/?ref_=fn_al_tt_4">One Born Every Minute</a>, and American film <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0212604/?ref_=fn_al_tt_2">Tully</a>, have foregrounded female-led emotional and realistic representations of pregnancy and birth. </p>
<p>Pregnancies are more likely to be written in, not out, of television series. We have also seen the slow rise of sexy maternity fashion that shows off one’s “baby bump”, recently exemplified by singer and entrepreneur Rihanna’s <a href="https://www.harpersbazaar.com/celebrity/latest/g39047696/rihanna-maternity-style-gallery/">boundary-pushing outfits</a>. The overt images of Aemma’s pregnant body sit within this cultural shift.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/madness-miscarriages-and-incest-as-in-house-of-the-dragon-real-life-royal-families-have-seen-it-all-throughout-history-189225">Madness, miscarriages and incest: as in House of the Dragon, real-life royal families have seen it all throughout history</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Monstrous births and bodily autonomy</h2>
<p>But this scene’s graphic nature is unusual in mainstream media. Instead, it resonates with the long history of monstrous births in science fiction and horror. </p>
<p>These genres offer a subversive language with which to explore reproductive anxieties openly. The paranoia and gaslighting in <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0063522/?ref_=fn_al_tt_1">Rosemary’s Baby</a> (1968), the chest-bursting scene in <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0078748/?ref_=fn_al_tt_1">Alien (1979)</a>, the gruesome forced caesarean in <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0856288/?ref_=fn_al_tt_4">A’ l’Interieur (2007)</a>, and the maternal dread in <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt5109784/?ref_=nv_sr_srsg_0">Mother! (2017)</a> all illustrate fears about embodiment, maternity and personhood.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/UxqVFmig5AA?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>The content and tone of this scene, and its place as an inciting incident within the series’ narrative, also reflects contemporary issues regarding women’s bodily autonomy. These speak to widespread cultural tensions about the competing rights of the adult and the unborn. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/DotnJ7tTA34?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>This is an issue everywhere, but currently has particular political resonance in the United States in the wake of the Supreme Court’s decision to overturn Roe v Wade. This has quickly opened the doors to oppressive bans on abortion in some US states, even in cases where a pregnancy endangers the life of the mother. </p>
<p>At its most conservative and adversarial, this positions female reproductive bodies as little more than vessels. This misogynistic position suggests that an unborn person has more of a right to life than an adult subject, and that a woman does not have the right to make choices about her own life and body. It is dehumanising. </p>
<p>House of the Dragon dramatises this dynamic in the context of a deeply patriarchal system that is in ways not that far removed form our own. A war of succession is prompted because a society can’t countenance the idea of a woman taking the throne. </p>
<p>In a show that is interested in exploring the dynamics of gender and power through the lens of medieval fantasy, the conflict is not just that of ambitious uncle against powerful niece, but whether a woman has a right to be more than a womb.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/189529/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Erin Harrington does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
The trope of traumatic and violent childbirth is not new to House of the Dragon, and is often used to reflect on pregnant representation and reproductive politics on screen.
Erin Harrington, Senior Lecturer in English and Cultural Studies, University of Canterbury
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/189225
2022-08-25T20:03:26Z
2022-08-25T20:03:26Z
Madness, miscarriages and incest: as in House of the Dragon, real-life royal families have seen it all throughout history
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/480980/original/file-20220825-15-hwjavr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=1%2C1%2C1196%2C795&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">HBO</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>House of the Dragon chronicles the fall of the Targaryen dynasty some two centuries before life on the continent of Westeros is upended by war and a mini ice age – the events dramatised in HBO’s Game of Thrones. </p>
<p>The new series’ first episode powerfully suggests that political instability and dynastic decline begin with disease and health crises. </p>
<p>The ruling Targaryen King Viserys I suffers from a large and painful pus-filled open wound on his back. He dismisses this injury as a minor one he sustained from sitting on the famous Iron Throne forged with the swords of the vanquished. </p>
<p>His wife, the heavily-pregnant Queen Aemma Arryn, who has endured multiple miscarriages and infant losses in her lifetime, is worried about the health of their unborn baby. The childbirth depicted in this episode is extremely traumatic.</p>
<p>The diseases and medical afflictions that plagued the ruling houses of Westeros – pregnancy complications, madness and genetic disorders – affected the real royal families of Europe during the medieval and early modern periods. And just as in House of the Dragon, these afflictions shaped real dynastic struggles.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/DotnJ7tTA34?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<h2>Genetic disorders</h2>
<p>Like the fictional Targaryens, real European royals frequently married close relatives, contributing to genetic disorders in their families. </p>
<p>Spain’s last Habsburg king, Charles II, is a poster child for royal incest. He suffered from multiple health problems before his death at 38, including an extreme case of the so-called Habsburg jaw or badly misshapen mandible that made it very difficult to speak and to chew food. His parents were uncle and niece. Geneticists <a href="https://english.elpais.com/elpais/2019/12/03/inenglish/1575367613_121836.html#:%7E:text=%E2%80%9CCharles%20II%20had%20a%20drooping,out%20for%20almost%20two%20centuries">have argued</a> that consanguinity, or parents being descended from the same ancestors, caused this condition.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/480995/original/file-20220825-21-hwjavr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/480995/original/file-20220825-21-hwjavr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/480995/original/file-20220825-21-hwjavr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=831&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480995/original/file-20220825-21-hwjavr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=831&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480995/original/file-20220825-21-hwjavr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=831&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480995/original/file-20220825-21-hwjavr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1044&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480995/original/file-20220825-21-hwjavr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1044&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480995/original/file-20220825-21-hwjavr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1044&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">King Charles II of Spain by John Closterman.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Queen Victoria of England passed the gene that caused the recessive blood disease hemophilia to the royal families of Russia, Spain and Germany through the marriages of her children. </p>
<p>Victoria’s great-grandson, Alexei Nikolaevich, Tsarevich of Russia, <a href="https://www.science.org/content/article/case-closed-famous-royals-suffered-hemophilia">inherited this disease</a>. The holy man Rasputin, who was brought into the palace to treat the Russian Tsar, came to meddle in government affairs, leading to rising tension within the aristocracy and public distrust of the royal family. In this roundabout way the “<a href="https://www.hemophilia.org/bleeding-disorders-a-z/overview/history">royal disease</a>,” as hemophilia is known, contributed to the revolution that ended the Romanov monarchy.</p>
<h2>Pregnancy and fertility</h2>
<p>The primary goal of royal marriage, in both early modern Europe and Westeros, was to bring together powerful families and produce living heirs who would carry on the dynasty. </p>
<p>House of the Dragon’s creators have been criticised for the graphic childbirth scene in episode one, yet they were correct in portraying pregnancy as dangerous for royals. Seven queens and princesses of Asturias (heirs to the Spanish throne) <a href="https://museoecologiahumana.org/en/obras/death-in-childbed/">had children between 1500 and 1700. Four died of pregnancy-related causes.</a></p>
<p>While childbirth could prove fatal to royal women, failure to produce an heir could also see the end of a dynastic house. The history of the island of Westeros, which looks incredibly similar to the British Isles, mirrors much of Britain’s history too. The desire for a male heir could tear apart royal families.</p>
<p>In 16th-century England, King Henry VIII (who also sported an ulcerated wound on his leg, perhaps serving as inspiration for Viserys I’s back wound), would famously break away from the Catholic Church in Rome and marry six times to secure male heirs that would sustain the Tudor dynasty. Ironically, it was eventually Henry’s daughters Mary I and Elizabeth I who took the throne after their brother, Edward VI, died at the age of 16.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/game-of-thrones-prequel-house-of-the-dragon-confirms-there-will-be-no-sexual-violence-on-screen-heres-why-thats-important-188521">Game of Thrones prequel House of the Dragon confirms there will be no sexual violence on screen. Here's why that's important</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p><a href="https://www.hrp.org.uk/kensington-palace/history-and-stories/queen-anne/#gs.9y4yxt">Queen Anne</a> famously endured at least 17 pregnancies in 17 years. She gave birth to 18 children, many were stillborn and only one lived to the age of 11. Without an heir, the throne was passed to the Stuart’s German cousins, the Hanovarians.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481012/original/file-20220825-19-fm2qcz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481012/original/file-20220825-19-fm2qcz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481012/original/file-20220825-19-fm2qcz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=523&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481012/original/file-20220825-19-fm2qcz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=523&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481012/original/file-20220825-19-fm2qcz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=523&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481012/original/file-20220825-19-fm2qcz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=657&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481012/original/file-20220825-19-fm2qcz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=657&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481012/original/file-20220825-19-fm2qcz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=657&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Anne (centre) and her sister Mary (left) with their parents, the Duke and Duchess of York, painted by Peter Lely and Benedetto Gennari II.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Mental illness</h2>
<p>King George III of England suffered from manic episodes that lead to government instability and regency crises, just like the mad King Aerys Targaryen in the world of Game of Thrones. Various <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4953321/">medical conditions</a> have been offered to explain the historic monarch’s madness, including porphyria, a genetic blood disease that can lead to anxiety and mental confusion, or more recently, bipolar disorder. </p>
<p>George was subsequently portrayed as a <a href="https://time.com/6115140/george-iii-americas-last-king-tyrant/">mad tyrant king</a> and the reason for England’s loss of its American colonies in the American Revolution. However, in reality the British monarchy was constitutional by this point and George had little direct influence on the colonies.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481015/original/file-20220825-22-zv34k5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481015/original/file-20220825-22-zv34k5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481015/original/file-20220825-22-zv34k5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=633&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481015/original/file-20220825-22-zv34k5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=633&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481015/original/file-20220825-22-zv34k5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=633&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481015/original/file-20220825-22-zv34k5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=795&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481015/original/file-20220825-22-zv34k5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=795&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481015/original/file-20220825-22-zv34k5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=795&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Engraving by Henry Meyer of George III in later life (1817).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Treatments</h2>
<p>Historians might expect to see more religion combined with medicine in Kings Landing if the creators of The House of the Dragon wanted to create a royal household that closely resembled those of early modern Europe. </p>
<p>Sick and injured Catholic monarchs sought out the healing powers of sacred objects. In the 17th century, pregnant queens of Spain were loaned the “santa cinta” or the “holy belt”, a relic that was believed to have belonged to Mary, the mother of Jesus. Wearing or touching this item of clothing was believed to give protection to pregnant queens and their fetuses.</p>
<p>The corporeal remains of deceased holy men and women who were known as saints also played a part in healing Catholic monarchs and their families. </p>
<p>When Prince Don Carlos of Asturias, heir to Spain’s King Philip II, sustained a life-threatening <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00381-015-2693-7">head injury</a> in 1562, Franciscan friars brought the corpse of Fray Diego de Alcalá to the prince’s bed chamber and placed it in his bed. Early moderns attributed Don Carlos’s recovery to this relic and the cranial surgery that doctors performed to save his life. </p>
<p>In a protestant country like England by the late 18th century, treatments were far more conventional to modern eyes, if not more brutal as well. </p>
<p>Treatment of mental illness, including George III’s mania, involved straitjackets and restraining chairs, the latter of which George, who still retained his humour, often called his “coronation chair”. Not quite the Iron Throne, but a throne for a
“mad king”, nonetheless.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/189225/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sarah Bendall receives funding from Australian Research Council and Pasold Research Fund.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kristie Patricia Flannery does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Just like in Westeros, the fates of royal dynasties from history have been shaped by illness and affliction.
Kristie Patricia Flannery, Research Fellow, Institute for Humanities and Social Sciences, Australian Catholic University
Sarah Bendall, Research Fellow, Gender and Women's History Research Centre, Institute for Humanities and Social Sciences, Australian Catholic University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/184419
2022-08-24T13:27:16Z
2022-08-24T13:27:16Z
Terrifying dragons have long been a part of many religions, and there is a reason for their appeal
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478145/original/file-20220808-8059-ox4drg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=156%2C78%2C7075%2C4563&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Fire-breathing, fearsome dragons may represent chaos and the human impulse to conquer that threat. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/augmented-reality-royalty-free-image/166065759?adppopup=true">The Image Bank via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>HBO’s prequel to “Game of Thrones,” “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DotnJ7tTA34">House of the Dragon</a>” brought renewed attention to the ferocious dragon. Two-legged or four, fire-breathing or shape-shifting, scaled or feathered, dragons fascinate people across the world with their legendary power. This shouldn’t be surprising.</p>
<p>Long before “<a href="https://youtu.be/3EGojp4Hh6I">Harry Potter</a>,” “<a href="https://youtu.be/8YjFbMbfXaQ">Shang-Chi and the Legend of the Ten Rings</a>” and other modern interpretations increased the dragon’s notoriety in the 21st century, artifacts from ancient civilizations indicated their importance in many religions across the world. </p>
<p>As a <a href="https://www.emilyelizabethzarka.com/">scholar of monsters</a>, I’ve found dragons to be a nearly universal symbol for many civilizations. Scientists have tried to come up with explanations for the myth of dragons, but their enduring existence is testimony to their narrative power and mystery. </p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="Pure white dragon looking backward." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478160/original/file-20220808-8265-f54vc6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478160/original/file-20220808-8265-f54vc6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478160/original/file-20220808-8265-f54vc6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478160/original/file-20220808-8265-f54vc6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478160/original/file-20220808-8265-f54vc6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478160/original/file-20220808-8265-f54vc6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478160/original/file-20220808-8265-f54vc6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Dragons can symbolize the chaos of the natural world.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/krUJkOtqIrw">Photo by Rock Vincent Guitard for Unsplash.</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Ancient dragons, ancient stories</h2>
<p>Religions and cultures <a href="https://allthatsinteresting.com/dragon-legends">across the globe</a> are rife with dragon lore. In fact, across the vast <a href="https://www.eisenbrauns.org/books/titles/978-1-57506-279-2.html">majority of religions</a>, there is mythic trope some scholars call Chaoskampf, a German word that translates as struggle against chaos. This term, used by <a href="https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315236278">mythologists</a>, refers to a pervasive motif involving a heroic character who slays a primordial chaos “monster,” often with serpentine or dragonlike characteristics and a massive size that dwarfs humans. </p>
<p>One ancient example is found in the “<a href="https://www.worldhistory.org/article/225/enuma-elish---the-babylonian-epic-of-creation---fu/">Enūma Eliš</a>,” a Babylonian creation text from around 2,000 to 1,000 years <a href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/BCE">B.C.</a>. </p>
<p>In the text, <a href="https://www.worldhistory.org/Tiamat/">Tiamat</a>, the female primordial deity of salt water and matriarch of the gods, births 11 kinds of monsters, including the dragon. While Tiamat herself is never described as a “dragon,” some of her children, or “monsters,” include several different kinds of dragons with explicit references to her <a href="https://doi.org/10.1163/156921212X629446">dragon children</a>. Iconography later evolved so that her appearance began to take on serpentine features, linking her image to another famous clawed mythological predator, the dragon.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Colorful dragon wrapped around a column near the ceiling." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478149/original/file-20220808-8292-ydwm57.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478149/original/file-20220808-8292-ydwm57.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478149/original/file-20220808-8292-ydwm57.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478149/original/file-20220808-8292-ydwm57.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478149/original/file-20220808-8292-ydwm57.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478149/original/file-20220808-8292-ydwm57.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478149/original/file-20220808-8292-ydwm57.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The dragon, lord of the scaly animals, represents one of four animals in Chinese mythology corresponding to directions and seasons.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/WgFwcIozP-o">Photo by Raimond Klavins for Unsplash</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Dragons in Chinese and other cultures</h2>
<p>The presence of the dragon in China, where it is called Long is also ancient and integral to various cultural, spiritual and social traditions. </p>
<p>Dragons are members of the Chinese zodiac, one of the sacred guardian creatures that make up the <a href="http://idp.bl.uk/4DCGI/education/astronomy/sky.html">Four Benevolent Animals</a> and
<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.4038/suslj.v9i1.3735">provide justification</a> for <a href="https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1125/the-dragon-in-ancient-china/">imperial dynasties</a>. Different kinds of these aquatic, intelligent, semidivine beings form <a href="https://www.ucpress.edu/book/9780520298514/a-chinese-bestiary">a hierarchy</a> in ancient Chinese cosmology and appear in <a href="https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Chinese_mythology">creation myths</a> of various indigenous traditions. </p>
<p>When Jesuit missionaries reintroduced Christianity in China in the 16th century, <a href="https://brill.com/view/journals/esm/14/1-3/article-p340_15.xml?language=en">the dragon’s existence was not contested</a>. Instead, they became associated with a more Westernized explanation – the Devil. </p>
<p>Today, dragons are celebrated and revered in Buddhist, Taoist and Confucianism traditions as symbols of strength and enlightenment.</p>
<p>Dragons also appear in <a href="https://repository.up.ac.za/handle/2263/58405">Anatolian religions</a>, <a href="https://direct.mit.edu/leon/article/53/1/50/46847/Drawing-New-Boundaries-Finding-the-Origins-of">Sumerian myths,</a> <a href="https://www.ucpress.edu/book/9780520272996/the-saga-of-the-volsungs">Germanic sagas</a>, <a href="https://www.harvard-yenching.org/wp-content/uploads/legacy_files/featurefiles/Nguyen%20Ngoc%20Tho_The%20Symbol%20of%20the%20Dragon%20and%20Ways%20to%20Shape%20Cultural%20Identities%20in%20Vietnam%20and%20Japan.pdf">Shinto beliefs</a> and in <a href="https://www.eisenbrauns.org/books/titles/978-1-57506-106-1.html">Abrahamic scriptures</a>. The creature’s repeated and important presence across global religions and cultures raises an interesting question: Why did dragons appear at all?</p>
<h2>Symbolic power</h2>
<p>A long-proposed theory is that there are natural explanations for dragons. That’s not to say the beasts of myth existed in real life but rather that fossils, living animals and geological features existing in the natural world inspired their creation. </p>
<p>Pulitzer Prize-winning author and scientist Carl Sagan wrote <a href="http://www.randomhousebooks.com/books/159732/">a book</a> on the subject, arguing that dragons evolved from a human need to merge science with myth, the rational with the irrational, as part of an evolutionary response to real predators. His thoughts are an expansion of <a href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Dragon_Seekers/vC4c3Kx746QC?hl=en&gbpv=0">proposed ideas</a> beginning in the 19th century or earlier as newly discovered fossils were linked to representations of dragons across the globe. </p>
<p>Full or partial remains of numerous <a href="https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/distributed/D/bo70560676.html">extinct species</a> may explain the physical attributes of dragons. In 2020, two scholars, <a href="https://www.roanoke.edu/inside/a-z_index/biology/meet_the_biologists/dr_dorothybelle_poli">DorothyBelle Poli</a> and <a href="https://directory.roanoke.edu/faculty/stoneman">Lisa Stoneman</a>, even proposed that the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004415133_007">fossilized remains of Lepidodendron</a>, a plant with a scalelike resemblance, may be behind the global presence of dragons. </p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478152/original/file-20220808-1720-jmhq2a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478152/original/file-20220808-1720-jmhq2a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=679&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478152/original/file-20220808-1720-jmhq2a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=679&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478152/original/file-20220808-1720-jmhq2a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=679&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478152/original/file-20220808-1720-jmhq2a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=853&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478152/original/file-20220808-1720-jmhq2a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=853&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478152/original/file-20220808-1720-jmhq2a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=853&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The fossilized scalelike bark of Lepidodendron could inform dragon mythology.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/landscape-with-plants-from-the-carboniferous-period-news-photo/857133514?adppopup=true">Print by De Agostini Editorial via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Human encounters with flying lizards, oarfish, crocodiles, Saharan horned vipers, large snakes and certain species of <a href="https://animals.sandiegozoo.org/animals/komodo-dragon">lizards</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Quetzalcoatl">birds</a> have also been proposed as possible explanations for dragon lore, given their physical resemblance to different dragons. </p>
<p>Scholars have also cited natural geologic processes as explanations for dragon lore – particularly when they are <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidbressan/2015/10/29/in-the-alps-myths-about-dragons-may-be-rooted-in-geology/?sh=60d120cd210e">associated with natural disasters</a>. Fire-breathing dragons, for instance, might be an explanation for mysterious fires that observers attempted to rationalize as a dragon’s flame. Natural gas vents, methane produced from decaying matter and other sources of underground gas deposits can produce a blaze if accidentally lit. Before the mechanics of combustion were understood fully, such events were <a href="https://www.simonandschuster.com/books/The-Science-of-Monsters/Matt-Kaplan/9781451667998">deemed indicators</a> of a dragon’s presence, providing a cause for the seemingly implausible.</p>
<h2>Eternal dragons</h2>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="A colorful dragon sculpture lit internally against a black backdrop." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478154/original/file-20220808-1720-aebc7l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478154/original/file-20220808-1720-aebc7l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478154/original/file-20220808-1720-aebc7l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478154/original/file-20220808-1720-aebc7l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478154/original/file-20220808-1720-aebc7l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478154/original/file-20220808-1720-aebc7l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478154/original/file-20220808-1720-aebc7l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Ancient dragon mythology continues to inspire art and drama.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/JNbxBcFzpv8">Photo by Thomas Despeyroux for Unsplash.</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>One enduring reason dragons continue to appear in our world could be because they represent the power of nature. Stories about people taming dragons can be seen as stories about the ability of humans to dominate forces that cannot always be controlled. </p>
<p>To gain control over a dragon underscores the problematic idea that humans are superior to all other animals in nature. Dragons challenge the concept of human biological supremacy, raising questions about what it means if humans were forced to reposition themselves as lesser members of the food chain. </p>
<p>More importantly, I believe, the beauty, terror and power of the dragon evokes mystery and suggests that not all phenomena are easily explained or understood.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/184419/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Emily Zarka does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Enormous, scaly, fire-breathing dragons have fascinated civilizations for centuries. A scholar who studies monsters explains their power and appeal.
