tag:theconversation.com,2011:/ca-fr/topics/internet-120/articlesInternet – La Conversation2024-03-19T00:12:59Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2229872024-03-19T00:12:59Z2024-03-19T00:12:59ZThe ‘digital divide’ is already hurting people’s quality of life. Will AI make it better or worse?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579788/original/file-20240305-18-nir9gs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=17%2C22%2C2775%2C1971&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/road-closed-sign-outback-red-center-1438599635">ChameleonsEye/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Today, <a href="https://www.digitalinclusionindex.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/ADII-2023-Summary_FINAL-Remediated.pdf">almost a quarter of Australians</a> are digitally excluded. This means they miss out on the social, educational and economic benefits <a href="https://ctu.ieee.org/benefits-of-closing-the-global-digital-divide/">online connectivity provides</a>.</p>
<p>In the face of this ongoing “digital divide”, countries are now talking about a future of inclusive artificial intelligence (AI).</p>
<p>However, if we don’t learn from current problems with digital exclusion, it will likely spill over into people’s future experiences with AI. That’s the conclusion from our <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s43681-024-00452-3">new research</a> published in the journal AI and Ethics.</p>
<h2>What is the digital divide?</h2>
<p>The digital divide is a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040162521007903#bib0030">well-documented social schism</a>. People on the wrong side of it face difficulties when it comes to accessing, affording, or using digital services. These disadvantages significantly reduce their quality of life.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.digitalinclusionindex.org.au/">Decades of research</a> have provided us with a rich understanding of who is most at risk. In Australia, older people, those living in remote areas, people on lower incomes and First Nations peoples are most likely to find themselves digitally excluded.</p>
<p>Zooming out, <a href="https://www.itu.int/itu-d/reports/statistics/facts-figures-2023/">reports</a> show that one-third of the world’s population – representing the poorest countries – remains offline. Globally, the <a href="https://gddindex.com/#:%7E:text=The%20Gender%20Digital%20Divide%20Index%20(GDDI)%20is%20a%20pilot%20benchmarking,gender%20divides%20in%20digital%20development.">digital gender divide</a> also still exists: women, particularly in low and middle-income countries, face substantially more barriers to digital connectivity.</p>
<p>During the COVID pandemic, the impacts of digital inequity became much more obvious. As large swathes of the world’s population had to “shelter in place” – unable to go outside, visit shops, or seek face-to-face contact – anyone without digital access was severely at risk.</p>
<p>Consequences ranged from social isolation to reduced employment opportunities, as well as a lack of access to vital health information. <a href="https://press.un.org/en/2020/sgsm20118.doc.htm">The UN Secretary-General stated in 2020</a> that “the digital divide is now a matter of life and death”. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579789/original/file-20240305-22-cqzgoc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A lonely older woman looking out a window while wearing a medical mask." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579789/original/file-20240305-22-cqzgoc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579789/original/file-20240305-22-cqzgoc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579789/original/file-20240305-22-cqzgoc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579789/original/file-20240305-22-cqzgoc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579789/original/file-20240305-22-cqzgoc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579789/original/file-20240305-22-cqzgoc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579789/original/file-20240305-22-cqzgoc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">People without digital access were severely impacted during the COVID pandemic.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/lonely-senior-woman-surgical-mask-sitting-1688780245">Miriam Doerr Martin Frommherz/Shutterstock</a></span>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/digital-inclusion-and-closing-the-gap-how-first-nations-leadership-is-key-to-getting-remote-communities-online-216085">‘Digital inclusion’ and closing the gap: how First Nations leadership is key to getting remote communities online</a>
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<h2>Not just a question of access</h2>
<p>As with most forms of exclusion, the digital divide functions in multiple ways. It was originally defined as a gap between those who have access to computers and the internet and those who do not. But research now shows it’s <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/tesg.12047">not just an issue of access</a>. </p>
<p>Having little or no access leads to reduced familiarity with digital technology, which then erodes confidence, <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/global-agenda-for-social-justice/tackling-digital-exclusion-counter-social-inequalities-through-digital-inclusion/C9171EE3C4C944FC7712306280EAABDC">fuels disengagement</a>, and ultimately sets in motion <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/0144929X.2021.1882577">an intrinsic sense of not being “digitally capable</a>”.</p>
<p>As AI tools increasingly reshape our workplaces, classrooms and everyday lives, there is a risk AI could deepen, rather than narrow, the digital divide.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/artificial-intelligence-holds-great-potential-for-both-students-and-teachers-but-only-if-used-wisely-81024">Artificial intelligence holds great potential for both students and teachers – but only if used wisely</a>
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<h2>The role of digital confidence</h2>
<p>To assess the impact of digital exclusion on people’s experiences with AI, in late 2023 we surveyed a representative selection of hundreds of Australian adults. We began by asking them to rate their confidence with digital technology. </p>
<p>We found digital confidence was lower for women, older people, those with reduced salaries, and those with less digital access.</p>
<p>We then asked these same people to comment on their hopes, fears and expectations of AI. Across the board, the data showed that people’s perceptions, attitudes and experiences with AI were linked to how they felt about digital technology in general. </p>
<p>In other words, the more digitally confident people felt, the more positive they were about AI. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/giving-ai-direct-control-over-anything-is-a-bad-idea-heres-how-it-could-do-us-real-harm-210168">Giving AI direct control over anything is a bad idea – here's how it could do us real harm</a>
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<p>To build truly inclusive AI, these findings are important to consider for several reasons. First, they confirm that digital confidence is not a privilege shared by all. </p>
<p>Second, they show us digital inclusion is about more than just access, or even someone’s digital skills. How confident a person feels in their ability to interact with technology is important too. </p>
<p>Third, they show that if we don’t contend with existing forms of digital exclusion, they are likely to spill over into perceptions, attitudes and experiences with AI. </p>
<p>Currently, <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2023/09/digital-quality-life-internet-affordability-cybersecurity/">many countries are making headway</a> in their efforts to reduce the digital divide. So we must make sure the rise of AI doesn’t slow these efforts, or worse still, exacerbate the divide.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577249/original/file-20240222-22-7cjal0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A person working on a laptop with the ChatGPT loading screen displayed." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577249/original/file-20240222-22-7cjal0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577249/original/file-20240222-22-7cjal0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577249/original/file-20240222-22-7cjal0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577249/original/file-20240222-22-7cjal0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577249/original/file-20240222-22-7cjal0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577249/original/file-20240222-22-7cjal0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577249/original/file-20240222-22-7cjal0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">AI tools are already transforming lives – but only if you’re on the right side of the ‘digital divide’.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/a-person-is-using-a-laptop-computer-on-a-table-16094056/">Matheus Bertelli/Pexels</a></span>
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<h2>What should we hope for AI?</h2>
<p>While there <a href="https://theconversation.com/forget-dystopian-scenarios-ai-is-pervasive-today-and-the-risks-are-often-hidden-218222">is a slew of associated risks</a>, when deployed responsibly, AI can make significant positive impacts on society. Some of these can directly target issues of inclusivity.</p>
<p>For example, computer vision can <a href="https://www.monash.edu/news/articles/monash-university-and-tennis-australia-serve-up-world-first-accessible-audio-stream-for-fans-with-blindness-or-low-vision">track the trajectory of a tennis ball</a> during a match, making it audible for blind or low-vision spectators.</p>
<p>AI has been used to analyse <a href="https://www.niaa.gov.au/indigenous-affairs/closing-gap/implementation-measures/csiro-indigenous-jobs-map">online job postings</a> to help boost employment outcomes in under-represented populations such as First Nations peoples. And, while they’re still in the early stages of development, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41746-022-00560-6">AI-powered chatbots</a> could increase accessibility and affordability of medical services. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/to-boost-indigenous-employment-we-need-to-map-job-opportunities-to-skills-and-qualifications-our-new-project-does-just-that-212440">To boost Indigenous employment, we need to map job opportunities to skills and qualifications. Our new project does just that</a>
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<p>But this responsible AI future can only be delivered if we also address what keeps us digitally divided. To develop and use truly inclusive AI tools, we first have to ensure the feelings of digital exclusion don’t spill over. </p>
<p>This means not only tackling pragmatic issues of access and infrastructure, but also the knock-on effects on people’s levels of engagement, aptitude and confidence with technology.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222987/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sarah Bentley works for CSIRO, which receives funding from the Australian Government.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Claire Naughtin works for CSIRO, which receives funding from the Australian Government.</span></em></p>The benefits of AI are transforming modern life — but disparities in digital confidence are leaving some behind.Sarah Vivienne Bentley, Research Scientist, Responsible Innovation, Data61, CSIROClaire Naughtin, Principal Research Consultant in Strategic Foresight, Data61Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2229052024-02-27T14:08:45Z2024-02-27T14:08:45ZAfrica needs China for its digital development – but at what price?<p>Digital technologies have many potential benefits for people in African countries. They can support the delivery of healthcare services, promote access to education and lifelong learning, and enhance financial inclusion. </p>
<p>But there are obstacles to realising these benefits. The backbone infrastructure needed to connect communities is missing in places. Technology and finance are lacking too. </p>
<p>In 2023, only <a href="https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Documents/facts/ITU_regional_global_Key_ICT_indicator_aggregates_Nov_2023.xlsx">83%</a> of the population of sub-Saharan Africa was covered by at least a 3G mobile network. In all other regions the coverage was more than 95%. In the same year, <a href="https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Documents/facts/ITU_regional_global_Key_ICT_indicator_aggregates_Nov_2023.xlsx">less than half of Africa’s population</a> had an active mobile broadband subscription, lagging behind Arab states (75%) and the Asia-Pacific region (88%). Therefore, Africans made up a substantial share of the estimated <a href="https://www.itu.int/en/mediacentre/Pages/PR-2023-09-12-universal-and-meaningful-connectivity-by-2030.aspx#:%7E:text=The%20number%20of%20people%20worldwide,global%20population%20unconnected%20in%202023.">2.6 billion</a> people globally who remained offline in 2023.</p>
<p>A <a href="https://gga.org/china-expands-its-digital-sovereignty-to-africa/">key partner</a> in Africa in unclogging this bottleneck is China. Several African countries depend on China as their main technology provider and sponsor of large digital infrastructural projects.</p>
<p>This relationship is the subject of a <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09692290.2023.2297363">study</a> I published recently. The study showed that at least 38 countries worked closely with Chinese companies to advance their domestic fibre-optic network and data centre infrastructure or their technological know-how. </p>
