tag:theconversation.com,2011:/ca-fr/topics/i-need-to-know-66587/articlesI need to know – La Conversation2020-01-20T01:41:22Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1209812020-01-20T01:41:22Z2020-01-20T01:41:22ZWhat makes a good psychologist or psychiatrist and how do you find one you like?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/307303/original/file-20191217-124027-10vmjfi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">We all struggle from time to time, but many people benefit from seeing a therapist.</span> </figcaption></figure><blockquote>
<p>Hi, I have mental health issues and I would like to know what makes a good or bad psychiatrist, psychologist or neuropsychologist.</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Key points</h2>
<ul>
<li><p>Understanding the different roles of psychologists and psychiatrists, and how they align with your needs, will help you decide what type of therapist to see</p></li>
<li><p>find a therapist you feel safe and secure with, even if that means trying a few before finding one you like</p></li>
<li><p>find out how much they charge in advance. If cost or access are issues, or if it would make you more comfortable, consider going online for help.</p></li>
</ul>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/i-need-to-know-66587"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/290837/original/file-20190904-175686-polw3q.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=90&fit=crop&dpr=2" width="100%"></a></p>
<h2>Who does what in mental health care?</h2>
<p>Each type of mental health worker will have a different area of speciality, as well as different qualifications, training and experience. </p>
<p>In your question, you talked about psychologists and different areas of specialisation like clinical psychologists, neuropsychologists and psychiatrists, all of whom play a role in the assessment and treatment of mental health conditions. </p>
<p>Understanding the role of each and how it aligns with your needs may help you in your decision. </p>
<p><strong>Psychologists in general</strong></p>
<p>Psychologists provide assessment and therapy to clients, either through individual or group format and aim to enhance a person’s well-being. </p>
<p>A psychologist typically completes a minimum of six years of training, including university and practical experience, and is required to be registered with the <a href="https://www.psychologyboard.gov.au/">Psychology Board of Australia</a>.</p>
<p><strong>Clinical psychologists</strong></p>
<p>Clinical psychologists provide a range of psychological services to people across their life. Services typically focus on the assessment, diagnosis and treatment of mental illness. </p>
<p>Clinical psychologists complete additional supervision in the practice of clinical psychology beyond their six years of university. </p>
<p><strong>Clinical neuropsychologists</strong></p>
<p>Clinical neuropsychologists assess and treat people with brain disorders that affect memory, learning, attention, reading, problem-solving and decision-making. </p>
<p>Like clinical psychologists, neuropsychologists complete those six years and receive additional supervision in the practice of clinical neuropsychology.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/307305/original/file-20191217-123987-41ce7g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/307305/original/file-20191217-123987-41ce7g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/307305/original/file-20191217-123987-41ce7g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/307305/original/file-20191217-123987-41ce7g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/307305/original/file-20191217-123987-41ce7g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/307305/original/file-20191217-123987-41ce7g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/307305/original/file-20191217-123987-41ce7g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Psychologists and psychiatrists have different backgrounds but both assess and treat mental illness.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/P3kPTq5x_7s">Kaleidico</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong>Psychiatrists</strong></p>
<p>Psychiatrists are doctors who are experts in mental health. They diagnose and treat people with mental illness and prescribe medications, if appropriate. </p>
<p>Psychiatrists typically complete four to six years of an undergraduate medical degree before undergoing general medicine training within a hospital. Then they complete several years of specialist training in psychiatry and must be registered with the <a href="https://www.ahpra.gov.au/">Australian Health Practitioner Regulation Agency</a>.</p>
<h2>You might need to try a few therapists to find the right one</h2>
<p>Therapy requires a person to feel safe and secure and establish trust with another person. So the fit between the two of you matters. </p>
<p>In the same way you may try a few hairdressers or GPs before you feel in safe hands, you may need to try out a few therapists before you find the right one. </p>
<p>Try not to feel disheartened; your persistence in this area will pay off.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/thinking-of-seeing-a-psychologist-heres-how-to-choose-the-therapy-best-for-you-114294">Thinking of seeing a psychologist? Here's how to choose the therapy best for you</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Ideally, you should select a therapist who is appropriately qualified but also, one you can connect and engage with. To test this, you should leave the first session with a sense of hope, even in the face of challenges. </p>
<p>This is not to say therapy will always be a comfortable process. It will be your therapist’s job to encourage and support you in making uncomfortable changes, so there may be times where you feel challenged or uncomfortable. It’s helpful to communicate this openly with your therapist and allow space to explore this with their support. </p>
<h2>Ask your community for recommendations</h2>
<p>Word of mouth can be an excellent tool when sourcing a good therapist. Consider asking your GP, family, friends or local community who they recommend. </p>
<p>Once you have some names, do your homework. Look up their qualifications, read about them if you can, and make sure that they practise in the area that you need. </p>
<p>Mental health is a broad term and as such, therapists may choose to focus on particular areas within it. If the therapist you’ve chosen doesn’t practise in your area, don’t worry – just ask them if they have a referral suggestion for you.</p>
<h2>Find out how much they charge</h2>
<p>In Australia, there are a lot of different ways to access mental health support. Some options include private practitioners working in clinics or schools, community services and public mental health services. Each of these settings will have a different fee or access structure associated. </p>
<p>For example under Medicare, a person may be eligible for up to ten sessions (individual and/or group) with a registered psychologist per calendar year with a referral from their GP. </p>
<p>These sessions may be bulk billed (with no out-of-pocket expense), or there may be a fee associated and rebates available. Fees can vary greatly, however <a href="https://www.psychology.org.au/for-the-public/about-psychology/what-it-costs">the Australian Psychological Society recommends</a> a fee of A$251 per 50-60 minute session. Medicare rebates range from <a href="http://www9.health.gov.au/mbs/fullDisplay.cfm?type=item&qt=ItemID&q=80110">A$86</a> (for psychologists) to <a href="http://www9.health.gov.au/mbs/fullDisplay.cfm?type=item&q=80011&qt=item">A$126.50</a> (for clinical psychologists and neuropsychologists). This would leave you out of pocket A$124.50 or A$165. </p>
<p>Out-of-pocket costs for private psychiatrists also vary. They may be bulk billed, or charge a fee. An initial consultation <a href="https://www.yourhealthinmind.org/getmedia/47ab2215-38e7-4184-9515-2e1f1237e215/Cost-to-see-psychiatrist-YHIM.pdf.aspx?ext=.pdf">may cost around A$400</a>, with a Medicare rebate of <a href="http://www9.health.gov.au/mbs/fullDisplay.cfm?type=item&qt=ItemID&q=296">A$201.35</a>, leaving you out of pocket A$178.65.</p>
<p>Mental health services at <a href="https://headspace.org.au/young-people/how-headspace-can-help/">headspace</a> are either free or low cost. And some schools also offer free psychological services.</p>
<p>Ask your GP about the specific costs and rebates when you discuss referral options. </p>
<h2>Consider going online</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/307306/original/file-20191217-124004-1fme77n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/307306/original/file-20191217-124004-1fme77n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/307306/original/file-20191217-124004-1fme77n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/307306/original/file-20191217-124004-1fme77n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/307306/original/file-20191217-124004-1fme77n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/307306/original/file-20191217-124004-1fme77n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/307306/original/file-20191217-124004-1fme77n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Online therapy will be a good fit for some young people.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/teen-surfing-net-bedroom-288897185">Will Rodrigues/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>While there is much to be gained from the personal experience of therapy, access can be a problem in some regional and remote area of Australia. </p>
<p>Thankfully, there are a number of excellent online resources available:</p>
<ul>
<li><p><a href="https://www.cci.health.wa.gov.au">Centre for Clinical Interventions</a> provides online resources and self-directed therapy modules for bipolar, anxiety, depression, eating disorders and other mental health conditions</p></li>
<li><p><a href="https://beyondblue.org.au">Beyond Blue</a> provides support for anxiety, depression and suicide prevention</p></li>
<li><p><a href="https://www.blackdoginstitute.org.au">Black Dog Institute</a> is dedicated to understanding, preventing and treating mental illness. It has a range of resources, particularly for depression and anxiety</p></li>
<li><p><a href="http://www.brave-online.com">Brave</a> supports young people to overcome anxiety.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Remember, we all struggle from time to time. For many, therapy plays an important role in improving their mental health and setting them back on their path. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/online-therapies-can-improve-mental-health-and-there-are-no-barriers-to-accessing-them-111357">Online therapies can improve mental health, and there are no barriers to accessing them</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/120981/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jade Sheen is a recipient of an Australian Government Office and Learning and Teaching grant and several Department of Health and Ageing grants.
</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amanda Dudley does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>You might need to visit a few therapists to find one you can connect and engage with. If cost or access are issues, you might even like to go online.Jade Sheen, Associate Professor, School of Psychology, Deakin UniversityAmanda Dudley, Psychologist and Lecturer, Deakin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1261942020-01-16T19:03:00Z2020-01-16T19:03:00Z‘What subjects do I choose for my last years of school?’<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/310116/original/file-20200115-151829-1q4twbn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=765%2C72%2C4421%2C3935&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Locking yourself into one career path too early may be risky.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><blockquote>
<p>We are being asked to do work experience this year, in a field we might like to work in. We are being asked to think about choosing electives that are directing us towards our career choices.</p>
<p>I have no idea what I want to do! I haven’t yet found anything I am particularly good at. I feel like I am being left behind. That others are making choices about their lives that I am not prepared for yet. Is this normal?</p>
<p>Lachlan, year 10</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Key points</h2>
<ul>
<li>Many young people feel this way – it is normal!</li>
<li>locking yourself into one career path too early can be risky</li>
<li>it’s important to be flexible and learn transferable skills</li>
<li>ask lots of questions from people around you.</li>
</ul>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/i-need-to-know-66587"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/290837/original/file-20190904-175686-polw3q.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=90&fit=crop&dpr=2" width="100%"></a></p>
<p>Hi Lachlan, many young people feel undecided about their career pathway. One <a href="https://www.parliament.vic.gov.au/file_uploads/EEJSC_58-04_Text_WEB_RwD0HN5C.pdf">study found</a> around one in five teenagers were uncertain about a clear career goal.</p>
<p>The questions you ask are about more than just which subjects to choose in the last years of school. They point towards the bigger decision about what sort of person you want to become. And that is a big decision to make all at once.</p>
<p>Careers advisors, teachers and parents often talk about <a href="https://www.ncver.edu.au/__data/assets/file/0021/9516/factors-affecting-aspirations-2711.pdf">career choice</a> as a matter of logical decision-making and planning, but it <a href="https://www.ncver.edu.au/__data/assets/file/0021/9516/factors-affecting-aspirations-2711.pdf">also involves</a> feelings, imagination and knowledge about yourself and the world.</p>
<p>These are constantly evolving so it isn’t surprising you feel confused.</p>
<h2>It’s important to be flexible</h2>
<p>You say some of your friends already have clear ideas about their futures. But being too rigid can be just as risky as not having a decision. If you set your career sights too narrow, or too early, on just one type of career you might not have a back-up plan. </p>
<p>What happens if it doesn’t work out? Does that mean you will feel like a failure before you even start? You might miss out on possibilities that don’t fit that narrow vision but that might suit you perfectly.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/yoEezZD71sc?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Watch Tim Minchin explain to students at his old university why “You don’t have to have a dream.”</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Some <a href="https://mccrindle.com.au/insights/blog/job-mobility-australia/">research suggests</a> today’s graduates will average five separate careers and around 17 different employers in their working life. This means an important skill these days is the ability to adapt. </p>
<p>The careers you have in the future might be quite different from each other, drawing on new skills and interests developed over time. Changes might happen because a workplace closes, or a new career becomes possible, or you want to move or develop a new interest.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/choosing-a-career-these-jobs-wont-go-out-of-style-111425">Choosing a career? These jobs won't go out of style</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>So while having a good idea about you want to do will give you a goal to work towards, it is important to be flexible too. Think of plans as provisional. Be ready to adjust your thinking and recalibrate them as you get more experience. </p>
<ul>
<li>Develop short-term, medium and long-term goals. You’ll find great resources to help with this at <a href="https://headspace.org.au/young-people/how-to-make-a-career-plan-template/">Headspace</a>. </li>
</ul>
<h2>Learning your interests takes time</h2>
<p>You say you don’t know what you’re good at yet. That’s OK too. Learning to recognise your skills, interests and values takes time. Talking to other people can help including friends, family, people you know through sport or other communities you are part of. </p>
<p>School subjects don’t test some of the important skills for a successful working life, such as the ability to get along with different people or flexible thinking, so you may not know you have them yet.</p>
<p>It is helpful to think about <a href="https://www.fya.org.au/report/the-new-work-mindset-report/">clusters</a> of jobs that draw on similar sets of skills. Particular skills (such as attention to detail) or interests (such as working outdoors or caring for others) can translate from one area into another. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/lack-of-workers-with-soft-skills-demands-a-shift-in-teaching-73433">Lack of workers with 'soft skills' demands a shift in teaching</a>
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<p>Work experience in customer service or retail sales will develop your skills in communicating with other people, being organised and understanding record-keeping. These are building blocks for success in many other careers. </p>
<p>Learning skills in one context that you can carry to a different one means you are adaptable – one of most important qualities for success. The more you can learn on the job, no matter which job it is, the better off you will be. </p>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://www.youthcentral.vic.gov.au/jobs-and-careers">Youth Central’s Career Profiles</a> give lots of detail about how interests turn into careers, and the pathways people took to get there.</li>
</ul>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/kRJW-Sg4hjM?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Watch Eddie Woo explaining why “the advice to follow your passion is a terrible idea…”</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>There are many pathways</h2>
<p>Many young people may choose to pursue a career they already know. Perhaps a friend or family member already does this sort of work. That’s a great start but it can also be <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781315736921">limiting</a>. </p>
<p>Many careers have changed in recent years. Some are disappearing while <a href="https://www.ceda.com.au/CEDA/media/ResearchCatalogueDocuments/Research%20and%20Policy/PDF/26792-Futureworkforce_June2015.pdf">new careers</a> are always on the horizon, so going with something a parent does may not be suitable anymore. Some of the fastest <a href="https://www.seek.com.au/career-advice/browse/high-growth">growing</a> career areas include the personal care (such as aged care), health and technology sectors. </p>
<p>Take every opportunity your school offers to explore the world of work. There might be industry tasters, VET immersion days, career expos or fairs, presentations, mentoring programs, workplace and university visits, or school-university partnership programs.</p>
<p>When it comes to subject selection, you might decide to combine vocational training with mainstream academic subjects that will help you work towards a university course. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/dont-stress-your-atar-isnt-the-final-call-there-are-many-ways-to-get-into-university-125429">Don't stress, your ATAR isn't the final call. There are many ways to get into university</a>
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<p>There are also pathway courses and alternative entry programs into univesities if you don’t quite get into what you want. There is no decision now that will lock you in to only one possibility for your future. Do stay at school though as that will set you up well for whatever comes in the future. Keep your options open.</p>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://myfuture.edu.au">My Future</a> has fantastic resources including quizzes that will help learn more about what might suit you. You can also match up school subjects with career pathways.</li>
</ul>
<h2>Work experience is a good way to develop skills</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://www.youthcentral.vic.gov.au/jobs-and-careers/volunteering-and-work-experience">work experience</a> you do at school need not match exactly what you will end up doing in the future, but it gives a great taste of full-time work. </p>
<p>Most young people find it is the most useful career related activity they do at school because it is <a href="https://www.parliament.vic.gov.au/images/stories/committees/eejsc/Career_Advice_Activities/EEJSC_58-04_Text_WEB.pdf">hands on</a> and puts them in direct contact with employers.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/unpaid-work-experience-is-widespread-but-some-are-missing-out-new-study-70737">Unpaid work experience is widespread but some are missing out: new study</a>
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<p>Try for something that draws on some of your current interests and skills, but remember this is an opportunity to try things out. A good report from an employer about your willingness to learn might be really helpful in lots of ways, including helping you get part-time work so you can continue to increase your experiences and responsibilities.</p>
<hr><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/126194/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Susanne Gannon works for Western Sydney University. She receives funding from ARC. </span></em></p>Today’s graduates may average five separate careers and around 17 different employers in their working life. This means an important skill these days is flexibility and the ability to adapt.Susanne Gannon, Associate Professor, Western Sydney UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1276422019-12-16T15:42:45Z2019-12-16T15:42:45Z‘What is needed to tackle the climate emergency, and who is responsible?’<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/305927/original/file-20191209-90569-14c6zod.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=3%2C3%2C2041%2C1358&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/takver/45316200915">takver</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><blockquote>
<p>What exactly are the nature of the changes needed to address the climate emergency, and who is responsible for making it happen?</p>
</blockquote>
<p>An emergency is a situation where we need to act fast in order to prevent catastrophic consequences – like rushing to stop a child running in front of a bus, mobilising fire fighters to put out a forest fire, or intercepting a lorry smuggling explosives for a planned attack. Most would agree these are all examples of emergencies, but the timescales for action are different: seconds for the child, hours for the fire, and perhaps days or even months for the lorry. So while emergencies demand urgent, coordinated and effective responses, the exact timescale depends on the nature of emergency.</p>
<p>The weather can change from moment to moment, but <a href="https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/weather/learn-about/climate-and-climate-change/climate-change/index">climate is long term concept</a>. It takes years for us even to collect enough data to notice that the climate is changing. Here, the emergency moves in years, not minutes. And the problem with things that change over many years is that there is always something else that appears to need more urgent attention. </p>
<p>For <a href="https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-convention/what-is-the-united-nations-framework-convention-on-climate-change">most of the last 30 years</a> we have known that we need to do something about climate change, but other things have been perceived to be more important, and so it has been repeatedly pushed to the back of the queue. After all, the impact of climate change won’t hit until 2050 or 2100, and that is just too far away to worry about – isn’t it? In fact, most people on this planet will still be alive in 2050, when life for many of us is <a href="https://futureoflife.org/background/climate-change/?cn-reloaded=1">projected to be looking pretty uncomfortable</a>. And greenhouse gases linger in the atmosphere so long that our children will still be living with the environmental consequences of our carbon emissions of 2019 in 2100. So who should act?</p>
<p>It’s easy to say that governments should do something – and perhaps they should. But the reality is that politicians generally do the things that they believe we want. So if we think it’s the job of government to sort this mess out, we should be telling our politicians just that. We should be urging them to think long term not short term, and not to oppose measures like <a href="https://obr.uk/forecasts-in-depth/tax-by-tax-spend-by-spend/fuel-duties/">fuel duty escalators</a> (a rising tax on fossil fuels to encourage alternatives) and <a href="http://www.lse.ac.uk/GranthamInstitute/news/what-does-the-october-2018-budget-mean-for-uk-carbon-pricing-in-a-no-deal-brexit/">carbon taxes</a> (a tax on burning fossil fuels as a way of pricing in the environmental damage they cause) just because they will hurt in the short term. </p>
<h2>Radical measures required</h2>
<p>It’s going to take some pretty radical measures to wean us off our addiction to energy and the carbon emissions energy generation creates. Governments essentially have two main options: to reduce consumption by banning things, or by making them expensive so we use less. Of course, governments can also invest in new technology and new initiatives, but that is a longer term solution and doesn’t really help address the need for urgent action now. If we want governments to do this, we must tell them so, and be prepared for the consequences.</p>
<hr>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/i-need-to-know-66587">I Need To Know</a> is a series by <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk">The Conversation</a>, which gives teenagers the chance to have their questions about the world answered by experts. Send your questions – along with your first name, age and the area where you live – to <a href="mailto:ineedtoknow@theconversation.com">ineedtoknow@theconversation.com</a>, or find out more ways to get in touch at the end of this article.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>You could of course argue that governments don’t generally run the most polluting industries such as power stations, cement works and factories. <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/sep/26/siemens-we-will-be-in-fossil-fuels-for-the-really-long-term">Industrialists</a> are often pointed to as the real villains. But, again, they’re really just making the furniture, clothing, toiletries and luxury goods that we demand, or that they think we’ll want. It is consumption that drives markets, at home or abroad. If there was no demand for the colossal quantity of stuff that we consume every year, they would stop making it. </p>
<p>Some people argue that their consumption is small compared to others (the average Briton has a <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2019/01/chart-of-the-day-these-countries-have-the-largest-carbon-footprints/">much lower carbon footprint</a> than the average American, for example). But that becomes a playground game – “I’m not going to decarbonise if you’re not going to decarbonise” – where we all want our share of the right to pollute. The reality is that our allowance of the cumulative emissions our planet, individually and as developed societies in the west, can withstand have already been used up. It is long past the time that we should create and consume less: <a href="https://theconversation.com/eating-less-meat-is-a-climate-priority-whatever-the-sceptics-say-105884">less meat</a>, less petrol, less disposable nappies, toys, mobile phones, clothing, furniture – <a href="https://insideclimatenews.org/news/20090830/reduce-climate-change-reduce-consumption">less everything</a>.</p>
<p>But what will we use in the future? That’s where researchers, scientists and engineers come in. In thousands of universities worldwide there are scientists working on how to manufacture new materials, engineers devising technologies that do more with less, and social scientists making sure that the changes being proposed actually make sense in respect of people’s lives in the real world. For example, ensuring low-carbon heating systems <a href="https://www.eti.co.uk/insights/smart-systems-and-heat-consumer-challenges-for-low-carbon-heat">deliver the heating needed in older, draughty homes</a>. </p>
<p>By bringing together the work of industry, policymakers, scientists and engineers, we can support the transition to a sustainable lifestyle where we consume less stuff, emit less carbon, and start becoming part of the solution – not the problem.</p>
<p>So, who needs to act? Everyone does. Governments, industry and us. We can be part of the solution by taking action in our own lives, by telling our politicians that we want them to act (even though we know it might make life hard), and perhaps even by working in scientific research or industrial engineering. Ultimately, the planet is on a kamikaze pathway that is being driven by us, and we all have a responsibility to do what we can to help pull it back onto a different track.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/127642/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Patricia Thornley receives funding from EPSRC. She is the Editor in Chief of the journal Biomass & Bioenergy.</span></em></p>What is the climate emergency, and whose climate crisis is it anyway?Patricia Thornley, Director, Energy and Bioproducts Research Institute, and Director, Supergen Bioenergy Hub, Aston UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1251352019-12-09T01:11:07Z2019-12-09T01:11:07Z‘How do I clean my penis?’<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/305101/original/file-20191204-70167-1dlj45h.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=538%2C0%2C2958%2C2000&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wes Mountain/The Conversation</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><blockquote>
<p>Growing up, no one ever gave me the rundown on how or what I should do to keep my penis clean […] I’ve never read any reliable answer beyond washing it with water. Do I use soap? Any soap? How normal is smegma? If my penis gets itchy from smegma should I go see a doctor? If so, my GP or a urologist? — Anonymous</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Key points</h2>
<ul>
<li>clean under the foreskin, using soap, but not too much</li>
<li>smegma is normal</li>
<li>if you have any concerns, see your GP.</li>
</ul>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/i-need-to-know-66587"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/290837/original/file-20190904-175686-polw3q.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=90&fit=crop&dpr=2" width="100%"></a></p>
<p>It’s a shame some people think talking about cleaning and caring for our genitals is embarrassing or taboo. We probably know more about hair care than penis care.</p>
<p>The penis is simply another part of our anatomy, so cleaning should be relatively straight forward.</p>
<p>If you’ve been circumcised, where your foreskin was removed soon after birth, your penis will look something like the one in the diagram (below, right), with the head (or glans) always exposed.</p>
<p>But if you have a foreskin (below left and centre), there are some extra things to think about when washing, which we’ll get to soon.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/305077/original/file-20191204-70116-1vv28db.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/305077/original/file-20191204-70116-1vv28db.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/305077/original/file-20191204-70116-1vv28db.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/305077/original/file-20191204-70116-1vv28db.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/305077/original/file-20191204-70116-1vv28db.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=490&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/305077/original/file-20191204-70116-1vv28db.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=490&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/305077/original/file-20191204-70116-1vv28db.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=490&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">The Conversation</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Foreskin facts</h2>
<p>But first, some foreskin facts. From around the time you turn five, your foreskin <a href="http://www.cirp.org/library/hygiene/camille1/">separates</a> from the head of your penis, bit by bit. This allows you to pull back your foreskin (retract it). In some boys, the foreskin can stay partially stuck to the head of the penis until puberty.</p>
<p>You should <a href="https://www.berghahnjournals.com/view/journals/boyhood-studies/1/2/bhs010206.xml">never forcibly pull back</a> your foreskin. That’ll be painful, you could bleed, you could scar, or have other complications.</p>
<h2>OK, now for the washing part</h2>
<p><a href="http://www.cirp.org/library/hygiene/camille1/">Once your foreskin separates easily from the glans</a>, gently retract and clean underneath the foreskin with each bath or shower. Then, after washing, pull the foreskin forward to its normal position.</p>
<p>When it’s time to dry off, retract the foreskin again so you can dry the head of the penis with a towel. Then, you guessed it, pull the foreskin forward to its normal position.</p>
<p>It’s OK to clean with soap whether you have a foreskin or not. But generally, too much soap is worse than none at all. Excessive cleaning removes essential body oils that would normally keep our skin moist and reduce friction. If you have sensitive skin, you can use a soap-free wash from the chemist.</p>
<h2>What about smegma?</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.healthline.com/health/smegma">Smegma</a> is a thick, whitish discharge consisting of a build-up of dead skin cells, oil and other fluids under the foreskin. And it’s very useful. It protects and lubricates the penis. </p>
<p>Some people have oilier skin than others and <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.1464-410x.1999.0830s1034.x">tend to have more smegma</a>.