Emily Zarka, Instructor in English, Arizona State University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/188521
2022-08-11T20:04:36Z
2022-08-11T20:04:36Z
Game of Thrones prequel House of the Dragon confirms there will be no sexual violence on screen. Here’s why that’s important
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478608/original/file-20220810-9449-blemf8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C976%2C618&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">HBO</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>HBO’s fantasy series Game of Thrones dominated television and pop culture discourse for much of a decade. Its upcoming prequel series, House of the Dragon, is similarly generating conversation, although not in ways the producers might prefer. Much of this has centred on discussions of sexual assault and rape on screen.</p>
<p>This new series is set 200 years before Game of Thrones. It dramatises the Dance of the Dragons, a war of succession in which factions of the Targaryen family fight for the Iron Throne of Westeros. A key trigger is whether Princess Rhaenyra, the ageing king’s firstborn, will become the first queen of the Seven Kingdoms. The showrunners have stated that a dominant theme is whether an entrenched “<a href="https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/tv/tv-features/inside-house-of-the-dragon-trailer-cast-1235182776/">patriarchy would rather destroy itself than see a woman on the throne</a>”.</p>
<p>But ahead of its launch, the show is already facing questions about how it will represent sex and sexual assault. These are issues that plagued Game of Thrones. The show became notorious for its extensive use of sex and female nudity, as well as <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/culture/archive/2021/05/game-of-thrones-the-handmaids-tale-them-tv-sexual-violence/618782/">its graphic rape scenes</a>. It notably inspired the term “<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2012/mar/11/sexposition-story-tv-drama">sexposition</a>”: when exposition, such as backstory or character motivation, is offered against a backdrop of sex or nudity.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/DotnJ7tTA34?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<h2>“You can’t ignore the violence that was perpetrated on women by men in that time”</h2>
<p>Miguel Sapochnik, an executive producer and co-showrunner of House of the Dragon, <a href="https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/tv/tv-features/inside-house-of-the-dragon-trailer-cast-1235182776/">indicated</a> in a somewhat contradictory fashion that the show would “pull back” on sex while also showing it as a nonchalant aspect of Targaryan life. When asked about violence against women, he replied: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>[we] don’t shy away from it. If anything, we’re going to shine a light on that aspect. You can’t ignore the violence that was perpetrated on women by men in that time. It shouldn’t be downplayed and it shouldn’t be glorified.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Writer and executive producer Sara Hess since clarified these comments in a statement to <a href="https://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2022/08/house-of-the-dragon-sexual-violence-game-of-thrones">Vanity Fair</a>. She states “we do not depict sexual violence in the show”. She added, “We handle one instance off-screen, and instead show the aftermath and impact on the victim and the mother of the perpetrator.”</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478669/original/file-20220811-19-mkeb0s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478669/original/file-20220811-19-mkeb0s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478669/original/file-20220811-19-mkeb0s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478669/original/file-20220811-19-mkeb0s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478669/original/file-20220811-19-mkeb0s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478669/original/file-20220811-19-mkeb0s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478669/original/file-20220811-19-mkeb0s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478669/original/file-20220811-19-mkeb0s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">While sexual assault will still be dealt with in House of the Dragon, it will happen off screen.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">IMDB</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Conflict and violence in Game of Thrones</h2>
<p>One of Game of Thrones’ many strengths was its representation of conflict. Extraordinary battle sequences and scenes of mass casualty illustrated the human cost of nobles’ whims. However, gendered patterns of representation quickly built up. Sexual objectification and violence against women became a metaphor for the endemic brutality of Westeros.</p>
<p>To claim this was a necessary and honest way to illustrate the world’s values “realistically” ignores two things. George R R Martin’s A Song of Ice and Fire books draw from European medieval history and the English civil wars, but Westeros - with its dragons and ice zombies - is ultimately an invention. In fictional media, the historical past and imagined worlds are powerful lenses through which we can consider present-day values. </p>
<p>Additionally, Game of Thrones is not a history, but a massively successful entertainment product made for premium cable. This environment is not subject to the same broadcasting standards or advertising pressures as network television. In the past two decades, many prestige or quality dramas have used sex and nudity to differentiate themselves from network fare. </p>
<p>Over time, sexually explicit material and gendered violence have been offered as core expressions of the form’s narrative and thematic complexity. Shows must navigate the space between exploring misogyny and turning it into entertainment.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/friday-essay-from-daenerys-to-yara-the-top-ten-women-of-game-of-thrones-58356">Friday essay: from Daenerys to Yara – the top ten women of Game of Thrones</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>The male heterosexual gaze</h2>
<p>By looking at techniques such as framing and editing, we can see how many episodes of Game of Thrones embodied an implicitly male, heterosexual gaze. Women’s bodies were over-represented as depersonalised props, or sexual objects of regard, as in frequent brothel scenes. <a href="https://www.insidehook.com/daily_brief/television/game-of-thrones-intimacy-coordinator">Members of the cast</a>, and even <a href="https://www.vulture.com/2012/06/game-of-thrones-nudity-nude-scenes.html">one of the episodes’ directors</a>, have also commented on the pressures they felt to offer more explicit material for the purposes of titillation.</p>
<p>Defenders of such material may protest that these choices are gritty engagements with real-life violence, misogyny and moral complexity, or even that they offer images of female empowerment. But this ignores that we tend to see only certain types of bodies sexualised. </p>
<p>These are predominantly those of younger, able-bodied, conventionally attractive cis women. Women of colour are frequently fetishised and exoticised. Naked bodies of visibly ageing women remain taboo. Male nudity is certainly present in Game of Thrones, albeit at a far lower rate than female nudity and less sexualised, often acting as a representation of a character’s vulnerability or a source of humour. </p>
<p>This amplifies the unequal standards of gendered representation that have long dominated film, television, advertising and art. These have also diminished the nature of roles available to women. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/game-of-thrones-and-the-fluid-world-of-medieval-gender-40245">Game of Thrones and the fluid world of medieval gender</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>At its worst, presenting women’s bodies as inherently available and vulnerable perpetuates damaging, misogynistic tropes. This includes “fridging”, which presents violence against women as a plot device that helps develop a male character’s narrative arc. It also includes rape as shorthand for female character development.</p>
<p>This is frustrating, as there is significant scope to explore issues of power, violence and victimisation in nuanced ways. Michaela Cole’s limited series I May Destroy You, a black comedy-drama that deals with a rape and its aftermath, is a prominent example of a potent, victim-centric account of anxiety and trauma. It’s also notable that it was female-led, in an industry where women are significantly underrepresented behind the camera. The <a href="https://slate.com/culture/2018/10/hbo-sex-scenes-the-deuce-watchman-intimacy-coordinators.html">recent emergence of intimacy coordinators</a> in productions is also a positive step.</p>
<p>We live in a world with atrocious rates of gendered violence. Misogyny and female objectification are a normalised part of life. One way to denaturalise patterns in representation, narrative, character and style is by highlighting their artifice. This reminds us that visual language isn’t neutral. </p>
<p>Art and entertainment have key roles in both perpetuating and questioning these dynamics. House of the Dragon is clearly interested in unpicking the intricacies of gender and power in a highly patriarchal society. Hopefully, the way it tells its story doesn’t inadvertently undermine this aim.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/188521/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Erin Harrington does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Game of Thrones made a name for itself with frequent and egregious depictions of sexual assault on screen. The upcoming prequel is moving in a new direction.
Erin Harrington, Senior Lecturer in English and Cultural Studies, University of Canterbury
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/187285
2022-07-20T03:05:52Z
2022-07-20T03:05:52Z
Game of Thrones star Emilia Clarke is missing ‘quite a bit’ of her brain. How can people survive and thrive after brain injury?
<p>In a recent <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/m0019f3z/sunday-morning-17072022">interview</a>, Game of Thrones star Emilia Clarke spoke about being able to live “completely normally” after two aneurysms – one in <a href="https://www.newyorker.com/culture/personal-history/emilia-clarke-a-battle-for-my-life-brain-aneurysm-surgery-game-of-thrones">2011 and one in 2013</a> – that caused brain injury. She went on to have two brain surgeries.</p>
<p>An aneurysm is a bulge or ballooning in the wall of a blood vessel, often accompanied by severe headache or pain. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1548671018499194883"}"></div></p>
<p>So how can people survive and thrive despite having, as Clarke <a href="https://www.marieclaire.com.au/emilia-clarke-aneurysm">put</a> it, “quite a bit missing” from their brain?</p>
<p>The key to understanding how brains can recover from trauma is that they are fantastically plastic – meaning our body’s supercomputer can reshape and remodel itself.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/growing-up-in-a-disadvantaged-neighbourhood-can-change-kids-brains-and-their-reactions-184145">Growing up in a disadvantaged neighbourhood can change kids' brains – and their reactions</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Our fantastically plastic brains</h2>
<p>Brains can adapt and change in incredible ways. Yours is doing it right now as you form new memories. </p>
<p>It’s not that the brain has evolved to deal with brain trauma or stroke or aneurysms; our ancestors normally died when that happened and may not have gone on to reproduce. In fact, we evolved very thick skulls to try to prevent brain trauma happening at all.</p>
<p>No, this <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fncel.2019.00066/full">neural plasticity</a> is a result of our brains evolving to be learning machines. They allow us to adapt to changing environments, to facilitate learning, memory and flexibility. This functionality also means the brain can adapt after certain injuries, finding new pathways to function.</p>
<p>A lot of organs wouldn’t recover at all after serious damage. But the brain keeps developing through life. At a microscopic level, you’re changing the brain to make new memories every day.</p>
<p>This extraordinary kilogram and a half of soft tissue sitting in your skull – with more power and capacity than even the most powerful supercomputer – has an incredible ability to adapt.</p>
<h2>What does it mean to say parts of the brain are ‘missing’?</h2>
<p>The brain needs a constant and steady <a href="https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/news/story/study-reveals-brains-finely-tuned-system-of-energy-supply#:%7E:text=In%20fact%2C%20the%20brain's%20oxygen,brain%20activity%20and%20blood%20flow.">supply</a> of oxygenated blood. When it is injured – for example by an aneurysm, sudden impact against the inside of the skull, stroke or surgery – oxygen supply can be interrupted. </p>
<p>Sometimes, a piece is surgically <a href="https://www.wired.com/story/she-was-missing-a-chunk-of-her-brain-it-didnt-matter/">removed</a> or a region dies off due to lack of oxygen.</p>
<p>For example, sometimes a person with epilepsy doesn’t respond to drugs. Thanks to extraordinary brain imaging techniques, we can potentially work out the exact place in the brain the seizure is starting and remove part of the brain. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474998/original/file-20220720-20-nqmrpi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="CT brain scans" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474998/original/file-20220720-20-nqmrpi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474998/original/file-20220720-20-nqmrpi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474998/original/file-20220720-20-nqmrpi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474998/original/file-20220720-20-nqmrpi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474998/original/file-20220720-20-nqmrpi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474998/original/file-20220720-20-nqmrpi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474998/original/file-20220720-20-nqmrpi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">CT scans can reveal ‘missing’ sections of brain due to injury or shrinkage.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://image.shutterstock.com/image-photo/closeup-ct-scan-brain-600w-298101074.jpg">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/brain-stimulation-can-rewire-and-heal-damaged-neural-connections-but-it-isnt-clear-how-research-suggests-personalization-may-be-key-to-more-effective-therapies-182491">Brain stimulation can rewire and heal damaged neural connections, but it isn't clear how – research suggests personalization may be key to more effective therapies</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>So how does the brain adapt after injury?</h2>
<p>Your brain has about 100 billion neurons and over a trillion synapses (a junction between two neurons, across which an electrical impulse is transmitted). They are constantly rewiring themselves in response to new experiences, to store and retrieve information.</p>
<p>With brain injury, the changes can be bigger; you get certain rewiring around the injury. These synapses can rearrange themselves to work around the damaged part.</p>
<p>Axons (long, threadlike parts of a nerve cell that can conduct electrical impulses) form nerve fibres that get sent out to new spots in response to signals they are getting from the damaged area. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/475004/original/file-20220720-26-asrswp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A diagram of components of brain tissue." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/475004/original/file-20220720-26-asrswp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/475004/original/file-20220720-26-asrswp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=227&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475004/original/file-20220720-26-asrswp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=227&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475004/original/file-20220720-26-asrswp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=227&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475004/original/file-20220720-26-asrswp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=285&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475004/original/file-20220720-26-asrswp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=285&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475004/original/file-20220720-26-asrswp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=285&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Your brain has about 100 billion neurons.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But there’s another form of plasticity called <a href="https://qbi.uq.edu.au/brain-basics/brain-physiology/what-neurogenesis#:%7E:text=Neurogenesis%20is%20the%20process%20by,birth%20and%20throughout%20our%20lifespan.">neurogenesis</a>. This involves little pockets in the brain where new neurons continue to be born throughout life. And there’s <a href="https://florey.edu.au/science-research/research-teams/stem-cells-and-neural-development-laboratory">evidence</a> that after brain injury these neural stem cells can be stimulated and migrate to the area of injury and make new neurons. </p>
<p>Neurorehabilitation might include physical rehabilitation and speech rehabilitation. And there is also <a href="https://florey.edu.au/science-research/research-teams/epigenetics-and-neural-plasticity-laboratory">research</a> into using drugs to enhance neuroplasticity. That might also apply to slower forms of degeneration such as in Parkinson’s or Huntington’s disease.</p>
<p>As Clarke notes, not everyone has a significant recovery after traumatic brain injury; a lot of people experience ongoing disability. </p>
<p>Many factors affect the way the brain responds to rehabilitation, including the extent and position of the brain injury, genetics, lifestyle and life history.</p>
<p>Some people also experience personality change after a traumatic brain injury.</p>
<p>The textbook case was <a href="https://www.verywellmind.com/phineas-gage-2795244">Phineas Gage</a>, who was involved in an accident in the 1840s that saw a metal rod thrust through his head, destroying a large part of his frontal lobe. He was able to survive and recover but his personality changed. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/post-covid-psychosis-occurs-in-people-with-no-prior-history-the-risk-is-low-but-episodes-are-frightening-179193">Post-COVID psychosis occurs in people with no prior history. The risk is low but episodes are frightening</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What can you do to give your brain its best chance in life?</h2>
<p>I want to end with a message about the five factors of brain health: </p>
<ol>
<li><p>diet: emerging <a href="https://florey.edu.au/events/diet-evolution-gut-health-and-brain-function">evidence</a> shows a relationship between brain health and body health, including your gut microbiome, so ensuring your diet is broadly healthy is good for your brain, as well as the rest of your body</p></li>
<li><p>stress: high levels of chronic stress can be <a href="https://florey.edu.au/science-research/research-projects/defining-the-effects-of-stress-versus-hyperarousal-on-tauopathy-in-alzheime">bad for the brain</a></p></li>
<li><p>sleep: we know good <a href="https://florey.edu.au/science-research/research-teams/sleep-and-cognition">sleep hygiene</a> is very important for a healthy brain</p></li>
<li><p>cognitive or mental <a href="https://florey.edu.au/events/nature-nurture-and-neuroscience-brain-plasticity-in-health-and-disease">exercise</a>: this is uniquely beneficial for the brain and can potentially slow brain ageing</p></li>
<li><p>physical exercise: <a href="https://florey.edu.au/about/news-media/latest-florey-public-lecture-nature-nurture-and-neuroplasticity-now-availab">physical activity</a> is as good for your brain as it is for your body.</p></li>
</ol>
<p>Even though you can’t do anything about your genetics, you can change your lifestyle to give your brain its best chance and potentially slow down brain ageing.</p>
<p>The healthier your brain is, the more likely it will be able to rewire itself and heal if injured, and be resilient to the negative aspects of brain ageing, such as Alzheimer’s disease and other forms of dementia, so these can be delayed or prevented.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-it-about-the-human-brain-that-makes-us-smarter-than-other-animals-new-research-gives-intriguing-answer-183848">What is it about the human brain that makes us smarter than other animals? New research gives intriguing answer</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/187285/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anthony Hannan receives funding from the NHMRC and the ARC and some philanthropic funding for medical research.