<p>China’s involvement was critical as African countries made great strides in digital development. Despite the persisting digital divide between Africa and other regions, 3G network coverage <a href="https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Documents/facts/ITU_regional_global_Key_ICT_indicator_aggregates_Nov_2023.xlsx">increased from 22% to 83%</a> between 2010 and 2023. Active mobile broadband subscriptions increased <a href="https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Documents/facts/ITU_regional_global_Key_ICT_indicator_aggregates_Nov_2023.xlsx">from less than 2% in 2010 to 48% in 2023</a>. </p>
<p>For governments, however, there is a risk that foreign-driven digital development will keep existing dependence structures in place.</p>
<h2>Reasons for dependence on foreign technology and finance</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09692290.2023.2297363">global market</a> for information and communication technology (ICT) infrastructure is controlled by a handful of producers. For instance, the main suppliers of fibre-optic cables, a network component that enables high-speed internet, are China-based Huawei and ZTE and the Swedish company Ericsson. </p>
<p>Many African countries, with limited internal revenues, can’t afford these network components. Infrastructure investments depend on foreign finance, including concessional loans, commercial credits, or public-private partnerships. These may also <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308596124000107">influence a state’s choice of infrastructure provider</a>.</p>
<p>The African continent’s terrain adds to the technological and financial difficulties. Vast lands and challenging topographies make the roll-out of infrastructure very expensive. Private investors avoid sparsely populated areas because it doesn’t pay them to deliver a service there. </p>
<p>Landlocked states depend on the infrastructure and goodwill of coastal countries to connect to international fibre-optic landing stations.</p>
<h2>A full-package solution</h2>
<p>It is sometimes assumed that African leaders choose Chinese providers because they offer the cheapest technology. <a href="https://www.zdnet.com/home-and-office/networking/uganda-orders-probe-into-huaweis-fiber-project/">Anecdotal evidence suggests otherwise</a>. Chinese contractors are attractive partners because they can offer full-package solutions that include finance. </p>
<p>Under the so-called <a href="https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PA00TN5G.pdf">“EPC+F”</a> (Engineer, Procure, Construct + Fund/Finance) scheme, Chinese companies like Huawei and ZTE oversee the engineering, procurement and construction while Chinese banks provide state-backed finance. Angola, Uganda and Zambia are just some of the countries which seem to have benefited from this type of deal.</p>
<p>All-round solutions like this appeal to African countries. </p>
<h2>What is in it for China?</h2>
<p>As part of its <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-137-57813-6_6">“go-global”</a> strategy, the Chinese government encourages Chinese companies to invest and operate overseas. The government offers financial backing and expects companies to raise the global competitiveness of Chinese products and the national economy. </p>
<p>In the long term, Beijing seeks to establish and promote Chinese digital standards and norms. Research partnerships and training opportunities expose a growing number of students to Chinese technology. The Chinese government’s expectation is that mobile applications and startups in Africa will increasingly reflect Beijing’s technological and ideological principles. That includes China’s interpretation of human rights, data privacy and freedom of speech. </p>
<p>This aligns with the vision of China’s “<a href="https://www.orfonline.org/research/the-digital-silk-road-in-the-indo-pacific-mapping-china-s-vision-for-global-tech-expansion">Digital Silk Road</a>”, which complements its <a href="https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/chinas-massive-belt-and-road-initiative">Belt and Road Initiative</a>, creating new trade routes. </p>
<p>In the digital realm, the goal is technological primacy and greater autonomy from western suppliers. The government is striving for a more <a href="https://thediplomat.com/2021/04/chinas-digital-silk-road-and-the-global-digital-order/">Sino-centric global digital order</a>. Infrastructure investments and training partnerships in African countries offer a starting point. </p>
<h2>Long-term implications</h2>
<p>From a technological perspective, over-reliance on a single infrastructure supplier makes the client state more vulnerable. When a customer depends heavily on a particular supplier, it’s difficult and costly to switch to a different provider. African countries could become locked into the Chinese digital ecosystem.</p>
<p>Researchers like <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Arthur-Gwagwa">Arthur Gwagwa</a> from the Ethics Institute at Utrecht University (Netherlands) believe that China’s export of critical infrastructure components will <a href="https://www.dw.com/en/africa-embraces-huawei-technology-despite-security-concerns/a-60665700">enable military and industrial espionage</a>. These claims assert that Chinese-made equipment is designed in a way that could facilitate cyber attacks. </p>
<p>Human Rights Watch, an international NGO that conducts research and advocacy on human rights, has <a href="https://www.hrw.org/news/2023/05/09/future-technology-lessons-china-and-us">raised concerns</a> that Chinese infrastructure increases the risk of technology-enabled authoritarianism. In particular, Huawei has been <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/huawei-technicians-helped-african-governments-spy-on-political-opponents-11565793017">accused</a> of colluding with governments to spy on political opponents in Uganda and Zambia. Huawei has <a href="https://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy/article/3023215/huawei-denies-helping-governments-uganda-and-zambia-spy">denied</a> the allegations. </p>
<h2>The way forward</h2>
<p>Chinese involvement provides a rapid path to digital progress for African nations. It also exposes African states to the risk of long-term dependence. The remedy is to diversify infrastructure supply, training opportunities and partnerships. </p>
<p>There is also a need to call for interoperability in international forums such as the <a href="https://www.itu.int/en/Pages/default.aspx">International Telecommunications Union</a>, a UN agency responsible for issues related to information and communication technologies. Interoperability allows a product or system to interact with other products and systems. It means clients can buy technological components from different providers and switch to other technological solutions. It favours market competition and higher quality solutions by preventing users from being locked in to one vendor. </p>
<p>Finally, in the long term African countries should produce their own infrastructure and become less dependent.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222905/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stephanie Arnold does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>In sub-Saharan Africa, most governments welcome China’s investment in digital infrastructure.Stephanie Arnold, PhD Candidate, Università di BolognaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2215692024-01-25T13:16:33Z2024-01-25T13:16:33ZHow to protect your data privacy: A digital media expert provides steps you can take and explains why you can’t go it alone<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/570983/original/file-20240123-19-zcfnx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=2323%2C526%2C3473%2C4538&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">You probably know you're being tracked online, but what can you do about it?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/illustration/large-eyeball-on-smart-phone-watching-woman-royalty-free-illustration/1440469231">Malte Mueller/fStop via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Perfect safety is no more possible online than it is when driving on a crowded road with strangers or walking alone through a city at night. Like roads and cities, the internet’s dangers arise from choices society has made. To enjoy the freedom of cars comes with the risk of accidents; to have the pleasures of a city full of unexpected encounters means some of those encounters can harm you. To have an open internet means people can always find ways to hurt each other. </p>
<p>But some highways and cities are safer than others. Together, people can make their online lives safer, too.</p>
<p>I’m a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=a3nrKn8AAAAJ&view_op=list_works&sortby=pubdate">media scholar</a> who researches the online world. For decades now, I have experimented on myself and my devices to explore what it might take to live a digital life on my own terms. But in the process, I’ve learned that my privacy cannot come from just my choices and my devices.</p>
<p>This is a guide for getting started, with the people around you, on the way toward a safer and healthier online life.</p>
<h2>The threats</h2>
<p>The dangers you face online take very different forms, and they require different kinds of responses. The kind of threat you hear about most in the news is the straightforwardly criminal sort of hackers and scammers. The perpetrators typically want to steal victims’ identities or money, or both. These attacks take advantage of <a href="https://academic.oup.com/ips/article/16/3/olac013/6649355">varying legal and cultural norms</a> around the world. Businesses and governments often offer to defend people from these kinds of threats, without mentioning that they can pose threats of their own.</p>
<p>A second kind of threat comes from businesses that lurk in the cracks of the online economy. Lax protections allow them to scoop up vast quantities of data about people and sell it to abusive advertisers, police forces and others willing to pay. Private data brokers <a href="https://theconversation.com/data-brokers-know-everything-about-you-what-ftc-case-against-ad-tech-giant-kochava-reveals-218232">most people have never heard of</a> gather data from apps, transactions and more, and they sell what they learn about you without needing your approval.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">How the data economy works.</span></figcaption>
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<p>A third kind of threat comes from established institutions themselves, such as the large tech companies and government agencies. These institutions <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/21624887.2023.2239002">promise a kind of safety</a> if people trust them – protection from everyone but themselves, as they liberally collect your data. Google, for instance, provides tools with high security standards, but its business model is built on <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2021/05/18/how-does-google-make-money-advertising-business-breakdown-.html">selling ads</a> based on what people do with those tools. Many people feel they have to accept this deal, because everyone around them already has.</p>
<p>The stakes are high. <a href="https://www.genderit.org/editorial/feminist-conversation-cybersecurity">Feminist</a> and <a href="https://www.criticalracedigitalstudies.com/">critical race</a> scholars have demonstrated that surveillance has long been the basis of unjust discrimination and exclusion. As African American studies scholar <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=XlsH9jEAAAAJ&view_op=list_works&sortby=pubdate">Ruha Benjamin</a> puts it, online surveillance has become a “<a href="https://cyber.harvard.edu/events/new-jim-code">new Jim Code</a>,” excluding people from jobs, fair pricing and other opportunities based on how computers are trained to watch and categorize them.</p>
<p>Once again, there is no formula for safety. When you make choices about your technology, individually or collectively, you are really making choices about whom and how you trust – shifting your trust from one place to another. But those choices can make a real difference.</p>
<h2>Phase 1: Basic data privacy hygiene</h2>
<p>To get started with digital privacy, there are a few things you can do fairly easily on your own. First, use a password manager like <a href="https://bitwarden.com/">Bitwarden</a> or <a href="https://proton.me/pass">Proton Pass</a>, and make all your passwords unique and complex. If you can remember a password easily, it’s probably not keeping you safe. Also, enable two-factor authentication, which typically involves receiving a code in a text message, wherever you can.</p>
<p>As you browse the web, use a browser like <a href="https://firefox.com/">Firefox</a> or <a href="https://brave.com/">Brave</a> with a strong commitment to privacy, and add to that a good ad blocker like <a href="https://ublockorigin.com/">uBlock Origin</a>. Get in the habit of using a search engine like <a href="https://duckduckgo.com/">DuckDuckGo</a> or <a href="https://search.brave.com/">Brave Search</a> that doesn’t profile you based on your past queries.</p>