So some smegma is normal, but if you have too much or it becomes smelly, you may need to clean more.</p>
<h2>Things to watch out for (and when to see your GP)</h2>
<p>If the head of your penis becomes painful, red, itchy and has a discharge, you may have a treatable condition called <a href="https://www.mshc.org.au/SexualHealthInformation/SexualHealthFactSheets/BALANITIS/tabid/134/Default.aspx#.XcJiPfZuKUk">balanitis</a>.</p>
<p>It’s more common if you have a foreskin. And the bacteria and fungus that cause it like the warm and moist conditions under there.</p>
<p>Skin disorders, infection, poor hygiene, friction from sexual activity, and using too much soap all <a href="https://www.dermnetnz.org/topics/balanitis/">cause the condition</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-make-your-next-sexual-health-check-less-erm-awkward-72498">How to make your next sexual health check less, erm ... awkward</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>You can clear a mild case with good hygiene and simple treatments, such as an antiseptic or antifungal cream. You can buy these from any pharmacy. In addition to the medication, the cream itself helps protect and moisturise the inflammed skin. </p>
<p>If you have balanitis you may need to be more careful than usual to avoid urine irritating your inflamed skin. Retract your foreskin when you urinate. Dry the head of the penis gently after you finish.</p>
<p>If your penis is still inflamed after a week of these simple measures it’s <a href="https://www.aafp.org/afp/2018/0115/p102.html">best to see your GP</a>. They can then investigate other causes, such as <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537143/">psoriasis or an allergy</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/125135/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David King does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>It’s a surprisingly common question. Here’s what you need to know.David King, Senior Lecturer in General Practice, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1226462019-11-03T18:54:26Z2019-11-03T18:54:26Z‘I cheated on a school exam and I feel terrible. How can I get past this?’<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/299759/original/file-20191031-187907-3653i2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">We often spend a lot of time beating ourselves up over something that seems worse in our heads than in reality.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>With so many external pressures, I yielded to cheating on an exam. I feel absolutely terrible as it is not what I stand for at all, a lot of people seem to hate me and I totally respect their opinion as what I did was wrong … but I’m so scared that now it will define me; before I had a perfect record and outstanding achievements and I don’t know how I can get past it. – Anonymous</em></p>
<hr>
<h2>Key points</h2>
<ul>
<li>everyone makes mistakes, but they don’t define us</li>
<li>our brains are wired to make us feel shame after making a mistake</li>
<li>forgive yourself!</li>
</ul>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/i-need-to-know-66587"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/290837/original/file-20190904-175686-polw3q.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=90&fit=crop&dpr=2" width="100%"></a></p>
<p>You’re not the only person who has done something you wish you hadn’t. By the time we reach adulthood most, if not all, of us have. People <a href="https://www.hbs.edu/faculty/Pages/item.aspx?num=49106">cheat, lie, hurt others</a>, or fail. It’s part of the human condition.</p>
<p>Many people have cheated in exams. For example, nearly <a href="http://ojs.unisa.edu.au/index.php/IJEI/article/download/783/595">30% of university students</a> who responded to a 2012 UK survey agreed they had “submitted work taken wholly from an internet source” as their own.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/when-does-getting-help-on-an-assignment-turn-into-cheating-120215">When does getting help on an assignment turn into cheating?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>These mistakes don’t have to define us. If we work through them in a healthy way, mistakes can help shape who we are, what we care about, and how we treat others.</p>
<p>At the time, mistakes can be painful. It can seem to be this huge thing, occupying lots of our thoughts, impacting how we see ourselves and making it feel like everyone else will be focused on this failure forever. </p>
<p>But think of someone you know who has made a mistake. Do you spend all your time thinking about that person’s failure – is that failure all the person is to you? Probably not. Humans spend most of their time thinking about <em>themselves</em>, and humans have lots of ways of reconciling, forgiving and forgetting. </p>
<p>So why does our brain make us feel like it’s the end of the world when <em>we</em> fail?</p>
<h2>Blame our brains</h2>
<p>Humans are a group species. Our <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1995-29052-001">brains have evolved</a> to pay attention to when people might exclude or judge us for being a bad or inappropriate group member. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/299785/original/file-20191101-187903-1xgt268.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/299785/original/file-20191101-187903-1xgt268.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/299785/original/file-20191101-187903-1xgt268.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/299785/original/file-20191101-187903-1xgt268.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/299785/original/file-20191101-187903-1xgt268.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/299785/original/file-20191101-187903-1xgt268.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/299785/original/file-20191101-187903-1xgt268.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/299785/original/file-20191101-187903-1xgt268.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Our brains are wired to make us feel awful when we believe we’ve been an inappropriate member of our social group.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">from shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>When we do something wrong, our feelings act like an alert signal; a red flashing yucky feeling telling us there is a problem. These guilty feelings can be especially bad if we think about our mistake in certain ways. Thoughts like: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“This is going to affect how <strong>everyone</strong> sees me!”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>or </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“People are <strong>never</strong> going to trust me again!” </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Blowing up the negative consequences in your mind, predicting the future in a negative way, or rehearsing how bad a person you are, are types of thinking that can send that red alert into overdrive. </p>
<p>Another way we keep the red alert on is if we avoid the issue and don’t take time to work through what happened. Research <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307857170_Moving_beyond_shame_is_bad_How_a_functional_emotion_can_become_problematic_How_Shame_Becomes_Problematic">shows avoiding things</a> that make us feel shame can actually just make us feel worse.</p>
<p>Instead, you can learn to <a href="https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783319605722">forgive yourself</a>. Start by taking responsibility – rather than trying to explain it away or avoid it, own up to it and say to yourself “yep, I did that”. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/if-someone-hurt-you-this-year-forgiving-them-may-improve-your-health-as-long-as-youre-safe-too-106253">If someone hurt you this year, forgiving them may improve your health (as long as you're safe, too)</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Then, you need to <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2013-42717-016">work through what happened</a>. Research shows <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28317127">reaffirming our values</a> is one of the most effective ways of working through our wrongdoing and forgiving ourselves.</p>
<h2>Forgive yourself. Here’s how</h2>
<p><strong>Reaffirm your values</strong></p>
<p>Write a letter to yourself answering the following questions: </p>
<ol>
<li>What value have I broken in this situation? (Values are what character traits you find important. These could be generosity, fairness or authenticity. If you have trouble identifying your values, <a href="http://thehappinesstrap.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/complete_worksheets_for_The_Confidence_Gap.pdf">this can help</a>.)</li>
<li>Why is that value important to me?</li>
<li>What is a time in the past I have acted in a way that is consistent with that value? </li>
<li>What would it mean to act consistent with that value over the next day, week and month? (This may include confessing to someone, an apology or a commitment to do it right next time.) </li>
</ol>
<p>Write three ideas of what you could do, and plan to do one of them this week. Remind yourself of these values and your commitment to them whenever you feel guilty.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/299781/original/file-20191101-187938-scbzri.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/299781/original/file-20191101-187938-scbzri.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/299781/original/file-20191101-187938-scbzri.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=899&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/299781/original/file-20191101-187938-scbzri.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=899&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/299781/original/file-20191101-187938-scbzri.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=899&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/299781/original/file-20191101-187938-scbzri.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/299781/original/file-20191101-187938-scbzri.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/299781/original/file-20191101-187938-scbzri.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Write a letter to yourself outlining your values. Remember them every time you feel guilty.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/8eSrC43qdro">Hannah Olinger/Unsplash</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong>Accept your emotions as feelings, not facts</strong></p>
<p>Emotions are part of the way our body responds to a situation. But they are not perfect. They are like a torch in a dark room, focusing our attention on a small part of the room, but missing other things.</p>
<p>Write a thought diary of your feelings and thoughts. Then go back over what you have written and <a href="https://www.cci.health.wa.gov.au/Resources/For-Clinicians/Unhelpful-Thinking-Styles">think</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Is this really the full picture of what is happening, or am I keeping my alert button on by practising unhelpful thinking?</p>
</blockquote>
<p><strong>Remember you’re a human</strong></p>
<p>When we fail, we sometimes hold ourselves up against perfect standards. But we are human, which means we don’t always have perfect knowledge of the future, control of our own feelings, or wisdom about how to act in the moment. </p>
<p>Instead of beating yourself up about what you could or should have done, acknowledge you are not perfect – then choose to pursue your values moving forward. </p>
<p><strong>Talk it out with others</strong></p>
<p>Often we keep our failures private. But since our brain is monitoring for risk of rejection, it stays active in case others find out or are already judging us because they know.</p>
<p>Talking it out with others can help because we have also <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/spc3.12176">evolved a sense of compassion</a> and can often be kinder to others than to ourselves.</p>
<p><strong>Seek help</strong></p>
<p>Underlying depression or other health or mental-health issues may be making our feelings of guilt, regret, shame, fear or embarrassment worse. If your feelings don’t change (especially if they continue for two weeks or more) then it is probably a good idea to chat to a psychologist, counsellor or your doctor.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-wrong-with-me-im-never-happy-and-i-hate-school-120889">'What is wrong with me? I'm never happy and I hate school'</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>You can also call <a href="https://www.beyondblue.org.au/">Beyond Blue</a> at any time on 1300 22 4636; or <a href="https://kidshelpline.com.au/">Kids Helpline</a>, a service specifically for children and young people aged 5-25 on 1800 55 1800.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/122646/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lydia Woodyatt receives funding from the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p>If you’re feeling guilt or shame about something, there are several proven ways to move past it. First, take responsibility and, then, forgive yourself. Here’s how to do that.Lydia Woodyatt, Associate professor, Flinders UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1221282019-10-23T04:59:37Z2019-10-23T04:59:37Z‘My friends are taking MDMA at raves and music festivals. Is it safe?’<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/288664/original/file-20190820-123736-amjiz1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=77%2C59%2C3892%2C1916&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">No drug is 100% safe. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wes Mountain</span></span></figcaption></figure><blockquote>
<p>My friends are taking ecstasy at raves and music festivals. Is it safe? — Anonymous</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Key points</h2>
<ul>
<li>no drug use, including ecstasy, is 100% safe</li>
<li>festivals can present unique risks </li>
<li>look out for friends, know the risks and where to get help.</li>
</ul>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/i-need-to-know-66587"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/290837/original/file-20190904-175686-polw3q.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=90&fit=crop&dpr=2" width="100%"></a></p>
<h2>What is ecstasy or MDMA?</h2>
<p>Ecstasy is a slang term for drugs <em>meant</em> to contain 3,4- methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), a stimulant that can also cause mild hallucinations at high doses. While ecstasy was traditionally sold as tablets, it’s <a href="https://ndarc.med.unsw.edu.au/sites/default/files/National%20EDRS%20Interview%20Report%202018_1.pdf">increasingly sold in crystal, capsule and powder forms</a>. </p>
<p>According to the <a href="https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/illicit-use-of-drugs/2016-ndshs-detailed/data">most recent data</a>, only 1% of Australians aged 12-17 said they had tried ecstasy. However, studies suggest young Australians who attend music festivals are <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29304871">much more likely</a> to have tried it.</p>
<hr>
<p><iframe id="rsqsA" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/rsqsA/1/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<hr>
<h2>So, is it ‘safe’?</h2>
<p>There seems to be a common perception ecstasy is “safe”. But no drug use — legal or illegal — is completely safe. While drug experts <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31081439">rank</a> ecstasy as less harmful than other drugs, such as “ice” and alcohol, there are still significant risks involved:</p>
<ol>
<li><p>given ecstasy is illegal, the market is unregulated. As a result, drugs sold as “ecstasy” <a href="https://www.harmreductionaustralia.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/Pill-Testing-Pilot-ACT-June-2018-Final-Report.pdf">commonly do not contain MDMA</a> and may contain something far more dangerous. This means the effects can be unpredictable</p></li>
<li><p>even if your drugs contain MDMA, the dose or potency can <a href="https://www.acic.gov.au/sites/default/files/illicit_drug_data_report_2017-18.pdf?v=1564727746">vary hugely</a>. Recently, <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/nsw/tragic-reveller-told-friend-he-would-push-through-inquest-hears-20190716-p527lm.html">very high purity ecstasy</a> has been detected in Australia. This can significantly increase the risk of overdosing or having serious side-effects </p></li>
<li><p>even pure MDMA at normal recreational doses can be risky in the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24899699">wrong conditions</a> (for instance, when it’s very warm)</p></li>
<li><p>common short-term effects also include <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16771886">increased heart rate and body temperature, teeth grinding and anxiety</a>. While evidence on the long-term effects of taking MDMA is still emerging, there may be lasting impacts on <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23881877">memory, mood, cognition and sleep</a>.</p></li>
</ol>
<h2>What are the risks when taking it at festivals?</h2>
<p>In recent years, there have been more reports of <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/nsw/music-festival-deaths-inquest-set-down-for-july-20190228-p510sz.html">drug-related deaths at festivals</a>. While the media typically describes deaths involving ecstasy as “overdoses”, most ecstasy-related deaths are <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14659891.2018.1436607?journalCode=ijsu20">not</a> the result of simply taking too much. </p>
<p>Drug experiences can be influenced by <a href="https://www1.health.gov.au/internet/publications/publishing.nsf/Content/drugtreat-pubs-front12-fa-toc%7Edrugtreat-pubs-front12-fa-secb%7Edrugtreat-pubs-front12-fa-secb-2%7Edrugtreat-pubs-front12-fa-secb-2-5">lots of different things</a> and music festivals can sometimes result in a “perfect storm” of risk factors. For example, an experienced male taking an ecstasy pill at a quiet gathering at home is likely to have a very different experience to an inexperienced female taking her ecstasy pills at a crowded festival on a 35°C day. </p>
<p>Females, those with lower body weight, and/or those who haven’t used ecstasy before, and therefore haven’t built up any physical tolerance, should use a smaller dose.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/292154/original/file-20190912-190044-elzxfw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/292154/original/file-20190912-190044-elzxfw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/292154/original/file-20190912-190044-elzxfw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=559&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292154/original/file-20190912-190044-elzxfw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=559&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292154/original/file-20190912-190044-elzxfw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=559&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292154/original/file-20190912-190044-elzxfw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=702&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292154/original/file-20190912-190044-elzxfw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=702&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292154/original/file-20190912-190044-elzxfw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=702&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Drug experiences can be affected by lots of different things.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Some key risks at music festivals include:</p>
<ul>
<li><p><strong>hyperthermia aka heatstroke:</strong> MDMA <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5008716/">affects the body’s ability to regulate temperature</a> (it can increase body temperature and also make it harder to cool down). Environmental factors at festivals such as warm weather, crowds and dancing can significantly increase the risk of overheating (see <a href="https://dancesafe.org/heatstroke/">tips</a> for staying cool)</p></li>
<li><p><strong>hyponatremia aka water intoxication:</strong> MDMA can <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23476039">disrupt the body’s water/electrolyte balance</a> (can make your body <a href="https://cjasn.asnjournals.org/content/3/6/1852">retain water</a>). While you need water to avoid dehydrating, drinking too much can also be dangerous. Read up on these <a href="https://drugaware.com.au/getting-the-facts/staying-safe/#Dehydration-and-overhydration">guidelines</a> on dehydration and overhydration for more information</p></li>
<li><p><strong>dodgy on-site sellers:</strong> <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30541674">UK research</a> found people buying drugs on-site (inside the festival grounds) were more than twice as likely to buy drugs that did not contain what they thought. There have been cases where festival goers thought they were buying MDMA but actually bought N-ethylpentylone (a riskier stimulant linked to psychosis and <a href="https://www.dea.gov/press-releases/2018/08/31/dea-acts-against-dangerous-deadly-designer-synthetic-drug-linked-151">deaths</a>)</p></li>
<li><p><strong>policing or legal problems:</strong> festivals often have a heavy police presence with sniffer dogs and being caught with drugs can lead to possession or supply charges. However, it’s very important not to panic and swallow your drugs if you see sniffer dogs. This has been linked to at least three <a href="https://www.pedestrian.tv/news/defqon-1-drugs-death-reignites-sniffer-dogs-debate/">festival deaths</a> in Australia.</p></li>
</ul>
<h2>Worried about your friends?</h2>
<p>If you’re going to a rave or festival and suspect some of your friends might take illicit drugs, it’s important to be aware of the risks, look out for your friends and know where to get help. Here are some tips:</p>
<ol>
<li><p><strong>make emergency plans with friends:</strong> download the festival map, have a meeting point, make sure mobiles are charged, stick together and know where on-site support services are </p></li>
<li><p><strong>look out for <a href="https://drugaware.com.au/getting-the-facts/staying-safe/#Signs-someone-needs-immediate-help">red flag symptoms</a></strong> (for instance, feeling hot, unwell, confused or agitated) and never be scared to seek help from on-site medical or support services. They’re there to help you, not judge or arrest you</p></li>
<li><p><strong>be informed:</strong> <a href="https://drugaware.com.au/getting-the-facts/staying-safe/">Drugaware</a>, <a href="https://www.dancewizensw.org.au/patron/#block-yui_3_17_2_1_1524198824688_25530">Dancewize</a> and <a href="http://www.boomtick.com.au/listen-out-perth-save-a-mate-training/">Boomtick</a> all have great information about drugs and how to keep safe.</p></li>
</ol><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/122128/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jodie's doctoral research was funded by a scholarship from the Australian Government Department of Health. The National
Drug Research Institute at Curtin University is supported by funding from the Australian Government under the Drug and Alcohol Program.</span></em></p>A person’s drug experience can be influenced by many different things, such as heat, access to water and dosage.Jodie Grigg, Research Associate at the National Drug Research Institute, Curtin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1249402019-10-11T10:32:28Z2019-10-11T10:32:28Z‘I’m up late at night worrying about global warming – please can you put my mind at rest?’<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/296654/original/file-20191011-96257-1rkfov8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=16%2C115%2C5486%2C3547&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/lonely-women-sitting-on-wooden-bridge-1522491458?src=8AVALHj34vomfnUXJ8omhw-1-34">Patty so/Shutterstock.</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><strong>I’m up late at night worrying that my baby brothers may die from global warming and other threats to humanity – please can you put my mind at rest? – Sophie, aged 17, East Sussex, UK</strong></p>
<p>Dear Sophie,</p>
<p>Thank you for asking this really important question. I know from <a href="https://www.palgrave.com/gp/book/9783030117405">my work as a psychotherapist</a>
and with the <a href="https://www.climatepsychologyalliance.org">Climate Psychology Alliance</a> that lots of other young people are worrying about global warming and the climate crisis, too. There’s even a term for it: <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcthree/article/b2e7ee32-ad28-4ec4-89aa-a8b8c98f95a5">“eco-anxiety”</a>. </p>