</span></em></p>
The key to understanding how brains can recover from trauma is that they are fantastically plastic – meaning our body’s supercomputer can reshape and remodel itself.
Anthony Hannan, Professor and Head of Epigenetics and Neural Plasticity, Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/143790
2020-09-02T19:22:24Z
2020-09-02T19:22:24Z
Chess is taking over the online video game world – and both are changing from this unlikely pairing
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/356139/original/file-20200902-14-jdu941.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=28%2C0%2C4677%2C3010&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Chess is exploding in popularity on the video game streaming site Twitch.tv</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/playing-chess-online-news-photo/481205681?adppopup=true"> B. Aa. Sætrenes/Moment Mobile via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>As a global pandemic continues to determine a new normal, tens of thousands of viewers have been tuning in to watch people play chess on a livestreaming website called <a href="https://www.twitch.tv/">Twitch.tv</a>. An American chess grandmaster, Hikaru Nakamura, along with a number of celebrities of the video game world, is leading a renaissance in the ancient game. </p>
<p>While viewers eagerly await Nakamura’s streams to begin, they are treated to a slideshow of memes involving Nakamura’s face superimposed into scenes from pop culture. First a reference to a well-known Japanese animation, next a famous upside-down kiss with Spiderman and finally, Nakamura’s characteristic grin is edited onto the Mona Lisa herself.</p>
<p>From Aug. 21 to Sept. 6, Twitch and <a href="https://www.chess.com/home">Chess.com</a> are hosting a tournament, called Pogchamps, where some of the most popular gaming streamers in the world compete in a <a href="https://www.chess.com/news/view/chess-com-announces-next-pogchamps">chess tournament with US$50,000 on the line</a>.</p>
<p>The current renaissance in chess is happening at the confluence of livestreaming technology, video game culture and one grandmaster’s exceptional skills as both a chess player and entertainer. What is emerging is an unexpectedly good pairing between chess and a digital generation that is showing how influential gamers can be.</p>
<p>The game of kings is <a href="https://www.fide.com/images/stories/NEWS_2012/FIDE/120806_YouGovPressRelease.pdf">more popular than ever</a>, with over 605 million players worldwide, and now, memes are involved.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/355899/original/file-20200901-14-qjnn1u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="The purple logo of Twitch on a wall." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/355899/original/file-20200901-14-qjnn1u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/355899/original/file-20200901-14-qjnn1u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/355899/original/file-20200901-14-qjnn1u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/355899/original/file-20200901-14-qjnn1u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/355899/original/file-20200901-14-qjnn1u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/355899/original/file-20200901-14-qjnn1u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/355899/original/file-20200901-14-qjnn1u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Twitch.tv is a streaming website where millions of people watch content ranging from video games to conversation to chess.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/AP-Explains-What-is-Twitch/724709121a9c4e64a41e4161e93dbc76/42/0">AP Photo/Christophe Ena, File</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Chess explodes on Twitch.tv</h2>
<p>Twitch.tv is a live-video streaming website that was started in 2011 as a platform for users to watch other people play video games. In recent years, Twitch has grown to become the cultural hub of the gaming community. It now hosts tens of thousands of creators who broadcast live to a global audience of around <a href="https://www.twitch.tv/p/press-center/">17.5 million viewers a day</a>.</p>
<p>Since 2015, chess viewership has experienced exponential growth on Twitch. Then, a mere 59 people were watching chess streams at any given time. Today, that number averages 4,313. At the time of writing this, viewers have consumed close to <a href="https://sullygnome.com/game/chess/2020">38 million hours of chess</a> in 2020 alone.</p>
<p>At the helm of this explosion is Grandmaster <a href="https://ratings.fide.com/profile/2016192">Hikaru Nakamura</a>. Nakamura is a <a href="https://www.chess.com/news/view/nakamura-wins-5th-u-s-championship">five-time U.S. chess champion</a> and a <a href="https://ratings.fide.com/profile/2016192">top 10 ranked chess player in the world</a>. </p>
<p>In addition to his traditional competitive career, in 2015, Nakamura began streaming chess on Twitch. At first, he was relatively unnoticed, but in 2019, when he started dedicating upwards of 30 hours per week to streaming, Nakamura became known as <a href="https://www.twitch.tv/gmhikaru">GMHikaru</a> to his growing fanbase online. In 2020, those fans have already watched an astonishing <a href="https://twitchtracker.com/gmhikaru/statistics">9.95 million hours</a> of Nakamura’s channel. At times, over 45,000 viewers have watched a single game. </p>
<p>Why is this flood of interest in chess happening now?</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/355901/original/file-20200901-16-19zd4pc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Hikaru Nakamura in a suit at a chess tournament." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/355901/original/file-20200901-16-19zd4pc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/355901/original/file-20200901-16-19zd4pc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/355901/original/file-20200901-16-19zd4pc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/355901/original/file-20200901-16-19zd4pc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/355901/original/file-20200901-16-19zd4pc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/355901/original/file-20200901-16-19zd4pc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/355901/original/file-20200901-16-19zd4pc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Hikaru Nakamura is a top-ranked grandmaster and, more recently, one of the most popular streamers on Twitch.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?search=hikaru+nakamura&title=Special:Search&go=Go&ns0=1&ns6=1&ns12=1&ns14=1&ns100=1&ns106=1&searchToken=6z3fto9j1npcu6hfrkjuu26nb#%2Fmedia%2FFile%3ANakamura_Hikaru_%2829290269410%29.jpg">Andreas Kontokanis via Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A surprising fit</h2>
<p>Nakamura is a great player and a jovial person, but there are many thousands of modern, high-production video games being played by charismatic and skilled streamers on Twitch. Viewers on Twitch have discovered a profound interest in learning the fundamental mechanics of a board game from the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/chess/History">sixth century</a>.</p>
<p>Nakamura has attracted the interest of other massively popular streamers with millions of followers – <a href="https://www.twitch.tv/xqcow">xQc</a>, <a href="https://www.twitch.tv/forsen">forsen</a>, <a href="https://www.twitch.tv/nymn">Nymm</a> and <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-53277733">the late Reckful</a>, to name a few. These collaborations with celebrities of the gaming world have been a huge boost to chess’s popularity as Nakamura plays games against these streamers while blindfolded or foregoing the use of the queen. These games illustrate for the new fans and top streamers the skills, cunning and joy that are rapidly coming to be associated with chess. “Hikaru is literally the discipline in action,” comments Devin Nash, a popular Twitch analyst.</p>
<p>This popularity culminated in a chess tournament called <a href="https://www.chess.com/news/view/chess-com-announces-next-pogchamps">Pogchamps</a>. In June, 16 of Twitch’s top streamers played in a round robin chess tournament after being coached by a number of world-class chess players, including Nakamura. The event was so popular with both the streamers and fans – at one point more than 150,000 people were watching – that a second Pogchamps was immediately scheduled. The second tournament <a href="https://www.twitch.tv/chess">is running through September 6</a> and features streamers like xQc and even Hafthor Julius Bjornsson – the actor who played The Mountain in “Game of Thrones.” </p>
<p>[<em>Insight, in your inbox each day.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=insight">You can get it with The Conversation’s email newsletter</a>.]</p>
<h2>Bridging two worlds</h2>
<p>There are a few pieces involved in this world of online chess: the streaming technology of Twitch, Nakamura, the online gaming community and the game of chess itself. Just as in the board game, no single piece in this evolving landscape of chess is alone driving the popularity. As Nakamura, gamers and the chess world collide, each piece is changing the others.</p>
<p>My <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/project/Gamer-or-citizen-live-video-politics-in-a-digital-age">research</a> focuses on understanding the economic and cultural significance of video game communities. This year has proven what many who study video games have long claimed: that online gaming is significant far beyond the confines of video games. Today, music artists are shaking the foundations of their industry by <a href="https://www.rollingstone.com/pro/features/twitch-music-business-economics-1001225/">migrating onto Twitch</a> to great success. Doctors and medical researchers as well are strengthening their ties with gaming and gamers: for instance, raising $3.1 million for the <a href="https://www.preventcancer.org/fundraisers/awesome-games-done-quick/">Prevent Cancer Foundation</a> in collaboration with Twitch in early 2020.</p>
<p>Beyond these headlines, I focus specifically on how streamers like Nakamura create micro-communities with their own cultural norms and spheres of influence. The strong human connections that develop in these spaces <a href="https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/bitstream/1807/30079/6/Brookwell_Ilya_201111_MA_thesis.pdf">extend beyond the digital world</a>. In the case of Nakamura and chess, the results are new ways of playing chess, a new meme-filled language surrounding chess and, as gamers continue to watch chess in huge numbers, an illustration of how gamers connect with each other and parts of the offline world in meaningful ways.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/355904/original/file-20200901-14-15pw86l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A group of young people standing under purple lights in front of a Twitch booth at a vide game convention." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/355904/original/file-20200901-14-15pw86l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/355904/original/file-20200901-14-15pw86l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/355904/original/file-20200901-14-15pw86l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/355904/original/file-20200901-14-15pw86l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/355904/original/file-20200901-14-15pw86l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/355904/original/file-20200901-14-15pw86l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/355904/original/file-20200901-14-15pw86l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Twitch culture is irreverent, young and technocentric, a far cry from the august image of chess.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/people-wait-in-line-at-booth-for-twitch-the-official-news-photo/540277550?adppopup=true">Frederic J. Brown/Stringer/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A clash of cultures</h2>
<p>But not everyone is accepting of this cultural shift. Twitch viewers are mostly males in their <a href="https://twitchtracker.com/statistics">early 20s</a> and are, in general, a notoriously irreverent bunch. This is partly how they gain the reputation as <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/video-games/video-game-addiction-mental-health-disorder-world-health-organization-says-n1010441">disillusioned and dysfunctional</a>.</p>
<p>As chess has grown in this community, an established elite guided by a few longtime chess players and commentators see the trend as <a href="https://www.sportingnews.com/us/other-sports/news/surge-in-chess-popularity-creating-friction-among-grandmasters/zjzp5k5kog911q529rfx5wr7b">detrimental to a once noble contest</a>.</p>
<p>Ben Finegold, a prominent U.S. grandmaster, refers to the streamers with whom Nakamura has collaborated as <a href="https://uk.sports.yahoo.com/news/surge-chess-popularity-creates-drama-225313742.html">“negative talent.”</a> Unlike a “normal person who has talent” in chess, says Finegold, users on Twitch ought to be ignored lest they diminish the good name of a traditional chess community.</p>
<p>Some at the head of traditional chess, however, disagree. David Llada, the chief marketing and communications officer for the International Chess Federation, acknowledges the <a href="https://www.chesstech.org/2020/is-pogchamps-a-good-way-to-promote/">damage of insular thinking</a>: “Our main sin is that chess people tend not to think ‘outside the chess board.’ They don’t pay enough attention to the world around them.”</p>
<p>Whatever the old guard of chess believes, this ancient game has found a new, passionate and receptive audience. A digital generation on Twitch has built bridges between worlds not only for chess but for the musical and medical worlds as well. The memes are here to stay. What is next for online gaming and the game of kings remains to be seen, but neither will likely be the same.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/143790/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>I receive funding from the University of California Riverside. I am the principal investigator of an ongoing ethnographic study of gamers in their community on Twitch. In my work, I explore gamers as citizens and ask how gamers are political in light of their activities on live-streams. Follow me live on Twitch at twitch.tv/professor_vr to become part of the conversation.</span></em></p>
The video game community on Twitch has taken a massive interest in chess. The young, irreverent gamers and the ancient world of chess are both transforming as their cultures collide.