<p>On your phone, download only the apps you need. It can help to <a href="https://www.popsci.com/story/diy/how-to-reset-devices/">wipe and reset</a> everything periodically to make sure you keep only what you really use. Beware especially of apps that track your location and access your files. For Android users, <a href="https://f-droid.org/">F-Droid</a> is an alternative app store with more privacy-preserving tools. The Consumer Reports app <a href="https://www.permissionslipcr.com/">Permission Slip</a> can help you manage how other apps use your data.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/a1i-3xwcSGA?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Here are more details on how to reduce your exposure to data collection online.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Phase 2: Shifting away</h2>
<p>Next, you can start shifting your trust away from companies that make their money from surveillance. But this works best if you can get your community involved; if they are using Gmail, and you email them, Google gets your email whether you use Gmail yourself or not. Try an email provider like <a href="https://proton.me/mail">Proton Mail</a> that doesn’t rely on targeted ads, and see if your friends will try it, too. For mobile chat, <a href="https://www.signal.org/">Signal</a> makes encrypted messages easy, but only if others are using it with you.</p>
<p>You can also try using privacy-preserving operating systems for your devices. <a href="https://grapheneos.org/">GrapheneOS</a> and <a href="https://e.foundation/e-os/">/e/OS</a> are versions of Android that avoid sending your phone’s data to Google. For your computer, <a href="https://pop.system76.com/">Pop!_OS</a> is a friendly version of Linux. Find more ideas for shifting away at science and technology scholar Janet Vertesi’s <a href="https://www.optoutproject.net/">Opt-Out Project</a> website.</p>
<h2>Phase 3: New foundations</h2>
<p>If you are ready to go even further, rethink how your community or workplace collaborates. In my university lab, we <a href="https://manifold.umn.edu/projects/the-lab-book">run our own servers</a> to manage our tools, including <a href="https://nextcloud.com/">Nextcloud</a> for file sharing and <a href="http://matrix.org/">Matrix</a> for chat. </p>
<p>This kind of shift, however, requires a collective commitment in how organizations spend money on technology, away from big companies and toward investing in the ability to manage your tools. It can take extra work to build what I call “<a href="https://doi.org/10.31269/triplec.v20i1.1281">governable stacks</a>” – tools that people manage and control together – but the result can be a more satisfying, empowering relationship with technology.</p>
<h2>Protecting each other</h2>
<p>Too often, people are told that being safe online is a job for individuals, and it is your fault if you’re not doing it right. But I think this is a kind of victim blaming. In my view, the biggest source of danger online is the lack of public policy and collective power to prevent surveillance from being the basic business model for the internet.</p>
<p>For years, people have organized “<a href="https://doi.org/10.14763/2020.4.1508">cryptoparties</a>” where they can come together and learn how to use privacy tools. You can also support organizations like the <a href="https://eff.org/">Electronic Frontier Foundation</a> that advocate for privacy-protecting public policy. If people assume that privacy is just an individual responsibility, we have already lost.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/221569/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nathan Schneider receives funding from a range of entities, including the National Science Foundation, the Henry Luce Foundation, and the Ethereum Foundation. He serves on several nonprofit boards, including those of Metagov, Start.coop, Waging Nonviolence, and Zebras Unite.</span></em></p>Your data privacy is under threat from hackers, data brokers and big tech. Here’s what you can do about it. Step 1 is to get your colleagues, friends and family on board.Nathan Schneider, Assistant Professor of Media Studies, University of Colorado BoulderLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2208172024-01-17T13:36:23Z2024-01-17T13:36:23ZChef Bill Granger dies and leaves behind an inadvertent legacy – the avocado toast meme<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569130/original/file-20240112-25-mrzqwn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=12%2C25%2C4268%2C2818&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Is it avocado toast or high interest rates that have prevented so many young people from buying homes?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/avocado-butter-royalty-free-image/185328444?phrase=avocado+toast+illustration&searchscope=image%2Cfilm&adppopup=true">Josef Mohyla/E+ via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>On Christmas Day 2023, world-renowned Australian chef and restaurateur <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/food/2023/dec/27/bill-granger-renowned-australian-cook-dies-aged-54">Bill Granger died at 54</a>. </p>
<p>Granger owned and operated 19 restaurants across Australia, the U.K., Japan and South Korea. He authored 14 cookbooks, produced several TV shows and was awarded <a href="https://www.afr.com/life-and-luxury/food-and-wine/how-bill-granger-conquered-the-world-s-breakfast-tables-20230307-p5cq7g">the Medal of the Order of Australia</a>.</p>
<p>But his lasting legacy may be his role in making avocado toast <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/12/28/dining/bill-granger-dead.html">a Western culinary staple</a> – and, inadvertently, the viral meme that transformed the open sandwich into a symbol of generational tension.</p>
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<img alt="Man uses a spatula to flip pancakes in a frying pan." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569577/original/file-20240116-17-asgem0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569577/original/file-20240116-17-asgem0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=795&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569577/original/file-20240116-17-asgem0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=795&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569577/original/file-20240116-17-asgem0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=795&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569577/original/file-20240116-17-asgem0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=999&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569577/original/file-20240116-17-asgem0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=999&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569577/original/file-20240116-17-asgem0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=999&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Bill Granger was renowned for adding a bougie twist to breakfast.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/australian-chef-bill-granger-cooks-pancakes-for-tasting-of-news-photo/72864230?adppopup=true">Yoshikazu Tsuno/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
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<p>The practice of spreading avocado on bread has existed for centuries, particularly in Central and South America. Some speculate it dates as far back as the 1500s, <a href="https://tastecooking.com/really-invented-avocado-toast/">when the Spanish settlers brought Western breads to Mexico</a>. But a <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2016/05/06/how-the-internet-became-ridiculously-obsessed-with-avocado-toast/">2016 Washington Post article</a> pointed to Granger as the first person to put avocado toast on a menu, when he did so at his Sydney café, Bills, in 1993.</p>
<p>I love ordering the occasional avocado toast. But as a sociologist of the internet and social media, I’m most interested in the meme – its origins, how it became a point of contention and how it has ultimately muddied the waters of inequality. </p>
<h2>Avocado toast and the American dream</h2>
<p>On May 15, 2017, Australian real estate tycoon <a href="https://fortune.com/2023/09/13/australia-real-estate-ceo-tim-gurner-pain-in-economy-avocado-toast/">Tim Gurner</a> said <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2017/may/15/australian-millionaire-millennials-avocado-toast-house">in an interview</a>, “When I was trying to buy my first home, I wasn’t buying smashed avocado for $19 and four coffees at $4 each.”</p>
<p>Gurner’s comments implied that young people were not buying homes at the same rate as older generations due to their poor money management skills – unlike Gurner and his cohort, who understood the value of a buck and the importance of an honest day’s work. </p>
<p>No matter that minimal research revealed that Gurner’s nearly billion-dollar empire <a href="https://thiswastv.com/tim-gurner-parents/">began with financial assistance from his wealthy family</a>. The backlash on the internet was swift and searing, as Gurner became a stand-in for an entire out-of-touch generation who didn’t know how easy they had it.</p>
<p>Memes emphasized the fact that baby boomers, in general, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhe.2019.01.004">had an easier time becoming homeowners</a> compared to millennials, who largely came of age during the post-2008 economic downturn, which forced them to reckon with the crumbling remains of the American dream.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"910207147861983232"}"></div></p>
<h2>Generational tensions or class tensions?</h2>
<p>In their article “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/08969205211025724">A Sociological Analysis of ‘OK Boomer</a>,’” sociologists Jason Mueller and John McCollum describe how we’re in a period rife with confusions exacerbated by the internet. </p>
<p>They conclude that meme trends like “<a href="https://knowyourmeme.com/memes/ok-boomer">OK Boomer</a>” – a phrase that Gen Z popularized as an online retort to politicians and reporters who dismissed young people – reflect a world in which generational wars online coexist with class wars offline. The avocado toast meme works in a similar way.</p>
<p>In offline reality, <a href="https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w27123/w27123.pdf">there is some correlation between generations and wealth</a>. But generations are not what ultimately explain class inequality. </p>
<p>Instead, economic sociologists largely agree that a political emphasis on market “freedoms” and the concurrent paring back of programs that distribute resources have led to soaring economic inequality. These include laws that deregulated markets and privatized public spaces, as well as those that scaled back funding for health care, welfare, education and other government services. The policies first emerged under the umbrella of “<a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev-soc-090220-025543">The Washington Consensus</a>” in the late 20th century. </p>
<p>For example, the <a href="https://www.fcc.gov/general/telecommunications-act-1996">Telecommunications Act of 1996</a>, rather than treating emerging internet technology as a public good, <a href="https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/14707">ensured the privatization of the internet</a>, paving the way for an online economy that profits off the attention and data of users.</p>
<p>Deregulation has created the conditions for today’s economic reality, in which many millennials and Gen Zers must work <a href="https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/REGE-08-2021-0153/full/html">precarious jobs in the gig economy</a>. They continue to struggle to buy homes and afford rent.</p>
<p>But importantly, many baby boomers face the same economic reality. Millions of them have been forced <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/ajim.22694">to delay retirement</a>, particularly <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/ajim.22694">if they’re from marginalized races and genders</a>. </p>
<p>In other words, the adverse impacts of class inequality leave no generation untouched.</p>
<h2>Illusions of separation</h2>
<p>So why does it feel like most baby boomers have it so easy?</p>
<p>Cultural theorist Mark Fisher, in his 2009 book “<a href="https://files.libcom.org/files/Capitalist%20Realism_%20Is%20There%20No%20Alternat%20-%20Mark%20Fisher.pdf">Capitalist Realism</a>,” describes this moment in history as one in which “hyperreality” prevails. </p>
<p>The term, coined by <a href="https://revistia.org/files/articles/ejis_v3_i3_17/Ryszard.pdf">French post-modernist Jean Baudrillard</a> in 1981, essentially describes a state in which simulations of reality appear more “real” than reality. </p>
<p>In his book “<a href="https://www.amazon.com/Simulacra-Simulation-Body-Theory-Materialism/dp/0472065211">Simulacra and Simulation</a>,” Baudrillard uses the example of Disneyland to describe hyperreality. Many people would rather pay to go to Disneyland – a park built to mimic imaginary places – <a href="https://www.discovermagazine.com/planet-earth/destination-science-the-natural-world-outside-disney-world">than travel to national parks</a>, where they can experience nature for free or on the cheap.</p>
<p>The virtual world of the internet – with its own sets of cultural norms, language and memes – is the epitome of hyperreality.</p>
<p>And in the hyperreal world of the internet, as Mueller and McCollum discuss in their article about the “OK Boomer” meme, generational tensions take form.</p>
<p>Memes like avocado toast construct a state of generational conflict in the online world that is real, quite simply, because it feels real.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1011175349055623169"}"></div></p>
<p>Algorithms have every incentive to stoke this conflict. </p>
<p>That’s because online generational conflicts, along with most social media battles, <a href="https://theconversation.com/hate-cancel-culture-blame-algorithms-129402">are immensely profitable</a>. In “<a href="https://www.upress.umn.edu/book-division/books/virality">Virality: Contagion Theory in the Age of Networks</a>,” sociologist Tony Sampson concludes that viral content usually elicits strong emotional reactions.</p>