<p>I know that may not be much comfort, but it’s important to remember when you are worrying about something – especially something as huge as climate change – that you are not the only one feeling this way. So, my first piece of advice to you is to carry on doing what you have done here – do not keep your worries to yourself: talk with people about this, because sharing worries does help to make them a little better. </p>
<p>If you are not sure who to talk to then maybe start by listening to <a href="https://www.climatepsychologyalliance.org/podcasts/381-podcast-navigating-youth-in-a-time-of-climate-change">these podcasts</a> by young people talking about how they coped with their eco-anxiety, and there are lots of <a href="https://youngminds.org.uk/blog/why-we-all-need-to-be-better-listeners/">good blogs</a> and <a href="https://www.mind.org.uk/information-support/types-of-mental-health-problems/anxiety-and-panic-attacks/self-care-for-anxiety/#.XZ_IVi2ZM_M">advice</a> online that can help as well.</p>
<p>I also want to say that I am really impressed by what a caring big sister you are. You are worrying about your baby brothers but do not say that you are worrying so much about yourself. They are lucky to have such a loving and protective big sister as you. </p>
<p>Our loving relationships with family and friends are important to remember when we’re worrying about things. Make sure that you ask others to look after you sometimes, then you can look after them in return when they need it – that always helps.</p>
<h2>Understanding eco-anxiety</h2>
<p>Eco-anxiety <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-rise-of-eco-anxiety-climate-change-affects-our-mental-health-too-123002">is being felt</a> more and more by people as they “wake up” to the climate and ecological problems that humanity is facing. But it is not just anxiety: people also experience feelings of grief, anger, guilt, fear, shame and panic – sometimes all in one day. This can be confusing, and create even more anxiety. </p>
<p>Sometimes, we worry about our feelings and tell ourselves that we should not be feeling them (or other people say this to us). But it’s really important to remember that whatever feelings you’re having – even if they’re not nice to feel – are okay, you’re not going crazy and there is nothing wrong with you. Your fears are a really healthy response to what is going on in the world. </p>
<hr>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/i-need-to-know-66587">I Need To Know</a> is a series by <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk">The Conversation</a>, which gives teenagers the chance to have their questions about the world answered by experts.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>Do not be self-critical, be kind to yourself and be proud – because these feelings show how much you care about your brothers, and the state of the world. That’s why I sometimes call it “eco-awareness” or “eco-empathy”, rather than eco-anxiety. </p>
<h2>Taking action</h2>
<p>One of the best ways to deal with this anxiety is to take some action, so that we do not feel powerless and helpless. I suggest that you join a group that is organising discussions or taking action to help protect the environment. </p>
<p>The school strike for climate groups are very supportive, but you could also suggest to your friends or classmates that you get together to talk about these things – maybe with a counsellor or teacher or another adult, or maybe on your own. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/296648/original/file-20191011-96208-1cbzavz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/296648/original/file-20191011-96208-1cbzavz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296648/original/file-20191011-96208-1cbzavz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296648/original/file-20191011-96208-1cbzavz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296648/original/file-20191011-96208-1cbzavz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296648/original/file-20191011-96208-1cbzavz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296648/original/file-20191011-96208-1cbzavz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Supportive strikers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/leicester-england-september-20-2019-activists-1511842949?src=OaEky4TQ0GnkBII9nDzExg-1-64">Michael715/Shutterstock.</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Between you, I am sure you can support each other and discuss how you can take positive action to use these anxieties and worries to make yourselves feel more powerful in the world. These things can start small, but they do make a huge difference to us all. These worries can be put to good use – and that’s often the best way to put your mind to rest.</p>
<h2>Remember to breathe</h2>
<p>Also – when you feel anxiety, it might sound silly, but <a href="https://www.healthline.com/health/breathing-exercises-for-anxiety#lions-breath">remember to breathe</a>. We <a href="https://www.uhs.nhs.uk/Media/Controlleddocuments/Patientinformation/Stayinginhospital/Anxietyandbreathingdifficulties-patientinformation.pdf">often hold our breath</a> when we are anxious, and that makes it much worse. Here is a list of things I suggest to people to remember when they feel anxious: </p>
<ul>
<li><strong>Stop</strong>: don’t panic or let your thoughts run away with you into horrible fantasies. Do not let your fears control you, but do not shut them down either </li>
<li><strong>Breathe</strong>: slowly in and out, count the breaths and count to ten on each in and out breath </li>
<li><strong>Think</strong>: reassure yourself, ask yourself these sort of questions – am I panicking too much here? Can I calm my fears down? What can I do to help myself? Who else can I talk to?</li>
<li><strong>Connect</strong>: with other people, for example by joining a community or group</li>
<li><strong>Act</strong>: in some positive way, even if it is very small </li>
</ul>
<h2>Facing the future</h2>
<p>The reason I have focused on how you can cope with your worries – rather than addressing your concerns about your baby brothers – is that we cannot promise that everything will be okay in the future. But what we can try do is make sure that you, me and everyone else is emotionally resilient enough to cope with whatever happens. </p>
<p>That means that we have to be good at listening to our feelings, be good at listening to other people too. We have to be kind to ourselves, to cope with a mix of feelings, to have empathy for other people and also ourselves, to be creative and also to be able to think when we are scared.</p>
<p>We also have to have a balance between thinking about worrying things, and also thinking about the good things that are around – these are just as important. So while I can’t promise you that everything will be okay, I can promise that lots of people – including parents, psychotherapists and school strikers – will be working very hard and taking action to help people deal with things. And that means learning to build this emotional strength, together. </p>
<p>Then, in the future (whatever that looks like) you can teach these lessons to your baby brothers and help them deal with their fears. So, you will be helping them by helping yourself. That is the most important thing you can do to take care of them, and yourself, at the moment. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/imagine-newsletter-researchers-think-of-a-world-with-climate-action-113443">Imagine newsletter: researchers think of a world with climate action</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/124940/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Caroline Hickman is affiliated with The Climate Psychology Alliance. </span></em></p>In the face of the climate crisis, a lot of young people are experiencing eco-anxiety – here, a psychotherapist explains how to cope.Caroline Hickman, Teaching Fellow in Social Work and Psychotherapy, University of BathLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1202222019-09-26T20:11:44Z2019-09-26T20:11:44Z‘How do I control my oily skin and prevent pimples?’ A dermatologist explains<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/287298/original/file-20190808-144838-pdxqu7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=287%2C137%2C3389%2C1736&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">There's nothing worse then a sore pimple. But there's a few things you can do to avoid a breakout. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wes Mountain</span></span></figcaption></figure><blockquote>
<p>How can I control the excessive oil secretions on my face that leads to acne?
Anonymous</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Pimples are the worst! They hurt, pop up overnight and can be impossible to hide. </p>
<p>You’re right that oily skin is believed to be the most critical factor for causing acne. </p>
<p>But rest assured, there are a few things you can do to keep your oil at bay and control the likelihood of a break out. </p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/i-need-to-know-66587"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/290837/original/file-20190904-175686-polw3q.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=90&fit=crop&dpr=2" width="100%"></a></p>
<h2>Why am I so oily… all the time!</h2>
<p>Before we start talking about how to <em>avoid</em> acne, let’s chat about why oily skin causes acne. </p>
<p>Oily skin is caused by the overproduction of sebum by an overactive oil gland (also known as the <em>pilosebaceous unit</em>, which is just a fancy term for a hair follicle and its oil gland). </p>
<p>There are a few reasons we get acne, one being the pore of the oil gland can be blocked – this can be made worse by using certain types of makeup. </p>
<p>Some of our hormones during puberty drive sebum overproduction, hence acne-overload. Fun fact: anabolic steroids, typically used by bodybuilders, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17274777">can trigger acne too</a>.</p>
<p>Acne bacteria lives on the skin and its overgrowth around your oil glands can worsen inflammation and pus formation. This is what causes acne to hurt sometimes.</p>
<p>If there’s a strong history of acne in your family, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22243446">there’s a good chance</a> you might get it too. </p>
<p>It is also linked to medical conditions such as <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15788499">polycystic ovarian syndrome.</a></p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-wrong-with-me-im-never-happy-and-i-hate-school-120889">'What is wrong with me? I'm never happy and I hate school'</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Trust me on this, a proper skin routine is everything</h2>
<p>As a dermatologist, I recommend cleaning your face every morning and evening. If you wear make up, ALWAYS wipe it off before going to bed – no excuses!</p>
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<figure class="align-center ">
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<p>Using pore-clogging oil-based make up can worsen or cause acne. This can become worse if make up is not thoroughly removed!</p>
<p>If you want to hide your acne with make up, just be sure to use brands that contain good ingredients (I talk a bit more about this below).</p>
<h2>A few tips to help keep your skin clear 🌟</h2>
<ol>
<li><p><strong>Diet:</strong> Eat a healthy balanced diet containing low glycaemic index food groups with complex carbohydrates and omega-3 fatty acids. There might be a role for <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/pde.13904">oral zinc supplements</a>. It is best to avoid sugary, processed and refined food. </p></li>
<li><p><strong>Make up and hair products:</strong> If you choose to wear make up, opt for mineral-based foundations, eg. La Roche Posay, Bare Minerals, Nude by Nature, Jane Iredale, Youngblood and Ultraceuticals. Wash your hair regularly with shampoo, especially if you’re using hair products and if you have oily hair or scalp. Avoid using oil-based products on your face and beware of oil-based pomades and hair wax, especially near your forehead.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>Regular use of a good quality broad spectrum SPF 30 and above ultralight sunscreen lotion:</strong> This reduces early onset wrinkles, pigmentation issues and in the long-term reduces your risk of developing sunspots and dangerous skin cancers. </p></li>
<li><p><strong>Maintain a healthy weight and embrace exercise:</strong> Not only is this good for mental health (stress can lead to acne), it <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23975508">also reduces levels of acne-causing hormones.</a></p></li>
</ol>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/common-lumps-and-bumps-on-and-under-the-skin-what-are-they-59313">Common lumps and bumps on and under the skin: what are they?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>About to leave the house and still feel oily?</h2>
<p>I recommend using a blotting paper or oil-control film when this happens. They aren’t too expensive – Target sells packs of 100 for A$5 – and can be bought at supermarkets and pharmacies.</p>
<p>You can also apply a thin layer of mattifying gel or a mineral-based loose powder foundation to reduce and absorb excess oil. </p>
<h2>Some final words of advice</h2>
<ol>
<li><p>Use oil-free and non-comedogenic cleansers, moisturisers and make up. When picking a foundation opt for “oil free” liquid silicone (dimethicone or cyclomethicone) matte foundations over oil foundations</p></li>
<li><p>remember to thoroughly remove your make up with a make up remover</p></li>
<li><p>avoid touching, picking or scratching your pimples</p></li>
<li><p>if you feel your acne is particularly bad, make sure you see your GP or get a referral to see a dermatologist. It’s always best to get on top of your acne and reduce risk of acne scarring.</p></li>
</ol><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/120222/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Celestine Wong currently holds a Consultant position at the Monash Medical Centre. She also works privately at Chroma Dermatology, Melbourne City Dermatology and Melbourne Eastside Dermatology.</span></em></p>Oily skin can be a real pain, especially if it leads to pimples. A few simple tricks can keep your skin healthy and decrease the chance of a breakout.Celestine Wong, Consultant Dermatologist, Monash HealthLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1227542019-09-16T09:17:35Z2019-09-16T09:17:35ZWill politicians take action and try to save the planet from climate change?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/291743/original/file-20190910-190061-120d1q6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C65%2C5472%2C3571&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Shouting out loud.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/brussels-belgium-8th-sep-2018activists-hold-1174495165?src=lSaGNkzNRMOak0-7gCzCug-2-30">Alexandros Michailidis/Shutterstock.</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><strong>I am scared of climate change and the fact that a lot of adults aren’t taking it seriously – do you think politicians will take action and try to save what we have left? – Carolina, aged 15, Santiago de Chile.</strong></p>
<p><a href="https://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/k-4/stories/nasa-knows/what-is-climate-change-k4.html">Climate change</a> is the most pressing threat humanity has ever faced. Changes in the natural balance of the Earth’s atmosphere, caused by human behaviour, are having a major impact on the environment. Hurricanes are becoming larger and more powerful than in the past. Floods cover vast regions, causing people to lose their homes. Droughts cause crops to die, which means people go hungry. The sea level is rising, and will one day swallow up entire countries. </p>
<p>Scientists <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2019/jul/24/scientific-consensus-on-humans-causing-global-warming-passes-99">from all over the world agree</a> that the impacts of climate change will get worse, unless we take action now. Of course, there are things that you can do to reduce your own impact on the environment, like <a href="https://theconversation.com/going-veggie-would-cut-global-food-emissions-by-two-thirds-and-save-millions-of-lives-new-study-56655">eating less meat</a>. But big changes are required in every country to meet this challenge. Which leads us to your excellent question: what are politicians doing to combat climate change?</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/288526/original/file-20190819-123720-1u3l3zi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/288526/original/file-20190819-123720-1u3l3zi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=113&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288526/original/file-20190819-123720-1u3l3zi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=113&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288526/original/file-20190819-123720-1u3l3zi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=113&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288526/original/file-20190819-123720-1u3l3zi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=141&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288526/original/file-20190819-123720-1u3l3zi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=141&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288526/original/file-20190819-123720-1u3l3zi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=141&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/i-need-to-know-66587">I Need To Know</a> is a series by <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk">The Conversation</a>, which gives teenagers the chance to have their questions about the world answered by experts. If you’re aged 12 to 18, send your questions – along with your first name, age and the area where you live – to <a href="mailto:ineedtoknow@theconversation.com">ineedtoknow@theconversation.com</a>, DM us on Instagram <a href="https://www.instagram.com/theconversationdotcom/">@theconversationdotcom</a> or submit via <a href="https://ansr.me/gwpx5">Incogneato</a>.</em></p>
<p><em>We have a huge pool of experts at our fingertips, and we can’t wait to share their knowledge with you.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>Because climate change is caused by the actions of countries, it can only be solved by the cooperation of countries – and that means international law offers the best pathway forward. In 2015, political leaders from all over the world visited Paris, France, to agree on a response to climate change. The result was an international treaty called the <a href="https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement/the-paris-agreement">Paris Agreement</a>. </p>
<h2>The Paris Agreement</h2>
<p>In the Paris Agreement, leaders decided that it’s vital to stop the atmosphere from heating more than 2°C above pre-industrial levels. To do this, countries need to reduce their carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions, which trap heat and cause this warming effect. So far, the Paris Agreement sounds useful.</p>
<p>But there’s a problem: the Paris Agreement does not offer any direct instructions on what countries have to do to reduce their CO₂ emissions. Countries do not have to meet specific targets to lower their emissions. Instead, the Paris Agreement asks that countries set their own targets, called “nationally determined contributions” (NDCs, for short). </p>
<p>NDCs offer the best picture of what each country’s politicians are prepared to do in order to tackle climate change. So lets take a look at what some <a href="https://www4.unfccc.int/sites/submissions/indc/Submission%20Pages/submissions.aspx">countries have promised to do in their NDCs</a>.</p>
<h2>Falling short</h2>
<p>In its NDCs, Chile has committed to <a href="https://www4.unfccc.int/sites/submissions/INDC/Published%20Documents/Chile/1/INDC%20Chile%20english%20version.pdf">a 30% reduction</a> in greenhouse gas emissions below what they were in 2007. But a much stronger target would have been to reduce emissions by 30% against 1990 levels. Between 1990 and 2016, Chile’s emissions <a href="https://climateactiontracker.org/countries/chile/current-policy-projections/">increased by 115%</a>, which shows the country has a poor history of tackling climate change. </p>
<p>Australia is one of the <a href="https://www.heritage.org/index/country/australia">richest countries</a> on the planet. It has said it will try to reduce emissions by 26-28% below 2005 levels. But this commitment is not very ambitious for a country with the wealth of Australia. And with <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-08-10/solar-coverage-fact-check-is-australia-sunniest-continent/6659316">all the sunshine</a> it gets, the government could be investing much more in solar energy. </p>
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<span class="caption">More of this, please.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/solar-photovoltaic-renewable-energy-facility-northern-517089196?src=Cw8cqfN0GibbkxQhn6iHew-1-0">Shutterstock.</a></span>
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<p>Brazil is home to much of the Amazon Rainforest. In its NDCs, it had promised to restore more than 12m hectares of forest, which is about half the size of the United Kingdom or one third the size of Chile. By protecting the forest, which absorbs CO₂, Brazil could reduce its emissions by 37%. </p>
<p>This does sound good. But the new Brazilian government, <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-46013408">elected in 2018</a>, does not intend to honour this commitment. Already, deforestation to make room for crops and cattle grazing has contributed to <a href="https://theconversation.com/amazon-fires-what-will-happen-if-they-keep-burning-122758">this year’s devastating fires</a> in the Amazon. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/amazon-fires-what-will-happen-if-they-keep-burning-122758">Amazon fires: what will happen if they keep burning?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The European Union’s NDCs promise to reduce its emissions by 40%. But because all the different countries aren’t required to share reductions equally, this will see some countries in the EU making big reductions, while others do very little. </p>
<p>These examples show that politicians in these countries are not taking climate change seriously – and they are not alone. Many countries are not doing enough. At the current rate, humanity will continue to heat the Earth to <a href="https://climateactiontracker.org/global/cat-thermometer/">somewhere between 3°C and 5°C degrees</a>, which will cause severe hurricanes, droughts and floods all over the globe. </p>
<h2>What can we do?</h2>
<p>The lesson here is very simple – climate change must be our number one priority. People who can vote in elections should consider voting for parties that promise strong action on climate change. This usually means looking away from the major political groups: <a href="https://www.globalgreens.org">parties with a specific “green” focus</a> will typically be the main ones tackling climate change.</p>
<p>Another option is to support global movements like <a href="https://rebellion.earth">Extinction Rebellion</a>. By turning up to rallies and showing support for groups like these, you can send a strong message to politicians that you care about the planet and all the life on it. Some young activists have even been involved in bringing legal challenges against governments that continually <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/jun/04/teen-activists-face-us-government-in-crucial-hearing-over-climate-trial">disregard their climate obligations</a>. </p>
<p>This depends on there being a legal mechanism – such as a right to the environment or a constitutional provision – and people having the ability to access it through the courts, which can be a costly endeavour. Nevertheless, a legal challenge can make politicians understand the extent of the passions running through people.</p>
<p>If we send these messages to politicians, there’s a chance to make them do better and stop climate change, before the worst effects of global warming become a reality. </p>