Ilya Brookwell, Assistant Professor of Media and Cultural Studies, University of California, Riverside
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/131937
2020-02-20T13:24:47Z
2020-02-20T13:24:47Z
Kenya: why elite cohesion is more important than ethnicity to political stability
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/316133/original/file-20200219-10985-uyrefr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Kenya's President Uhuru Kenyatta (left) shakes hands with the opposition coalition leader Raila Odinga to symbolise a truce in March 2018. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Simon Maina/AFP via Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Kenyan politics is often depicted as a battle between different ethnic “<a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BWSwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT63&lpg=PT63&dq=big+men+cheeseman+dictionary&source=bl&ots=k77TdO0CjU&sig=ACfU3U3YUa-b2AJSq_G5OTIX-qK90Og2vw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi-wNfI59PnAhWGSxUIHfCJB_sQ6AEwCXoECAsQAQ#v=onepage&q=big%20men%20cheeseman%20dictionary&f=false">Big Men</a>” who can mobilise their supporters with a click of their fingers. The ability of successive generations of the Kenyatta family to rally the support of the Kikuyu community, and of Odingas to command the loyalty of Luos, means that it is also seen to be dominated by a small number of dynasties – a <a href="https://theconversation.com/kenyas-elections-are-much-more-than-just-a-ruthless-game-of-thrones-81957">Game of Thrones</a>, if you will. </p>
<p>But this is a gross over simplification. Our new <a href="https://www.amazon.co.uk/Oxford-Handbook-Kenyan-Politics-Handbooks/dp/0198815697/ref=sr_1_1?keywords=handbook+kenyan+politics&qid=1581777297&sr=8-1">Handbook of Kenyan Politics</a> – which features 50 chapters on different aspects of political life – tells a very different story. Ethnic leaders often fail to carry the support of their own group, either because they are not seen to have the <a href="https://www.nation.co.ke/oped/opinion/Who-should-lead-the-Kenyan-opposition/440808-3873434-12ql970z/index.html">community’s interest at heart</a>, or because a rival appears to have a more credible chance of winning power. </p>
<p>And while the role of ethnicity is overstated, class is much more important than is commonly thought. Class here might more accurately be called elite cohesion, given the lack of clearly demarcated social classes. </p>
<p>This finding might surprise some readers, but while ethnicity clearly shapes how people think and vote it is the degree of elite cohesion that determines whether the country is politically stable or not. </p>
<p>The long period of relative stability in the country from the 1970s to the early 1990s was founded on the willingness of members of the elite from different ethnic groups to put aside their differences and use their influence to <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228276928_Democratization_Sequencing_and_State_Failure_in_Africa_Lessons_from_Kenya">demobilise movements and militias</a> that might otherwise have threatened the status quo. </p>
<p>They did so to protect the highly unequal political and economic system on which their own privileged positions depend. It is when this elite pact ruptures, as it did around the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228276928_Democratization_Sequencing_and_State_Failure_in_Africa_Lessons_from_Kenya">2007 general elections</a>, that violence and unrest come to the fore. </p>
<p>Kenya is not alone. In general, we are far too quick to jump to “ethnic” explanations, and far too slow to recognise the way that elites collude to preserve their privileges. Our book sheds light on how this happened in Kenya.</p>
<h2>How ethnicity matters</h2>
<p>The classic view of Kenyan politics as an ethnic census runs something like this. First, power is secured by, and used to the advantage of, the president’s own ethnic group. This generate a “<a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/255669297_The_Political_Economy_of_Kenya's_Crisis">winner-takes-all</a>” logic. </p>
<p>Second, the knowledge that losing power means losing access to resources increases the stakes of political competition and hence the purported drive to stick together along ethnic lines.</p>
<p>Third, heated and controversial elections increase the divisions within Kenyan society, further strengthening ethnic identities. </p>
<p>Parts of this story are certainly true. Successive governments have tended to favour their own. Voting patterns, too, reveal clear ethnic patterns, and the last three elections have been <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/331943100_Kenya's_2017_elections_winner-takes-all_politics_as_usual">extremely divisive</a>. But the reality is more complicated. </p>
<p>Politicians can’t simply rely on the support of co-ethnics. Many ethnic groups actually split their vote between two or more candidates. This means that politicians must persuade voters to support them. In doing this, they often face stiff competition both from within and without their own ethnic group. As a result, they have to demonstrate that they are willing to fight for their community, have a good <a href="https://www.nation.co.ke/oped/opinion/Development-Elections-Leadership-Politics-Government/440808-2631464-format-xhtml-9wv3coz/index.html">track record on development</a>, and can be trusted. </p>
<p>An example of what can happen if leaders don’t pay attention to these rules is the fate of Luhya leader <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/av/world-africa-21581017/musalia-mudavadi-why-i-want-kenya-s-top-job">Musalia Mudavadi</a> in the 2013 presidential election. Having left Raila Odinga’s opposition alliance in the hope of being picked as the presidential candidate with the support of the then president Mwai Kibaki, Mudavadi was humiliated when key Kibaki allies changed their minds at the last minute and formed the new Jubilee Alliance. </p>
<p>In the end Mudavadi stood on his own. But his reputation was fatally tarnished because he was not seen to be a credible candidate, or to have been true to his own ethnic group. As a result, his own community <a href="https://www.scirp.org/journal/paperinformation.aspx?paperid=69187">turned its back on him</a>, with more Luhyas voting for Odinga – a Luo – than for their “own man”. </p>
<h2>Mutual economic interests</h2>
<p>The chapters in the book also highlight the fact that ethnic differences have not prevented the emergence of a self-conscious political and economic elite that is capable of coordinating its actions to maintain the system on which its privileges depend. </p>
<p>As Kenyan political scientist <a href="http://democracyinafrica.org/kenya-class-ethnicity-kenyattaodinga-deal/">Nicholas Nyangira</a> argued in the 1980s, the route to power in Kenya involves first establishing control over an ethnic group – and then bargaining with other members of the elite for acceptance, using one’s support base as leverage. </p>
<p>Once part of the elite, leaders have typically used their influence over their own communities to demobilise and co-opt protest movements and militias. Even after some of the most heated periods of inter-elite struggle, such as the ultimately unsuccessful efforts of some Kikuyu leaders to <a href="https://www.nation.co.ke/news/1056-817696-il6m7dz/index.html">prevent Daniel arap Moi</a> – a Kalenjin – from replacing Jomo Kenyatta as president after his death in 1978, members of the elite came back together to stabilise the system. </p>
<p>Whenever this elite pact has ruptured, the consequence has been major political instability. In 2007, for example, the controversy over who had won flawed presidential elections resulted in leaders who had previously controlled their communities instead calling on them to take to the streets. Along with a heavy handed state response, this resulted in the death of <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/un-600000-displaced-in-kenya-unrest/">over 1,000 people and the displacement of almost 700,000 more</a>. </p>
<p>Yet even in these most tense and dangerous of moments, the elite found a way to come back together. The violence in 2007 was ended by a power-sharing agreement that brought all major leaders into the government. </p>
<p>Another dangerous political stand-off following controversial elections in 2017 was resolved when, to the surprise of many, the two main candidates – Odinga and Uhuru Kenyatta – publicly <a href="http://democracyinafrica.org/kenya-class-ethnicity-kenyattaodinga-deal/">shook hands</a> and announced that they had buried the hatchet. </p>
<h2>The role of inequality</h2>
<p>It is clear from these events that Kenya will remain politically stable so long as the mutual economic interests of the elite outweigh their ethnic differences.</p>
<p>What’s equally true is that the country will simultaneously remain incredibly unequal. </p>
<p>According <a href="https://kenyanwallstreet.com/higher-taxes-kenyas-rich-can-lower-extreme-inequality-oxfam/">to Oxfam</a> less than 0.1% of the population – just 8,300 people – owned more wealth than the bottom 99.9% in 2018. While a dynamic economy is projected to create around 7,500 millionaires over the next 10 years, Kenya currently features the <a href="https://www.businessdailyafrica.com/economy/Kenya-8th-on-extreme-poverty-list/3946234-4635310-79pa9rz/index.html">eighth highest number of people living in extreme poverty</a> in the world.</p>
<p>In addition to paying themselves some of the <a href="https://www.the-star.co.ke/siasa/2019-05-11-new-house-allowance-puts-mps-salary-way-above-world-super-powers/">highest salaries</a> earned by any politicians in the world, Kenyan leaders use their control over the legislature to set low taxes – the highest rate of income tax <a href="https://www.taxkenya.com/income-tax-rates-in-kenya/">is just 30%</a> – and to give tax exemptions to politically connected companies. </p>
<p>Because it determines whether ethnic tensions are contained or exacerbated, and keeps millions in poverty, elite cohesion, much like ethnicity, is a matter of life and death.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/131937/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nic Cheeseman co-edited the Handbook of Kenyan Politics, published by OUP in 2020.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gabrielle Lynch co-edited the Oxford Handbook of Kenyan Politics, published by OUP in 2020. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Karuti Kanyinga co-edited the Handbook of Kenyan Politics, published by OUP in 2020.</span></em></p>
Even in the most tense and dangerous of moments, the elite has found a way to come back together.
Nic Cheeseman, Professor of Democracy, University of Birmingham
Gabrielle Lynch, Professor of Comparative Politics, University of Warwick
Karuti Kanyinga, Associate Director, Institute for Development Studies (IDS), University of Nairobi
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/127911
2020-02-02T18:52:49Z
2020-02-02T18:52:49Z
How script supervisors keep film continuity - and coffee cups and cigarettes - in check
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/312776/original/file-20200130-41516-10dtgmt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=10%2C6%2C1005%2C452&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0103772/mediaviewer/rm2288214784">IMDB</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>You’ve seen the Game of Thrones <a href="https://deadline.com/2019/05/game-of-thrones-misplaced-starbucks-cup-trends-jon-snow-daenerys-targaryen-1202607915/">scene</a> with Jon and Daenerys where somehow a Starbucks coffee cup made it into the frame? Or maybe the one in Star Wars where the Stormtrooper <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dBQaLuqwtl8">misjudges</a> the height of a Death Star doorway and, unnoticed by anyone else, smashes their head? </p>
<p>You may have even noticed <a href="https://www.rollingstone.com/movies/movie-news/10-ridiculous-movie-mistakes-65582/">bullet holes</a> on the walls before anyone started firing at Jules and Vincent in the apartment scene from Pulp Fiction. </p>
<p>Those moments might have ruined the scenes for you - or perhaps were the only redeeming feature. But the big question everyone wants answered is: whose fault was it? </p>
<h2>Action!</h2>
<p>On a production crew, these details - officially - are the responsibility of the script supervisor or continuity person. </p>
<p>In the early days of Hollywood they were also referred to as the “<a href="https://www.productionbeast.com/blog/script-supervisor-continuity/">script girl</a>” as the role was typically filled by a female staff member. </p>
<p>The primary role of the script supervisor is to ensure continuity between shots, specifically when it comes to hair, makeup, props, wardrobe and the movements of the actors. This role does not exist in the theatre, where the audience sees a live event in order. But a film or television show is usually shot completely out of sequence, and if things don’t match, a scene can quickly become laughable.</p>
<p>Just imagine the simplest of scenes where two characters walk out of a building onto the street. Now consider the street part will be shot a week after the building part (this is commonplace, as the interior is often a studio and the exterior a real location). Everything has to match - clothes, hair, props - otherwise the audience will get distracted wondering why the main actor’s curls are now parted on the opposite side from just (as they experience it) a moment ago. </p>
<p>Constantly moving elements within a scene are particularly difficult to deal with. The clock can be the script supervisor’s kryptonite. I have often thought the ultimate test of any continuity person would be to correctly track a scene where someone sits at a table with a candle, smoking a cigarette as a clock ticks away in the background.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/312777/original/file-20200130-41527-74g5vc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/312777/original/file-20200130-41527-74g5vc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/312777/original/file-20200130-41527-74g5vc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/312777/original/file-20200130-41527-74g5vc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/312777/original/file-20200130-41527-74g5vc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/312777/original/file-20200130-41527-74g5vc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=497&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/312777/original/file-20200130-41527-74g5vc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=497&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/312777/original/file-20200130-41527-74g5vc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=497&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In 1994’s Pulp Fiction, bullet holes appear before shots are fired.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0110912/mediaviewer/rm481126400">IMDB</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Going off-script</h2>
<p>The script supervisor works closely with the director and other departments, keeping track of what actual shots were completed (as opposed to planned), if those takes were good or not (according to the director), the key action of the actors (including, critically, what prop was held in which hand) and which lens was used. They also sometimes time the scenes, to check continuity of pace between takes. </p>
<p>Depending on the production, there can also be more nuanced responsibilities, including tracking the continuity of performances; the script supervisor is well within their rights to inform the director (who may not be aware) the performance in the wide-shot was happy, and therefore won’t match the far more bittersweet close-up. “Sorry, Mr. Day-Lewis, your performance was masterful, but now if you could now just match the medium-shot …”</p>
<p>If an actor decides to improvise a line, the script supervisor tracks the change and informs the director. If the director likes the change, the script supervisor updates the script, informs the actor they need to continue to use the improvised line, and then disseminates this new version of the script to the relevant departments. </p>
<p>It is easy to spot a continuity person on set, as they usually sit with a wide lever-arch file containing the script on their lap, in front of their own monitor, often with a camera around their neck. </p>
<p>It is certainly a job that has been, if not eased, then heavily assisted by the rise of technology. Something like the tracking of costume details used to be done purely by notes and sketches, then by polaroids, and now by smartphones. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/312782/original/file-20200130-41541-17bbo0l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/312782/original/file-20200130-41541-17bbo0l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/312782/original/file-20200130-41541-17bbo0l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=438&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/312782/original/file-20200130-41541-17bbo0l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=438&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/312782/original/file-20200130-41541-17bbo0l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=438&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/312782/original/file-20200130-41541-17bbo0l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=550&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/312782/original/file-20200130-41541-17bbo0l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=550&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/312782/original/file-20200130-41541-17bbo0l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=550&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Dorothy’s hair changes from pigtails to plaits to a half up-do - as if my magic - throughout The Wizard of Oz (1939), sometimes within the same scene.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0032138/mediaviewer/rm1380030977">IMDB</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The blame game</h2>
<p>So, that concussed Stormtrooper and the rogue Starbucks cup were all down to a continuity person not doing their job properly, yes? </p>
<p>Also no. </p>
<p>Or at least, the blame is not all theirs. </p>
<p>Here’s the rub: the script supervisor supports the other departments who are all responsible for their own continuity. Hair, make-up, costume and camera departments all do their own tracking and notetaking, which should then correlate with the script supervisor. It’s a system with inherant redundancy because errors can be so catastrophic. </p>
<p>For Daenerys’ anachronistic coffee to reach the screen, it would have to have been missed by - at the very minimum - every actor, the stand-by props person, the set dressers, the art director, the script supervisor, the camera operator, the director of photography, the director, the assistant editor, the editor and the producers. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1125277433182048257"}"></div></p>
<p>Finally, returning to our ultimate test — the scenes where an actor’s cigarette suddenly swaps hands, or a candle seems to “trombone” during the scene by getting alternatively shorter then longer again, or a pesky clock begins at 3pm then ends at 2pm — surely that has to be the script supervisor’s fault? </p>
<p>Again, not necessarily. As viewers, we can sometimes become obsessed with continuity errors - but directors and editors are less obsessed than you might expect. </p>
<p>They are more likely to be led by the quality of an actor’s performance. The actor may have given just the right look at the end of the scene - only it was the right look for the start of the scene. So the director and editor move the shot within the sequence. It’s adds dramatic power, but now the clock is wrong. The poor script supervisor, who did nothing wrong, can cop the blame from colleagues, critics or viewers.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/d2fyviJHwWQ?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Film editors and directors sometimes decide the story is more important than the details - though viewers are often quick to notice the mistakes.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Nowadays, with digital technology, if the filmmakers have the budget, they can change the clock or magically disappear a coffee cup. But they might take the hit, deciding a perfect performance outweighs an inconsistent background element. </p>
<p>Continuity errors are generally not spotted on the first viewing. If you’re watching a film a second (or 95th time) you clearly like it. And if the first time you watch a film you’re looking at the clock and not the action, the production has far bigger problems than continuity.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/127911/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Darren Paul Fisher does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Rogue coffee cups and changing hairstyles can distract film audiences. Whose job is it to maintain continuity? And does it matter in the big picture?
Darren Paul Fisher, Head of Directing, Department of Film, Screen and Creative Media, Bond University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/121858
2019-09-06T11:35:42Z
2019-09-06T11:35:42Z
How to build a ‘perfect’ language
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/291153/original/file-20190905-175673-1bw9fq3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5991%2C3988&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A document in Tengwar, the script of the Elvish languages invented by JRR Tolkien, Dozza, Italy.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Luca Lorenzelli via Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s well known that JRR Tolkien wrote the Lord of the Rings cycle to create people to <a href="https://www.tolkienestate.com/en/learning/languages-and-writing-systems/tolkiens-invented-languages.html">speak the languages he had invented</a>. But, in the television age, artificially created or invented languages – we call them “<a href="https://conlang.org/">conlangs</a>” – have been gaining increasing attention with the popularity of television series such as Star Trek and Game of Thrones, and films such as Avatar.</p>
<p>Fantasy and science fiction are the ideal vehicles for conlangs. Marc Okrand, an American linguist whose core research area is Native American languages, invented Klingon for Star Trek, while Paul Frommer of the University of Southern California created the Na'vi language for Avatar.</p>
<p>The fantasy series Game of Thrones involved several languages, including Dothraki and Valyrian, which were created by David J Peterson, a “conlanger” who has invented languages for several other shows. Most recently, fantasy thriller The City and The City featured the language Illitan, created by <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-i-invented-a-new-language-for-the-city-and-the-city-94189">Alison Long of Keele University</a> in the UK.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-i-invented-a-new-language-for-the-city-and-the-city-94189">How I invented a new language for The City and The City</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>I teach how to construct languages and one question my students usually ask is: “How do I make a perfect language?” I need to warn that it’s impossible to make a language “perfect” – or even “complete”. Rather, an invented language is more likely to be appropriate for the context – convincing and developed just enough to work in the desired environment. But here are a few things to bear in mind.</p>
<h2>Who will speak this language and why?</h2>
<p>It is very important to be clear about the aims of the language and its (fictional or real) speakers. When conlangs are created for a specific fictional character, the aims and speakers are determined by the story, the author or producer.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/bhWpNJgT9DI?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>In some cases, fragments or descriptions of the language do exist. This was the case for Illitan, which was described as having “jarring” sounds in the novel The City and The City and there were a few Dothraki expressions in the first Game of Thrones novel. But what if there are no instructions? In <a href="https://search.proquest.com/openview/2128040261a9167704e671a8aca58ed7/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=636386">a survey I ran</a> a few years ago, many language creators pointed out that a sense of aesthetics and beauty guided them, along with the need to make the conlangs sound natural and a very pragmatic sense of how easily the languages could be pronounced.</p>
<p>There is also a strong link between language and culture, where some languages attract a large fan base because of the culture and community this language represents. <a href="https://journal.transformativeworks.org/index.php/twc/article/download/610/512?inline=1">A good example is Na’vi</a>, which attracts many learners because of its welcoming community of speakers. In some cases the language itself has developed a strong culture and community, as is the case for Esperanto, which <a href="https://esperanto.net/en/what-we-do/">aims to bring people together</a> regardless of their background and supports a strong sense of solidarity. </p>
<h2>Start with sounds</h2>
<p>The sound system is typically the starting point for language creators. This makes sense, given that sound is usually the first thing that we encounter in a new language. Do we want our conlang to sound harsh, alien or even aggressive? In <a href="https://www.kli.org/about-klingon/sounds-of-klingon/">the Klingon sound system</a> this effect is achieved as follows: </p>
<ol>
<li><p>Fricative consonants – like the initial sounds in the words “chair”, “show” and “jump” or the final sound in the Scottish word “loch”.</p></li>
<li><p>Plosive consonants – such as “t”, “p” and “k” – ideally produced with a stronger puff of air than is customary in spoken English. </p></li>
<li><p>Sounds that are unusual – at least to the ears of English speakers, who are typically the primary target audience. So imagine a consonant that sounds like a “k” that is produced far back in the throat (a sound which exists in Modern Standard Arabic) or a “g” that is produced more like a “gargle” and exists, for example, in Modern Greek and Icelandic. </p></li>
</ol>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/U7Nokw5i8aY?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>These sounds all contribute to Klingon’s alien quality. On the other hand, Tolkien’s Elvish languages of Sindarin and Quenya were developed to sound aesthetically pleasing and – according to Tolkien himself – are intended to sound “of a European kind”. So Tolkien’s Elvish languages have systems which are much closer to those of European languages such as Welsh, Finnish and Old English, all of which influenced Tolkien <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-invent-a-tolkien-style-language-57380">when creating these languages</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-invent-a-tolkien-style-language-57380">How to invent a Tolkien-style language</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Words and customs</h2>
<p>Once we know how our language sounds, we can develop words. Here, the link to the culture of the speakers is important in establishing the most important words and expressions. For example, the Na’vi are deeply connected to nature and this connection is ingrained in their words, metaphors and customs. For example, when the Na'vi kill an animal they speak a prayer to show respect, gratitude and humility. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/m5VWbN7L3A0?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>In contrast, the Dothraki – nomadic warriors relying on horses – literally say: “Do you ride well?” when asking: “Are you well?”</p>
<h2>Grammar</h2>
<p>Now we need to put our words together in a sensible way, including expressing tenses and plural forms. We can do this by adding different endings – so, for example, Esperanto uses the verb ending -as to express present tense, -os for past and -is for future, as in <em>amas</em> (love), <em>amos</em> (loved) and <em>amis</em> (will love). </p>
<p>We also need to decide on the word order and sentence structure. English has a typical structure of Subject-Verb-Object, but an alien-sounding conlang like Klingon may use a more unusual structure like Object-Subject-Verb – for example, the book (Object) – my friend (Subject) – reads (Verb).</p>
<h2>Writing systems</h2>
<p>Writing systems are bound to the culture of the speakers – and not all languages are written. Cultures with purely oral traditions, like the Dothraki, do not write. However, where such writing systems appear, they are often an artistic endeavour in themselves. The most famous example is <a href="https://www.tecendil.com/tengwar-handbook/">Tengwar</a>, one of the scripts Tolkien developed for the Elvish languages. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/291260/original/file-20190906-175714-gaf1iz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/291260/original/file-20190906-175714-gaf1iz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/291260/original/file-20190906-175714-gaf1iz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=617&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/291260/original/file-20190906-175714-gaf1iz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=617&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/291260/original/file-20190906-175714-gaf1iz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=617&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/291260/original/file-20190906-175714-gaf1iz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=776&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/291260/original/file-20190906-175714-gaf1iz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=776&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/291260/original/file-20190906-175714-gaf1iz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=776&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The first article of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in JRR Tolkien’s Tengwar script (transcribed from English).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Alatius/Wikimedia Commons</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Klingon maintains its alien quality <a href="https://www.kli.org/about-klingon/writing-klingon/">through very spiky characters</a> and Esperanto, developed to be learned easily, contained some symbols which have subsequently been changed <a href="https://omniglot.com/writing/esperanto.htm">as they were too cumbersome</a>. </p>
<p>So, like natural languages, conlangs change and develop (for example, all conlangs <a href="https://www.reddit.com/r/conlangs/comments/5cqndy/how_do_i_create_new_words_logically/">regularly acquire new words</a>). What is important, though, is to keep the speaker community active, otherwise only fragments of your conlang may remain, <a href="http://tolkiengateway.net/wiki/Black_Speech">as is the case for Sauron’s Black Speech</a> in the Lord of the Rings. But given what we know about the evil Sauron, perhaps that is just as well.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/121858/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bettina Beinhoff does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
From Lord of the Rings to Game of Thrones, writers and linguists have invented an array of new languages.