<p>When users, old and young, are angry with one another, and express that anger in the language of memes, social media platforms like X, formerly known as Twitter, get more engagement and make more money.</p>
<h2>Reframing avocado toast</h2>
<p>What Sampson finds, though, is that positive feelings also lead to virality.</p>
<p>So perhaps one way to honor Granger is to reclaim the avocado toast meme as an in-joke that nonmillionaires and nonbillionaires of all generations can relate to. </p>
<p>It’s about one billionaire’s absurd proposition that millennials eating a fleshy fruit on a piece of toast is preventing them from buying homes. It’s the billionaire divorced from the struggles of everyday people who’s out of touch – not an entire generation of boomers. </p>
<p>The avocado toast meme serves as a reminder that the hyperreal space of the internet distorts an offline reality in which generations share struggles, whether through housing insecurity or delayed retirements – a reality perpetuated by billionaires like Tim Gurner and the economic systems that serve their interests.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/220817/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Aarushi Bhandari does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Granger, who died in December 2023, is credited with making avocado toast fashionable. Little did he know that his lasting legacy would inspire a meme that symbolized generational tension.Aarushi Bhandari, Assistant Professor of Sociology, Davidson CollegeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2180622023-12-06T15:53:38Z2023-12-06T15:53:38ZRural communities are being left behind because of poor digital infrastructure, research shows<p>In an era where businesses and households depend on the internet for everything from marketing to banking and shopping, the lack of adequate digital access can be a significant hurdle. And our recent research shows that many <a href="https://research.aber.ac.uk/en/publications/the-socio-economic-impact-of-the-covid-19-pandemic-on-ceredigion-">homes</a> and <a href="https://research.aber.ac.uk/en/publications/the-economic-impact-of-the-covid-19-pandemic-on-ceredigion-busine">businesses</a> in the UK are being left stranded in the digital age.</p>
<p>Our two studies focused on a rural county in Wales, Ceredigion, where the lack of reliable digital infrastructure worsened the impacts of the pandemic on families and businesses. Poor digital accessibility and connectivity exacerbated the stress levels of families who were already having to juggle home schooling and working from home. </p>
<p>Similarly, businesses had to struggle with issues around internet provision, availability of effective digital infrastructure and digital proficiency while working and running businesses from home. </p>
<p>Our research involved two online surveys. One focused on households and the other on businesses and the self-employed between April and June 2021. The survey questions were designed to address the challenges and opportunities brought about by the pandemic. </p>
<p>Some important themes emerged in the responses we received to both surveys. These were insufficient digital accessibility and connectivity, lack of digital skills and training opportunities and the cost of broadband and mobile access.</p>
<h2>Household experiences</h2>
<p>Our research showed that 12% of homes did not have enough digital equipment for their needs during the pandemic and 76% of these included children who were being home schooled. Schools and some workplaces provided equipment in some instances, but 18% of households had to borrow equipment. </p>
<p>Despite that ability to borrow, many homes found themselves juggling equipment between homeworking adults and children learning online. Many pupils relied on small mobile devices to access lessons, while others lacked access to equipment like printers.</p>
<p>These problems were compounded in rural and remote areas, where slow broadband speeds and a lack of reliable mobile signal were cited as the biggest issues. Other issues included the cost of broadband and mobile access, the lack of digital skills or training opportunities to improve digital skills, poor customer service from broadband providers and issues with connectivity.</p>
<h2>Business and self-employed experiences</h2>
<p>The pandemic brought similar challenges to businesses. The closure of non-essential firms during the pandemic led to a <a href="https://www.oecd.org/coronavirus/policy-responses/e-commerce-in-the-time-of-covid-19-3a2b78e8/">surge</a> in e-commerce. Companies that could embrace online sales were able to continue operating despite lockdowns and restrictions. </p>
<p>But businesses that were slow to adopt e-commerce or lacked the necessary infrastructure struggled to adapt. In fact, our research found that 47% of businesses faced difficulties with digital access and connectivity during the pandemic. Some of the other issues faced by businesses included:</p>
<p>• a lack of reliable broadband or mobile (37%)</p>
<p>• slow broadband speed (29%)</p>
<p>• poor mobile signal (26%)</p>
<p>• lack of digital skills or access to training schemes (16%)</p>
<p>• the cost of access (13%)</p>
<p>People working from home in rural locations also had problems due to a lack of digital infrastructure, poor connectivity and a lack of digital skills. </p>
<h2>Bridging the gap</h2>
<p>In the future, an increased reliance on online work, education and public services, such as online health and welfare support, will further disadvantage those without adequate internet access. The digital divide is widening between those with higher incomes and those with lower incomes. </p>
<p>For example, households with higher incomes were <a href="https://www.scirp.org/reference/referencespapers?referenceid=3051117">more likely</a> to have had access to technology for home schooling and remote working during the pandemic, unlike those with lower incomes.</p>
<p>The gap in access to digital technology is often determined by location too. Remote and sparsely populated areas often lack adequate broadband and mobile signal coverage. Bridging this digital divide is crucial for economic growth, social inclusion and access to essential services. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-teachers-supported-children-and-parents-through-covid-19-school-closures-181380">How teachers supported children and parents through COVID-19 school closures</a>
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<p>To address the digital divide, the UK and devolved governments need to invest in digital infrastructure in rural areas to ensure that everywhere has at least a minimum quality coverage. Local authorities could introduce schemes that enable people to gain access to cost-effective computer devices and internet access.</p>
<p>Expanding digital literacy and empowering businesses in rural areas is also crucial. Enhancing digital skills training would better prepare future generations for the digital world. </p>
<p>Additionally, businesses in rural areas require tailored support, such as funding for digital infrastructure upgrades, training opportunities and guidance on consumer privacy and protection, to enable their digital growth and sustainability.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/218062/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Aloysius Igboekwu currently volunteers for a Childcare charity as a Trustee. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Maria Plotnikova and Sarah Lindop do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>New research reveals the digital divide that was exposed by the COVID pandemic.Aloysius Igboekwu, Senior Lecturer in Finance, Aberystwyth UniversityMaria Plotnikova, Lecturer in Economics, Aberystwyth UniversitySarah Lindop, Senior Lecturer in Finance, Aberystwyth UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2185172023-12-05T22:42:16Z2023-12-05T22:42:16ZWikipedia’s volunteer editors are fleeing online abuse. Here’s what that could mean for the internet (and you)<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/562311/original/file-20231129-17-hg57m4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=44%2C11%2C7304%2C4120&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>We’re now sadly used to seeing toxic exchanges play out on social media platforms like X (formerly Twitter), Facebook and TikTok. </p>
<p>But Wikipedia is a reference work. How heated can people get over an encyclopedia? </p>
<p>Our <a href="https://academic.oup.com/pnasnexus/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad385">research</a>, published today, shows the answer is very heated. For example, one Wikipedia editor wrote to another:</p>
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<p>i will find u in real life and slit your throat.</p>
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<p>That’s a problem for many reasons, but chief among them is if Wikipedia goes down in a ball of toxic fire, it might take the rest of the internet’s information infrastructure with it. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/let-the-community-work-it-out-throwback-to-early-internet-days-could-fix-social-medias-crisis-of-legitimacy-213209">Let the community work it out: Throwback to early internet days could fix social media's crisis of legitimacy</a>
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<h2>The internet’s favourite encyclopedia</h2>
<p>In some ways, Wikipedia is both an encyclopedia and a social media platform. </p>
<p>It’s <a href="https://www.semrush.com/website/top/">the fourth most popular website</a> on the internet, behind only such giants as Google, YouTube and Facebook. </p>
<p>Every day, <a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/all-projects">millions of people worldwide</a> use it for quick fact-checks or in-depth research. </p>
<p>And what happens to Wikipedia matters beyond the platform itself because of its central role in online information infrastructure. </p>
<p>Google search relies heavily on Wikipedia and the quality of its search results would <a href="https://ojs.aaai.org/index.php/ICWSM/article/view/14883/14733">decrease substantially</a> if Wikipedia disappeared. </p>
<p>But it’s not just an increasingly authoritative source of knowledge. Even though we don’t always lump Wikipedia in with other social media platforms, it shares some common features. </p>
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<p>It relies on contributors to create the content that the public will view and it creates spaces for those contributors to interact. Wikipedia relies solely on the work of volunteers: no one is paid for writing or editing content. </p>
<p>Moreover, no one checks the credentials of editors — anyone can make a contribution. This arguably makes Wikipedia the most successful collaborative project in history. </p>
<p>However, the fact that Wikipedia is a collaborative platform also makes it vulnerable. </p>
<p>A <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Research:Harassment_survey_2015">2015 survey</a> found 38% of surveyed Wikipedia users had experienced harassment on the platform.</p>
<p>What if the collaborative environment deteriorates, and its volunteer editors abandon the project? </p>
<p>What effect do toxic comments have on Wikipedia’s editors, content and community?</p>
<h2>Abusive comments lead to disengaging</h2>
<p>To answer this question, we started with Wikipedia’s “user’s talk pages”. A user’s talk page is a place where other editors can interact with the user. They can post messages, discuss personal topics, or extend discussions from an article’s talk page. </p>
<p>Every editor has a personal user’s talk page, and the majority of toxic comments made on the platform are on these pages. </p>
<p>We collected information on 57 million comments made on the user’s talk pages of 8.5 million editors across the six most active language editions of Wikipedia (English, German, French, Italian, Spanish and Russian) over a period of 20 years. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/students-are-told-not-to-use-wikipedia-for-research-but-its-a-trustworthy-source-168834">Students are told not to use Wikipedia for research. But it's a trustworthy source</a>
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<p>We then used a <a href="https://perspectiveapi.com/">state-of-the-art machine learning algorithm</a> to identify toxic comments. The algorithm looked for attributes a human might consider toxic, like insults, threats, or identity attacks.</p>
<p>We compared the activity of editors before and after they received a toxic comment, as well as with a control group of similar editors who received a non-toxic rather than toxic comment. </p>
<p>We found receiving a single toxic comment could reduce an editor’s activity by 1.2 active days in the short term. Considering that 80,307 users on English Wikipedia alone have received at least one toxic comment, the cumulative impact could amount to 284 lost human-years. </p>
<p>Moreover, some users don’t just contribute less. They stop contributing altogether. </p>