<hr>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/290123/original/file-20190829-106524-1w6rzla.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/290123/original/file-20190829-106524-1w6rzla.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290123/original/file-20190829-106524-1w6rzla.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290123/original/file-20190829-106524-1w6rzla.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290123/original/file-20190829-106524-1w6rzla.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=560&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290123/original/file-20190829-106524-1w6rzla.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=560&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290123/original/file-20190829-106524-1w6rzla.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=560&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><strong><em>This article is part of <a href="https://www.cjr.org/covering_climate_now/covering-climate-partnerships.php/">The Covering Climate Now</a> series</em></strong>
<br><em>This is a concerted effort among news organisations to put the climate crisis at the forefront of our coverage. This article is published under a Creative Commons license and can be reproduced for free – just hit the “Republish this article” button on the page to copy the full HTML coding. The Conversation also runs Imagine, a newsletter in which academics explore how the world can rise to the challenge of climate change. <a href="https://theconversation.com/imagine-newsletter-researchers-think-of-a-world-with-climate-action-113443?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=CoveringClimateNow">Sign up here</a></em>.</p>
<hr><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/122754/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ash Murphy does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Scientists from all over the world agree that the impacts of climate change will get worse, unless action is taken now.Ash Murphy, PhD Researcher, International Environmental Governance, Keele UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1227582019-09-05T13:22:17Z2019-09-05T13:22:17ZAmazon fires: what will happen if they keep burning?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/291090/original/file-20190905-175710-1i1sokl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=997%2C13%2C7208%2C3422&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/amazon-rain-forest-fire-disaster-burning-1487039858?src=-1-24">Shutterstock.</a></span></figcaption></figure><blockquote>
<p><strong>If the Amazon keeps burning, what will happen? – Ibrahim, aged 12, Maryland, US.</strong></p>
</blockquote>
<p>There have been a lot of fires in Brazil this year – about <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-49433767">76% more</a> than there were during the same period last year. And just 48 hours after Brazil’s government put a ban on burning and land clearing, to help stop the fires spreading, satellite data found that <a href="https://www.sciencealert.com/nearly-2-000-new-fires-have-started-in-the-amazon-in-the-last-48-hours-despite-burning-ban-from-government">2,000 more fires started</a> in the Amazon alone. The 2019 fires will have a big and long-lasting impact on the forest itself, and the wider world. </p>
<p>The Amazon is the largest rainforest in the world, and may be home to <a href="https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2019/05/22/why-the-amazons-biodiversity-is-critical-for-the-globe">a quarter</a> of the Earth’s land-bound species. If it keeps burning, it’s likely to turn into a completely different ecosystem, with fewer trees and different species of plants and animals. Many trees will die, and animals will lose their habitat – some species might disappear from the area entirely. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/amazon-fires-explained-what-are-they-why-are-they-so-damaging-and-how-can-we-stop-them-122340">Amazon fires explained: what are they, why are they so damaging, and how can we stop them?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>While the Amazon fires <a href="https://theconversation.com/amazon-fires-are-destructive-but-they-arent-depleting-earths-oxygen-supply-122369">aren’t going to deplete</a> the Earth’s supply of oxygen, they will release large amounts of carbon dioxide (CO₂) into the atmosphere. For example, when just 0.2% of the Amazon burned in 2016, it released <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2017.0312">30m tons of CO₂</a> – that’s <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/449517/co2-emissions-denmark/">almost as much</a> as Denmark emitted in 2018. </p>
<p>This is bad news, because as you probably know, CO₂ is a “greenhouse gas” that contributes to <a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-how-is-global-warming-heating-up-the-earth-117543">global warming</a> and climate change – and humans are already creating dangerous amounts of it through <a href="https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/sources-greenhouse-gas-emissions">energy use, transport and industry</a>. </p>
<h2>A changing Amazon</h2>
<p>Even tropical, humid forests like the Amazon can catch fire easily during the dry season. Dry dead wood, branches and leaf litter build up on the forest floor, and after many days without rain, any spark is enough to start a wildfire. But that doesn’t mean the fires we’re seeing now are normal or natural. </p>
<hr>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/i-need-to-know-66587">I Need To Know</a> is a series by <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk">The Conversation</a>, which gives teenagers the chance to have their questions about the world answered by experts. Send your questions – along with your first name, age and the area where you live – to <a href="mailto:ineedtoknow@theconversation.com">ineedtoknow@theconversation.com</a>, or find out more ways to get in touch at the end of this article.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>Unlike other ecosystems – such as the African savannah, the Australian bush or the US <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0033589473900100">conifer forests</a> – which have evolved with fires over many thousands of years, the plants and animals living in the Amazon don’t have the traits needed to survive a big fire and regenerate after the blaze. This is because fires <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rstb.2007.0014">were not very common</a> before humans settled in the area. </p>
<p>The trees in the Amazon have <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2011.02533.x">relatively thin bark</a>, so during a fire, the heat can seriously damage the cells inside the tree, which eventually kills it. Previous research in the Amazon has found that more than <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10531-004-3952-1">40% of trees</a> die up to three years after a fire. This means that the carbon stored in their trunks, branches and leaves is released into the atmosphere, either while the fire is burning, or later as the dead trees decompose. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/291093/original/file-20190905-175678-4psod4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/291093/original/file-20190905-175678-4psod4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=349&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/291093/original/file-20190905-175678-4psod4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=349&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/291093/original/file-20190905-175678-4psod4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=349&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/291093/original/file-20190905-175678-4psod4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=438&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/291093/original/file-20190905-175678-4psod4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=438&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/291093/original/file-20190905-175678-4psod4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=438&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Fire ravaged forest.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/wood-cutting-burning-destroying-environmentarea-illegal-1319019179?src=-1-10">Shutterstock.</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>When <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1046/j.1461-0248.2003.00394.x">large trees</a> die due to fire, more sun and wind is let into the <a href="https://www.dkfindout.com/uk/animals-and-nature/habitats-and-ecosystems/rainforest-layers/">understorey</a> (the sheltered layer below the canopy). And some plant species <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2388198?origin=crossref&seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents">can regrow and sprout</a> in the new, less shady conditions better than others. This in turn can attract more herbivores, such as leaf-cutting ants, agoutis and brocket deer. At the same time, the loss of plant species that produce fruit causes <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10531-004-3952-1">a decline in the populations</a> of species that rely on them for food, including parrots and monkeys. </p>
<h2>A slow recovery</h2>
<p>When humid forests like the Amazon burn for the first time, they can partially recover – but it’s not clear how long it would take them to recover fully, or if that’s even possible. For example, when I conducted research in an area of the Amazon 30 years after it was burned by wildfire, I found that even after all that time, the forest stocked about <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2018.0043">one quarter less carbon</a> than it did before the fires. </p>
<p>This is mainly because most of the large, hardwood trees – which hold the greatest amount of carbon – died after the fire. And as the forest grows back, they are replaced by smaller trees, which are mainly softwood species. These smaller trees grow fast, but have a shorter lifespan (between five and 30 years) and don’t amass much carbon in their trunks. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/291100/original/file-20190905-175714-1ndrkfb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/291100/original/file-20190905-175714-1ndrkfb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/291100/original/file-20190905-175714-1ndrkfb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/291100/original/file-20190905-175714-1ndrkfb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/291100/original/file-20190905-175714-1ndrkfb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/291100/original/file-20190905-175714-1ndrkfb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/291100/original/file-20190905-175714-1ndrkfb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A large tree dies and falls to the ground in the Amazon, years after a fire.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Aline Lopes.</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It may take <a href="https://www.pnas.org/content/102/51/18502/tab-article-info">hundreds of years</a> for the larger hardwood species to grow back and reach the forest canopy. Without any further disturbances, there’s a chance that the Amazon might return to its previous state – but not in our life time. And the world’s changing climate and ongoing deforestation mean that further fires are all too likely. </p>
<h2>Still in danger</h2>
<p>As fires become more frequent and intense, the chances of the rainforest recovering decline. Two or three fires can <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2664.12687">destroy the trees’ stock of seeds</a>, arresting the ecosystem into a non-forest state. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/290920/original/file-20190904-175663-1t16xhw.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/290920/original/file-20190904-175663-1t16xhw.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/290920/original/file-20190904-175663-1t16xhw.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290920/original/file-20190904-175663-1t16xhw.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290920/original/file-20190904-175663-1t16xhw.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290920/original/file-20190904-175663-1t16xhw.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290920/original/file-20190904-175663-1t16xhw.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290920/original/file-20190904-175663-1t16xhw.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A floodplain forest, after being burned twice in Barcelos, Brazil.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Bernardo Flores.</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It’s likely that the fires across Brazil this year have been caused by <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2019/08/theres-no-doubt-brazils-fires-are-caused-deforestation-scientists-say">deforestation</a> to make way for cattle ranching and soy crops. The “slash-and-burn” approach – where people chop down trees, leave them to dry out, then burn them – is the cheapest tool for clearing forest in the Amazon. At the peak of the dry season, when rain is scarce, flames can escape into the forest. If left unchecked, wildfires can burn until they run out of fuel or are put out by the wet season rains.</p>
<p>To protect the Amazon forest from new fires, the governments responsible for protecting it must clamp down on deforestation. But countries around the world that buy beef, leather and products from crops <a href="https://theconversation.com/message-to-the-eu-you-have-the-chance-to-stop-fuelling-devastation-in-the-amazon-115465">should demand</a> that they are produced in an environmentally friendly way. And of course, <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-stop-climate-change-six-ways-to-make-the-world-a-better-place-115944">global action on climate change</a> is needed, to prevent droughts from getting worse and increasing the risk of more fires.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/122758/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Camila Silva does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The Amazon will take a lifetime to recover from this year’s fires – if it ever does.Camila Silva, PhD Candidate, Lancaster UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1208892019-08-22T20:06:29Z2019-08-22T20:06:29Z‘What is wrong with me? I’m never happy and I hate school’<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/285780/original/file-20190726-136781-3f52ps.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Remember, there is always someone to talk to about these things. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wes Mountain</span></span></figcaption></figure><blockquote>
<p><em>Hi, I was just wondering if something’s wrong with me because I’m never happy and never want to do anything and I’m getting really lazy and I really hate school. Thanks - Anonymous</em></p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<p>Everyone experiences down days at times. Feeling flat is a normal reaction to something upsetting happening, tiredness or just being stuck in a rut. Usually our low mood is short-lived and improves fairly quickly as we resolve a problem, catch up on sleep or move on to something else.</p>
<p>There’s a difference between temporarily feeling a bit down and what you’re describing. The fact you’re “never” happy and “never” want to do anything, suggests this is probably more than just a “rough patch”. Constantly feeling sad, struggling with motivation and lacking interest or pleasure in anything, are all symptoms often associated with depression. </p>
<p>Are you also struggling with sleep, eating more or less than usual, feeling exhausted or irritable or finding it hard to concentrate? These are other common features of depression.</p>
<h2>I feel low… all the time</h2>
<p><a href="https://headspace.org.au/assets/Uploads/Centres/Midland/Depression.pdf">Depression</a> is much more far reaching than regular sadness. Symptoms are persistent and interfere significantly with daily life. Depression affects how a person thinks, feels and acts. People with depression tend to have negative thoughts about themselves, the world and the future. They often feel helpless: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>Nothing I do will improve the situation. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>And hopeless:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Things will never get better.</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>There are things YOU can do to help</h2>
<p>While everything feels like a struggle now with your low energy levels and not liking school, why not try some of these things to help you move forward:</p>
<ul>
<li><p><a href="https://www.cci.health.wa.gov.au/%7E/media/CCI/Mental%20Health%20Professionals/Depression/Depression%20-%20Information%20Sheets/Depression%20Information%20Sheet%20-%2009%20-%20Analysing%20your%20Thinking.pdf">identify and challenge</a> any unhelpful thinking which may be contributing to how you’re feeling. When we’re down, we tend to interpret situations in a biased, <a href="https://www.cci.health.wa.gov.au/%7E/media/CCI/Mental%20Health%20Professionals/Depression/Depression%20-%20Information%20Sheets/Depression%20Information%20Sheet%20-%2008%20-%20Thinking%20and%20Feeling.pdf">negative way</a>. Work on developing more realistic, balanced thinking – this is <a href="https://www.cci.health.wa.gov.au/%7E/media/CCI/Mental%20Health%20Professionals/Depression/Depression%20-%20Information%20Sheets/Depression%20Information%20Sheet%20-%2010%20-%20Changing%20your%20Thinking.pdf">a helpful sheet</a> to aid you in doing just that </p></li>
<li><p><a href="https://thiswayup.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Module-3-Structured-Problem-Solving.pdf">take action to</a> to solve the problems affecting you. For example, if you’re hating school, identify specifically what you hate about it, brainstorm and evaluate possible solutions and implement the best ones</p></li>
<li><p><a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-what-is-behavioural-activation-for-depression-62910">plan daily activities</a>, no matter how small, that make you feel you’ve achieved something. Maybe start an assignment you’ve been putting of or simply have a bath</p></li>
<li><p>practice daily gratitude by thinking of <a href="https://ggia.berkeley.edu/practice/three-good-things">three things</a> you were thankful for, and writing them down. Balance out life’s negatives, by identifying <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/313845439_'The_Three_Good_Things'_-_The_effects_of_gratitude_practice_on_wellbeing_A_randomised_controlled_trial">the things that went well</a> and the reasons why</p></li>
</ul>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/286201/original/file-20190730-186819-1hadpxc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/286201/original/file-20190730-186819-1hadpxc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=849&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/286201/original/file-20190730-186819-1hadpxc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=849&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/286201/original/file-20190730-186819-1hadpxc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=849&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/286201/original/file-20190730-186819-1hadpxc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1066&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/286201/original/file-20190730-186819-1hadpxc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1066&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/286201/original/file-20190730-186819-1hadpxc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1066&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<ul>
<li>look after yourself physically! Work towards <a href="https://www.nih.gov/news-events/nih-research-matters/physical-activity-helps-reduce-depression-symptoms">exercising regularly</a>, getting enough sleep and having a balanced diet.</li>
</ul>
<p>Practical strategies like these are used in the cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) approach to managing depression. CBT focuses on developing more helpful ways of thinking and behaving. <a href="https://moodgym.com.au/info/faq">Moodgym</a> is a great place to learn CBT techniques.</p>
<h2>There is ALWAYS someone to talk to</h2>
<p>During challenging times it’s important to speak up and reach out for support. Talk to a trusted adult, maybe a parent or teacher, about what’s happening. Consider contacting an online or telephone support service such as <a href="https://kidshelpline.com.au/">Kidshelpline</a> or <a href="https://headspace.org.au/eheadspace/">e-headspace</a>. An open chat with your school counsellor may also be a good starting point.</p>
<p>A GP can help guide you too. You can find a doctor who bulk bills (so you don’t have to pay). ReachOut has a great web-page with some simple tips for finding the right doctor to talk to about this – <a href="https://au.reachout.com/articles/part-1-getting-yourself-a-mental-health-care-plan">you can find it here</a>. </p>
<p>If you are experiencing depression, the doctor may help you develop a mental health care plan which can give you up to ten Medicare-subsidised sessions with a private psychologist or clinical psychologist per year. </p>
<p>When you use a mental health care plan you, or your parents, will be charged the full amount for the psychology session, then the rebate will be refunded back into the bank account. It’s a good idea to ask what the appointment fees are before booking. Private psychologist rates can vary significantly, from bulk billing to A$300 an hour.</p>
<p>Depending on what is available in your area, a GP might recommend other support options such as:</p>
<ul>
<li>a group therapy program, which again might attract a different Medicare rebate level </li>
<li>counselling at a community health service which is usually free of charge</li>
</ul>
<p>Have a read <a href="https://au.reachout.com/articles/part-2-using-your-mental-health-care-plan">of this ReachOut page</a> to understand more, including how to find a psychologist who “gets” you. </p>
<p>For more ideas, check out <a href="https://au.reachout.com/">Reachout</a> and <a href="https://www.youthbeyondblue.com/">Youth Beyondblue.</a></p>
<h2>If you’d like to learn more, here are some helpful links</h2>
<ul>
<li><p><a href="https://oyh.org.au/sites/oyh.org.au/files/factsheets/OYH_Depression_youngpeople.pdf">Depression and Young People</a></p></li>
<li><p><a href="http://resources.beyondblue.org.au/prism/file?token=BL/0790">A Guide to what works for depression in young people</a></p></li>
<li><p><a href="https://www.orygen.org.au/Education-Training/Resources-Training/Resources/Free/Clinical-Practice/Modifying-CBT">Modifying CBT for Depression in Young People</a></p></li>
</ul>
<p><em>If you or anyone you know needs help or is having suicidal thoughts, contact Lifeline on 131 114 or beyondblue on 1300 22 46 36.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>_The graphics in this article were updated on August 30. </p>
<hr><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/120889/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Louise Remond does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>There’s a difference between having low days and feeling bad all the time. The latter is a common feature of depression.Louise Remond, Clinical Psychologist, The Kidman Centre UTS, University of Technology SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1212722019-08-19T17:13:29Z2019-08-19T17:13:29ZBees: how important are they and what would happen if they went extinct?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/288509/original/file-20190819-123727-g4fre1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=1270%2C246%2C3687%2C2632&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/honey-bee-collecting-pollen-on-yellow-644034640?src=nkJpkfSPFmr0-GNVE_K2BA-1-0">Shutterstock.</a></span></figcaption></figure><blockquote>
<p><strong>How important are bees and what will happen when they go extinct? Is there research into what is killing them? I’ve been told it’s weed killers… – Tink, aged 18, Cornwall, UK.</strong></p>
</blockquote>
<p>Bees – including honey bees, bumble bees and solitary bees – are very important because they pollinate food crops. Pollination is where insects move pollen from one plant to another, fertilising the plants so that they can produce fruit, vegetables, seeds and so on. If all the bees went extinct, it would destroy the delicate balance of the Earth’s ecosystem and affect global food supplies. </p>
<p>There are more than 800 wild bee species within Europe, seven of which are classified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/">critically endangered</a>. A further 46 are endangered, 24 are vulnerable and 101 are near threatened. While it’s unlikely that all bee species will be wiped out anytime soon, losing these threatened species would still have a big impact on pollination around the world, wiping out plant species, some of which we rely on for our food.</p>