Bettina Beinhoff, Senior Lecturer, Applied Linguistics and English Language, Anglia Ruskin University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/119247
2019-06-27T16:48:25Z
2019-06-27T16:48:25Z
Ambition, greed and death: the Roman roots of ‘Game of Thrones’
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/280677/original/file-20190621-61762-dmlux7.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=43%2C0%2C1694%2C1010&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Daenerys Targaryen as portrayed by actress Emilia Clarke.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.serieously.com/nouvelle-coupe-demilia-clarke-pourrait-spoiler-suite-de-game-of-thrones/">HBO</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Although the universe of <em>Game of Thrones</em> is steeped in a <a href="https://theconversation.com/game-of-thrones-imagined-world-combines-romantic-and-grotesque-visions-of-middle-ages-105141">medieval atmosphere</a>, several of the central in the series – Daenerys Targaryen, Joffrey Baratheon and Jon Snow – seem directly inspired by characters from Roman antiquity.</p>
<p>George R.R. Martin, author of the novels behind the hit HBO series, has affirmed that the history of the Roman Empire was one of his <a href="https://books.openedition.org/momeditions/3338">sources of inspiration</a>. Indeed, it was the 117km wall that the Emperor Hadrian had built in the north of England in the years 120 AD that gave him the idea of the Wall.</p>
<p>Martin tells of visiting the site one autumn evening: the sun was setting and it was getting cold. After the departure of the last tourists, the novelist said he felt the loneliness and homesickness of the Roman legionaries posted there 2,000 years ago.</p>
<p>Of course, the author’s imagination has transformed Hadrian’s Wall into an immense barrier of ice in the <em>Game of Thrones</em> saga. At 200 meters high, Martin’s Wall is worlds away on Hadrian’s fortification, but its function remains the same as that in Antiquity: to preserve the “civilized” world from a formidable external threat.</p>
<p>To breathe life into his fictional characters, Martin was able to exploit and adapt elements found in the work of ancient historians, including <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suetonius">Suetonius</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tacitus">Tacitus</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassius_Dio">Dio Cassius</a>. He also drew inspiration from the landmark television series <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T40mDHDKqWM"><em>I, Claudius</em></a> (BBC, 1976), and <em>Rome</em> (2005-2007).</p>
<p>Like <em>Game of Thrones</em>, the HBO series <em>Rome</em> featured abundant <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3TzvNnk2p3Y">violence and cruelty</a> that was intimately linked to the political sphere, the ambitions of its leaders and their thirst for domination.</p>
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<h2>Three atrocious deaths</h2>
<p>In 60 BC, three powerful men concluded a secret alliance to jointly control the Roman Empire: the military leader Pompey the Great, the rich Crassus, and the ambitious Julius Caesar, who dreamed of turning the Republic into a monarchy. The members of this triumvirate will each experience a violent and atrocious death.</p>
<p>Crassus, who thought he could defeat with the Parthians, enemies to the east of Rome, was defeated at the Battle of Carrhae in 53 BC. According to a tradition reported by Dio Cassius (<em>Roman History</em> 40.27), after Crassus’ death, the victors pour molten gold into his mouth as a symbolic punishment for his inexhaustible greed. <a href="https://www.cosmopolitan.com/entertainment/tv/a10365672/real-things-that-inspired-game-of-thrones/">Viserys Targaryen will suffer a similar punishment</a>.</p>
<p>After being defeated at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC, Pompey fled to Egypt, where he was decapitated – like Eddard Stark](https://time.com/5203015/sean-bean-ned-stark-beheading-praying/). Four years later, Julius Caesar is stabbed to death by a group of traitors, including his adopted son Brutus. “You too, my son,” would be Caesar’s last words. In the same way, Jon Snow will be the victim of a conspiracy hatched by his entourage. The young Olly, playing the role of Brutus, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uOOllehJqcM">carries out the coup de grace</a>. </p>
<h2>Jon Snow: Jesus meets Caesar</h2>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/280683/original/file-20190621-61743-8qdsua.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/280683/original/file-20190621-61743-8qdsua.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=705&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/280683/original/file-20190621-61743-8qdsua.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=705&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/280683/original/file-20190621-61743-8qdsua.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=705&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/280683/original/file-20190621-61743-8qdsua.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=886&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/280683/original/file-20190621-61743-8qdsua.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=886&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/280683/original/file-20190621-61743-8qdsua.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=886&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The character of Jon Snow (played by Kit Harington) mixes aspects of the Roman-era figures Julius Caesar and Jesus.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">HBO</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>After his death, Julius Caesar, the idol of the lower classes, is deified and a temple is dedicated to him on the Roman Forum. Jon Snow follows the model of Jesus, another historical figure of the Roman era. By his physical appearance alone, Snow is clearly in the tradition of Christian iconography. His politico-military aspect is modeled on Caesar, however: Snow possesses the <a href="https://www.lesbelleslettres.com/livre/233-cesar-et-son-image">charisma</a> and virtues of the ideal leader who puts himself at the head and in the service of his people.</p>
<p><em>Game of Thrones</em> also contains several adaptations of political characters from imperial Rome. In contrast to Julius Caesar, a positive figure, Caligula, the third Roman emperor, represents the delusional Caesar. Suetonius, author of the <em>Life of the Twelve Caesars</em>, portrays a tyrant as violent as it is unpredictable. Caligula has three major characteristics: he is young, cruel and crazy.</p>
<p>The resemblance of Caligula to Joffrey Baratheon is striking, both in terms of his character and physical appearance. Even the hair of actor Jack Gleeson is styled in the same way as the emperor on his official portraits.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/265566/original/file-20190325-36279-1j23mz5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/265566/original/file-20190325-36279-1j23mz5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/265566/original/file-20190325-36279-1j23mz5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/265566/original/file-20190325-36279-1j23mz5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/265566/original/file-20190325-36279-1j23mz5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=378&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/265566/original/file-20190325-36279-1j23mz5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=378&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/265566/original/file-20190325-36279-1j23mz5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=378&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Caligula (marble head, Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen) and Joffrey Baratheon performed by Jack Gleeson (<em>Game of Thrones</em>, HBO).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Caligula had previously been portrayed on screen in 1979 by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NJvVEt6F_Xw">Malcolm McDowell in Tinto Brass’s <em>Caligula</em></a>. The notorious film added an erotic and cruel aspect to the classic Roman sword-and-sandal epic, prefiguring <em>Rome</em> and <em>Game of Thrones</em>.</p>
<p>The historian Suetonius stated that Caligula had incestuous relations with his sister Drusilla. In <em>Game of Thrones</em>, a forbidden love <a href="https://boojum.fr/sources-inspiration-game-of-thrones">links Cersei to her brother Jaime</a>. Cersei also resembles the empress Agrippina, a cunning and unscrupulous figure who wanted to reign through her son Nero. He became emperor at the age of just 17, a young man like Tommen.</p>
<p>Claudius, the uncle of Caligula, was scorned in his youth because of physical disabilities and was dismissed as an idiot. His own mother called him a man “unfinished by nature”, yet he revealed a great political finesse, as does Tyrion Lannister in <em>Game of Thrones</em>. Caligula-Joffrey and Claudius-Tyrion, the nephew and the uncle, form a contradictory pair: on one side the cruel young sovereign, on the other, the intelligent man unjustly denigrated because of his physical appearance. Do not be fooled by appearances.</p>
<h2>From Boudica to Daenerys</h2>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/265567/original/file-20190325-36270-ktdryn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/265567/original/file-20190325-36270-ktdryn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/265567/original/file-20190325-36270-ktdryn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=780&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/265567/original/file-20190325-36270-ktdryn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=780&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/265567/original/file-20190325-36270-ktdryn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=780&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/265567/original/file-20190325-36270-ktdryn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=980&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/265567/original/file-20190325-36270-ktdryn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=980&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/265567/original/file-20190325-36270-ktdryn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=980&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Painting of Queen Boudica (20th century, unknown artist).</span>
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<p><a href="https://theravenreport.com/2018/01/01/remembering-boudiccas-rebellion-and-her-daring-revenge-on-rome/">Boudica or Boadicea</a> (circa 30-61 AD) was a queen of the Icenians, Celtic people of ancient England, near present-day Norfolk. Since the Roman conquest and the transformation of the south of the island into the province of the Empire, the local people, dominated, were treated as slaves by the Roman occupiers. Boudica herself had been beaten and her two daughters raped by legionaries. In 61 AD, she managed to gather a powerful army and led an uprising of the humiliated populations against their foreign masters.</p>
<p>The historian Dio Cassius evokes the queen in his <a href="http://remacle.org/bloodwolf/historiens/Dion/livre62.htm"><em>Roman history</em></a> (62.2), emphasizing her feminine power: “She let down her thick, blond hair, down to her lower back”. A warrior, she was armed with a spear and spoke to her troops to <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9G01vm9MVa4">exalt them in battle</a>.</p>
<p><a href="http://shop.scificollectorshop.co.uk/Boadicea-Statue">Boudica figurines</a> became popular in England from the 19th century, and a statue representing her in a chariot was erected in London near Westminster Bridge. She is the heroine of novels and films, including <em>Legions: The Warriors of Rome</em> (2003). Naturally, any resemblance to <a href="https://gameofthrones.fandom.com/fr/wiki/Daenerys_Targaryen">Daenerys</a> in <em>Game of Thrones</em> is strictly coincidental.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/119247/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Christian-Georges Schwentzel ne travaille pas, ne conseille pas, ne possède pas de parts, ne reçoit pas de fonds d'une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n'a déclaré aucune autre affiliation que son organisme de recherche.</span></em></p>
Although the universe of “Game of Thrones” evokes the medieval era, several key figures in the series are directly inspired by characters from Roman antiquity.
Christian-Georges Schwentzel, Professeur d'histoire ancienne, Université de Lorraine
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/115132
2019-05-26T19:32:06Z
2019-05-26T19:32:06Z
A long time ago… why prequels are taking us back to the future in popular film
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/275314/original/file-20190520-69209-hnakud.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">An upcoming film will explore the origins of the Joker, last seen in the Batman franchise. But prequels are often poorly received – perhaps with good reason.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt7286456/mediaviewer/rm1076453632">DC Comics/IMDB</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Last month, audiences got their first glimpse of the trailer for the upcoming film, <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt7286456/">Joker</a>, which explores the origins of its iconic title character, last seen in the Batman franchise. The trailer came just weeks after <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt4154664/">Captain Marvel</a> was released to cinemas, detailing the back story of Carol Danvers, a superhero who suffers from amnesia and struggles to find out about her past. </p>
<p>Joker is not the only prequel in the works. DC entertainment (also behind Joker) will follow up with <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1877830/">The Batman</a>, a 2021 film set to focus on a younger Bruce Wayne. The <a href="https://consequenceofsound.net/2018/09/die-hard-6-mcclane/">sixth instalment of Die Hard</a>, titled McClane, will also be an origin story focusing on John McClane in his 20s. </p>
<p>And after the critically acclaimed <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt3032476/">Better Call Saul</a> – a prequel to <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0903747/">Breaking Bad</a> – it was recently announced that classic TV show <a href="https://www.vice.com/en_ca/article/9kpvmy/sopranos-prequel-movie-release-date-new-title-what-happened-to-the-many-saints-of-newark-vgtrn">The Sopranos</a> would be followed up with a prequel movie. Even <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/erikawsmith/2019/01/14/game-of-thrones-prequel/">Game of Thrones</a> will be filming a prequel series.</p>
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<p>Prequels and origin texts focus on the back story of our favourite characters. Traditionally much rarer than sequels, they are fast becoming a popular mode of storytelling, alongside the recent boom of 90s remakes. Prequels allow filmmakers to stay in familiar territory while also developing new storylines for old (and even dead) characters.</p>
<p>While prequels present a unique opportunity for storytelling, they are often poorly received, from <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0329028/">Dumb & Dumberer: When Harry Met Lloyd</a>, to <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0204313/">Exorcist: The Beginning</a>. On the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_prequels">list of film prequels</a> on Wikipedia, 36 were direct-to-video. Prequels like <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0071562/">Godfather Part II </a>and Better Call Saul appear to be the exceptions to the rule. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/its-happening-again-our-love-affair-with-tv-reboots-78454">It's happening again ... our love affair with TV reboots</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Why the appeal?</h2>
<p>Society loves origins. Much like our obsession with the lives of celebrities “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLXOk6VWlb9y1-wdnNbi_pqxS5EUG7_vYh">before they were famous</a>”, we’re naturally curious about the past of characters. The great attraction of the prequel and origin story is that we get to take a look into a character’s elusive past. </p>
<p>Film scholar <a href="https://books.google.com.au/books/about/Christopher_Nolan.html?id=Ty8GuAEACAAJ&redir_esc=y">Darren Mooney argues</a> origin stories offer what the late <a href="https://www.wired.com/story/marvel-comics-genius-stan-lee-outcasts-heroes/">Stan Lee called</a> the “illusion of change”, so that our understanding of the character can evolve, even when the character themselves remains more or less the same. </p>
<p>Prequels rely on this process of change, and if we can watch this unfold, it can make certain enigmatic characters more relatable – from the Joker to Tony Soprano. This might explain the popularity of <a href="https://bloody-disgusting.com/editorials/3438219/prequels-origin-stories-much-good-thing/">prequels in the horror genre</a>, where we see the early years of killers from Norman Bates to Hannibal Lecter. </p>
<p>Just like sequels, the prequel format is a particularly lucrative business model; <a href="https://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=marvel2018a.htm">Captain Marvel has grossed more than US$1 billion worldwide</a>, continuing Marvel’s blockbuster run. By taking advantage of the prequel angle, production companies can capitalise on their films without needing to be particularly original. This means the big film franchises will likely continue their cinematic reign under the guise of “novel” storytelling techniques. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/275319/original/file-20190520-69192-h9kdcj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/275319/original/file-20190520-69192-h9kdcj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/275319/original/file-20190520-69192-h9kdcj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/275319/original/file-20190520-69192-h9kdcj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/275319/original/file-20190520-69192-h9kdcj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/275319/original/file-20190520-69192-h9kdcj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/275319/original/file-20190520-69192-h9kdcj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/275319/original/file-20190520-69192-h9kdcj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Brie Larson in Captain Marvel, a film that explored the origins of its title character.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt4154664/mediaviewer/rm3956700416">Marvel Studios/IMDB</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As film studies scholar <a href="https://utpress.utexas.edu/books/klein-palmer-cycles-sequels-spin-offs-remakes-and-reboots">Andrew Scahill puts it</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>the prequel offers the pleasure of familiar characters and settings while further exploring the narrative world of the existing text and possibly deepening the audience’s connection with central characters.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Yet he also acknowledges that “as an industrial mode, the prequel provides the financial safety of a tested storyline with a built-in audience”. This means popular culture, once a thriving field of experimental storytelling, risks becoming ever more derivative as it heads into the next decade.</p>
<h2>When prequels go wrong</h2>
<p>Prequels are more difficult to pull off than a sequel, because we already know how the story ends. As <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/tv/news/better-call-saul-season-5-release-date-delay-breaking-bad-a8861261.html">AMC President Sarah Barnett said</a> of Better Call Saul: “We know clearly the end was already written before the beginning began.” Filmmakers must also contend with the natural process of time, since actors inevitably age. The task is to make the back story both engaging and authentic to the original narrative.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/275320/original/file-20190520-69199-huyqtr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/275320/original/file-20190520-69199-huyqtr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/275320/original/file-20190520-69199-huyqtr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/275320/original/file-20190520-69199-huyqtr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/275320/original/file-20190520-69199-huyqtr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/275320/original/file-20190520-69199-huyqtr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/275320/original/file-20190520-69199-huyqtr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/275320/original/file-20190520-69199-huyqtr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Bob Odenkirk in Better Call Saul, a prequel series to the critically acclaimed Breaking Bad.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt3032476/mediaviewer/rm1012214016">IMDB</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The Star Wars prequels illustrate how easy it is to do a bad job. The first two films in particular were poorly received and accused of bad writing, equally terrible acting, and falling well short of the original trilogy in regards to storytelling. When prequels are weak, it often seems as though they are simply there to make money for production companies.</p>
<p>While sequels and reboots defined the 2010s in popular culture, prequels are set to define the 2020s, which is not necessarily good news. Ironically, there is no longer anything particularly original about origin stories, as the format has already started to exhaust itself.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/115132/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Siobhan Lyons does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
From the Joker to a Game of Thrones prequel, origin stories are increasingly common in film and TV – perhaps at the expense of originality in popular culture.