<p>We found that the probability of leaving Wikipedia’s community of contributors increases after receiving a toxic comment, with new users being particularly vulnerable. New editors who receive toxic comments are nearly twice as likely to leave Wikipedia as would be expected otherwise. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/562555/original/file-20231129-21-2li5ve.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="The wikipedia logo on a yellow office wall" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/562555/original/file-20231129-21-2li5ve.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/562555/original/file-20231129-21-2li5ve.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562555/original/file-20231129-21-2li5ve.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562555/original/file-20231129-21-2li5ve.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562555/original/file-20231129-21-2li5ve.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562555/original/file-20231129-21-2li5ve.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562555/original/file-20231129-21-2li5ve.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Wikipedia is just as vulnerable to toxic commentary as other popular websites.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wikipedia_Office_Globe.jpg">Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Wide-ranging consequences</h2>
<p>This matters more than you might think to the millions who use Wikipedia. </p>
<p>First, toxicity likely leads to poorer-quality content on the site. Having a diverse editor cohort is a crucial factor for maintaining content quality. The vast majority of Wikipedian editors <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0065782">are men</a>, which is reflected in the content on the platform. </p>
<p>There are <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/14614448211023772">fewer articles about women</a>, which are shorter than articles about men and more likely to centre on <a href="https://ojs.aaai.org/index.php/ICWSM/article/view/14628">romantic relationships and family-related issues</a>. They are also more often linked to articles about the opposite gender. Women are often described as wives of famous people rather than for their own merits, for example.</p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/30-years-of-the-web-down-under-how-australians-made-the-early-internet-their-own-212542">30 years of the web down under: how Australians made the early internet their own</a>
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<p>While multiple barriers confront women editors on Wikipedia, toxicity is likely one of the key factors that contributes to the gender imbalance. Although men and women are <a href="https://www.datasociety.net/pubs/oh/Online_Harassment_2016.pdf">equally likely</a> to face online harassment and abuse, women experience more severe violations and are more likely to be affected by such incidents, including self-censoring. </p>
<p>This may affect other groups as well: our research showed that toxic comments often include not just gendered language but also ethnic slurs and other biases.</p>
<p>Finally, a significant rise in toxicity, especially targeted attacks on new users, could jeopardise Wikipedia’s survival. </p>
<p>Following a period of <a href="https://icwsm.org/papers/2--Almeida-Mozafari-Cho.pdf">exponential growth</a> in its editor base during the early 2000s, the number has been <a href="https://wikipedia20.mitpress.mit.edu/pub/lifecycles/release/2">largely stable</a> since 2016, with the exception of a brief activity spike during the COVID pandemic. Currently about the same number of editors join the project as leave, but the balance could be easily tipped if the people left because of online abuse.</p>
<p>That would damage not only Wikipedia, but also the rest of the online information infrastructure it helps to support. </p>
<p>There’s no easy fix to this, but our research shows promoting healthy communication practices is critical to protecting crucial online information ecosystems.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/218517/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ivan Smirnov does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>It’s the fourth most popular website in the world, but our new study shows toxic commentary can still thrive on Wikipedia. There’s a lot at stake if too many editors are driven away.Ivan Smirnov, Research Fellow, University of Technology SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2165812023-11-22T17:05:13Z2023-11-22T17:05:13ZThe vast majority of us have no idea what the padlock icon on our internet browser is – and it’s putting us at risk<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559630/original/file-20231115-15-zfe1h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=50%2C0%2C5568%2C3692&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The padlock icon which appears in most internet browser address bars. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/web-browser-closeup-on-lcd-screen-1353121223">Robert Avgustin/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Do you know what the padlock symbol in your internet browser’s address bar means? If not, you’re not alone. <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10447318.2023.2266789">New research</a> by my colleagues and I shows that only 5% of UK adults understand the padlock’s significance. This is a threat to our online safety. </p>
<p>The padlock symbol on a web browser simply means that the data being sent between the web server and the user’s computer is encrypted and cannot be read by others. But when we asked people what they thought it meant, we received an array of incorrect answers.</p>
<p>In our study, we asked a cross section of 528 web users, aged between 18 and 86 years of age, a number of questions about the internet. Some 53% of them held a bachelor’s degree or above and 22% had a college certificate, while the remainder had no further education. </p>
<p>One of our questions was: “On the Google Chrome browser bar, do you know what the padlock icon represents/means?” </p>
<p>Of the 463 who responded, 63% stated they knew, or thought they knew, what the padlock symbol on their web browser meant, but only 7% gave the correct meaning. Respondents gave us a range of incorrect interpretations, believing among other things that the padlock signified a secure web page or that the website is safe and doesn’t contain any viruses or suspicious links. Others believed the symbol means a website is “trustworthy”, is not harmful, or is a “genuine” website. </p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="A symbol of a circle next to a straight line over a straight line and a circle." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559903/original/file-20231116-19-zm7pen.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559903/original/file-20231116-19-zm7pen.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559903/original/file-20231116-19-zm7pen.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559903/original/file-20231116-19-zm7pen.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559903/original/file-20231116-19-zm7pen.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559903/original/file-20231116-19-zm7pen.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559903/original/file-20231116-19-zm7pen.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Google’s new ‘tune icon’ which replaces the padlock icon in Chrome’s address bar.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://blog.chromium.org/2023/05/an-update-on-lock-icon.html">Google Chromium</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
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<p>Not understanding symbols like the padlock icon, can pose problems to internet users. These include increased security risks and simply hindering effective use of the technology.</p>
<p>Our findings corroborate research by <a href="https://support.google.com/chrome/thread/222182314/the-lock-icon-replaced-with-a-tune-icon-in-the-google-chrome-address-bar?hl=en">Google</a> itself, who in September, replaced the padlock icon with a <a href="https://www.thesslstore.com/blog/google-to-replace-the-padlock-icon-in-chrome-version-117/#:%7E:text=But%20that's%20about%20to%20change,to%20have%20HTTPS%20by%20default.">neutral symbol</a> described as a “tune icon”. In doing so, Google hopes to eradicate the misunderstandings that the padlock icon has afforded. </p>
<p>However, Google’s update now raises the question as to whether other web browser companies will join forces to ensure their designs are uniform and intuitive across all platforms.</p>
<h2>Web browser evolution</h2>
<p>Without a doubt, the browser, which is our point of entry to the world wide web, comes with a lot of responsibility on the part of web companies. It’s how we now visit web pages, so the browser has become an integral part of our daily lives. </p>
<p>It’s intriguing to look back and trace the evolution of the web’s design from the early 1990s to where we are today. Creating software that people wanted to use and found effective was at the heart of this <a href="https://www.interaction-design.org/literature/topics/human-computer-interaction">evolution</a>. The creation of functioning, satisfying, and most importantly, consistently designed user interfaces was an important goal in the 1990s. In fact, there was a drive in those early days to create web interface designs that were so consistent and intuitive that users would not need to think too much about how they work. </p>
<p>Nowadays, it’s a different story because the challenge is centred on helping people to think before they interact online. In light of this, it seems bizarre that the design of the web browser in 2023 still affords uncertainty through its design. Worse still, that it is inconsistently presented across its different providers. </p>
<p>It could be argued that this stems from the <a href="https://www.investopedia.com/ask/answers/09/browser-wars-netscape-internet-explorer.asp">browser wars</a> of the mid-1990s. That’s when the likes of Microsoft and former software company, Netscape, tried to outdo each other with faster, better and more unique products. The race to be distinct meant there was inconsistency between products. </p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/LOWOLJci8d8?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The rise and fall of Netscape and the browser wars of the 1990s.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Internet safety</h2>
<p>However, introducing distinct browser designs can lead to user confusion, misunderstanding and a false sense of security, especially when it is <a href="https://www.interaction-design.org/literature/article/principle-of-consistency-and-standards-in-user-interface-design">now widely known</a> that such inconsistency can breed confusion, and from that, frustration and lack of use. </p>
<p>As an expert in human-computer interaction, it is alarming to me that some browser companies continue to disregard <a href="https://www.nngroup.com/articles/ten-usability-heuristics/">established guidelines</a> for usability. In a world where web browsers open the doors to potentially greater societal risks than the offline world, it is crucial to establish a consistent approach for addressing these dangers. </p>
<p>As a minimum, we need web browser companies to join forces in a concerted effort to shield users, or at the very least, heighten their awareness regarding potential online risks. This should include formulating one unified design across the board that affords an enriched and safe user experience.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/216581/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Fiona Carroll does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The padlock symbol simply means that the data being sent between the web server and the user’s computer is encrypted and cannot be read by others. But many people don’t know that.Fiona Carroll, Reader in Human Computer Interaction, Cardiff Metropolitan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2143562023-11-20T13:16:12Z2023-11-20T13:16:12ZEvery state is about to dole out federal funding for broadband internet – not every state is ready for the task<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/560080/original/file-20231116-15-4w7a3h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5275%2C3514&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The Biden administration set the amounts of federal funding each state will receive to expand access to broadband internet.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/BroadbandRural/b927bd2db71b4b2cb00e451d87aed05f/photo">AP Photo/Evan Vucci</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act was signed in late 2021, it included <a href="https://broadbandusa.ntia.doc.gov/news/latest-news/ntias-role-implementing-broadband-provisions-2021-infrastructure-investment-and">US$42.5 billion for broadband</a> internet access as part of the Broadband Equity, Access, and Deployment Program. The program aims to ensure that broadband access is available throughout the country. This effort differs from previous federal broadband programs because it promised to <a href="https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/about/news-room/opinion/2021/11/17/broadband-and-the-states-the-critical-role-of-partnerships">allocate the funding to individual states</a> and allow them to figure out the best way to distribute it. </p>
<p>Nearly two years later, the federal government informed the states <a href="https://www.ntia.gov/press-release/2023/biden-harris-administration-announces-state-allocations-4245-billion-high-speed">exactly how much money each will be getting</a>. The sizes of the awards are significant: 19 states will receive over $1 billion, and the average award across the 50 states is $817 million. Texas received the largest allocation at over $3.3 billion.</p>
<p>The states are working with the federal government to develop plans for how they will distribute those funds. The states have until Dec. 27, 2023, to submit their initial proposals. As of Nov. 15, no state had completed that process. </p>