<hr>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/i-need-to-know-66587">I Need To Know</a> is a series by <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk">The Conversation</a>, which gives teenagers the chance to have their questions about the world answered by experts.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>But the problem goes far beyond bees. In fact, honeybees are responsible for only one third of crop pollination and <a href="https://www.pnas.org/content/113/1/146">a very small proportion</a> of the wild plant pollination. There are a diverse range of other insects including butterflies, bumblebees and small flies that do the rest of the work – and it looks like these insects are in trouble too. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/288508/original/file-20190819-123705-16569u1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/288508/original/file-20190819-123705-16569u1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288508/original/file-20190819-123705-16569u1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288508/original/file-20190819-123705-16569u1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288508/original/file-20190819-123705-16569u1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=539&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288508/original/file-20190819-123705-16569u1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=539&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288508/original/file-20190819-123705-16569u1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=539&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A bumblebee, pulling it’s weight.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Emily L Brown</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320718313636">A recent study</a> suggests that as many as 40% of the world’s insect species are in decline. Insects are facing extinction rates that are eight times higher than vertebrates. In Germany, scientists have recorded <a href="http://dx.plos.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0185809">losses of up to 75%</a> of the total mass of insects in protected areas.</p>
<p>These trends lead scientists to believe that about a third of all insect species – that’s nearly 2m – <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320718313636">may be threatened with extinction</a>. And that figure is growing by over 100,000 species every year. Yet hard data on threatened insect species is lacking, with only 8,000 records actually assessed by the <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/">IUCN</a>.</p>
<p>Here’s a rundown of what scientists believe to be the <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0153531">top causes</a> of declines in insect diversity and abundance. </p>
<h2>Invasive species</h2>
<p>Invasive predators, parasites and disease-causing bacteria called “pathogens” have been blamed for the collapse of honeybee colonies around the world. </p>
<p>Recently, the spread of the <a href="https://www.bbka.org.uk/pages/faqs/category/asian-hornet-faqs">Asian Hornet</a> in Europe has caused great concern. This species preys on honey bees, and a single hornet is capable of killing an entire hive. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/QzeDskBHl8U?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>There is some evidence that <a href="https://www.pnas.org/content/108/2/662">wild bees in North America</a> have declined in the face of fungal and bacterial diseases.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/embattled-bees-face-yet-another-potential-threat-virus-carrying-hoverflies-92464">Embattled bees face yet another potential threat – virus-carrying hoverflies</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Of course, in the past bees have coexisted with these pathogens. The fact that scientists have seen more bees lost to these diseases in recent times is probably linked with the bees’ increased exposure to pesticides, which can <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160412016300095">damage their immune systems</a>.</p>
<h2>Pesticides</h2>
<p>Pollution – particularly from exposure to pesticides – is a key cause of pollinator decline. There are three types of chemical pesticide widely used in the UK: insecticides targeting insect pests, fungicides targeting fungal pathogens of crops and herbicides targeting weeds.</p>
<p>Insecticides contain chemicals that can kill pollinators, so they’re clearly a threat. But they may not be the greatest problem pollinators experience. Herbicides are actually <a href="http://www.pan-uk.org/pesticides-agriculture-uk/">used five times as much</a> in farming as insecticides. These weed killers target a huge variety of the wild plants that bees need to forage. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169534705003022">Environmentally-friendly farming schemes</a> recommend planting wildflower strips on the edge of crops, to provide safe refuge and food sources for pollinators. Yet <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/bk-2017-1249.ch011">drifting clouds of herbicide</a> from growing fields can contaminate these wildflower strips. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/288520/original/file-20190819-123745-133wus1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/288520/original/file-20190819-123745-133wus1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288520/original/file-20190819-123745-133wus1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288520/original/file-20190819-123745-133wus1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288520/original/file-20190819-123745-133wus1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288520/original/file-20190819-123745-133wus1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288520/original/file-20190819-123745-133wus1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Wildflowers border farmland in Sussex, UK.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/looking-out-over-meadow-wild-flowers-1175258251?src=naFFRNmc0g2xD4fDYv4mog-1-97">Shutterstock.</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The most cutting-edge research suggests glyphosate (the most commonly used weed killer) can <a href="https://www.pnas.org/content/115/41/10305">impact the gut microbes of bees</a>, which can have devastating implications for their health. </p>
<p>Although exposure to herbicides and pesticides used by farmers is likely to be one of the main causes of pollinator decline, the chemicals used by city authorities and civilian gardeners might also be harming bees and other insects. So, for the bees’ sake, it’s best to avoid using them where possible.</p>
<h2>Climate change</h2>
<p>Global warming is believed to be a major driver of wild bee declines. Some wild bees can only survive in a narrow range of temperatures. As their habitats get warmer, the places where they can live grow smaller. For example, some might be <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0001706X13002192">forced to live at higher altitudes</a>, where it’s cooler, reducing the space they have to live in.</p>
<h2>Habitat destruction</h2>
<p>The way land is farmed has been associated with <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2005.00782.x">declines in biodiversity</a> and pollination. Farming destroys the kinds of spaces that bees use to nest, it takes away the diversity of food that bees use to forage on and it even has wider impacts on other animals like wild birds, mammals and amphibians. </p>
<p>While countless insect species are currently going extinct, those that remain are <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320718313636">taking their place</a>, so it’s unlikely that crops will stop being pollinated any time soon. Generalist species such as the buff-tailed bumblebee, the European honey bee and common small black flies, which can survive in a huge range of temperatures and conditions, will become the main species pollinating our food sources, while rarer, more specialist species will decline. </p>
<p>But as generalist species move in to take the place space left by the losses of specialists, and complex ecosystems become dominated by a couple of generalists, the whole system becomes far more susceptible to a single sudden change. Insects form the base of many intricate food webs, their decline will result in a complex cascade of impacts on vertebrates, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1722477115">threatening ecological stability</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/121272/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Philip Donkersley does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>It’s unlikely that all species of bees will go extinct anytime soon – but current losses could still have a terrible impact on food supplies and ecosystems.Philip Donkersley, Senior Research Associate in Entomology, Lancaster UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1118342019-07-30T20:04:09Z2019-07-30T20:04:09Z‘I’m an international student in Australia. How do I tell my parents the pressure they put on me is too much?’<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/261547/original/file-20190228-106338-3qjwi6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=29%2C0%2C3964%2C2000&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Your happiness and self care is more important than anything else right now. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Nina Maile Gordon/The Conversation</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><blockquote>
<p>On behalf of student here from Hong Kong I am so worried to tell my parents that the work is too much. They want me to study hard and continue at an Australian university. </p>
<p>– Anonymous</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Key points</h2>
<ul>
<li>first and foremost, look after yourself</li>
<li>try to talk to your parents, remembering they only want what’s best for you</li>
<li>find a trusted friend or counsellor you can talk to.</li>
</ul>
<p>Hi, and thanks for your question. My answer to your question is quite long because there are a few ways you can approach this.</p>
<p>Coming to live in Australia on your own and studying in an unfamiliar education system is extremely hard. You may be struggling with the language barrier, making you more stressed and anxious. I imagine there are times when you might feel quite alone.</p>
<p>Having worked with many international students, I’ve seen firsthand how pressure from from parents can affect students’ stress levels and mental health – you are not alone. A <a href="https://www.orygen.org.au/Policy-Advocacy/Policy-Reports/Under-the-radar">recent report</a> found due to culture, language and academic barriers international students are at a higher risk of mental ill-health than domestic students. </p>
<p>There aren’t any statistics around the mental health of Chinese international students, but <a href="https://www.sbs.com.au/news/you-are-not-alone-lifeline-seeks-to-reach-out-to-chinese-community">recent news coverage</a> has shed light on its prevalence. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/recent-campus-attacks-show-universities-need-to-do-more-to-protect-international-students-120082">Recent campus attacks show universities need to do more to protect international students</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>It’s tough, but you should talk to your parents</h2>
<p>Being an international student is a family project, not just an individual venture. Many Asian students who go overseas to study<a href="https://www.routledge.com/Transnational-Students-and-Mobility-Lived-Experiences-of-Migration/Soong/p/book/9781138022836"> have financial and emotional support</a> from their parents. </p>
<p>They carry their parents’ aspirations and dreams. They consider education extremely important to <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-we-know-about-why-chinese-students-come-to-australia-to-study-97257">getting a good job.</a> Sound familiar?</p>
<p>In particular, many people born in China believe academic success comes mainly from diligence, so many Chinese parents believe their child can make it if they work hard enough. Such value on education is a <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Khar_Ng/publication/292615505_Science_Education_in_East_Asia_Pedagogical_Innovations_and_Research-informed_Practices_edited_by_Myint_Swe_Khine_and_published_by_Springer/links/56b0426908ae8e37214d1cda.pdf#page=47">powerful influence of the Confucian tradition</a>.</p>
<p>If you can, you should try to tell your parents how you feel. Being honest with your parents about what is happening can be extremely hard. This is because we are afraid we might be misunderstood by immediate family or we might bring shame to our parents when we let them know we are struggling.</p>
<p>Unfortunately there is no fixed way to approach a conversation with your parents as each parent-child relationship is unique. Remember, there is no shame in letting your parents know you are seeking their support in your present life in Australia.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/i-need-to-know-my-friend-is-using-ice-and-smoking-pot-what-do-i-do-111525">I Need to Know: 'My friend is using ice and smoking pot. What do I do?'</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Find a trusted friend to talk to</h2>
<p>While you are in Australia, it is important to find someone you can relate to. There are more than <a href="https://www.austrade.gov.au/Australian/Education/Countries/hong-kong">17,000 students</a> from Hong Kong in Australia.</p>
<p>Often, international students like to socialise with other international students. Do you know of any other Hong Kong international students in your campus/school? Are there any international student friendship groups, clubs or social organisations you can attend? Have a look on Facebook or your university’s socials page.</p>
<p>You don’t necessarily have to make friends with someone of the same background as you. There are many people in the same situation, who feel stressed and alone in a different country. </p>
<h2>Focus on you</h2>
<p>Your ability to grow confident will strongly impact your well-being and mental health. And self-care is the <a href="https://www.sbs.com.au/topics/life/culture/article/2018/08/14/battling-depression-australian-international-student">first step towards</a> battling, or helping to prevent, mental-health issues.</p>
<p>Here are some tips on how to do that:</p>
<ul>
<li> Do you like food? What’s your favourite meal? It can be comforting to eat food you miss when you are homesick. If you don’t know how to cook meals you love, you could learn: YouTube channels on “how to cook Chinese food” can be handy. </li>
</ul>
<hr>
<figure>
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</figure>
<hr>
<ul>
<li><p>hearing and reading about how other international students overcome their personal challenges can be another strategy – here’s a <a href="http://creatrixtiara.com/#creatrixtiaracom">blog you might like</a></p></li>
<li><p>check out the Instagram account @internationalstudentsofaus. It offers advice, genuine experience and stories, which will show <a href="https://www.meldmagazine.com.au/2018/11/international-student-australia-instagram-andrew-kelly/">you are not alone</a></p></li>
</ul>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/BkZ5LXrAmhY","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<ul>
<li>if the language barrier is a persistent challenge for you, there are ways to improve your English. Try volunteering at local school or university events, or offer an hour or two per week of your time to volunteer for community organisations such as an aged care service or library. In this way, you can learn about Australian culture and develop confidence to communicate through experiences.</li>
</ul>
<h2>There are ALWAYS people to talk to</h2>
<p>If you don’t feel comfortable speaking to your parents, family or friends, then please find a professional to talk to. If you’re in a capital city, a quick Google search of “Cantonese speaking psychologist” should bring up a list of results.</p>
<p>Or, here are some other options:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>This is the international student hot line offered by the federal education department. It is available from 8am to 6pm from Monday to Friday. It is free for international students: 1300 363 079</p></li>
<li><p><a href="https://www.studiesinaustralia.com/studying-in-australia/why-study-in-australia/support-services">here is a list of all universities</a> that offer on-site counselling</p></li>
<li><p><a href="https://www.studyinaustralia.gov.au/english/live-in-australia/support-services">here is a list of all available support services</a> for international students in Australia.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>You are struggling because you care a lot about your parents. But they also want you to be happy with your stay and studies in Australia. Your personal aspiration is just as important as your parents’ hopes for you – remember that.</p>
<p>If things don’t get better and you find yourself with no one to talk to, there are two mental-health services you can call: Lifeline on 131 114 or beyondblue 1300 22 46 36.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/111834/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hannah Soong does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Coming to live in Australia on your own and studying in an unfamiliar education system is extremely hard. There are ways to make it a bit easier.Hannah Soong, Senior Lecturer and Socio-cultural researcher, UniSA Education Futures, University of South AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1183412019-07-17T02:40:05Z2019-07-17T02:40:05Z‘How do I increase my libido?’<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/283015/original/file-20190708-51268-qj1zpx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4000%2C2000&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">It's perfectly normal for your libido to fluctuate.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wes Mountain</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/i-need-to-know-the-conversation-launches-a-qanda-service-for-teens-103432">I Need to Know</a> is an ongoing series for teens in search of reliable, confidential advice about life’s tricky questions.</em></p>
<hr>
<blockquote>
<p>Hi I’ve been in a relationship for nearly 4 years now and have gone from having a high libido to a very low one, is there ways that I can change this? - Anonymous</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Key Points</h2>
<ul>
<li>Our libidos fluctuate. Changes are normal</li>
<li>Most relationships start on a high, then libidos can decrease</li>
<li>Communication is key to working through these types of issues.</li>
</ul>
<p>Changes in libido are common throughout life, and affect all genders. This can cause worry, especially when you notice what seems like a dramatic drop. But there are plenty of ways to help! </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/do-i-need-to-shave-my-pubic-hair-before-having-sex-114614">'Do I need to shave my pubic hair before having sex?'</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Your libido isn’t a switch</h2>
<p>Libido is your sexual desire or drive and it’s affected by a combination of physical, emotional, psychological and relationship circumstances. </p>
<p>Going through puberty often leads to the first experiences of libido, which helps us understand the importance of certain hormones in triggering the sex drive. In <a href="https://joe.bioscientifica.com/view/journals/joe/186/3/1860411.xml">women, oestrogen is responsible for a lot of the sex drive, while in men it’s testosterone</a>. </p>
<p>Some <a href="https://www.nps.org.au/australian-prescriber/articles/drug-induced-sexual-dysfunction-in-men-and-women">medical conditions and medications</a> as well as commonly used drugs like alcohol can affect hormones and brain chemicals which lower the sex drive – in other words, there is a physical component to a person’s libido. </p>
<p>For example, depression can cause the sex drive to take a dive, and yet so can medication to treat depression. </p>
<p>Similarly, some people experience lower libido on <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4764410/">some hormonal contraceptives</a>, while others find it helps. Everyone is different and things can change over time.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/are-kegel-exercises-actually-good-for-you-111747">'Are Kegel exercises actually good for you?'</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Crazy in ‘limerence’</h2>
<p>Most importantly, libido is hugely influenced by circumstances and experiences around us, from the past or present. A common scenario is like your own – where libido drops as a relationship gets older. </p>
<p>The early part of a relationship can be full of sex drive and something called limerence. Limerence is an emotional reaction to a new partner or relationship that is <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1764845/">intensely romantic</a> – plenty of love songs are written during this phase of a relationship! It’s due to the activation of certain brain chemicals and for some people feels like an addiction or obsession, the feeling of being “<em>madly</em> in love”. </p>
<p>As the relationship continues, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22268980">limerence declines and sometimes sex drive does too</a>. For some couples, this is fine and doesn’t cause too much concern. For others, having a lower libido creates distress for one or both people.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/JptwkEhdNfY?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Actually Beyoncé, it’s called limerence.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Communicate, communicate, communicate!</h2>
<p>Sometimes simply knowing that a drop in libido can be normal is reassuring. Other times it’s not and it’s worth checking out a few things. Do a quick scan of your general health, including stress and lifestyle (alcohol, drugs, sleep habits, exercise). </p>
<p>Alternatively chat with your partner and look at what’s happening inside and outside the bedroom. Here’s some good questions to ask them (and remember, talk through them honestly with each other):</p>
<ul>
<li><p>do you have different levels of libido or body clocks (one falls asleep at 9pm the other at 1am)? </p></li>
<li><p>does your partner want sex much more (or much less) than you do? This can create tension or anxiety which will affect your sex drive </p></li>
<li><p>over the four years you’ve been together, have you been able to communicate with each other about what gives you pleasure and does that feel mutual? </p></li>
<li><p>what sort of variety do you like in bed? </p></li>
<li><p>could there be issues going on outside the relationship, such as financial stress, worry about parents/family or study or work? </p></li>
<li><p>could there be issues from the past that have been weighing on your mind? </p></li>
</ul>
<p>If you’re worried about a medical issue, see your GP to start with. If it’s more likely to be related to stress or your relationship, then you could see a counsellor on your own or as a couple.</p>
<p>You might not need professional intervention – many couples can figure out this stuff with good communication, but don’t hesitate to reach out for help if you want to.</p>
<p><a href="https://ansr.me/jeQnz"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281306/original/file-20190626-76717-16108tz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=74&fit=crop&dpr=3" width="100%"></a></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/118341/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Melissa Kang does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>While changes in libido are perfectly normal, there’s still some things you can do to try and increase it. If they don’t work, consider seeing a doctor or counsellor.Melissa Kang, Associate professor, University of Technology SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1146142019-05-31T04:22:23Z2019-05-31T04:22:23Z‘Do I need to shave my pubic hair before having sex?’<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/274020/original/file-20190513-183086-usifug.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=89%2C71%2C3898%2C1688&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">No one can decide what to do with your body but you!</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Nina Maile Gordon/The Conversation, </span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/i-need-to-know-the-conversation-launches-a-qanda-service-for-teens-103432">I Need to Know</a> is an ongoing series for teens in search of reliable, confidential advice about life’s tricky questions</em>.</p>
<hr>
<blockquote>
<p>Do you need to shave your vagina before having sex?