Siobhan Lyons, Scholar in Media and Cultural Studies, Macquarie University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/117369
2019-05-23T21:17:25Z
2019-05-23T21:17:25Z
Game of Thrones finale: The sexist treatment of the Mother of Dragons
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/276128/original/file-20190523-187147-uv6n1w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Dany and Jon are seen right before he knifes her in the heart -- and the back, for that matter.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Courtesy HBO</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>This story contains spoilers for Season 8 of HBO’s Game of Thrones.</em></p>
<p><em>Game of Thrones</em> has ended, and all is well — especially with the long-suffering Starks of Winterfell. </p>
<p>Arya has forsaken revenge and is off to explore new lands, Jon Snow is back in the true north with his faithful direwolf, Ghost, Sansa is the Queen in the North for a newly independent realm and Bran the Broken is the near-omniscient ruler of the Six Kingdoms. Westeros is truly the land where dreams come true.</p>
<p>Of course, there is the small matter of why Jon is back with the Night’s Watch — he murdered his lover, queen and aunt, Daenerys “Dany” Targaryen, the self-proclaimed Mother of Dragons who had finally just reconquered her family’s ancestral throne. </p>
<p>This incident <a href="https://www.huffingtonpost.ca/entry/daenerys-targaryen-jon-snow_n_5ce20f81e4b09e0578069355">(so traumatic to Dany’s fans)</a> was justified in the show when Tyrion convinced Jon that Dany was now a crazed dragon-riding tyrant (apparently inheriting this touch of insanity from her father, the Mad King), who needed to be assassinated after she burned much of King’s Landing to ashes in the penultimate episode. </p>
<p>And really, the writers didn’t need Tyrion’s speech to make this point, given they’d just depicted Dany as a Disney villain <a href="https://globalnews.ca/news/5275125/maleficent-mistress-of-evil-teaser-trailer/">(<em>Maleficent</em>)</a> by framing her in front of her dragon’s outstretched wings while giving a <a href="http://www.criticalcommons.org/Members/kfortmueller/clips/triumph-of-the-will-1935-youth-rally/view"><em>Triumph of the Will</em>-style</a> pep talk to her troops. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/276203/original/file-20190523-187147-1yizyiy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/276203/original/file-20190523-187147-1yizyiy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=339&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276203/original/file-20190523-187147-1yizyiy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=339&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276203/original/file-20190523-187147-1yizyiy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=339&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276203/original/file-20190523-187147-1yizyiy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276203/original/file-20190523-187147-1yizyiy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276203/original/file-20190523-187147-1yizyiy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Angelina Jolie in Maleficent.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Disney</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1130284301411504129"}"></div></p>
<p>It’s tempting to go along with this notion of Dany as Mad Queen, and accept the good feelings that accompany the triumph of the righteous Starks. But what if, instead, Dany is the real heroine of the series, and Jon is the real heel?</p>
<p>Much of the case against Dany depends on the supposed insanity that fuelled her destruction of a city, but I offer another perspective — drawn from Renaissance political thinker <a href="https://insights.som.yale.edu/insights/what-can-you-learn-machiavelli">Niccolo Machiavelli</a> — to explain why Dany is not “mad” at all, but rather an avatar of cold-blooded <a href="https://foreignpolicy.com/2011/07/18/realpolitik-in-a-fantasy-world/">realpolitik</a>. </p>
<h2>Hardly a ‘crazy lady’</h2>
<p>This may be disturbing, depending on your view of power politics, but it isn’t unearned (her development had been long signalled), nor is it a sexist reduction of one of the greatest female characters ever to an emotional, irrational, “crazy lady.” </p>
<p>Dany is making the tragic choices that all political leaders face when it comes to using violence to achieve their goals. What’s disturbing, however, is that show runners David Benioff and D. B. Weiss chose to depict her acts as irrational, tyrannical or insane. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/276130/original/file-20190523-187189-1npu2pi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/276130/original/file-20190523-187189-1npu2pi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276130/original/file-20190523-187189-1npu2pi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276130/original/file-20190523-187189-1npu2pi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276130/original/file-20190523-187189-1npu2pi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276130/original/file-20190523-187189-1npu2pi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276130/original/file-20190523-187189-1npu2pi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Dany with her dragons in the first season of Game of Thrones.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Courtesy of HBO</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Even her fans were upset that instead of bringing liberation from the cycle of rich oppressing poor (“breaking the wheel” as Dany phrased it), she used her dragon to immolate most of the capital, even after the symbolic tolling of bells that indicates surrender. </p>
<p>And since she does this in the wake of losing two of her dragon “children,” her two best friends (Jorah and Missandei), and then being rejected romantically by Jon Snow (who is really a Targaryen and also her nephew), many saw her fiery actions as a response to psychological trauma, and the writers seemed to confirm this in the final episode. </p>
<p>Critics pointed out that yet again, we see a powerful woman who simply can’t handle her emotions, and who becomes the “Mad Queen” in a clichéd turn to villainy that can only be <a href="https://www.theringer.com/game-of-thrones/2019/5/13/18617389/game-of-thrones-daenerys-targaryen-season-8-episode-5-mad-queen">explained by her losing her mind</a>. But is destroying a city the act of a crazy woman? Not necessarily, says Machiavelli. While it may be evil, there is a calculated reason for Dany’s decision to rain fire from the sky. </p>
<h2>New princes, old problems</h2>
<p>Dany confesses her dilemma to Jon privately in terms that echo <a href="https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/531158/the-prince-by-niccolo-machiavelli/9780140449150/readers-guide/">Machiavelli’s 1513 <em>The Prince</em></a>, when he discusses the problems a “new prince” faces when conquering a country. </p>
<p>She says: “I don’t have love here. I have only fear,” referring to the affection that the people of Westeros hold for Jon Snow (who is actually the true heir to the throne, but who doesn’t want to rule). And after Jon rejects her romantic advance, and by implication the possibility that they could marry and unite the realm using both love (of the people for him) and fear (of her army and dragon), she says simply: “Let it be fear.” </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/276134/original/file-20190523-187169-zt3us4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/276134/original/file-20190523-187169-zt3us4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276134/original/file-20190523-187169-zt3us4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276134/original/file-20190523-187169-zt3us4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276134/original/file-20190523-187169-zt3us4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276134/original/file-20190523-187169-zt3us4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276134/original/file-20190523-187169-zt3us4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sansa on the throne as Queen in the North in the Game of Thrones finale.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">HBO</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Machiavelli saw the basic problem of ruling in exactly these terms. In Chapter 17 of <em>The Prince</em> he asks whether love or fear is more important to a ruler, and concedes that while having both is best, at the end of the day, fear is the option to depend upon:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“Because men love according to their own will and fear according to the will of the prince, a wise prince should establish himself on that which is in his own control and not in the control of others.” </p>
</blockquote>
<p>But why destroy a city that had already surrendered? Because Jon is her real problem, going forward. Since she would soon face a challenge from those who would prefer him and his more legitimate claim to the throne, only through an overwhelming spectacle of terror can she instil the requisite fear she will need to govern.</p>
<p>And so King’s Landing perished. </p>
<h2>Well-used cruelty</h2>
<p>This falls under the rubric of what Machiavelli calls cruelty “well-used,” by which he describes a number of brutal rulers — Cesare Borgia, Agathocles, Hannibal — who maintained power despite committing barbaric acts.</p>
<p>Machiavelli gives Dany further cover when he urges a conqueror to do all their evil deeds at the beginning of the conquest, in Chapter 8 of <em>The Prince</em>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“Hence, in seizing a state, the attacker ought to examine closely all those injuries which are necessary, and to do them all at one stroke so as not to have to repeat them daily. Thus by not continually upsetting the people, he will be able to make them feel more secure, and win them over by benefits.” </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Is destroying the city really necessary? It looks reasonable given her growing problem with Jon. But Machiavelli argues that wicked deeds can be the foundation of a stable political order if a wise ruler follows the cruelty with mercy.</p>
<p>There is a feminist upshot to the finale. It is this: the fault for King’s Landing is Jon’s, more so than Dany’s. </p>
<p>You read that right, Team Jon.</p>
<h2>Jon’s claim to the throne</h2>
<p>Because the secret of his legitimate claim is now widely known, his position (to support her queenship) is so unrealistic as to be utopian. He cannot hide from those who will push him to throne, but he thinks he can … and Dany sees just how hollow his profession of good faith will be. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/276129/original/file-20190523-187147-brorjj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/276129/original/file-20190523-187147-brorjj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276129/original/file-20190523-187147-brorjj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276129/original/file-20190523-187147-brorjj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276129/original/file-20190523-187147-brorjj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276129/original/file-20190523-187147-brorjj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276129/original/file-20190523-187147-brorjj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Dany looks out over her troops after destroying King’s Landing in the Game of Thrones series finale.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Courtesy of HBO</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>She has little choice but to double down on fear, because she doesn’t have the privilege of counting on the love of a patriarchal populace (queens have little legitimacy, in this world) as does he. </p>
<p>Jon’s choice, which seems on its face the noble one (being honest with Dany about his claim but also keeping his loyalty to her), is actually a naivete born of privilege. He’s not the hero here. He’s a fool who pushes the woman he supposedly loves into a fateful choice without recognizing what he is doing, turning into an accidental heel just as he bungled every other decision he made over the seasons. </p>
<p>His murder of her in the final episode is simply the icing on the cake he had already baked (no, Hot Pie was not involved in this baking).</p>
<p>Perhaps the wholesale destruction of the city would not have secured her rule, and it was certainly an evil act to burn innocents. But in this world, a woman like Dany is acting rationally when she decides to use terror to gain obedience.</p>
<h2>A killer queen</h2>
<p>Crucially, we know that earlier male Targaryen and Lannister rulers used similar brutality to maintain control, but no one accused them of madness simply because they killed thousands (Dany’s father Aerys II gained this label, true, but his violence was sadistic and/or paranoid, and had no discernible rational purpose).</p>
<p>Dany may have helped beat the Night King and ridden a fire-breathing dragon, but she was the one with ice in her veins. If you want to rule in Westeros as a woman, a foreigner and an exile, you don’t have any other options (once your nephew turns you down). The Mother of Dragons knew these cold truths. </p>
<p>Why were we as an audience so reluctant to see them too? Why did we need to see Jon kill her, and the Starks go on their merry way? Dany defeated Cersei and helped wipe out the Night King, and the Starks didn’t get their happy ending without her.</p>
<p>But for her crime of clear-headed violence, the show could not allow Dany to live on. A woman who knows that to succeed in politics you need to crush your enemies? Madness, sheer madness.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/117369/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stefan Dolgert does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
It’s tempting to go along with the notion of Daenerys as Mad Queen in Game of Thrones, but what if, instead Dany was the real heroine of the series, and Jon Snow the real heel?
Stefan Dolgert, Associate Professor of Political Science, Brock University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/117696
2019-05-23T14:27:28Z
2019-05-23T14:27:28Z
Game of Thrones: what Machiavelli might have made of the politics in Westeros
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/276110/original/file-20190523-187143-p030a0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=16%2C11%2C3710%2C2084&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Breaker of Chains, Mother of Dragons, megalomaniac? Emilia Clarke as Daenerys Targaryen in Game of Thrones.
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Game of Thrones © 2019 Home Box Office, Inc. </span></span></figcaption></figure><p><strong>Warning: this contains spoilers for Game of Thrones, series eight</strong>.</p>
<p>Alongside many other aspects of the final series of Game of Thrones, the “hand-break turn” performed by Daenerys Targaryen, the Mother of Dragons, received heavy criticism. As the defending armies of Kings Landing surrendered in the penultimate episode, there was a pregnant pause while she pondered whether to accept peace, or raze the city. She decided to burn down Kings Landing and kill thousands of innocent people. </p>
<p>The final episode begins with the queen overlooking her forces, with a flag raised in the chilled air, in a scene reminiscent of 1940s fascism. This was a far cry from her self-proclaimed title of Breaker of Chains, who was supposed to be marching around the kingdoms liberating enslaved citizens. </p>
<p>But the Targaryen queen’s character had been long in development – her thirst for power was brewing, and examples of her willingness to enact violent revenge on those in her path had been seen many times in the narrative.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1127924649038417926"}"></div></p>
<p>A key moment, however, came in the penultimate episode when Daenerys reveals her strategic dilemma in taking the Iron Throne. As it becomes clear that the forces from the North that had joined her against the White Walker zombie army had accepted her rule out of convenience rather than love – and that Jon Snow’s claim to the throne is clearly greater, she decides: “If not love, then fear.”</p>
<h2>Power games</h2>
<p>This choice directly echoed the puzzle that Italian diplomat and political theorist Niccolò Machiavelli considered in advising the 16th-century statesman Lorenzo de’ Medici in his infamous book The Prince. When deciding whether it is better to be loved than feared, Machiavelli warned that:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>It is much safer to be feared than loved because … love is preserved by the link of obligation which, owing to the baseness of men, is broken at every opportunity for their advantage; but fear preserves you by a dread of punishment which never fails.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Indeed, political leadership theory has a lot of advice for the would-be rulers of Westeros – but also for the audience. Daenerys’s story follows a universal challenge for political leaders contemporary and old. Leaders may want to achieve goals for morally good reasons – but there are difficult and dangerous compromises that have to be made in keeping them in power, which might cause them to deviate from this path. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/276115/original/file-20190523-187179-sx3vmz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/276115/original/file-20190523-187179-sx3vmz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276115/original/file-20190523-187179-sx3vmz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276115/original/file-20190523-187179-sx3vmz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276115/original/file-20190523-187179-sx3vmz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276115/original/file-20190523-187179-sx3vmz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276115/original/file-20190523-187179-sx3vmz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Queen Cersei: wicked and flawed – we’ve seen a few of these leaders in the real world.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Game of Thrones © 2019 Home Box Office, Inc.</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Three types of leader</h2>
<p>In my recent work <a href="https://www.amazon.co.uk/British-Labour-Leaders/dp/1849548161">assessing contemporary leaders</a>, I suggest that we need to distinguish between three types of leadership. There is the leader who is successfully led by their conscience – where their aims, chosen methods and outcomes that are principled and morally good. One leader who is commonly thought of in this way, because he did genuinely bring about the breaking of chains by ending apartheid in South Africa, was Nelson Mandela. </p>
<p>Of course, Mandela aside, we may disagree on what constitutes the morally good. And, in Game of Thrones, there are plenty of alternative visions from the leaders of kingdoms.</p>
<p>But then there is cunning leadership – the task of being successful in winning power, office and influence, which is often called <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1369148118778961">statecraft</a>. We might think of this as being less important than leadership led by conscience. Leaders to have demonstrated elements of cunning leadership might include Hitler – whose methods and aims were violent and morally repugnant, but for some time at least, effective in bringing him power.</p>
<p>Cunning leadership is important, however, because all other goals for a leader might be dependent on it. Without power, people can’t be freed or policies enacted. The ideal leader is the complete leader, who will need to achieve both cunning and conscious leadership (see figure 1 below). Few fit into this category – but perhaps Mandela did. Leading the struggle to end apartheid brought him the presidency of South Africa too – and enabled him to oversee national reconciliation.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/276085/original/file-20190523-187189-15kafxk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/276085/original/file-20190523-187189-15kafxk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/276085/original/file-20190523-187189-15kafxk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=327&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276085/original/file-20190523-187189-15kafxk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=327&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276085/original/file-20190523-187189-15kafxk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=327&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276085/original/file-20190523-187189-15kafxk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276085/original/file-20190523-187189-15kafxk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276085/original/file-20190523-187189-15kafxk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The three theories of leadership: cunning, conscious and complete.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Toby James</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The series is rich with some cunning leaders, who we would not deem skilled in conscience leadership. The powerful Lannister dynasty produced a succession of rulers who were effective at governing through repressive means. Political opponents such as the Tyrells were eventually ruthlessly eliminated by Cersei Lannister. </p>
<p>And then there are some leaders who seem to have the moral vision, but not the political cunning. Anyone who watched the series will have their own views on who fits where.</p>
<p>Disappointment in the series might come from the fact that Jon Snow – who seemed an earthly, modest and conscience-led leader – ended up being arrested and sentenced back to relative obscurity and powerlessness with the Night’s Watch. With this we are denied a potentially complete leader – and are left speculating what type of ruler the enigmatic Bran the Broken might be. </p>
<p>Unfortunately, political leadership and history shows us that complete leaders are rare – especially in non-democratic times. Game of Thrones therefore provided about as happy an ending as was possible by ending a system of hereditary rule where “everytime a Targaryen is born the gods flip a coin”. Henceforth, we learn, new leaders will be chosen by a small group of elites. It makes future leaders a bit more accountable. But only a bit.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/117696/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Toby’s research has been externally funded by the British Academy, Leverhulme Trust, AHRC, ESRC, Nuffield Foundation and the McDougall Trust.