<p>Even after the states receive the federal funding, it’s expected to take years for the states to award contracts to internet service providers to install the broadband networks and for the companies to complete the work. States are also in something of a race with one another: The first ones to the funding can get money to the private sector, which can begin hiring from the limited pool of technicians capable of installing fiber optic cables.</p>
<p><iframe id="2EVQ5" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/2EVQ5/3/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<h2>Plans and deadlines</h2>
<p>An estimated <a href="https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1m6CsGY7qxZqoC4bedRemYjLLnPpITxHYNXG3X03Sy7Y/edit#gid=1761704324">11.8 million locations</a> – households and businesses, rural and urban – are considered either unserved or underserved. Unserved locations are those where providers only offer internet speeds below 25Mbps downstream and 3Mbps upstream. Underserved locations are those where providers offer internet speeds below 100Mbps downstream and 20Mbps upstream.</p>
<p>Each state’s plans for how to get broadband service to those locations must be approved by the overseeing organization, the <a href="https://www.ntia.gov/">National Telecommunications and Information Administration</a>. The <a href="https://broadbandusa.ntia.gov/sites/default/files/2023-07/BEAD_Initial_Proposal_Guidance_Volumes_I_II.pdf">plans must include</a> information on existing broadband funding that has yet to be deployed from <a href="https://www.usac.org/high-cost/funds/acam/">other</a> <a href="https://www.usda.gov/reconnect">federal</a> <a href="https://www.usac.org/high-cost/funds/rural-digital-opportunity-fund/">programs</a>, plans for handling challenges, plans to coordinate with tribal and regional entities, how the state will address the need to recruit and train workers to install broadband, and how it will address the issue of broadband affordability. States’ <a href="https://broadbandusa.ntia.doc.gov/public-notice-posting-state-and-territory-bead-and-digital-equity-plansproposals">initial proposals</a> can be viewed online.</p>
<p>A <a href="https://www.internetforall.gov/bead-initial-proposal-progress-dashboard">dashboard the federal government recently released</a> summarizes the progress made by all 50 states plus U.S. territories in getting these plans approved and receiving the first chunk of the promised funding. Some states are further along than others. </p>
<p><iframe id="L6h2f" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/L6h2f/1/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>The dashboard includes eight steps each state or territory must complete before getting the first 20% of its promised allocation. As of Nov. 15, 2023, most states had completed four of the process’s eight steps. Only three states – Louisiana, Nevada and Virginia – had finished six or more steps. Notably, Louisiana and Virginia had <a href="https://theconversation.com/is-your-state-ready-to-handle-the-influx-of-federal-funds-for-expanding-broadband-172131">broadband offices up and running</a> for at least three years prior to the passage of the infrastructure legislation in 2021.</p>
<p>With the <a href="https://www.telecompetitor.com/what-state-broadband-offices-are-focused-on-now-bead-initial-proposals-and-more/">due date for submitting plans</a> Dec. 27 and a public comment period that’s required to be open for 30 days, many states could be pushing the deadline. States that miss the deadline could lose out on the funding. States are likely to begin distributing their broadband funds sometime in 2024, and implementation of the plans is expected to <a href="https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/issue-briefs/2023/01/what-states-need-to-know-about-federal-bead-funding-for-high-speed-internet-expansion">take four years</a>. </p>
<p>There are real-world impacts related to which states receive funding first. The vast majority of the funds are <a href="https://www.fiercetelecom.com/broadband/broadband-industry-sounds-bead-funding-reveal">expected to be spent on fiber-optic infrastructure</a>, and <a href="https://www.fiercetelecom.com/broadband/workforce-short-enthusiasm-where-are-all-fiber-technicians">the telecom industry has concerns</a> about the <a href="https://broadbandbreakfast.com/2023/05/ntia-workforce-development-requirements-may-prove-too-restrictive/">availability of technicians</a> to install it. One recent survey also found that 20% of the expected hires will be for <a href="https://www.benton.org/blog/broadband-workforce-survey-shows-challenges-providers-expect-during-bead-rollout">engineer or manager positions</a>. </p>
<p>Internet providers that successfully apply for grants in one state may quickly hire a larger percentage of available local technicians and engineers, leaving neighboring states with an even larger workforce gap. Along the same lines, most broadband projects require <a href="https://www.ppc-online.com/blog/installing-aerial-fiber-what-are-the-options">specific types of equipment</a>, which will be in high demand once the money starts flowing. </p>
<h2>Other state-level funds</h2>
<p>It is important to note that there are other ongoing state-level broadband infrastructure programs. In particular, the 2021 American Recovery Plan Act provided <a href="https://home.treasury.gov/policy-issues/coronavirus/assistance-for-state-local-and-tribal-governments/state-and-local-fiscal-recovery-funds">State and Local Fiscal Recovery Funds</a> and <a href="https://home.treasury.gov/policy-issues/coronavirus/assistance-for-state-local-and-tribal-governments/capital-projects-fund">Capital Projects Funds</a> to each state, many of which have been used for broadband purposes. </p>
<p>While no state-level summary of these projects exists, to the best of my knowledge, they often include significant amounts of money. For example, Missouri recently awarded <a href="https://governor.mo.gov/press-releases/archive/state-awards-261-million-through-broadband-infrastructure-grant-program-fund">$261 million from the State and Local Fiscal Recovery Funds</a> Program for broadband projects and another <a href="https://home.treasury.gov/news/featured-stories/biden-harris-administration-announces-florida-georgia-iowa-minnesota-missouri-and-utah-to-receive-nearly-1-billion-in-american-rescue-plan-funds-to-increase-access-to-affordable-high-speed-internet">$197 million in Capital Projects</a> funds. Combined, this adds another $458 million to the $1.7 billion that Missouri will be receiving from the broadband program. This $458 million comes with shorter turnaround times than the broadband funds because they were allocated under the American Recovery Plan Act and those funds must be spent by the end of 2026. </p>
<p>Additionally, the broadband program included $2.7 billion for <a href="https://www.digitalinclusion.org/definitions/">digital equity</a> work, and states have been <a href="https://broadbandusa.ntia.doc.gov/public-notice-posting-state-and-territory-bead-and-digital-equity-plansproposals">developing these plans</a> as well. The Digital Equity Act programs aim to ensure that all Americans have access to the skills and technology needed to function in the digital economy. The deadline for state digital equity plans varies by state, but the original timeline calls for awards to be made in 2024. Most of these awards are expected to go to community-based entities (libraries, nonprofits, religious organizations, etc.) to help people gain digital skills. </p>
<h2>Lots of work left to do</h2>
<p>Once states receive their broadband funding, they still have to set up a mechanism to request proposals from internet service providers, grade the proposals that come in, and oversee the challenge process for rejected proposals that is likely to follow. Some of the initial 20% of the funding that states receive <a href="https://www.telecompetitor.com/initial-20-of-bead-funding-unlikely-to-be-used-for-broadband-awards/">will be used for those purposes</a>. Only after the awards are made and challenges settled will the providers ramp up their workforces, purchase the relevant equipment and begin work.</p>
<p>So while the broadband funding holds great promise for the 11.2 million locations across the country that do not have access to a high-quality broadband connection, many still have a long wait ahead of them.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/214356/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Brian Whitacre has received funding from USDA Rural Utilities Service, USDA Economic Research Service, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Regional Rural Development Centers, Association of Public Land-Grant Universities, Nebraska College of Law, Institute of Museum and Library Services, Health Research Services Administration, the National Science Foundation, the Benton Foundation, and the NTCA (Rural Broadband Association).</span></em></p>Every state is poised to receive a large amount of federal money to expand broadband access, but they have a lot of work to do to meet the government’s requirements for distributing it.Brian Whitacre, Professor and Neustadt Chair, Department of Agricultural Economics, Oklahoma State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2175642023-11-14T00:21:28Z2023-11-14T00:21:28ZOptus has revealed the cause of the major outage. Could it happen again?<p>Around 4.05am on Wednesday November 8 2023, Optus suffered a nationwide network outage lasting well into the evening, more than 12 hours later.</p>
<p>Now, Optus has released some information on what happened, <a href="https://www.optus.com.au/notices/outage-response">stating</a> “we now know what the cause was and have taken steps to ensure it will not happen again”.</p>
<p>As a telecommunications expert, I believe we should have no confidence in this statement, because the poorly worded explanation leaves many questions unanswered.</p>
<p>Could a similar outage happen again? We don’t know – but there are ways to make it less likely.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/optus-blackout-explained-what-is-a-deep-network-outage-and-what-may-have-caused-it-217266">Optus blackout explained: what is a ‘deep network’ outage and what may have caused it?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>How did the outage unfold?</h2>
<p>The Optus outage caused all services to go offline. Landlines, mobile phones, home internet, small business and enterprise, and cloud connections all dropped out.</p>
<p>The most serious impact of the outage was that Optus landlines <a href="https://www.sbs.com.au/news/podcast-episode/federal-government-review-to-scrutinise-optus-failure/8jqd9y87o">couldn’t dial 000</a> and Optus mobile phones were unable to connect to the 000 emergency call service unless the connection occurred through Telstra or Vodafone infrastructure.</p>
<p>More than 10 million Optus customers were affected by the outage that brought Melbourne’s <a href="https://www.9news.com.au/national/metro-trains-melbourne-stop-working-communications-outage-updates/7d3b22a3-9973-4926-925f-7a68e242e734">trains to a halt</a> and left Optus’s small business customers unable to carry out <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-11-11/optus-outage-raises-concerns-around-australias-cashless-society/103091402">EFTPOS transactions</a>.</p>
<h2>So, what went wrong with Optus?</h2>
<p>Optus has revealed that a “routine software upgrade” triggered a cascading failure in the Optus <a href="https://www.cloudflare.com/learning/network-layer/internet-protocol/">internet protocol</a> (IP) core network – the central backbone of their network that authorises device access and provides customer management.</p>
<p>Optus has provided a brief answer on <a href="https://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/optus-has-revealed-the-cause-of-last-weeks-massive-12-hour-outage/ruhlpn9a1">why the entire network went offline</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“These routing information changes propagated through multiple layers in our network and exceeded preset safety levels on key routers which could not handle these. This resulted in those routers disconnecting from the Optus IP Core network to protect themselves.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Routing information is used to find a path from one location on the internet to another – a router is a device that manages the traffic flows.</p>
<p>The explanation provided by Optus points to human error. This confirms what industry experts <a href="https://www.scimex.org/newsfeed/expert-reaction-optus-network-outage">suspected had happened</a>. The resulting flood of “routing information changes” <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/business/2023/nov/08/optus-network-outage-cause-what-happened-explained">overwhelmed</a> key routers in the core network causing them to disconnect, thereby bringing the entire network to a halt.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-what-is-the-core-network-that-was-crucial-to-the-optus-outage-217375">Explainer: what is the 'core network' that was crucial to the Optus outage?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559186/original/file-20231113-21-h5ug4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Photo of a white wifi router on a desk with a person working on laptop in the backround" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559186/original/file-20231113-21-h5ug4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559186/original/file-20231113-21-h5ug4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559186/original/file-20231113-21-h5ug4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559186/original/file-20231113-21-h5ug4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559186/original/file-20231113-21-h5ug4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559186/original/file-20231113-21-h5ug4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559186/original/file-20231113-21-h5ug4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Your internet router is a home version of a device that manages data traffic flow.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/selective-focus-router-internet-on-working-1807512106">Teerasan Phutthigorn/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Should the outage have been preventable?</h2>