Anonymous</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Key points</h2>
<ul>
<li>An estimated 60% of young women remove their pubic hair</li>
<li>Pornography does not reflect women’s diversity</li>
<li>If you’re shaving your pubic hair, use a mirror and clean razor</li>
<li>Shaving before sex is your choice. </li>
</ul>
<hr>
<p>It can be challenging for girls and women to learn how to relate to their bodies because there are so few resources available to adequately guide us. It’s no wonder, then, that you ask this important question!</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/274550/original/file-20190515-60529-1yd8oa7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/274550/original/file-20190515-60529-1yd8oa7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274550/original/file-20190515-60529-1yd8oa7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274550/original/file-20190515-60529-1yd8oa7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274550/original/file-20190515-60529-1yd8oa7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274550/original/file-20190515-60529-1yd8oa7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/274550/original/file-20190515-60529-1yd8oa7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Before we get any further, I want to clarify that pubic hair grows on and around your vulva, not the vagina. The vagina is internal. Here’s a helpful graphic of what is going on down there.</p>
<p>While I can’t tell you what you should do with your pubic hair (in fact, no one should tell you what to do with your body), I can give you some information to help you make an informed decision. So, to shave or not to shave? Here are five things to consider.</p>
<h2>1. More than half of young women remove their pubic hair</h2>
<p>One <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11199-008-9494-3">study</a> of young Australian women found 60% of them removed some of their pubic hair, compared with 96% who regularly removed their leg and underarm hair. While removing pubic hair is becoming more common, it is still not as typical as removing leg and underarm hair. </p>
<p>This might tell us something about the social pressures we face when it comes to our body hair: the more visible the hair, the more likely we are to remove it. Social norms about body hair can sometimes make choice feel impossible. </p>
<p>But there is also a growing wave of young women taking to social media to talk back to these pressures. They celebrate our natural diversity and difference, and embrace their relationships with body hair.</p>
<p><iframe id="tc-infographic-393" class="tc-infographic" height="400px" src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/infographics/393/0fac7360e455b21512ca55bcbb34109c101f1036/site/index.html" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<h2>2. It’s fashion</h2>
<p>Just as the hair on our head is subject to changing fashions and trends, so too is pubic hair! Over the past few decades, women’s pubic hair has undergone dramatic refashioning. </p>
<p>Fashions range from the full bush in the 1970s to the “Brazilian” in the 1990s, to a more recent move towards complete hairlessness, aided by <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Plucked-History-Hair-Removal-Biopolitics/dp/1479852813">new technologies</a> such as laser hair removal. Remember, behind our beauty work sits an <a href="https://newmatilda.com/2018/05/19/beauty-myth-3-0/">entire industry that profits from our insecurities</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/270616/original/file-20190424-19300-1hakodi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/270616/original/file-20190424-19300-1hakodi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/270616/original/file-20190424-19300-1hakodi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/270616/original/file-20190424-19300-1hakodi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/270616/original/file-20190424-19300-1hakodi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/270616/original/file-20190424-19300-1hakodi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/270616/original/file-20190424-19300-1hakodi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/270616/original/file-20190424-19300-1hakodi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">There’s a lot of money to be made (and time spent) removing hair.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Nina Maile Gordon/The Conversation</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>3. Pubes and porn</h2>
<p>Popular culture is influential in how we think about the female body. With the growing availability of pornography, young people increasingly see it as a “normal” representation of how people have sex. Perhaps you’ve looked at porn before and thought, wow, is that what I should do and what I should look like while doing it?</p>
<p>Remember, porn is a performance and is highly stylised. It does not reflect our “real”, non-Photoshop world. For example, one of the many reasons that porn tends to show women without pubic hair is that it allows the camera to capture graphic shots. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/are-kegel-exercises-actually-good-for-you-111747">'Are Kegel exercises actually good for you?'</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>4. Sex, STIs and shaving</h2>
<p>Some <a href="https://sti.bmj.com/content/93/3/162">studies</a> suggest shaving pubic hair may increase the risk of getting a sexually transmitted infection. One reason is that shaving can cause micro-tears in the top layer of the skin, which can lead to bacterial buildup and transmission. More research is needed to substantiate these claims. </p>
<p>If you do shave, use a mirror so you can see what you’re doing, and take extra care around the outer lips of your vulva where cuts are more common. Make sure your razor is clean and use warm water. Alternatively, you can trim the hair, or wax (while this prolongs hair regrowth it may present other health risks such as infection).</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/is-it-normal-for-girls-to-masturbate-112393">'Is it normal for girls to masturbate?'</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>5. Demanding bodily autonomy!</h2>
<p>We are raised to think of our vulvas as our “private parts”, belonging purely to ourselves. The world around us comes to influence what we do and feel about our bodies. What we do with our hair is no different. </p>
<p>Hair has always been a site for political intervention: whether it’s the military exercising discipline by shaving men’s hair, or the “body police” mandating that body hair is <a href="https://www.foxnews.com/lifestyle/nike-ad-featuring-woman-unshaven-armpits-prickly-reactions">less acceptable on women than it is on men</a>. To dictate what someone does with their hair is to take away their bodily autonomy. </p>
<p>One of the ways to assert control over our own bodies is to recognise that the ideas and practices available to us as girls and women are often so habitual that they’re rarely questioned. Considering how some young women are renegotiating femininity might be a good start. From there, you can negotiate which practices best suit your values and beliefs, which may change over time. And in direct response to your question, shaving before sex is your choice!</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/114614/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Helen Barcham is a member of staff in the Office of the Vice-Chancellor at Western Sydney University. </span></em></p>While we can’t tell you what to do with your body, we can give you some information to help make an informed decision about shaving your pubic hair.Helen Barcham, PhD candidate, Western Sydney UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1176912019-05-29T08:42:08Z2019-05-29T08:42:08ZWill climate change cause humans to go extinct?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/276805/original/file-20190528-42546-10z1o6f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5609%2C3745&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Alas, poor all of us. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/real-skull-on-squeak-1406903027?src=8bSpihtoapqYxy2GNzeyfg-1-11">Shutterstock.</a></span></figcaption></figure><blockquote>
<p><strong>I see a lot of resources talking about near-term human extinction, or the fact that thanks to climate change my generation will see the end of humanity. How likely is an outcome like this? Is there any hope for our futures?</strong></p>
<p><strong>Anonymous, aged 18. London, UK.</strong></p>
</blockquote>
<p><em>This article is part of <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/i-need-to-know-66587">I Need To Know</a>, a Q&A service for teenagers by The Conversation.</em> </p>
<hr>
<p>The claim that humanity only has just over a decade left due to climate change is based on a misunderstanding. In 2018, a fairly difficult-to-read <a href="https://report.ipcc.ch/sr15/pdf/sr15_spm_final.pdf">report</a> by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/sr15/chapter/summary-for-policy-makers/c/spm3b_29102018/">warned that</a> humanity needs to cut its carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions in half by 2030, to avoid global warming of 1.5°C above the levels seen before the industrial revolution. </p>
<p>What this actually means is roughly, “We have about 12 years before fixing climate change becomes <em>really</em> expensive and tough.” </p>
<p>Humanity can still live in a world with climate change – it’s just going to be more work, and many lives and livelihoods are likely to be threatened. But it’s complicated, because this century we are facing many problems at the same time, and we are more dependent on each other than ever. </p>
<h2>Under pressure</h2>
<p>To get our food, most of us humans depend on global transport, payment and logistics systems. These, in turn, require fuel, electricity, communications and a lot of other things to work properly. </p>
<p>All these systems are connected to each other, so if one starts crashing, the chaos may cause other systems to crash, and before we know it we’ll have massive shortages and conflicts. </p>
<p>It’s hard to calculate the exact risk of this happening, since it has never happened before. Until recently, the world was split into separate regions that were largely independent of each other. </p>
<p>But we do know that climate change puts the whole world under pressure – everywhere, at the same time – making the risk of these systems collapsing more serious. </p>
<p>For example, it’s easier for businesses to handle cybersecurity and energy supply when they don’t also have to cope with natural hazards. Likewise, it’s difficult for governments to maintain infrastructure when politicians are busy dealing with the public’s reactions to food prices, refugees and ecological crises. </p>
<h2>Building resilience</h2>
<p><a href="http://www.geoengineering.ox.ac.uk/www.geoengineering.ox.ac.uk/what-is-geoengineering/what-is-geoengineering/">Geoengineering</a> to reduce the impact of climate change – for example, by reducing CO₂ levels or pumping reflective particles into the Earth’s atmosphere to deflect the sun’s rays – <a href="https://theconversation.com/time-is-running-out-on-climate-change-but-geoengineering-has-dangers-of-its-own-107732">might work</a>. But if disaster strikes and those operations stop, the effects of climate change <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10669-012-9429-y">can return quickly</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/time-is-running-out-on-climate-change-but-geoengineering-has-dangers-of-its-own-107732">Time is running out on climate change, but geoengineering has dangers of its own</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The reasonable thing to do is to work on making our systems more resilient – and there are <a href="https://www.postcarbontransition.net/the-sipster">plenty of opportunities</a> to do this. In practice, this means more local energy production, better backup systems, work on reducing climate change, and being more willing to pay extra for safety. </p>
<h2>Disasters and diseases</h2>
<p>So what about the other threats humanity is facing? Though natural hazards such as earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanoes and hurricanes can be disastrous, they pose a <a href="https://oxfordre.com/naturalhazardscience/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199389407.001.0001/acrefore-9780199389407-e-293">comparatively small threat</a> to the survival of the human race. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/276809/original/file-20190528-42593-1qja5mm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/276809/original/file-20190528-42593-1qja5mm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/276809/original/file-20190528-42593-1qja5mm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=814&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276809/original/file-20190528-42593-1qja5mm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=814&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276809/original/file-20190528-42593-1qja5mm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=814&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276809/original/file-20190528-42593-1qja5mm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1023&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276809/original/file-20190528-42593-1qja5mm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1023&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276809/original/file-20190528-42593-1qja5mm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1023&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Asteroids? Ideally not.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/attack-asteroid-meteor-on-earth-elements-1403100119?src=hPFw6HJOcz7Rh_3nTXG49Q-2-63">Shutterstock.</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Hazards big enough to cause entire species to go extinct are relatively rare. The typical mammalian species survives for about a million years, so the risk is <a href="https://www.fhi.ox.ac.uk/natural-vs-anthro/">roughly one in a million per year</a>.<br>
Asteroid impacts and supervolcanos do happen, but they are rare enough that we do not have to worry about them. Even so, planning for the day when <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/planetarydefense">we need to deflect an asteroid</a> or <a href="https://allfed.info/">make do without agriculture for a decade</a> is a smart move.</p>
<p>Pandemics are worse. We know the 1918 flu <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/flu/pandemic-resources/1918-pandemic-h1n1.html?CDC_AA_refVal=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Ffeatures%2F1918-flu-pandemic%2Findex.html">killed tens of millions of people worldwide</a>. New influenza viruses are popping up all the time, and we should expect to see a big pandemic at least once every 100 years. </p>
<p>Over the past century, we have become better at medicine (which lowers the risk from disease) but we also travel more (which increases the spread of diseases). Natural pandemics are unlikely to wipe out the human race, since there is almost always somebody who is immune. But a bad pandemic might still wreck our global society.</p>
<h2>Technology attacks</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1200679/">Bioweapons</a>, which use bacteria, viruses or fungi to harm humans or agriculture, are another issue. Fortunately, they have rarely been used in war, but they might become more dangerous in the near future because advances in biotechnology are making it <a href="http://blog.nuclearsecrecy.com/2013/01/04/doomsday-on-the-cheap/">easier and cheaper</a> to modify organisms and automate lab work. </p>
<p>As this technology becomes more accessible, there’s a growing risk it could be used as a “<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fail-deadly">doomsday device</a>” by nasty regimes, to deter other states from seeking to topple them. Right now, the risk is smallish, but it will surely become larger if we do not figure out better ways to detect pathogens early on, keep an eye on risky biotechnology and do <a href="https://www.fhi.ox.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/Existential-Risks-2017-01-23.pdf">diligent diplomacy</a> to keep governments sane. </p>
<p>Perhaps the biggest risk to humanity right now is nuclear weapons. I would personally guess the risk of a nuclear war (not necessarily world-ending but still horrifying) to be <a href="https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/were-edging-closer-to-nuclear-war/">somewhere between one in 100 and one in 1,000 per year</a>. This risk goes up or down, depending on tensions between countries and the competence of the people handling early warning systems.</p>
<p>At the <a href="https://www.fhi.ox.ac.uk/">Future of Humanity Institute</a> at the University of Oxford, we do a lot of work on Artificial Intelligence (AI). As with biotechnology, the risk right now is pretty minimal, but it might grow in time as AI become <a href="https://arxiv.org/pdf/1705.08807.pdf">better and smarter</a>, and <a href="https://futureoflife.org/background/aimyths/">we think it’s better to be safe than sorry</a>. </p>
<p>Developing tools to ensure AI stays safe and operates in a way that benefits humanity could save money in the long run, and it’s unlikely to make things worse. Again, the probability of an AI disaster is fairly undefined, since it changes depending on how well we prepare for it. </p>
<p>I can’t give a probability of a world-ending disaster that isn’t more or less guesswork. But I do think there’s a big enough risk of such a disaster in our lifetimes that we should work <em>hard</em> to fix the world – whether by making sure governments and AI stay safe and sane, replacing fossil fuels, building backup systems and plans, decentralising key systems and so on. These things are worthwhile, even if the risk is one in a million: the world is precious, and the future we are risking is vast.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=176&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=176&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263883/original/file-20190314-28475-1mzxjur.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=176&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/imagine-newsletter-researchers-think-of-a-world-with-climate-action-113443?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=Imagineheader1117691">Click here to subscribe to our climate action newsletter. Climate change is inevitable. Our response to it isn’t.</a></em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/117691/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anders Sandberg does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>An expert responds to a teenager who wants to know – is there any hope for humanity’s future?Anders Sandberg, James Martin Research Fellow, Future of Humanity Institute & Oxford Martin School, University of OxfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1115362019-05-02T20:14:31Z2019-05-02T20:14:31ZHow hard is it to say ‘no’ to drugs?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/261788/original/file-20190303-110134-73eo9m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=11%2C5%2C3982%2C1988&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">If most of your peer group is experimenting with substances, you will almost certainly be offered them. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Nina Maile Gordon/The Conversation</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/i-need-to-know-the-conversation-launches-a-qanda-service-for-teens-103432">I Need to Know</a> is an ongoing series for teens in search of reliable, confidential advice about life’s tricky questions</em>.</p>
<hr>
<blockquote>
<p>As someone who has never touched drugs before, how hard is it really to say no to illicit substances?</p>
<p>Anonymous, 17, Newington</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Key points</h2>
<ul>
<li>The easiest way to say “no” is by explaining why you don’t want to take drugs (while at the same time not sounding judgemental)</li>
<li>alcohol is the most commonly used drug</li>
<li>most young people don’t use illicit drugs.</li>
</ul>
<p>Hi and thanks for the question. Can young people <em>really</em> “just say no” to illicit drugs? There are a few things to consider, so let’s talk them through. </p>
<h2>1. Are all teenagers trying drugs?</h2>
<p>It might feel as though your friends are going to go through a phase of experimenting with illicit drugs. But in fact, <a href="https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/illicit-use-of-drugs/2016-ndshs-detailed/data">most young people don’t take illicit drugs</a>.</p>
<p>Alcohol is by far the most commonly used drug, though rates of alcohol use are generally decreasing. A <a href="https://beta.health.gov.au/resources/publications/secondary-school-students-use-of-tobacco-alcohol-and-other-drugs-in-2017">national survey of secondary students</a> found 46% of 12-17 year olds had tried alcohol in the past year, but only 25% had in the past month. Similarly, <a href="https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/illicit-use-of-drugs/ndshs-2016-detailed/contents/table-of-contents">another survey</a> found young people were trying alcohol for the first time later (about age 16) and more were abstaining than ever before (82%). </p>
<hr>
<iframe title="Percentage of Australian teenagers who have tried illicit drugs" aria-label="Split Bars" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/e6SgY/2/" scrolling="no" frameborder="0" width="100%" height="237"></iframe>
<hr>
<p>Cannabis is often the first illicit drug young people are exposed to (about 7% of 12-17 year-olds have tried it). Later on, generally in your early 20s, you’ll start to encounter people trying harder drugs such as ecstasy and amphetamines (see in the graph above how this number dramatically increases between the two age groups). Even then, <a href="https://www.aihw.gov.au/getmedia/15db8c15-7062-4cde-bfa4-3c2079f30af3/21028a.pdf.aspx?inline=true">the majority</a> of people don’t regularly use these drugs. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/three-charts-on-who-uses-illicit-drugs-in-australia-110169">Three Charts on who uses illicit drugs in Australia</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>2. Will people actually offer me drugs?</h2>
<p>There is a widespread assumption that drugs are frequently offered to people your age. This isn’t always the case. Drug use is an illegal activity, so people who have them and who sell them tend to be a little cautious who they talk to about it. You might not ever be offered them directly. </p>
<p>But if most of your peer group are experimenting with substances, you almost certainly will be offered them. So…</p>
<h2>3. How to say ‘no’ without it being a big deal</h2>
<p>Although most young people don’t use drugs, <a href="https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/36687719/DUFF_Party_Drugs_and_Normalization_Paper.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAIWOWYYGZ2Y53UL3A&Expires=1550194529&Signature=avglowgmbnW%2FCaMG%2FKkv0gE9Bqg%3D&response-content-disposition=inline%3B%20filename%3DParty_Drugs_and_Party_People_Examining.pdf">some studies</a> point out they’re open to other people doing so. This is referred to as the “normalisation” of illicit substance use: in simple terms, it’s being OK with your friends drinking alcohol or doing drugs even if you choose not to. </p>
<p>If you don’t want to drink or take drugs, you’ll find yourself in a position where you have to explain why. It might be useful to say something like:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>It’s not my thing, but I don’t care if you’re into it. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Or if you feel like you need to give a reason, perhaps,</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I always react badly when I drink alcohol/smoke joints, so I just don’t like it. </p>
<p>I have a game tomorrow and don’t want to feel bad.</p>
<p>I have bad come downs, so the high’s just not worth it for me.</p>
<p>I have a family thing tomorrow and don’t want to be hungover / coming down.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Hot tip: try not to make the other people feel like you you are judging them, but don’t feel like you need to justify why you don’t want to use drugs either.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/261618/original/file-20190301-110143-w21j4d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/261618/original/file-20190301-110143-w21j4d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/261618/original/file-20190301-110143-w21j4d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/261618/original/file-20190301-110143-w21j4d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/261618/original/file-20190301-110143-w21j4d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/261618/original/file-20190301-110143-w21j4d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/261618/original/file-20190301-110143-w21j4d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Nina Maile Gordon/The Conversation</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>4. Can you be the only one in the group who doesn’t use them?</h2>
<p>When you do something you don’t want to do, you won’t feel good about it or about yourself. So you might have your friends, but you might not be happy – that’s not a great trade-off!</p>
<p>Make a point of being around people and friends who make you feel good. You might not enjoy hanging out with people when they’re affected by drugs, so don’t! Spend time with people who don’t pressure you to do things, and perhaps skip the parties, meet-ups and hangouts where you think there’s a good chance you won’t have fun.</p>
<p>If your friends are using drugs a lot and it’s impacting their lives in other ways, you might want to help them get some help – <a href="https://au.reachout.com/articles/how-to-help-a-friend-with-drug-addiction">here are some tips on how to do that</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/i-need-to-know-my-friend-is-using-ice-and-smoking-pot-what-do-i-do-111525">I Need to Know: 'My friend is using ice and smoking pot. What do I do?'</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>If you’re the only person in your group not using drugs, you might want to find some other like-minded friends – perhaps through school, a part-time job or sport.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/111536/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kathryn Daley has received funding from the Foundation for Alcohol Research and Education and previously worked for the Youth Support + Advocacy Service. </span></em></p>While the majority of teenagers don’t take illicit drugs, there’s still a chance you might be offered them. Here’s how to say no, according to an expert.Kathryn Daley, Senior Lecturer & Program Manager - Youth Work and Youth Studies. School of Global, Urban and Social Studies, RMIT University, RMIT UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1133582019-04-10T04:49:17Z2019-04-10T04:49:17Z‘My girlfriend is intimidated by the idea of having sex. What should I do?’<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/264301/original/file-20190318-28499-ovpsbb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Mutual respect and communication are key to successful relationships, regardless of the gender of the partners.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Nina Maile Gordon/The Conversation</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>This article is part of <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/i-need-to-know-66587">I Need To Know</a>, a Q&A service for teenagers by The Conversation.</em></p>
<hr>
<blockquote>
<p>My girlfriend was brought up in a conservative family and is intimidated by sex. She enjoys sex but flinches if I initiate. I’m starting to lose a lot of self confidence as a result.</p>
<p>Anonymous</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Key points</h2>
<ul>
<li>Communication is everything! It might be a little strange at first, but talk about these things</li>
<li>Make sure you’re on the same page about what you both want out of your relationship</li>
<li>Talk, talk, talk!</li>
</ul>
<p>Thank you for the question. Simply put, being in a relationship can be complex and unfortunately there can be too little, or no real guidance on how to make a relationship work effectively. Discussing sex with your parents, teachers, friends and family members might make you feel embarrassed, or may not even be possible. This sucks because our relationships are some of the most important aspects of our lives!</p>
<p>Sex and sexuality are important to intimate relationships and who we are, but when you start having sex with someone new it can be scary (even for adults). For people of some religious and ethnic backgrounds there can also be shame, confusion and stigma about having sex. Keep this in mind when speaking with your girlfriend. Be open, understand her concerns and let her know you’re listening (and be sure you <em>are</em> listening).</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/266474/original/file-20190329-139364-y9ome0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/266474/original/file-20190329-139364-y9ome0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/266474/original/file-20190329-139364-y9ome0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/266474/original/file-20190329-139364-y9ome0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/266474/original/file-20190329-139364-y9ome0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/266474/original/file-20190329-139364-y9ome0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/266474/original/file-20190329-139364-y9ome0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/266474/original/file-20190329-139364-y9ome0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">If one person in your relationship doesn’t want to do something that’s very normal! Just talk about it (no matter how strange that might feel).</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://broadlygenderphotos.vice.com/">The Gender Spectrum Collection/Zackary Drucker</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Communication is everything</h2>
<p>Respect and communication are key to successful relationships, regardless of you or your partner’s gender. It’s important to express to our sexual partners what we are comfortable doing and when. It’s perfectly normal to feel comfortable doing something on one occasion, then not wanting to do it on another.</p>
<p>Not wanting to have sex or do certain acts in a relationship isn’t a failure or due to a lack of love or interest – it may feel like a blow to your confidence, but it’s just a normal part of developing a respectful relationship.</p>