</span></em></p>
Some lessons from leadership theory for anyone aspiring to sit on the Iron Throne.
Toby James, Senior Lecturer in British & Comparative Politics, University of East Anglia
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/117254
2019-05-20T19:56:11Z
2019-05-20T19:56:11Z
After 8 years of memes, videos and role playing, what now for Game of Thrones’ multimedia fans?
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/275302/original/file-20190520-69182-1pugcpb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Reaction videos are just one of many ways that Game of Thrones fans have explored their love for the show online.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uN35Ugk4NS4">Leon Andrew Razon/Screenshot from Youtube</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>Warning: spoilers are coming!</em></p>
<p>As the ash settles upon the smouldering crenels of King’s Landing and a new ruler ascends to the throne, <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0944947/?ref_=fn_al_tt_1">Game of Thrones</a> fans around the world ask … what now?</p>
<p>For eight years, the sprawling epic of this HBO series has unfurled before our eyes. The show’s cultural relevance, its record-breaking <a href="https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/live-feed/game-thrones-draws-series-high-ratings-bells-1210474">global viewership</a>, and the ways it captures the collective imagination are clear. Events in Australian <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/politics/federal/it-s-time-to-stop-running-australia-like-it-s-an-episode-of-game-of-thrones-20180408-p4z8es.html">federal politics</a> have been compared to a Game of Thrones script. Even the sitting US President, for good or ill, communicates via <a href="https://www.vulture.com/2019/04/trump-game-of-thrones-tweet-hbo.html">GoT memes</a>. </p>
<p>But beyond the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2019/may/20/game-of-thrones-final-episode-season-eight-finale-review-the-iron-throne">final episode</a>, which aired Monday, there is another world to explore. Thousands of fans have transformed the series into something else, creating a multimedia, participatory phenomenon that will endure.</p>
<p>Through memes, tweets, GIFs, videos, blogs, fan-fiction and commentary, shared via social media, these “transmedia” fans have formed communities that analyse and extend the show’s narrative. Pastiches that mash-up GoT with other popular culture references, such as <a href="https://youtu.be/2fPgIIB67bw">Game of Thrones - 1995 Style</a>, are just one example of the creative material fans produce.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/2fPgIIB67bw?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/work/229822699?q&versionId=252716552">Our research </a>initially looked at online fan reactions to the episode adapting the “Red Wedding”, a bloody plot point from George RR Martin’s <a href="https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/13496.A_Game_of_Thrones?from_search=true">A Song of Ice and Fire</a> novels. We are now exploring the community <a href="https://twitter.com/hashtag/fakewesteros">#FakeWesteros</a>, which has existed on Twitter since the show’s inception. </p>
<p>In this community, fans live-tweet/role-play GoT episodes in character. Tweets (usually tongue-in-cheek), are spoken from the perspective of the character, and often include animated GIFs or memes sharing reactions to events. #FakeWesteros has a large following – the account <a href="https://twitter.com/NiceQueenCersei">@NiceQueenCersei </a> alone currently has 58,000 followers.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/275343/original/file-20190520-69204-cfmfi2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/275343/original/file-20190520-69204-cfmfi2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/275343/original/file-20190520-69204-cfmfi2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=328&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/275343/original/file-20190520-69204-cfmfi2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=328&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/275343/original/file-20190520-69204-cfmfi2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=328&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/275343/original/file-20190520-69204-cfmfi2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/275343/original/file-20190520-69204-cfmfi2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/275343/original/file-20190520-69204-cfmfi2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>On the blogging and social network site <a href="https://www.tumblr.com/tagged/game-of-thrones">Tumblr</a>, meanwhile, fans have shared memes throughout the series’ run, while <a href="https://giphy.com/gameofthrones">GIPHY</a> (an online database of short animated clips known as GIFS) has approximately 1,200 GIFs under HBO’s verified @gameofthrones account. Many more user-created GIFs are tagged as <a href="https://giphy.com/search/game-of-thrones">#gameofthrones</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/275225/original/file-20190518-69209-11wueu6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/275225/original/file-20190518-69209-11wueu6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/275225/original/file-20190518-69209-11wueu6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=538&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/275225/original/file-20190518-69209-11wueu6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=538&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/275225/original/file-20190518-69209-11wueu6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=538&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/275225/original/file-20190518-69209-11wueu6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=676&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/275225/original/file-20190518-69209-11wueu6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=676&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/275225/original/file-20190518-69209-11wueu6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=676&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Game of Thrones fans are prolific meme-creators.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.reddit.com/r/memes/comments/8gk08j/games_of_thrones/">Reddit</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Thousands of hours of commentary have been recorded by fans in <a href="https://www.vulture.com/article/best-game-of-thrones-podcasts.html">podcasts</a>, discussing everything from who will finally ascend the Iron Throne to whether <a href="https://www.news.com.au/entertainment/tv/game-of-thrones/game-of-thrones-the-happy-accident-of-tormund-and-brienne/news-story/baff078793ab5a97e098e3c0f77a1db5">Tormund and Brienne</a> will find love together (sorry Tormund!). Similar conversations are found on discussion site <a href="https://www.reddit.com/r/gameofthrones/">Reddit</a>, where fan communities have debated everything, including whether the unlikeliest character might have been <a href="https://www.vulture.com/2017/08/game-of-thrones-who-is-azor-ahai-prince-that-was-promised.html">the prophesied Azhor Ahai</a> (sorry Tyrion!). </p>
<p>YouTube is home to more fan-made content, including parodies like <a href="https://youtu.be/CpTZ-tC81yA">The Night King’s “(Arya) I Just Died in Your Arms Tonight”</a>. Fans have also expressed their feelings about the show by filming and uploading “reaction videos”, recording their real time responses to the series’ most <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uN35Ugk4NS4">gut-wrenching moments</a>.</p>
<p>And now, we face the end. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/CpTZ-tC81yA?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<h2>What next?</h2>
<p>It is easy to forget that Game of Thrones is an adaptation of Martin’s novels and his series is incomplete. There is more story to tell beyond the end of the TV show. Martin has confirmed that he is writing another book, but given his <a href="https://qz.com/1619858/game-of-thrones-will-go-on-after-finale-says-george-r-r-martin/">track record</a> (the most recent one was published in 2011), fans probably shouldn’t hold their breath.</p>
<p>HBO has confirmed at least one <a href="https://www.digitalspy.com/tv/ustv/a27164841/hbo-now-game-of-thrones-multiple-spin-offs-development/">spin-off series</a>, reportedly a prequel, is in the works. Even so, some fans are unwilling to let go: in reaction to the rushed storytelling of the final season, some have launched a <a href="https://www.change.org/p/hbo-remake-game-of-thrones-season-8-with-competent-writers">petition</a> (with more than one million signatures) to remake the last six episodes. </p>
<p>Meanwhile, others are already writing their own endings. Fans’ creations over the last eight years represent a massive amount of content. Currently, there are 927 GoT stories on <a href="https://www.fanfiction.net/search/?ready=1&keywords=game%20of%20thrones&categoryid=8324&genreid1=0&genreid2=0&languageid=0&censorid=0&statusid=0&type=story&match=&sort=&ppage=1&characterid1=0&characterid2=0&characterid3=0&characterid4=0&words=0&formatid=0">FanFiction.net</a> and 31,284 on fan fiction site <a href="https://archiveofourown.org/tags/Game%20of%20Thrones%20(TV)">Archive of Our Own</a>. </p>
<p>One <a href="https://archiveofourown.org/works/18889408">example</a> re-writes “The Bells” (the penultimate episode in series eight) by imagining that Daenerys Targaryen controls her worst impulses and does not lay waste to King’s Landing – an outcome that would surely have altered the conclusion of the series. </p>
<p>Although the future may seem murky for GoT transmedia fandom, the fans themselves have no doubts. While their HBO namesakes are no more, two members of the #FakeWesteros community <a href="https://twitter.com/iMissandei_/status/1128330013269299201">@iMissandei</a> and <a href="https://twitter.com/IronbornTheon/status/1128282649032888322">@IronbornTheon</a> made it clear this week that they remain devoted to the community and fandom.</p>
<p>As “IronbornTheon” put it, “I have realised that just because the show is going off the air, doesn’t mean the community is going anywhere.” </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/275342/original/file-20190520-69178-1hszpw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/275342/original/file-20190520-69178-1hszpw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/275342/original/file-20190520-69178-1hszpw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=435&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/275342/original/file-20190520-69178-1hszpw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=435&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/275342/original/file-20190520-69178-1hszpw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=435&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/275342/original/file-20190520-69178-1hszpw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=546&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/275342/original/file-20190520-69178-1hszpw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=546&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/275342/original/file-20190520-69178-1hszpw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=546&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
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</figure>
<p>We look forward, then, to the next chapter of this story.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/117254/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Eric Forcier receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lisa M. Given receives funding from the Australian Research Council</span></em></p>
Fan culture is thriving in Westeros. Although HBO’s Game of Thrones has ended, fans will ensure that the show lives on (and changes) across multimedia platforms, long into the future.
Eric Forcier, PhD Candidate, Swinburne University of Technology
Lisa M. Given, Associate Dean, Research and Development, Swinburne University of Technology
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/117393
2019-05-20T10:06:23Z
2019-05-20T10:06:23Z
We made a moving tectonic map of the Game of Thrones landscape
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/275348/original/file-20190520-69209-xd23xn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Scientists have pieced together Game of Thrones' geology as the show draws last breath on television.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Game_of_Thrones_-_SEASON_7_Episode_4.jpg">Kal242382 from Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Scientists are among the millions of die-hard Game of Thrones fans digesting the show’s <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-05-20/game-of-thrones-seaon-8-finale-viewers-nervous-about-end/11123026">finale today</a>. </p>
<p>The striking landscape of Game of Thrones has led some researchers to build <a href="https://arstechnica.com/science/2017/12/there-is-now-a-climate-model-of-the-world-of-game-of-thrones/">climate simulations</a> that explain the erratic seasons depicted in the show, and others to piece together the <a href="http://www.geologyin.com/2015/04/the-geology-of-game-of-thrones.html">geological history</a>. </p>
<p>Inspired by <a href="http://milestraer.com/the-geology-of-game-of-thrones/">this work</a>, we have built the first plate tectonic reconstruction of the Game of Thrones continents. Tectonic plates are moving slabs that make up the outer layer of our planet, and behave like conveyor belts in the way they carry and drag continents around on the surface. </p>
<p>Even in this fantasy Game of Thrones world, geological processes like tectonic plate movement, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions would have been responsible for building the mountains, carving the rivers and creating vast oceans.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/HB_ky-EAQtU?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Plate tectonic reconstructions of Westeros and Essos over 600 million years in GPlates (www.gplates.org). Note the brown regions, mountains, that appear when continents collide. And just like on Earth, the forested regions in Game of Thrones are no older than about 400 million years, when the first plants began colonising the continents.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-earths-continents-became-twisted-and-contorted-over-millions-of-years-116168">How Earth's continents became twisted and contorted over millions of years</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Why solve tectonic ‘jigsaw puzzles’?</h2>
<p>Firstly, because even scientists are allowed a bit of fun now and then. But we also hope this map will help people better understand the science of plate tectonics, which is key to us knowing our past, present and even future world. </p>
<p>Plate tectonics can help us contextualise climate change and, like in the Game of Thrones world, <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-eurasias-tianshan-mountains-set-a-stage-that-changed-the-world-102772">geological events can influence political and social history</a>.</p>
<p>We built the tectonic maps using free community software, called <a href="http://gplates.org/">GPlates</a>, that we developed for <a href="https://www.earthbyte.org/category/resources/data-models/global-regional-plate-motion-models/">real-world tectonic modelling</a> in the School of Geosciences at the University of Sydney. </p>
<p>The animation first shows our model for Westeros and Essos, but also how we use the same technology to build a detailed representation of Earth’s tectonic evolution. The same technology is also used by <a href="https://astrographer.wordpress.com/2013/08/22/using-gplates-for-realistic-worldbuilding/">hobbyist “planet builders”</a> who create evolving maps that might be used in computer games, movies and TV shows, or other creative pursuits. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/you-know-nothing-about-rehoming-a-pet-jon-snow-116661">You know nothing about rehoming a pet, Jon Snow</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Setting the scene</h2>
<p>There is no doubt <a href="https://arstechnica.com/gaming/2019/04/with-its-latest-battle-game-of-thrones-solidifies-its-seat-on-tvs-vfx-throne/">high-budget visual effects</a>, a gripping storyline and power-plays between characters are key ingredients to the success of Game of Thrones. But so too are the captivating geological settings of the Seven Kingdoms.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"892503644389683200"}"></div></p>
<p>The breathtaking cinematography across sweeping grasslands of the Dothraki steppe to the snow-capped volcanic peaks north of the Wall; each location depicting contrasting topography that has shaped vastly different societies.</p>
<p>The geology also informs the storyline. For example, the all-important Dragonglass (volcanic obsidian rock) and Valyrian steel is extracted from the volcanic cliffs around Dragonstone castle.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1117880018284105728"}"></div></p>
<h2>How we made our map</h2>
<p>In our day-to-day work we use the shapes of continents and the geology they carry to reconstruct how real tectonic plate “puzzle pieces” moved around on Earth over time. </p>
<p>In this project, we worked with “evidence” collected by us and others from the Game of Thrones fictional world. This included evidence of past volcanism and mountain building, which are often the smoking gun for tectonic plate convergence and collision. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/275347/original/file-20190520-69182-gv2ia.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/275347/original/file-20190520-69182-gv2ia.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=538&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/275347/original/file-20190520-69182-gv2ia.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=538&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/275347/original/file-20190520-69182-gv2ia.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=538&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/275347/original/file-20190520-69182-gv2ia.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=675&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/275347/original/file-20190520-69182-gv2ia.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=675&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/275347/original/file-20190520-69182-gv2ia.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=675&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The geology and tectonics of Westeros and Essos at present-day. Red sawtooth lines represent ‘subduction zones’ where tectonic plates are converging, leading to mountain building and volcanism (like the Andes).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author modified, digital GIS files from cadei at www.cartographersguild.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The easiest part of the tectonic reconstruction takes place by working backwards from seafloor spreading, where continents have been ripped apart by the the churning interior of our planet.</p>
<p>In the case of the Games of Thrones world, we’ve assumed the continents of Westeros and Essos broke apart 25 million years ago to open the Narrow Sea. We mapped this occurring much like the unzipping of the African continent along the East African <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/rift-valley/">Rift Valley</a> at a similar time. </p>
<p>But as we go deeper in time, we lose a lot of geological evidence. This happens because of erosion, <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-earths-continents-became-twisted-and-contorted-over-millions-of-years-116168">continental collisions that build mountains</a> and subduction, where one tectonic plate sinks beneath another. </p>
<p>In the real world, although India is now part of the Eurasian continent, an ancient seaway called the Tethys once separated them <a href="https://youtu.be/HB_ky-EAQtU?t=71">before the continents collided about 45 million years ago</a>. The continental collision uplifted the Tibetan Plateau and the Himalayas, and in the process crushing and destroying geological evidence and obscuring accurate tectonic models of the region. </p>
<p>Our plate tectonic reconstructions back to the <a href="https://www.livescience.com/38218-facts-about-pangaea.html">Pangea supercontinent</a> at 250 million years ago are fairly accurate by just undoing seafloor spreading, but the restoration of older supercontinents are much more difficult. </p>
<h2>Knowing our planet</h2>
<p>Tectonic plate “jigsaw puzzles” models are vital for explaining the evolution and liveability of our planet. </p>
<p>Plate tectonics controls the arrangement of continents and seaways on geological timescales, rearranging ocean circulation and altering global climate. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/unpacking-the-history-of-how-earth-feeds-life-and-life-changes-earth-103162">Unpacking the history of how Earth feeds life, and life changes Earth</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Although much of this geological activity is too slow to be perceptible by humans, the geological past is littered with examples where <a href="https://theconversation.com/unpacking-the-history-of-how-earth-feeds-life-and-life-changes-earth-103162">sudden geological “shocks” to the living creatures on Earth</a> are caused by massive outpourings of volcanic rock and carbon dioxide, sometimes leading to mass extinctions. This may <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-the-dinosaurs-went-extinct-asteroid-collision-triggered-potentially-deadly-volcanic-eruptions-112134">have been a factor</a> in the death of nearly all the dinosaurs. </p>
<p>Tectonic reconstructions can inform climate simulations and help us contextualise current and future climate change. They can also lead us to find <a href="https://www.auscope.org.au/posts/minerals-challenge">mineral deposits</a> that may <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-earths-continents-became-twisted-and-contorted-over-millions-of-years-116168">help create a low-carbon society</a>. </p>
<p>And they’re fun to play with. </p>
<hr>
<p><em>Research assistants Cian Clinton-Gray, Irene Koutsoumbis and Youseph Ibrahim contributed to creating the map and writing this article.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/117393/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sabin Zahirovic receives funding from The University of Sydney, the Australian Research Council Industrial Transformation Research Hub for Basin Geodynamics and Evolution of Sedimentary Systems (Basin GENESIS Hub), and the Deep Carbon Observatory (DCO). AuScope is an Australian Government funding initiative that supports the development of GPlates and other critical geoscience infrastructure. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jo Condon works for AuScope, an Australian Government (NCRIS) supported organisation that funds critical research infrastructure such as GPlates software for geoscience researchers nationally.</span></em></p>
Even in this fantasy world, geological processes like tectonic plate movement, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions would have built the mountains, carved the rivers, and created vast oceans.