<p>Outages of this kind are not uncommon – human error has led to major companies going offline in the past.</p>
<p>But an <em>entire</em> telecommunications network going offline is unusual. The network should be designed in such a way that redundancy (backups) and resiliency are built in from the outset.</p>
<p>Before a software upgrade occurs, there should be modelling, testing and several layers of sign-off.</p>
<p>In case something goes wrong, there should be infrastructure and system redundancy. An automated or manual procedure should exist to ensure the redundant systems become operational within a few minutes. </p>
<p>In 2021, <a href="https://blog.cloudflare.com/october-2021-facebook-outage/">Facebook, WhatsApp and Instagram</a> disappeared from the internet for roughly six hours due to an incorrect routing configuration.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.facebook.com/business/news/update-about-the-october-4th-outage">Meta’s lengthy and informative statement</a> at the time provides an example of the level of detail that we should expect Optus to provide.</p>
<p>With the Optus outage and similar incidents at other companies that have led to major outages, in nearly every case the outage was preventable and highlighted deficiencies in the organisation.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/in-a-crisis-optus-appears-to-be-ignoring-communications-101-217265">In a crisis, Optus appears to be ignoring Communications 101</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What should Optus do now?</h2>
<p>The national outage means the Optus network is <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-11-09/experts-say-optus-outage-could-happen-again/103086826">not fit for purpose</a>.</p>
<p>It can be assumed Optus has a number of deficiencies, such as problems with engineering capability, testing, procedures, network redundancy and resilience.</p>
<p>Optus states they are “committed to learning from what has occurred” and will continue to work to “increase the resilience” of their network.</p>
<p>For this to lead to an effective outcome, Optus will need to carry out a review and put in place new processes, infrastructure and systems to prevent a similar outage in the future.</p>
<h2>How do we know a similar outage won’t happen again?</h2>
<p>We don’t.</p>
<p>We need enhanced government regulation of the Australian telecommunications network operators to provide improved visibility of the redundancy and resilience of their networks. The Senate has <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate/Environment_and_Communications/OptusNetworkOutage">commenced an inquiry</a> into the Optus outage.</p>
<p>Telecommunications is an essential service. Australians should be able to connect to the 000 emergency call service at all times. Reliable access to medical services, EFTPOS and the internet are vital. </p>
<p>If necessary, penalties should be introduced into the <a href="https://legislation.gov.au/Details/C2023C00371">Telecommunications Act 1997</a> to ensure telecommunications network operators implement and maintain “best practice” related to network operation, redundancy and resilience.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/217564/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mark A Gregory does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Optus says the unprecedented outage last week was caused by a ‘routine software upgrade’. An expert explains why this points to more serious problems with the network.Mark A Gregory, Associate Professor, School of Engineering, RMIT UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2172662023-11-08T04:13:48Z2023-11-08T04:13:48ZOptus blackout explained: what is a ‘deep network’ outage and what may have caused it?<p>Optus customers woke up this morning to find they were unable to get their social media fix, and they weren’t happy. Around 4am AEDT, customers started to report an <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-11-08/optus-outage-live-blog/103076996">inability to access</a> both mobile and home internet services.</p>
<p>Optus advised it was investigating the issue, with <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/australia-news-live-rba-lifts-interest-rates-to-4-35-per-cent-pm-meets-with-chinese-premier-20231107-p5eiag.htmly">reports emerging around</a> midday of some services coming back online. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Optus Help post from X, formerly Twitter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558260/original/file-20231108-25-hgyz4h.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558260/original/file-20231108-25-hgyz4h.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558260/original/file-20231108-25-hgyz4h.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558260/original/file-20231108-25-hgyz4h.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558260/original/file-20231108-25-hgyz4h.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=711&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558260/original/file-20231108-25-hgyz4h.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=711&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558260/original/file-20231108-25-hgyz4h.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=711&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Optus Help/X</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Around 12.30pm, Optus chief executive Kelly Bayer Rosmarin told radio 2GB the <a href="https://www.9news.com.au/national/optus-outage-when-will-it-be-fixed/4b74342e-9b2a-4c0f-8125-a28be7facd83">path to restoration</a> had been found, nearly nine hours after the blackout began.</p>
<p>The outage, one of the largest in Australia’s history, sent alarm bells ringing across the country. With <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/business/2023/nov/08/optus-phone-and-internet-outage-affects-millions-across-australia">a number of</a> smaller mobile network providers reselling the Optus network, including Aussie Broadband, Amaysim, CatchConnect, Coles Mobile, Dodo, Moose Mobile <a href="https://whirlpool.net.au/wiki/mobile_carriers">and more</a>, the impact was felt far and wide.</p>
<p>As the morning progressed, the impact grew. Health and emergency services were unable to communicate, <a href="https://7news.com.au/travel/metro-trains/melbourne-train-network-shuts-down-due-to-optus-outage-for-30-minutes-c-12477906">trains in Melbourne</a> were brought to a halt and small businesses across the nation were unable to use Optus EFTPOS. </p>
<p>Fortunately, Optus users could still use roaming to <a href="https://amta.org.au/calling-triple-zero-from-your-mobile/">call 000</a> if they were within the coverage of other telecommunication service providers. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/in-a-crisis-optus-appears-to-be-ignoring-communications-101-217265">In a crisis, Optus appears to be ignoring Communications 101</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What is a ‘deep network’ problem?</h2>
<p>Earlier today Minister for Communications Michelle Rowland described the incident as a “<a href="https://www.abc.net.au/listen/programs/radionational-breakfast/optus-outage-likely-a-deep-network-issue/103076946">deep network”</a> problem.</p>
<p>Telecommunications networks include three components: the core, transit and access networks. You can think of the <a href="https://www.tatacommunications.com/knowledge-base/network-core-network-explained/">core network</a> as the systems that allow customers’ devices to connect to and access phone and internet services. </p>
<p>The transit network connects the core to the access networks using optical fibre cables. The access networks include the local infrastructure found in suburbs – including the mobile phone towers.</p>
<p>Core network outages can occur when equipment or cables fail, when there is a software fault, or when a cyberattack occurs.</p>
<p>The most common reason for a software fault is when a patch or update is applied and it has an unintended outcome, such as causing one or more of the core network systems to fail.</p>
<hr>
<hr>
<h2>What could have caused this?</h2>
<p>Although Optus hasn’t give any indications as to the <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-11-08/optus-phone-internet-service-down-across-australia/103076700">exact cause of the outage</a>, Bayer Rosmarin <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/business/2023/nov/08/optus-phone-and-internet-outage-affects-millions-across-australia">said it was</a> unlikely a cyberattack was the cause:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>There is no indication that it is anything to do with spyware at this stage.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>At the same time, experts have noted mobile cell towers are working, and there seems to be no damage to the underlying fibre optic network. This means we can probably rule out an issue in the transit or access networks.</p>
<p>The scale and speed with which the impact hit (and the somewhat specific timing) indicates the culprit was likely a problem in the core network.</p>
<p>It’s very possible a software or system update was responsible. Such updates or changes often happen out of business hours to have minimal impact. They typically involve a short period of downtime – a “scheduled outage” – which goes unnoticed by customers. </p>
<p>It could be, as some <a href="https://www.heraldsun.com.au/news/victoria/fears-optus-outage-was-a-planned-upgrade-at-4am-that-went-catastrophically-wrong/news-story/cd25723a64980982bf70411c75472baa">reports have speculated</a>, the Optus outage was an unplanned consequence of a planned system change, such as a planned update or outage. When these processes go wrong, they can go spectacularly wrong! </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558236/original/file-20231108-19-i63c16.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A radio and 5G tower against a blue sky" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558236/original/file-20231108-19-i63c16.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558236/original/file-20231108-19-i63c16.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558236/original/file-20231108-19-i63c16.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558236/original/file-20231108-19-i63c16.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558236/original/file-20231108-19-i63c16.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558236/original/file-20231108-19-i63c16.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558236/original/file-20231108-19-i63c16.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The mobile network distributed via cell towers provides both phone calls and data to customers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/radio-communication-cell-towers-on-blue-1971141260">Daria Nipot/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As for how such a fault may happen, it is likely due to human error (especially since 4am is a time you might expect engineers to be carrying out patch work). However, it could also be a result of other factors, such as a hardware fault that then causes a software failure. </p>
<p>Another possibility is a fault in an accounting or user management system, such as no longer being able to attribute costs or verify users’ identities properly.</p>
<p>Issues in back-end billing and management systems can generate a cascade of failures throughout the rest of a network. In such cases, a simple bug in the system can impact everyone connected to the network.</p>
<h2>How will this be fixed?</h2>
<p>Optus engineers will be actively investigating the cause of the outage. You might be imagining someone scurrying around with wires in their hands trying to find the one that isn’t plugged in – but in reality this will be a lengthy process that involves examining various systems and software configurations to find the culprit.</p>
<p>For Optus, the hard work will continue after the fix is in place to ensure it doesn’t happen again. And perhaps an even more difficult challenge will be convincing the public this was an isolated incident – one that has once again highlighted how vulnerable our massively connected systems are to (even single) <a href="https://www.theaustralian.com.au/business/business-spectator/news-story/preventing-the-mayhem-of-a-major-telstra-outage/6b59b91ae3865637490da2813663adc9">points of failure</a>.</p>
<p>Speaking on 3AW Afternoons, <a href="https://www.3aw.com.au/optus-ceo-looking-at-compensating-customers-as-services-are-restored-following-unprecedented-outage/">Bayer Rosmarin said</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>We are looking at what we can do to say thank you to our customers for their patience.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Optus is likely to pay compensation to customers. For residential customers this may be in the form of a reduced bill. </p>
<p>For business customers, the compensation would be linked with their service-level agreements. In other words, the specific penalties for Optus will be based on individual agreements it has made with various parties using or sharing its services.</p>