<p>So what should <em>you</em> do? Start by expressly and openly talking with your girlfriend about what you are comfortable doing and when. Encourage her to do the same. It might feel weird at first (or even a little embarassing) but having these conversations now is important. And with practice, this type of openness will only make your relationship and sex life better.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/is-it-normal-to-get-sore-down-there-after-sex-111744">'Is it normal to get sore down there after sex?'</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Get the conversation flowing</h2>
<ul>
<li>Talk about how you’re feeling in the relationship and check in with your partner. Are you happy? Is she happy? </li>
<li>Talk about what you’re comfortable doing (maybe you feel comfortable just doing oral, and she doesn’t, or maybe she feels comfortable taking things slowly – that’s perfectly normal and okay)</li>
<li>Talk openly about consent and make sure you’re both enthusiastic about having sex before going any further. It might seem weird, but just ask: Is this what you want? </li>
<li>Also make sure you both understand it’s okay to stop having sex (<a href="https://wwwn.cdc.gov/hivrisk/increased_risk/partners/power.html">withdraw consent</a>) if either of you begins to feel uncomfortable with what is happening. </li>
</ul>
<hr>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/JGpgwI4eIpE?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<hr>
<h2>More than just ‘sex’</h2>
<p>There is so much more to sex than penetrative intercourse, but that is what many people assume is “sex”. Oral sex, mutual masturbation, rubbing, foreplay, are just some of the alternatives and equally satisfying – you might find <a href="http://archermagazine.com.au/2016/09/non-penetrative-sex-shame-heteronormativity-climaxing-without-destination/">this article from Archer Magazine useful</a>. </p>
<p>First and foremost, sex should be enjoyable, comfortable and satisfying for both your girlfriend and you. And the key to getting to that stage is talking!</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/113358/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Rhodes does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Simply put, being in a relationship can be complex - but if there’s one secret to a happy one, it’s communication.David Rhodes, Senior Lecturer, School of Education, Edith Cowan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1117472019-03-26T17:58:31Z2019-03-26T17:58:31Z‘Are Kegel exercises actually good for you?’<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/262833/original/file-20190308-150673-1epszue.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4000%2C2000&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The good thing about Kegel exercises is that you can do them pretty much anywhere.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Nina Maile Gordon/The Conversation</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/i-need-to-know-the-conversation-launches-a-qanda-service-for-teens-103432">I Need to Know</a> is an ongoing series for teens in search of reliable, confidential advice about life’s tricky questions</em>.</p>
<hr>
<blockquote>
<p>Are kegel exercises actually beneficial?</p>
<p>– Anonymous</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Key points</h2>
<ul>
<li>Yes, they are very beneficial</li>
<li>They are super easy to do (once you know how)</li>
<li>Childbirth is the common reason why pelvic floor muscles weaken.</li>
</ul>
<p>Hi, and thanks for your question. Kegel exercises are also known as pelvic floor exercises and were introduced back in the 1940s by a gynaecologist (a medical doctor specialising in women’s reproductive health) named, you guessed it, Dr Kegel. He developed these exercises as a method for improving control of urine leakage after childbirth. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/264276/original/file-20190318-28483-1osrq3t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/264276/original/file-20190318-28483-1osrq3t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/264276/original/file-20190318-28483-1osrq3t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/264276/original/file-20190318-28483-1osrq3t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/264276/original/file-20190318-28483-1osrq3t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/264276/original/file-20190318-28483-1osrq3t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/264276/original/file-20190318-28483-1osrq3t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/264276/original/file-20190318-28483-1osrq3t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">These are the female pelvic floor muscles (click on the image if you’re having a little trouble seeing it). Even if you’re not thinking of having a kid any time soon, it’s still a good idea to get into a good routine of exercising them.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Your <a href="https://www.continence.org.au/pages/how-do-pelvic-floor-muscles-help.html">pelvic floor muscles</a> are quite an amazing collection of layers of muscle. The work they do also involves the bones of the pelvis (hip bones and lower end of the spine), ligaments and nerves. Together, they work a bit <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1472875/">like a hammock</a> across the bottom of your pelvis not only to keep your organs from sagging but also work in sync with your bladder, rectum (the last part of your large intestine) and the vagina, making sure urine and poo are stored and released when you’re ready for it.</p>
<p>You might not want a kid today (or ever!) and you might be of any gender – it doesn’t matter because keeping your pelvic floor muscles fit is good for now and the future. There is much less research on whether Kegels make sex more enjoyable or easier to orgasm, despite what you may have read online or heard from friends. However, what we do know is having a strong pelvic floor helps with sexual enjoyment <a href="https://www.smr.jsexmed.org/article/S2050-0521(18)30087-8/pdf">after giving birth</a>, and might also help men <a href="https://academic.oup.com/ptj/article/94/12/1731/2741899">experiencing erection problems</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/is-it-normal-to-get-sore-down-there-after-sex-111744">'Is it normal to get sore down there after sex?'</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>How to do them</h2>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/0Lo3hR9zsuA?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>Doing Kegel exercises is super easy once you know how. Because there are several pelvic floor muscles, it’s good to work out where they are and to exercise all of them. </p>
<ol>
<li><p>If you sit on the toilet to wee, try stopping the wee half way through and holding it like that for a few seconds, then let go. If you do that successfully, you’ve found some of your pelvic floor muscles. </p></li>
<li><p>Next try squeezing the muscles around your anus as though you are holding in some wind. </p></li>
<li><p>When you do pelvic floor exercises, you lift and squeeze all these muscles at once. Hold the squeeze for eight to ten seconds then relax for the same amount of time. </p></li>
<li><p>Repeat this eight to ten times, and do it three times a day. That’s a pretty good daily workout. </p></li>
</ol>
<p>The good thing about Kegel exercises is that you can do them pretty much anywhere. Sitting in class, on the bus or train, driving, watching TV, or reading The Conversation.</p>
<p>All people have pelvic floor muscles (not just women), but childbirth is a common reason why the pelvic floor muscles weaken. Ageing and surgery to the pelvic floor area can also weaken these muscles. This can lead to incontinence (involuntary leaking of urine, or less commonly leaking of poo) as well as sagging of the organs inside the pelvis.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/is-it-normal-for-girls-to-masturbate-112393">'Is it normal for girls to masturbate?'</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p><a href="https://www.cochranelibrary.com/cdsr/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD007471.pub3/full">Research</a> shows doing Kegel exercises early in pregnancy can reduce incontinence later in pregnancy and after childbirth. It’s not certain how long the benefit lasts, but that’s because the research hasn’t extended beyond a few months.</p>
<p>If you do have problems with urine leakage, or have concerns about weakness of your pelvic floor muscles for some other reason, you might need help from a physiotherapist to get more personalised advice.</p>
<hr><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/111747/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Melissa Kang does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Doing kegel exercises is actually very beneficial for your pelvic floor muscles. Don’t know how to do them? We have you covered.Melissa Kang, Associate professor, University of Technology SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1137762019-03-18T14:05:56Z2019-03-18T14:05:56ZHow can I help a friend with depression?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/264358/original/file-20190318-28499-7vke2s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C451%2C4816%2C3426&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/_tfFjSyIUZY">Luke Ellis-Craven/Unsplash. </a>, <a class="license" href="http://artlibre.org/licence/lal/en">FAL</a></span></figcaption></figure><blockquote>
<p><strong>How do I help a depressed friend? She’s 13 and she says it’s due to trauma, and even though we’re bffs she’s never told me what the trauma is.</strong> </p>
<p><strong>– Anonymous.</strong></p>
</blockquote>
<p><em>This article is part of I Need To Know, a Q&A service for teenagers by The Conversation.</em></p>
<p>What a thoughtful friend you are, the fact you have asked how you can help shows how much you care. Your friend may not have told you about the trauma, but she has opened up to you about feeling depressed, which must mean she really trusts you and this is something you can definitely help her with.</p>
<p>Depression is a common mental health problem that can affect people at many different stages in life. How bad it gets and how long it lasts can really vary. It’s often something that people find hard to talk about, as many people don’t really understand what it is. </p>
<h2>Understanding depression</h2>
<p>We all feel sad or down from time to time, but depression is worse than that, and typically affects the way we feel, how we think and how we behave. We know <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/02699931.2016.1232698?needAccess=true">from research</a> that people with depression often withdraw from friends and family, stop doing things they enjoy and have more negative thoughts, which make them feel hopeless. You may have noticed some of these signs with your friend.</p>
<p>You can help her just by letting her know that you care and that she can talk to you if she wants. If she opens up to you, all you have to do is listen. Letting someone express how they feel <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140197115002201">is very therapeutic</a>. It may be that your friend doesn’t feel she can talk to her family or may not know where else to find support. </p>
<p>The next thing you could do is give your friend some information about what support is out there. For example, she can speak confidentially with <a href="http://www.childline.org.uk">Childline</a> or find out more information on the <a href="https://youngminds.org.uk">Young Minds website</a>. These are professional organisations that are specialised in helping young people with depression and trauma-related problems (I’ve linked to some sources below). </p>
<h2>Coping with trauma</h2>
<p>Most victims of trauma find it hard to talk about the trauma itself, as this can bring back the feelings and physical sensations that they experienced at the time. <a href="http://www.georgiadisaster.info/Schools/fs%207%20school/PTSD%20in%20Children%20&%20Adolescents.pdf">Trauma is defined</a> as a deeply distressing or disturbing experience. It can be triggered by a one off event, or can be the result of ongoing stress.</p>
<p>People can experience trauma as a result of ordinary life events such as illness, divorce or losing a loved one, <a href="https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/32495504/complex-trauma-in-children.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAIWOWYYGZ2Y53UL3A&Expires=1552916993&Signature=TzgVB5hoKc3gKFoPJR8OQnNSQCI%3D&response-content-disposition=inline%3B%20filename%3DComplex-trauma-in-children.pdf">or more extreme events</a> such as assault, injury or natural disasters. No matter how the trauma came about, I would urge you to be very careful about uncovering this with your friend – it would be better if you could seek support together from a trusted adult, or through a specialist service.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/264365/original/file-20190318-28492-1io4pbc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/264365/original/file-20190318-28492-1io4pbc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/264365/original/file-20190318-28492-1io4pbc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/264365/original/file-20190318-28492-1io4pbc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/264365/original/file-20190318-28492-1io4pbc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/264365/original/file-20190318-28492-1io4pbc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/264365/original/file-20190318-28492-1io4pbc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Keep moving.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/young-girl-dribbling-soccer-ball-596460">Shutterstock.</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>You can also help you friend by encouraging her to keep up her usual activities, such as doing sports and seeing friends. Getting <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11036-013-0484-5">good quality sleep</a> can also help with mood, and <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1744-6171.2012.00341.x">keeping a journal</a> could help her to make sense of how she feels and process difficult emotions. </p>
<h2>Don’t go it alone</h2>
<p>But the most important advice I can give you is not to take on all the responsibility for helping your friend. There are many people and services who can support you and your friend, and this will give you the freedom to enjoy your time together having fun and sharing each other’s company.</p>
<p>For more information about what depression is and how to find support, take a look at the websites of these mental health services:</p>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://www.mind.org.uk">Mind</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.rethink.org">Rethink Mental Illness</a></li>
<li><a href="https://youngminds.org.uk/">Young Minds</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.childline.org.uk">Childline</a></li>
</ul>
<hr><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/113776/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lowri Dowthwaite-Walsh does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Depression can affect people at any stage in life – here, an expert in psychology answers a young reader’s question about how to help.Lowri Dowthwaite-Walsh, Lecturer in Psychological Interventions, University of Central LancashireLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1135302019-03-14T12:16:35Z2019-03-14T12:16:35ZClimate change: a climate scientist answers questions from teenagers<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/263890/original/file-20190314-28471-t0r1rf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Students out in force. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/leeds-uk-15-feb-2019-placard-1313909480">Kevin J. Frost.</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>Pupils from around the world are going on strike from school to demand urgent action from the world’s leaders on climate change. Here, a scientist answers teenagers’ questions about climate change, gathered by the <a href="http://climate.leeds.ac.uk">Priestley International Centre for Climate</a> at a previous strike in February. You can find more Q&As like this on the <a href="http://climate.leeds.ac.uk/is-it-too-late-young-climate-strikers-questions-answered/">centre’s website</a>. If you’re a teen, you can have your questions about the world answered by academic experts – find out how at the end of this article.</em></p>
<h2>How long is the planet going to last? I heard it was 12 years…</h2>
<p>The “12 years” date you’ve heard comes from a special report requested by the United Nations, which looks at the impacts of <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/sr15/">global warming at 1.5°C</a> above pre-industrial levels. At the moment, the world is <a href="https://report.ipcc.ch/sr15/pdf/sr15_headline_statements.pdf">1°C warmer</a> than in the late 19th century: the <a href="https://www.climate-lab-book.ac.uk/2016/global-temperature-changes-since-1850/">earliest period</a> for which we have reliable temperature measurements and just before the Industrial Revolution got into full swing. </p>
<p>To avoid global warming above 1.5°C, humanity needs to cut its carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions to about half of today’s levels by 2030, and to zero by 2050. The 2030 date – 12 years from when the report was released in October, 2018 – got a lot of <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/oct/08/global-warming-must-not-exceed-15c-warns-landmark-un-report">media attention</a>.</p>
<p>Missing the 2030 deadline would make it very difficult to keep global warming under 1.5°C. That temperature is not necessarily safe, but the damage caused by climate change will quickly get worse with higher levels of warming. </p>
<p>At today’s 1°C of warming, there have already been increases in <a href="https://www.theccc.org.uk/tackling-climate-change/preparing-for-climate-change/uk-climate-change-risk-assessment-2017/">extreme weather events</a> (such as heat waves and flooding), as well as <a href="https://www.theclimatecoalition.org/recipefordisaster">food shortages</a> and <a href="https://medium.com/university-of-leeds/is-climate-change-endangering-britains-national-dishes-81c12af46592">effects on food production</a>. Entire species are <a href="https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2016/06/first-mammal-extinct-climate-change-bramble-cay-melomys/">already going extinct</a>, for reasons related to climate change.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/j5-Q3eu4myk?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>At 2°C of warming or above, rising sea levels, more frequent extreme weather and damaging effects on food and water supplies will make some parts of the world very hard to live in. As a result, it’s predicted that many people will need to leave their homes and become <a href="https://www.unhcr.org/climate-change-and-disasters.html">climate refugees</a>, while many millions more people worldwide will be exposed to poverty. What’s more, many species will be lost and virtually all corals will die. </p>
<p>Unfortunately, we are not on track to keep warming below 1.5°C, or even 2°C. If countries hit their existing targets, <a href="https://climateactiontracker.org/global/temperatures/">temperatures will rise by around 3°C</a> – or more than that, if emissions continue to grow.</p>
<p>The planet itself will survive man-made climate change. In fact, it has been warmer, <a href="https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/global-warming/early-eocene-period">millions of years ago</a>, although the world looked very different back then. Humans are not expected to go extinct – but we will have to learn to cope with a warmer world, and all its challenges. This means cooperating and providing support and resources to vulnerable people.</p>
<h2>What would be the most effective policy to end climate change?</h2>
<p>No single policy will end climate change, but a very effective strategy would be to quickly <a href="https://theconversation.com/immediate-phase-out-of-fossil-fuels-could-keep-warming-below-1-5-c-109672">phase out fossil fuels</a> such as coal and petrol, which are used to create electricity and power transport. There are <a href="https://www.theccc.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/CCC-2018-Progress-Report-Infographic-with-logo.jpg">many different ways</a> to achieve this goal, and it’s important that leaders choose policies that create good jobs and strengthen communities. </p>
<p>For example, governments need to put money towards safe, reliable, efficient and affordable trains and buses, so people can get around without using cars. Towns and cities should be designed to be more friendly to walking, cycling and public transport. <a href="https://www.theccc.org.uk/2019/02/21/uk-homes-unfit-for-the-challenges-of-climate-change-ccc-says/">Homes</a> should have good transport links, and be built or modified to be more energy efficient, so that they’re easier to keep cool in the summer and warm in the winter. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/263893/original/file-20190314-28512-14z86lh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/263893/original/file-20190314-28512-14z86lh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=285&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263893/original/file-20190314-28512-14z86lh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=285&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263893/original/file-20190314-28512-14z86lh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=285&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263893/original/file-20190314-28512-14z86lh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=358&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263893/original/file-20190314-28512-14z86lh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=358&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263893/original/file-20190314-28512-14z86lh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=358&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Emissions from air travel are taking off.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/airplane-departure-553331545">Shutterstock.</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>International air travel is also responsible for a <a href="https://www.carbonbrief.org/aviation-consume-quarter-carbon-budget">growing share of global emissions</a> and governments around the world need to work together to come up with a response. </p>
<p>Farming – especially meat and dairy production – also creates a surprisingly <a href="https://theconversation.com/meat-is-a-complex-health-issue-but-a-simple-climate-one-the-world-needs-to-eat-less-of-it-44006">large amount of emissions</a>. So, governments should encourage farmers to use <a href="https://medium.com/age-of-awareness/approaches-to-food-and-farming-sustainability-8b0e6019a879">sustainable approaches</a>. Agriculture can also lead to deforestation. Since trees <a href="https://www.forestry.gov.uk/forestry/infd-869ga8">remove carbon dioxide</a> from the atmosphere, forests must be protected, and new trees planted.</p>
<h2>What’s the single best thing I could do in my life to help the climate?</h2>
<p>First, you can find out what your environmental footprint is using this <a href="https://footprint.wwf.org.uk">questionnaire</a> from the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF). The survey gives advice to help you and your family reduce your impact. Research <a href="https://phys.org/news/2017-07-effective-individual-tackle-climate-discussed.html">has also highlighted</a> the biggest changes a person can make to help the climate. They are: </p>
<ol>
<li>Fly less. </li>
<li>If you are old enough to drive, challenge yourself to live without a car, or to car-share with family and friends. </li>
<li>Switching to a <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/may/31/avoiding-meat-and-dairy-is-single-biggest-way-to-reduce-your-impact-on-earth">vegetarian or vegan diet</a> can reduce your footprint (although it might be better to <a href="https://lovefoodhatewaste.com/">avoid food waste</a> than to stick to a strict diet). </li>
<li>It’s controversial, but true: in wealthier countries, having one less child makes the <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/aa7541#erlaa7541f1">biggest impact of all</a>.</li>
</ol>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/263895/original/file-20190314-28483-mchd78.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/263895/original/file-20190314-28483-mchd78.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263895/original/file-20190314-28483-mchd78.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263895/original/file-20190314-28483-mchd78.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263895/original/file-20190314-28483-mchd78.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263895/original/file-20190314-28483-mchd78.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263895/original/file-20190314-28483-mchd78.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Reduce, reuse, recycle.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/young-happy-women-doing-shopping-weekly-565912315">Shutterstock.</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Smaller actions in your daily life can also help. Turning down the heating or air conditioning at home and only heating or cooling the rooms you’re using will save money and reduce carbon emissions. Try to buy less clothing, plastics and gadgets, since it takes resources and energy to make these items. </p>
<p>Make, borrow, swap, buy secondhand or <a href="https://freecycle.org/">find things for free</a>, and recycle as much as possible that can’t be reused. When you’re old enough, you can also choose to put your money in an ethical bank account, and get electricity from 100% renewables.</p>
<p>Individual changes <a href="https://lili.leeds.ac.uk/news/an-audacious-toolkit-actions-against-climate-breakdown-part-3-i-is-for-individual/">will only go so far</a>, but remember that your actions can inspire others. Use your voice! Talking about climate change with your friends, family and classmates really helps to raise awareness and drive further action.</p>
<hr><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/113530/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Chris Smith does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>What’s the best thing I can do to help the climate? How long is the planet going to last? These questions and more answered by a climate scientist.Chris Smith, Research Fellow in Physical Climate Change, University of LeedsLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1123932019-02-28T19:14:03Z2019-02-28T19:14:03Z‘Is it normal for girls to masturbate?’<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/260626/original/file-20190225-26165-ylqvge.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">It is normal for girls and women to masturbate.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Nina Maile Gordon/The Conversation</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/i-need-to-know-the-conversation-launches-a-qanda-service-for-teens-103432">I Need to Know</a> is an ongoing series for teens in search of reliable, confidential advice about life’s tricky questions</em>.</p>
<hr>
<blockquote>
<p>Hi, I have a question after reading <a href="https://theconversation.com/i-need-to-know-is-it-normal-to-get-sore-down-there-after-sex-111744">a published piece</a> for I Need To Know. Masturbating has always seemed to be acceptable for boys, but less commonly discussed among girls. </p>
<p>Is it normal for girls to masturbate and are there any health consequences? I am a girl who accidentally discovered how to masturbate when I was quite young and continued it on and off afterwards, should I be worried about this? Will this affect my future sexual experience?</p>
<p>Anonymous, 17, Melbourne</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Key points</h2>
<ul>
<li>It is normal for girls and women to masturbate</li>
<li>it was a female Australian surgeon who helped us fully understand the clitoris</li>
<li>there are health benefits to masturbating (including relieving period pain and stress)</li>
<li>there is no right or wrong frequency for masturbation.</li>
</ul>
<p>Hi there, and thanks for bringing up this really important topic. You’ve asked some great questions and I hope the answers will be reassuring! First of all: yes it’s completely normal for girls and women to masturbate. </p>
<h2>What is masturbation?</h2>
<p>Masturbation is when a person touches their own genitals for sexual arousal and pleasure, and often leads to orgasm. It can include touching other parts of your body that feel good, such as the nipples. Many people use their fingers and hands, but some might use objects such as sex toys. </p>
<p>Masturbation is something people do to themselves, although “mutual masturbation” refers to people touching each others’ genitals for the same reason.</p>
<h2>Who masturbates?</h2>
<p>In a large Australian <a href="http://www.ashr.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/sex_in_australia_2_summary_data.pdf">survey</a>, 42% of women said they had masturbated in the past year (compared to 72% of men). This survey included people aged 16 to 69 years of age, and there is no recent information on this topic in Australia on younger teens. </p>
<p>A <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapediatrics/fullarticle/1107656">study</a> in the US looked only at 14- to 17-year-olds and found by 17 years of age, over 58% of females said they masturbated, compared to 80% of 17-year-old males. So it’s pretty common, and it’s also possible girls and women just don’t like to say they’ve masturbated. </p>
<p>Traditionally, masturbation has been something that is acceptable for boys. It’s only recently we’ve started talking about female masturbation more openly.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/260599/original/file-20190225-26171-veh10r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/260599/original/file-20190225-26171-veh10r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/260599/original/file-20190225-26171-veh10r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/260599/original/file-20190225-26171-veh10r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/260599/original/file-20190225-26171-veh10r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/260599/original/file-20190225-26171-veh10r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/260599/original/file-20190225-26171-veh10r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">The Conversation</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It’s useful to know for most females the clitoris is the most sexually sensitive part of the body. The Australian study mentioned above also showed when a man and a woman have sex, women were much more likely to have an orgasm when her genitals were touched directly using hands or through oral sex. This is because of where the clitoris is. </p>