Sabin Zahirovic, Postdoctoral Research Associate, University of Sydney
Jo Condon, Honorary researcher, The University of Melbourne
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/116773
2019-05-09T18:25:39Z
2019-05-09T18:25:39Z
TV streaming titans are locked into a real-life Game of Thrones – here’s a way around this fight to the death
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/273573/original/file-20190509-183112-1tzj83.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Let battle commence. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/index-in.mhtml">Vitalii Petrushenko</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>American retail giant Walmart is <a href="https://www.theverge.com/2019/5/5/18530069/vudu-walmart-initial-slate-original-content-streaming-shows-free-ads">becoming</a> the latest challenger to clamber into the ring and take on the reigning TV/movie streaming heavyweights with original material.</p>
<p>At a press conference in New York, Walmart announced a slate of new commissions for its streaming contender, Vudu. Added to the 100,000-plus TV shows and movies already available on the service, viewers can expect the likes of Friends in Strange Places, a travel/comedy series overseen by Queen Latifah; interview documentary strand Turning Point with Randy Jackson; and a series-length reboot of 1983 Michael Keaton comedy Mr Mom. </p>
<p>The new offering is aimed primarily at Middle America, which Walmart feels has been undersold by streaming incumbents like Netflix and Amazon Prime Video. Vudu’s shows will be a vehicle for new interactive advertising going live over the summer which will allow consumers to buy what they see without leaving their sofa. Thanks to its monster customer database, a senior Vudu manager <a href="https://www.mediapost.com/publications/article/335313/walmarts-vudu-positions-itself-as-sleeping-giant.html">recently described</a> Walmart as the “sleeping giant of the digital entertainment space”. </p>
<p>If so, it’s about to wake up to a very crowded marketplace. It’s only weeks since Apple <a href="https://www.whathifi.com/advice/apple-tv-app-and-apple-tv-streaming-service-everything-you-need-to-know">announced</a> streaming service Apple TV+, which is to combine licensed shows with original programming when it launches worldwide this autumn.</p>
<p>Disney, <a href="https://mashable.com/article/disney-plus-apple-tv/?europe=true">meanwhile</a>, is following suit with Disney+ in November – <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/11/business/media/disney-plus-streaming.html">initially</a> in the US, then rolling out to other countries next year.</p>
<p>Other existing streamers include <a href="https://techcrunch.com/2018/11/09/disney-to-invest-in-more-original-content-for-hulu-expand-service-internationally/">Hulu</a> and <a href="https://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2019/01/hbo-plan-to-win-the-streaming-wars">HBO Now</a>, while <a href="https://www.broadcastingcable.com/news/discovery-to-launch-streaming-service-with-bbc-content">Discovery</a> and <a href="http://www.nbcuniversal.com/press-release/nbcuniversal-announces-direct-consumer-streaming-service-and-new-leadership-structure">NBCUniversal</a> are both launching rivals next year as well (click on the table below to make the full details bigger). Between them, these companies are spending many billions of dollars on content. It doesn’t take a seer to predict that a good few will likely fail. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/273844/original/file-20190510-183086-vvjdg9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/273844/original/file-20190510-183086-vvjdg9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/273844/original/file-20190510-183086-vvjdg9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=257&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273844/original/file-20190510-183086-vvjdg9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=257&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273844/original/file-20190510-183086-vvjdg9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=257&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273844/original/file-20190510-183086-vvjdg9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=322&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273844/original/file-20190510-183086-vvjdg9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=322&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273844/original/file-20190510-183086-vvjdg9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=322&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">*US subscriptions only.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Sizing them up</h2>
<p>Among these newer announcements, Apple and Disney look the stronger contenders. Apple has the ready-made platform of a billion devices to promote and deliver its service, while Disney has the richest content portfolio across multiple categories – from video games to live sports to superheroes. </p>
<p>Vudu may have the heft of Walmart behind it, but the content investment is likely to be a fraction of the other two: Apple has said it will spend US$2 billion (£1.5 billion) a year at first, while Disney is spending only $500m on originals, including the likes of three Avengers spin-offs, but the group’s total annual content spend <a href="http://fortune.com/2018/12/10/netflix-spending-hollywood-disney-comcast-budget/">is nearly</a> 50 times bigger. Walmart has not said what Vudu is spending. On the other hand, Vudu’s offering will be mostly free while Disney+ and Apple TV+ will both charge monthly subscriptions. </p>
<p>At any rate, all three are likely to struggle – and the same goes for the other new arrivals. We are heading for a serious case of “subscription fatigue”. When consumers watch free-to-air television, broadcasters take care of the messy process of making deals with content owners, aggregating it and serving it up. As pay-TV operators like Sky or the cable networks started to emerge, consumers had to sometimes choose a package to get a particular channel or programme. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/273576/original/file-20190509-183096-iq51a0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/273576/original/file-20190509-183096-iq51a0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/273576/original/file-20190509-183096-iq51a0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273576/original/file-20190509-183096-iq51a0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273576/original/file-20190509-183096-iq51a0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273576/original/file-20190509-183096-iq51a0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273576/original/file-20190509-183096-iq51a0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273576/original/file-20190509-183096-iq51a0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">They have been warned.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/index-in.mhtml">diy13</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But with streaming in future, this experience is going to become more and more frustrating – Where can I find Westworld? Where is Blue Planet these days? – not to mention expensive for anyone tempted by multiple offerings. By building competing services, all these media giants are playing their own Game of Thrones.</p>
<h2>The fix</h2>
<p>The way forward is clear, but controversial. Apple, Disney, AT&T, NBCUniversal and the other large players should collaborate to create a dominant content platform. Partnering among subscription services would take some of the burden off consumers and make the combined offering more appealing than existing options. Imagine subscribing to a single service to receive access to everything from classic TV and movies to the latest shows. The market can probably handle two or three mega platforms, but not more.</p>
<p>Ironically, Disney already has a ready-made option in its arsenal. Hulu was set up as a joint venture between Disney, NBCUniversal, Fox and WarnerMedia (now owned by AT&T). Yet Hulu’s claim to be a cross-industry platform is getting weaker, not stronger: Fox’s 30% share <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/how-disney-fox-merger-affects-consumers-hulu-marvel-streaming-2019-3?r=US&IR=T">defaulted</a> to Disney when it was taken over, and AT&T <a href="https://www.theverge.com/2019/4/15/18312068/disney-hulu-att-sells-stake-comcast-control-streaming">has announced</a> it wants to sell its 10% holding. Hulu may have recently diversified with its recent <a href="https://techcrunch.com/2019/03/12/hulu-and-spotify-launch-an-even-more-steeply-discounted-bundle-of-9-99-per-month/">partnership announcement</a> with music streamer Spotify, but Disney’s new dominance of the service will probably make it a less attractive option for other media companies to buy into than previously.</p>
<p>If media companies collaborated with their streaming services, it would certainly come with antitrust concerns. But unless they evolve into an industry platform soon, the door will open for other players to take the lead – I’m thinking digital giants like Google or Facebook, internet service providers or telecommunications companies.</p>
<p>Many of these players already have a subscription relationship with consumers, so it would be relatively easy for them to bundle video streaming into existing services. Amazon’s shift into the media world is a textbook example of how this could play out. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/273578/original/file-20190509-183089-1m577og.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/273578/original/file-20190509-183089-1m577og.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/273578/original/file-20190509-183089-1m577og.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273578/original/file-20190509-183089-1m577og.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273578/original/file-20190509-183089-1m577og.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273578/original/file-20190509-183089-1m577og.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273578/original/file-20190509-183089-1m577og.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273578/original/file-20190509-183089-1m577og.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">One service to rule them all.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/index-in.mhtml">Metamorworks</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It is reminiscent of the early 2000s, in which the record majors built walled gardens around their content only to watch in horror as Apple’s iTunes stole the market from under them with a convenient, cheap and comprehensive option. Spotify then stole it again a few years later. Media companies should also beware the prospect of consumers being driven in larger numbers to illegal or quasi-legal video consolidation services. </p>
<p>There are recent precedents that they could follow of competitive partnering in other industries: BMW and Daimler <a href="https://www.theverge.com/2019/2/22/18235941/daimler-bmw-mobility-joint-venture-billion-dollars">recently announced</a> they would join forces to build common platforms for ride sharing and electric vehicle charging, among other things, having realised they are stronger together than apart. </p>
<p>The media giants would be well advised to start exploring similar possibilities.
Consumers <a href="https://variety.com/2019/digital/news/streaming-subscription-fatigue-us-consumers-deloitte-study-1203166046/">are already</a> baulking at both the cost of multiple subscription services and the inconvenience of having to keep track of which shows are on which services. The ultimate winner will be the first option that can provide scale and convenience at a reasonable cost. If today’s streaming companies aren’t careful, they will end up on the outside looking in.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/116773/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael Wade does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Vudu, Apple TV+, Disney +, NBC Universal: there’s going to be a lot of blood on the carpet.
Michael Wade, Professor of Innovation and Strategy, Cisco Chair in Digital Business Transformation, International Institute for Management Development (IMD)
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/116661
2019-05-09T01:02:34Z
2019-05-09T01:02:34Z
You know nothing about rehoming a pet, Jon Snow
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/273419/original/file-20190508-183106-u0lphk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Give the Good Boy a pat.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">HBO/IMDB</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>Warning - minor Game of Thrones spoilers ahead</em></p>
<p>In the latest episode of Game of Thrones we watched Jon Snow abandon his direwolf, Ghost, without so much as a hug goodbye. Many were <a href="https://www.buzzfeed.com/dilipsrajan/can-you-do-a-better-job-saying-bye-to-ghost-than-jon-snow">outraged</a>, with some questioning the leadership abilities of a human so callous. (The directors <a href="https://www.cnet.com/news/game-of-thrones-director-explains-why-jon-snow-didnt-pat-ghost/">said</a> “a CGI issue” prevented the hug goodbye, but many fans are not impressed).</p>
<p>But is there a way to rehome a pet responsibly? And could Jon have done anything differently?</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/is-your-dog-happy-ten-common-misconceptions-about-dog-behaviour-97541">Is your dog happy? Ten common misconceptions about dog behaviour</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Rehoming shouldn’t be abandonment</h2>
<p>First things first. Rehoming a pet means finding your pet a new home, not abandoning them. It’s <a href="https://www.business.qld.gov.au/industries/farms-fishing-forestry/agriculture/livestock/animal-welfare/law/cruelty">illegal to abandon a pet</a> in most jurisdictions of Australia, with many state animal welfare laws conferring a “<a href="https://www.rspca.org.au/animal-cruelty/duty-care">duty of care</a>” on the owner of an animal. You are responsible for a pet until it either passes away or you transfer ownership of the animal to another person. </p>
<h2>There are many reasons why pets get rehomed</h2>
<p>With the average dog living <a href="https://www.rspca.org.uk/adviceandwelfare/pets/dogs/health/seniordogs/lifespan">11-13 years</a> and the average cat living <a href="https://www.vetwest.com.au/pet-library/how-long-do-cats-live-ageing-and-your-feline">12-15 years</a>, it’s easy to see how a rehoming event can occur in a period spanning more than a decade. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www-tandfonline-com.ezproxy1.library.usyd.edu.au/doi/pdf/10.1080/10888705.2016.1141682?needAccess=true">most common reason</a> cats are surrendered to animal shelters in Australia is due to accommodation issues. With around a <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-09-06/renting:-what-are-the-facts/10210404">third of all households</a> now renting their accommodation, for many people, staying in one dwelling for 10-15 years is impossible. </p>
<p><a href="https://thenewdaily.com.au/money/property/2018/03/16/rental-laws-bad-news-for-pets/">Many states tenancy laws don’t mention pets</a>, which allows landlords to refuse pets on their properties. This greatly restricts the supply of pet-friendly rentals. However, jurisdictions like Victoria and the <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-10-25/canberra-renters-pet-rights-boosted/10429616">Australian Capital Territory</a> are looking to make things easier for pet-owning renters.</p>
<p><a href="https://www-tandfonline-com.ezproxy1.library.usyd.edu.au/doi/pdf/10.1080/10888700903369255?needAccess=true">Other reasons why people might rehome their pets</a> include injury or illness which affects someones caring capacity, a relationship breakdown or entering a nursing home. Even a change in employment can interfere with someone’s ability to care for a pet. </p>
<p>In Jon’s case, going south to fight in (presumably) a great deal of battles, in a much warmer climate, for an indeterminate amount of time, all constitute good reasons to rehome Ghost. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/273420/original/file-20190508-183093-1lkmozx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/273420/original/file-20190508-183093-1lkmozx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/273420/original/file-20190508-183093-1lkmozx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273420/original/file-20190508-183093-1lkmozx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273420/original/file-20190508-183093-1lkmozx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273420/original/file-20190508-183093-1lkmozx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273420/original/file-20190508-183093-1lkmozx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273420/original/file-20190508-183093-1lkmozx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Jon and Ghost in happier times.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">HBO/IMDB</span></span>
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</figure>
<h2>Act in your pet’s best interest</h2>
<p>It is our responsibility as pet owners to embrace our duty of care and act in the best interests of our pet. Often rehoming can lead to an improvement in an animal’s circumstances. If a new home will provide an animal with a better quality of life, for example more exercise and affection, then arguably this leads to a better outcome for that pet. It is better to arrange a suitable alternate home for a pet than let it experience neglect due to a change in owner circumstances. </p>
<p>We know that <a href="https://www-tandfonline-com.ezproxy1.library.usyd.edu.au/doi/pdf/10.1080/08927936.1998.11425086?needAccess=true">many people struggle</a> with the decision to rehome a pet, so if there are no other alternatives available to you, here is how you can rehome a pet responsibly.</p>
<h2>1. Take all reasonable steps to address the need to rehome your pet</h2>
<p>Explore alternate accommodation options, obtain the help of a dog trainer or employ a dog walker to overcome a lack of time. Discuss your issues with the local shelter or rescue, as they may have some advice too. RSPCA QLD have a <a href="https://www.rspcaqld.org.au/surrender">great online tool</a> which works through some of the common reasons people contemplate rehoming pets with practical advice and solutions. </p>
<h2>2. Give yourself plenty of time</h2>
<p>If you’re moving overseas, don’t leave rehoming your pet until the last minute. Ensure you leave plenty of time for the process and make a plan. By giving yourself plenty of time to pick a new home, you will give your pet the best chance with their new owners. </p>
<h2>3. Ensure you pet is up-to-date</h2>
<p>Make your pet as desirable as possible for a new owner. Check their vaccinations are up-to-date, get them desexed and microchipped (if they aren’t already), ensure they are on parasite preventatives and confirm they are toilet trained prior to rehoming.</p>
<h2>4. Look for solutions close to home</h2>
<p>Talk to your family and friends about the need to rehome your pet. Ask if any of them might consider a new addition to their family. You are likely to have more success with those close to you as they have already established a relationship with your pet. Additionally, if your circumstances change, you might be able to care for your pet again if they live with someone you know. </p>
<h2>5. Assess potential adopters</h2>
<p>Once you’ve advertised your pet for rehoming, take the time to thoroughly assess any potential adopters. Conduct interviews over the phone and in-person to get a feel for whether your pet would fit in with their family. Consider conducting a trial adoption or weekend sleepover prior to a full transfer of ownership, to ensure your pet and their family are happy with the arrangement. </p>
<p>Rehoming a pet is always a tough decision. It’s often an incredibly emotional experience and one seldom done lightly. However, if done responsibly and with your pet’s welfare front of mind, it can be done successfully.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-is-it-true-that-dogs-at-the-pound-get-killed-if-nobody-adopts-them-115803">Curious Kids: is it true that dogs at the pound get killed if nobody adopts them?</a>
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<p>And what of Jon Snow’s actions? </p>
<p>You could barely call what he did “rehoming”. There was no effort to address the reason for find a new home, he left it to the literal last minute and he didn’t discuss it with his friends and family. </p>
<p>While we can never forgive Jon for not giving Ghost one last hug, the reality is that as a direwolf, Ghost is naturally suited to life in the north. He gets to avoid further battles and live the rest of his days in his natural environment. Arguably, he will now experience a better quality of life than with the neglectful Jon Snow.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/116661/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bronwyn Orr is a PhD scholar at The University of Sydney. She is a member and board director of the Australian Veterinary Association. She works on a casual basis with RSPCA ACT as a shelter veterinarian. </span></em></p>
There’s a big difference between rehoming and abandonment.
Bronwyn Orr, Veterinarian and PhD scholar, University of Sydney
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.