<p>It’s a wishbone-shaped bundle of nerves and blood vessels that will swell up and feel tingly and pleasurable when stimulated. The tip of it pokes out above the hole where wee comes out (the urethra) but it extends up to 10 centimetres behind the sides of the vagina. This is why it can also feel good to have an object (including fingers or a penis) inside the vagina pushing against the arms of the clitoris. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-the-clitoris-doesnt-get-the-attention-it-deserves-and-why-this-matters-53157">Why the clitoris doesn't get the attention it deserves – and why this matters</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>For most of history, the clitoris was not fully understood or appreciated. It was an Australian surgeon – and a woman – who <a href="https://www.auajournals.org/article/S0022-5347(01)68572-0/abstract">discovered how extensive</a> it was.</p>
<h2>Health benefits of masturbation</h2>
<p>There are plenty of health benefits from masturbation. Masturbating and having an orgasm <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14681990601149197?src=recsys&journalCode=csmt20">can relieve period pain</a> and stress. </p>
<p>It’s also a great way to explore your body and know what feels good, which will make it easier to communicate to a partner when the time comes. It is also a sexual practice that cannot cause pregnancy or lead to an STI. </p>
<p>You mentioned discovering masturbation when you were quite young. Parents and caretakers <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0891524503001548?via%3Dihub">report</a> observing even very young children touching their genitals because it feels good. Although the body needs to go through puberty before a person can experience mature sexual arousal, it’s clear children also experience pleasurable sensations. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/is-it-normal-to-get-sore-down-there-after-sex-111744">'Is it normal to get sore down there after sex?'</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>You also mention masturbating “on and off”. There is no right or wrong frequency for masturbating – it’s only a problem if a person feels it’s interfering with daily life.</p>
<p>Because sexuality in humans is linked to emotions, thoughts and beliefs, the ability to experience pleasure and orgasm <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00224490902878993">does vary</a> enormously. Negative feelings such as guilt or shame can be associated with masturbation especially if a person has grown up with specific negative beliefs about it. </p>
<p>There has been a long standing double standard about females being able to enjoy sex which, as you have noticed, means it’s not always easy to talk about. So thank you on behalf of lots of young women out there for being willing to talk about this very natural activity!</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/112393/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Melissa Kang does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>It is normal for girls and women to masturbate, and there are even health benefits.Melissa Kang, Associate professor, University of Technology SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1117442019-02-17T19:00:09Z2019-02-17T19:00:09Z‘Is it normal to get sore down there after sex?’<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/258949/original/file-20190214-1758-xx87dr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Sex should never hurt.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/just-so-you-know-the-conversation-launches-a-qanda-service-for-teens-103432">I Need to Know</a> is an ongoing series for teens in search of reliable, confidential advice about life’s tricky questions.</em></p>
<hr>
<blockquote>
<p>Hi! I only recently have gotten a boyfriend and have started having regular sex. After 2 or more days, it starts to get a bit sore down there. Is that normal? I just assumed it was pain from friction, but I don’t know if that’s right and I’ve never sought help because it’s a bit embarrassing! </p>
<p>Sandra, 17, in Sydney</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Key points</h2>
<ul>
<li>Sex should never hurt</li>
<li>if it does, tell the person to stop</li>
<li>get checked out by a GP or sexual health clinic to make sure it’s not something that needs to be treated – better safe than sorry.</li>
</ul>
<p>Hi, and thanks for your question! You’re not alone in finding that sex isn’t always straightforward. By sex, I assume you mean intercourse. What I’m not sure about is where you mean by “down there”. In a woman’s body, down there is lots of places!</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/259355/original/file-20190216-56215-1jr6979.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/259355/original/file-20190216-56215-1jr6979.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/259355/original/file-20190216-56215-1jr6979.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/259355/original/file-20190216-56215-1jr6979.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/259355/original/file-20190216-56215-1jr6979.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/259355/original/file-20190216-56215-1jr6979.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/259355/original/file-20190216-56215-1jr6979.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">The Conversation</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
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<hr>
<p>To start with, sex shouldn’t hurt, and if it does, a good tip is to say “stop”, no matter what! The aftermath of sex also shouldn’t hurt – whether it’s two minutes, two hours or two days later. </p>
<p>Even very vigorous intercourse where there’s lots of friction should not actually hurt. It can happen if there’s not enough natural (or artificial) lubrication or if there’s some muscle tension in the vagina. Both of these can be signs of not being fully aroused (turned on) beforehand or during sex, or being a bit anxious about having sex.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/female-sexual-dysfunction-or-not-knowing-how-to-ask-for-what-feels-good-34651">Female sexual dysfunction or not knowing how to ask for what feels good?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>A new partner or relationship can bring some anxiety for each person. It can affect the way a woman’s body (or a man’s) gets aroused and how comfortable sex feels. Good communication with your partner about what feels good is really helpful. </p>
<p>If you have background worry about <a href="https://playsafe.health.nsw.gov.au/">sexually transmitted infections</a> (STIs) or pregnancy, that can definitely affect enjoyment of sex. Getting armed with <a href="https://www.fpnsw.org.au/health-information/individuals/under-25s">knowledge</a> and equipment to prevent any unwanted consequences of sex should be a routine part of getting into a relationship for both parties.</p>
<p>The cause of your pain also depends on where it is – is it at the opening of the vagina, or other parts of the vulva? Is it related to peeing, and is it always in the same place? </p>
<p>Inflammation (redness and soreness) can cause pain – this could be from inside the vagina such as with a thrush infection (which is not sexually transmitted) or from the skin in the vulva (which could be from dermatitis or a skin condition). </p>
<p>Some STIs cause pain in the genital area, for example herpes (caused by the cold sore virus), but you would be likely to notice the sores as well. A common STI such as chlamydia often has no symptoms, but could cause pain higher up in the pelvic area or when you wee. A condition known as <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4014358/">vulvodynia</a> causes chronic pain, not just from having sex – it can also be triggered by the conditions mentioned above.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/health-check-what-controls-our-sex-drive-when-and-why-do-we-feel-like-sex-61159">Health Check: what controls our sex drive? When and why do we feel like sex?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>You deserve to be enjoying a happy and healthy sex life, and not feeling embarrassed about one of the most natural experiences in the world – even if it’s not always going right. It’s important you do get personal advice, since this could be something that needs treatment. It would be good to have a doctor or sexual health clinic check up, and this can all be done completely confidentially.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/111744/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Melissa Kang does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Sex isn’t always straightforward – especially not when you first start ‘doing it’. If you experience pain ‘down there’ after sex, you may need to have a medical checkup.Melissa Kang, Associate professor, University of Technology SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1113272019-02-14T14:12:38Z2019-02-14T14:12:38ZWhy don’t teenagers have a greater say in their future?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/257961/original/file-20190208-174861-b3ktuv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C5%2C3450%2C2291&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Speaking out. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/350org/32444411788/sizes/l">350.org/Flickr.</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><blockquote>
<p><strong>I’m 14 and live in Manchester, UK. I want to know: why do we have no say in our future, from Brexit to having no say in school?</strong></p>
<p><strong>– Anonymous.</strong></p>
</blockquote>
<p><em>This article is part of <a href="https://theconversation.com/just-so-you-know-the-conversation-launches-qanda-for-teenagers-110863">I Need To Know</a>, a Q&A service for teenagers by <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk">The Conversation</a>.</em> </p>
<hr>
<p>Thanks for the question! </p>
<p>If you’re thinking you <em>should</em> have a say, I agree with you. Your school would seem fairer if you had a say in how the rules are made (some schools do this by running a <a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/cbbcnews/hi/find_out/guides/uk/school_councils/newsid_3043000/3043161.stm">school council</a>). And Brexit probably feels really unfair because you have to live with <a href="https://www.ofoc.co.uk/report">the consequences</a>, even though you didn’t get to vote on it. </p>
<p>I think both your school and the country would be run better if you had a say. As a student, you’re an expert in what it’s like to attend your school. If you had a say, your school could learn from your experience and include your ideas.</p>
<p>So why don’t you have a say? In most democracies, there are actually rules against it. In UK general elections you have to be at least 18 years old to vote, though Scotland and <a href="https://www.bigissue.com/latest/16-year-olds-could-soon-be-able-to-vote-in-welsh-elections/">soon Wales</a> can include people as young as 16 in <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/newsbeat/article/29279384/scottish-referendum-how-first-vote-went-for-1617-year-olds">some votes</a>, and there is <a href="http://www.votesat16.org/">a campaign</a> to change the rules and lower the voting age to 16 for all elections nationwide.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-must-seize-this-chance-to-bring-young-people-into-the-heart-of-british-democracy-62756">We must seize this chance to bring young people into the heart of British democracy</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Even when there aren’t rules, adults leave young people out in other ways. For example, many local council meetings are at 7pm or 8pm on weekday evenings – that’s very inconvenient for most teenagers, on a school night. At other times, adults let young people have a voice but don’t give them power to change anything. That’s not a proper say.</p>
<p>A lot of young people feel this way. In <a href="http://ukya.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/UKYA-Research-Report-Erasmus.pdf">this report</a> from UK Young Ambassadors and the British Youth Council, only 8% of young people said politicians knew what was important to them. So, I thought a lot about your question, and came up with some advice about how you <em>can</em> have a say.</p>
<h2>Get organised</h2>
<p>Young people can build power by working together. You can start by finding other people who share your interests. This might mean joining a community group, or getting together with friends to form your own. </p>
<p>Decide on what you want to achieve: your big idea. Then break it down into smaller, achievable goals. A good example of this has been in the news lately. Right now, all across the world, <a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-change-young-people-striking-from-school-see-it-for-the-life-threatening-issue-it-is-111159">school pupils are protesting</a> against their governments’ inaction on climate change. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/259039/original/file-20190214-1742-3oggc0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/259039/original/file-20190214-1742-3oggc0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/259039/original/file-20190214-1742-3oggc0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/259039/original/file-20190214-1742-3oggc0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/259039/original/file-20190214-1742-3oggc0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/259039/original/file-20190214-1742-3oggc0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/259039/original/file-20190214-1742-3oggc0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Greta Thunberg strikes every Friday.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/stockholm-sweden-february-08-2019-greta-1307696365?src=yrhBZ6TD5Can3fEohveFYQ-1-0">livoeian/Shutterstock.</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But this global movement didn’t start big. It began with just one person: <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2018/sep/01/swedish-15-year-old-cutting-class-to-fight-the-climate-crisis">Greta Thunberg</a>, a 16-year-old from Sweden (she was just 15 when she started striking). You can read <a href="https://www.facebook.com/gretathunbergsweden/posts/767646880269801">her post</a> about how she started organising the strikes on Facebook. </p>
<h2>Learn from others</h2>
<p>There are lots of organisations already up and running, which help young people organise, raise their voices and develop their skills. For example, there are youth councils all over the UK, including in <a href="http://www.manchesteryouthcouncil.co.uk/">Manchester</a>, as well as other youth groups and community organisations such as <a href="https://www.citizensuk.org/">Citizens UK</a>. Write to a local group to see what they can do for you.</p>
<p>You can also get ideas from young people in other places. For example, did you know that in some parts of New York, people as young as 14 get to vote on how money gets spent in their communities? This is called <a href="https://pbnetwork.org.uk/category/themes/young-people/">participatory budgeting</a>, and it gives the whole community a bigger say on how public money gets spent. Maybe your school council or local community could do the same?</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/257962/original/file-20190208-174851-1g37b1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/257962/original/file-20190208-174851-1g37b1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/257962/original/file-20190208-174851-1g37b1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/257962/original/file-20190208-174851-1g37b1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/257962/original/file-20190208-174851-1g37b1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/257962/original/file-20190208-174851-1g37b1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/257962/original/file-20190208-174851-1g37b1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Students vote during participatory budgeting in New York.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/65900513@N06/40725725124/sizes/l">Costa4NY/Flickr.</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Write to your representative</h2>
<p>Even some of the traditional ways of making your voice heard can be powerful. For instance, you could write to your Member of Parliament (MP). MPs depend on the local people, who they represent in parliament, to tell them about the issues that concern them. MPs can support a cause and might even be able to vote to make a new law in parliament. It’s your MP’s job to listen to you, whatever your age, and you can write to them any time.</p>
<p>The Children’s Society has <a href="https://www.childrenssociety.org.uk/what-you-can-do/campaign-for-change/how-to-lobby-a-decision-maker">a guide to letter writing</a>, and lots of other advice on how to make a petition to show you’ve got lots of support, or how to use art and photography to raise your voice. </p>
<p>Don’t just write one letter: organise others to write, too. Keep a record of when you wrote. You are likely to get a response from your MP, but if it’s not the response you wanted, keep writing. Ask questions like “what information would it take to change your mind on this?” or “how many names would I need on a petition to show you that this needs your support?”. Don’t give up.</p>
<p>Two tips for talking to a politician: show them why your issue is important, and explain what you want them to do and who it will help. Be as specific as you can, and give evidence wherever possible. </p>
<h2>Get creative</h2>
<p>You can express your opinions, share your research or raise awareness of your issues in all sorts of ways. This could be through art, music, social media or some other way. In Manchester, young people who are caught up in the justice system are working to influence reform with grime lyrics <a href="https://www2.mmu.ac.uk/mcys/gmyjup/pyp/">as part of this project</a> by the Manchester Centre for Youth Studies. </p>
<p>Teenage activist Amika George started her work against period poverty on social media, and <a href="https://www.freeperiods.org/facts/">her campaign</a> has already won £1.5m in funds from government to support women who can’t afford the menstrual products they need. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/1WRuKvLMkpA?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>There are loads of tools which could help you to get a more meaningful say in your school, community or country. Reach out to people you know. Find out their skills and work together. And if there’s something you want to change, do some research. See what other young people have done. </p>
<p>Because when young people get organised, they have the power to make the world a better place – for all of us. </p>
<p>If you’re reading this and you would like some advice about having your say, on an issue that matters to you, or in the place where you live, leave me a comment and I’ll do my best to answer you. You can also find me on Twitter (<a href="http://www.twitter.com/bennosaurus">@bennosaurus</a>).</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/111327/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Benjamin Bowman does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Young people don’t get to vote on the issues of the day, but that doesn’t mean they can’t build power and make their voices heard.Benjamin Bowman, Lecturer, Manchester Metropolitan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1115252019-02-11T19:16:07Z2019-02-11T19:16:07ZI Need to Know: ‘My friend is using ice and smoking pot. What do I do?’<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/258149/original/file-20190211-174861-sgjkf9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">It can be tricky to know what to do when someone you care about starts taking drugs.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/just-so-you-know-the-conversation-launches-a-qanda-service-for-teens-103432">I Need to Know</a> is an ongoing series for teens in search of reliable, confidential advice about life’s tricky questions.</em></p>
<hr>
<blockquote>
<p>My friend is using ice and smoking dope. He says it makes him feel good like his medication doesn’t. His parents know but don’t know what to do. I am worried, as he has stopped being chatty and is not going out or doing anything. He is changing, but worse.</p>
<p>– Anonymous</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Working out what to do when you are worried about a friend who is using drugs can be tricky. Just asking the question shows what a supportive friend you are and that’s a very good start.</p>
<p>There’s not one right way to approach it. There are many ways to help and support your friend.</p>
<p>Remember, they might not see their drug use as a problem (from what you have said it sounds like they view it as a solution rather than a problem). </p>
<p>You can’t force your friend to do anything they don’t want to do. In the end, it needs to be their decision to change, but there’s lots you can do to support and encourage them.</p>
<h2>How do you know if it’s a problem?</h2>
<p>One thing to remember is that most <a href="https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/illicit-use-of-drugs/ndshs-2016-detailed/contents/table-of-contents">people who use drugs</a> only use occasionally for a short time in their lives and won’t develop a serious issue.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/many-people-use-drugs-but-heres-why-most-dont-become-addicts-35504">Many people use drugs – but here’s why most don’t become addicts</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>People take drugs for lots of <a href="https://theconversation.com/in-debates-about-drug-use-fun-is-important-110696">different reasons</a>, including because it is fun or it makes them feel good, to “escape” from problems, and to make physical (like pain) or emotional (like anxiety) problems go away (sometimes referred to as “self-medicating”).</p>
<p>If your friend is using drugs regularly it’s more likely they’ll be having negative effects. <a href="https://au.reachout.com/articles/how-to-tell-if-you-have-a-drug-problem">Signs</a> that drug use is becoming a problem include: </p>
<ul>
<li>using weekly or more</li>
<li>giving up activities they used to enjoy to use or recover from drugs</li>
<li>missing school or work or becoming unreliable</li>
<li>needing to use more and more to get the same effect.</li>
</ul>
<h2>Raising the issue</h2>
<p>One of the best pieces of advice anyone has given me came from a person who was supporting a family member who was using drugs. She said, “think about what you would do if drugs weren’t involved”. How would you approach your friend if they were doing anything else that worried you?</p>
<p>Also think about what you would like your friends to do or say if you were doing something they were worried about.</p>
<p>Find a time to talk when you’re both clear headed, you’re somewhere private and you have plenty of time. You don’t need to make it formal, just make sure the setting is good for a sensitive chat when you raise the issue.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/258134/original/file-20190211-174861-1dsex1e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/258134/original/file-20190211-174861-1dsex1e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/258134/original/file-20190211-174861-1dsex1e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/258134/original/file-20190211-174861-1dsex1e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/258134/original/file-20190211-174861-1dsex1e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/258134/original/file-20190211-174861-1dsex1e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/258134/original/file-20190211-174861-1dsex1e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Just raising the issue and listening is helpful.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Think about what you want to say beforehand so you are prepared.</p>
<p>It doesn’t usually <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64353/table/A56963/">help</a> to plead, persuade, preach, bribe, guilt-trip or threaten (for example, “if you keep using, I will…”). Try not to speak in a judgemental or critical tone of voice, it usually just creates resistance.</p>
<p>Give them time to talk and don’t cut them off. A rule of thumb I use is they should be talking half the time or more. Ask questions that show your concern rather than telling them what to do. You might say something like: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>You don’t seem to want to go out much anymore. We really miss hanging out with you. Is everything ok?</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Or more direct: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>I know drugs make you feel better when your medication doesn’t but I’m really worried about you and want to make sure you are OK.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>If your friend doesn’t want to talk about it, it doesn’t help to take it personally or to argue the point with them. It can be a hard thing for people to talk about and they may need some time. </p>
<p>Let them know that you’re there to listen and support if they need it. If they know you’re open, they’re more likely to talk later. Just raising the issue and listening without judgement is helpful.</p>
<h2>Other things you can do</h2>
<p>How and how much you help is up to you. You might try to help your friend in practical ways, you might decide to just provide support and listen, or you might decide to step back and have less contact with them.</p>
<p>It’s OK if helping them becomes too much for you. You also need to look after yourself. It can be very hard seeing someone you love with problems. At times you might feel frustrated and helpless, like it’s impossible to get through to them. You might need to be patient because it can be <a href="https://theconversation.com/health-check-what-makes-it-so-hard-to-quit-drugs-69896">hard to give up</a> drugs once they have become a habit.</p>
<p>If you choose to provide a lot of help and support, you might want to talk to someone, such as a psychologist or counsellor, yourself.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/258135/original/file-20190211-174864-1rjxz9k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/258135/original/file-20190211-174864-1rjxz9k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/258135/original/file-20190211-174864-1rjxz9k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/258135/original/file-20190211-174864-1rjxz9k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/258135/original/file-20190211-174864-1rjxz9k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/258135/original/file-20190211-174864-1rjxz9k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/258135/original/file-20190211-174864-1rjxz9k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Encourage your friend to participate in drug and alcohol-free activities.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com</span></span>
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<p>Encourage them to engage in activities with you and your other friends that don’t involve alcohol or other drugs. <a href="https://adf.org.au/about/prevention/">Staying connected</a> with friends who don’t use drugs can help prevent the problem from getting worse.</p>
<p>Try to keep them as safe as possible. Don’t leave them alone in a potentially dangerous situation (like walking home late at night or at a party) because you’re frustrated or angry at them for using drugs. Call an adult you trust to help if you need to, or an ambulance if they look unwell.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/ice-age-who-has-used-crystal-meth-and-why-23031">Ice age: who has used crystal meth – and why?</a>
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<p>If things are getting worse it’s OK to suggest professional help. If they’re open to getting help, ask them what they want to do. You could say something like, “what do you think would be most helpful to you?”, or “would it help to speak to a trusted adult/school counsellor/doctor?” You could offer to go with them for support.</p>
<p>You could also see if the parents need some professional advice, and give them some of the numbers below. It might be helpful for your friend or their parents to talk to the doctor who prescribed their medication – the dose and effects might need to be reviewed.</p>
<h2>Where to get help</h2>
<p>There are many options for both you or your friend to talk to someone about your worries. Here are some of the main ones:</p>
<p><a href="https://www.counsellingonline.org.au">CounsellingOnline</a> is a free online chat for concerns about alcohol and other drug. Anyone can use it – people using drugs and people wanting to help friends or family using drugs.</p>
<p><a href="https://headspace.org.au/eheadspace/">headspace and eheadspace</a> provide face to face and online/telephone support for mental health issues for people aged 12-25.</p>
<p><a href="https://kidshelpline.com.au/?gclid=EAIaIQobChMI8ILJr7Sy4AIVjSQrCh0dEgIsEAAYASAAEgLFUvD_BwE">Kids helpline</a> is a free telephone counselling service on any issue for children and young adults aged between 5 and 25. They can be reached at 1800 55 1800.</p>
<p>YSAS (<a href="http://www.ysas.org.au/">Youth Support and Advocacy Service</a>) is a youth alcohol and other drugs support organisation in Victoria. They have face to face and telephone services and a good info on their website. Their number is 1800 458 685.</p>
<p><a href="https://campaigns.health.gov.au/drughelp/resources/images/infographic-national-alcohol-and-other-drug-hotline">National Alcohol and Other Drug Hotline</a> is a free telephone information and counselling service similar to CounselingOnline, but on the phone. They can be reached at 1800 250 015.</p>
<p>Family helplines are telephone counselling services for friends and families of people who use drugs. Alcohol, prescription and other drug family support (<a href="https://apod.org.au/">APOD</a>) can be reached at (03) 9723 8000, <a href="http://www.fds.org.au/">Family Drug Support Australia</a> at 1300 368 186, and Family Drug Help at 1300 660 068.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-does-ice-use-affect-families-and-what-can-they-do-41186">How does ice use affect families and what can they do?</a>
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<p><em>This article has been updated since publication to correct an incorrect hotline number for the National Alcohol and Other Drug Hotline.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/111525/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nicole Lee works as a paid consultant in the alcohol and other drug sector, and as a psychologist in private practice. She has previously been awarded grants by state and federal governments, NHMRC and other public funding bodies for alcohol and other drug research.</span></em></p>It can be really tricky to know what to do when someone you care about starts using drugs. Raising the issue and listening without judgement is a good place to start.Nicole Lee, Professor at the National Drug Research Institute (Melbourne), Curtin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.