<p>Beyond this, it’s highly likely today’s events have dealt a massive blow to Optus’s reputation – especially when considered alongside last year’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-optus-hacker-claims-theyve-deleted-the-data-heres-what-experts-want-you-to-know-191494">Optus data breach</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/optus-says-it-needed-to-keep-identity-data-for-six-years-but-did-it-really-191498">Optus says it needed to keep identity data for six years. But did it really?</a>
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</p>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/217266/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Optus suffered one of the largest telecommunications outages in Australian history today. Here are the factors that can cause such events.Paul Haskell-Dowland, Professor of Cyber Security Practice, Edith Cowan UniversityMark A Gregory, Associate Professor, School of Engineering, RMIT UniversityMohiuddin Ahmed, Senior Lecturer of Computing and Security, Edith Cowan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2160672023-10-26T19:03:10Z2023-10-26T19:03:10ZMost data lives in the cloud. What if it lived under the sea?<p>Where is the text you’re reading, right now? In one sense, it lives “on the internet” or “in the cloud”, just like your favourite social media platform or the TV show you might stream tonight.</p>
<p>But in a physical sense, it’s stored and transmitted somewhere in a network of <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/1228433/data-centers-worldwide-by-country/">thousands of data centres</a> across the globe. Each of these centres is whirring, buzzing and beeping around the clock, to store, process and communicate vast amounts of data and provide services to hungry consumers. </p>
<p>All this infrastructure is expensive to build and run, and has <a href="https://thereader.mitpress.mit.edu/the-staggering-ecological-impacts-of-computation-and-the-cloud/">a considerable environmental impact</a>. In search of cost savings, greater sustainability and better service, data centre providers are looking to get their feet wet.</p>
<p>Tech giant Microsoft and other companies want to relocate data centres into the world’s oceans, submerging computers and networking equipment to take advantage of cheap real estate and cool waters. Is this a good thing? What about the environmental impact? Are we simply replacing one damaging practice with another?</p>
<h2>Which companies are doing this?</h2>
<p>Microsoft’s <a href="https://natick.research.microsoft.com/">Project Natick</a> has been pursuing the idea of data centres beneath the waves since 2014. The initial premise was that since many humans live near the coast, so should data centres.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/L2oJw1a_qEM?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Microsoft’s underwater data centre: Project Natick.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>An initial experiment in 2015 saw a <a href="https://news.microsoft.com/features/microsoft-research-project-puts-cloud-in-ocean-for-the-first-time/">small-scale data centre</a> deployed for three months in the Pacific Ocean. </p>
<p><a href="https://news.microsoft.com/source/features/sustainability/project-natick-underwater-datacenter/">A two-year follow-up experiment</a> began in 2018. A total of 864 servers, in a 12 by 3 metre tubular structure, were sunk 35 metres deep off the Orkney Islands in Scotland.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/lBeepqQBpvU?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Microsoft’s Project Natick 2.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Microsoft is not the only company experimenting with moving data underwater. <a href="https://www.subseacloud.com/">Subsea Cloud</a> is another American company doing so. China’s Shenzhen HiCloud Data Center Technology Co Ltd has <a href="https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202303/31/WS642636b9a31057c47ebb7952.html">deployed centres in tropical waters</a> off the coast of Hainan Island.</p>
<h2>Why move data centres under the waves?</h2>
<p>Underwater data centres promise several advantages over their land-locked cousins.</p>
<p><strong>1) Energy efficiency</strong></p>
<p>The primary benefit is a significant cut in electricity consumption. According to the International Energy Agency, data centres <a href="https://www.iea.org/energy-system/buildings/data-centres-and-data-transmission-networks">consume around 1–1.5%</a> of global electricity use, of which some 40% is used for cooling.</p>
<p>Data centres in the ocean can dissipate heat in the surrounding water. Microsoft’s centre uses a small amount of electricity for cooling, while Subsea Cloud’s design has an entirely passive cooling system.</p>
<p><strong>2) Reliability</strong></p>
<p>The Microsoft experiment also found the underwater centre had a boost in reliability. When it was brought back to shore in 2020, the rate of server failures was less than 20% that of land-based data centres.</p>
<p>This was attributed to the stable temperature on the sea floor and the fact oxygen and humidity had been removed from the tube, which likely decreased corrosion of the components. The air inside the tube had also been replaced with nitrogen, making fires impossible.</p>
<p>Another reason for the increased reliability may have been the complete absence of humans, which prevents the possibility of human error impacting the equipment.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-environmental-cost-of-data-centres-is-substantial-and-making-them-energy-efficient-will-only-solve-half-the-problem-202643">The environmental cost of data centres is substantial, and making them energy-efficient will only solve half the problem</a>
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<p><strong>3) Latency</strong></p>
<p>More than <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/cambridge-prisms-coastal-futures/article/population-development-as-a-driver-of-coastal-risk-current-trends-and-future-pathways/8261D3B34F6114EA0999FAA597D5F2E2">one third</a> of the world’s population lives within 100 kilometres of a coast. Locating data centres close to where people live reduces the time taken for data to reach them, known as “latency”.</p>
<p>Offshore data centres can be close to coastal consumers, reducing latency, without having to pay the high real-estate prices often found in densely populated areas. </p>
<p><strong>4) Increased security and data sovereignty</strong></p>
<p>Moving data centres into the ocean makes them physically more difficult for hackers or saboteurs to access. It can also make it easier for companies to address “data sovereignty” concerns, in which certain countries require certain data to be stored within their borders rather than transmitted overseas. </p>
<p><strong>5) Cost</strong></p>
<p>Alongside savings due to reduced power bills, fewer hardware failures, and the low price of offshore real estate, the way underwater data centres are built may also cut costs. </p>
<p>The centres can be made in a modular, mass-produced fashion using standardised components, and shipped ready for deployment. There is also no need to consider the comfort or practicality for human operators to interact with the equipment.</p>
<h2>What about the environmental impact?</h2>
<p>At present there is no evidence placing data centres in the world’s oceans will have any significant negative impact. Microsoft’s experiments showed <a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/want-an-energyefficient-data-center-build-it-underwater">some localised warming</a>, but “the water just metres downstream of a Natick vessel would get a few thousandths of a degree warmer at most”.</p>
<p>The Microsoft findings also showed the submerged data centre provided habitat to marine life, much like a shipwreck: </p>
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<p>[…] crabs and fish began to gather around the vessel within 24 hours. We were delighted to have created a home for those creatures.</p>
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<p>If underwater data centres go ahead, robust planning will be needed to ensure their placement follows best practise considering <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/14614448221149944">cultural heritage</a> and environmental values. There are also opportunities to enhance the environmental benefits of underwater data centres by incorporating <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2022.105198">nature-positive features</a> in the design to enhance marine biodiversity around these structures.</p>
<h2>What’s next?</h2>
<p>Several companies are actively exploring, or indeed constructing, underwater data centres. While the average end-user will have no real awareness of where their data are stored, organisations may soon have opportunities to select local, underwater cloud platforms and services.</p>
<p>Companies with a desire to shout about their environmental credentials may well seek out providers that offer greener data centres – a change that is likely to only accelerate the move to the ocean.</p>
<p>So far, it looks like this approach is practical and can be scaled up. Add in the environmental and economic savings and this may well be the future of data centres for a significant proportion of the planet.</p>
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<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-are-ignoring-the-true-cost-of-water-guzzling-data-centres-167750">We are ignoring the true cost of water-guzzling data centres</a>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Could the data centres that power the internet be moved to the bottom of the ocean? It’s not as crazy as it soundsPaul Haskell-Dowland, Professor of Cyber Security Practice, Edith Cowan UniversityKathryn McMahon, Deputy Director, Centre for Marine Ecosystems Research, and Associate Dean of Research, Edith Cowan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2132092023-10-24T12:25:09Z2023-10-24T12:25:09ZLet the community work it out: Throwback to early internet days could fix social media’s crisis of legitimacy<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555410/original/file-20231023-15-otewua.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3489%2C2331&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Content moderators like these workers make decisions about online communities based on company dictates.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/content-moderators-work-at-a-facebook-office-in-austin-news-photo/1142321813">Ilana Panich-Linsman for The Washington Post via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In the 2018 documentary “<a href="https://gebrueder-beetz.de/en/productions/the-cleaners/">The Cleaners</a>,” a young man in Manila, Philippines, explains his work as a content moderator: “We see the pictures on the screen. You then go through the pictures and delete those that don’t meet the guidelines. The daily quota of pictures is 25,000.” As he speaks, his mouse clicks, deleting offending images while allowing others to remain online.</p>
<p>The man in Manila is one of thousands of content moderators hired as contractors by social media platforms – <a href="https://www.npr.org/2023/03/31/1167246714/googles-ghost-workers-are-demanding-to-be-seen-by-the-tech-giant">10,000 at Google alone</a>. Content moderation on an industrial scale like this is part of the everyday experience for users of social media. Occasionally a post someone makes is removed, or a post someone thinks is offensive is allowed to go viral. </p>
<p>Similarly, platforms add and remove features without input from the people who are most affected by those decisions. Whether you are outraged or unperturbed, most people don’t think much about the history of a system in which people in conference rooms in Silicon Valley and Manila determine your experiences online.</p>
<p>But why should a few companies – or a few billionaire owners – have the power to decide everything about online spaces that billions of people use? This unaccountable model of governance has led stakeholders of all stripes to criticize platforms’ decisions as <a href="https://www.brennancenter.org/sites/default/files/2021-08/Double_Standards_Content_Moderation.pdf">arbitrary</a>, <a href="https://nymag.com/intelligencer/2022/12/twitter-files-explained-elon-musk-taibbi-weiss-hunter-biden-laptop.html">corrupt</a> or <a href="https://www.oxfordstrategyreview.com/content/social-irresponsibility-how-social-media-works-for-the-west-but-fails-the-rest">irresponsible</a>. In the early, pre-web days of the social internet, decisions about the spaces people gathered in online were often made by members of the community. Our <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/20563051231196864">examination of the early history of online governance</a> suggests that social media platforms could return – at least in part – to models of community governance in order to address their crisis of legitimacy.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">The documentary ‘The Cleaners’ shows some of the hidden costs of Big Tech’s customer service approach to content moderation.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Online governance – a history</h2>
<p>In many early online spaces, governance was handled by community members, not by professionals. One early online space, <a href="https://thenewstack.io/a-look-back-in-time-the-forgotten-fame-of-lambdamoo/">LambdaMOO</a>, invited users to build their own governance system, which devolved power from the hands of those who technically controlled the space – administrators known as “wizards” – to members of the community. This was accomplished via a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101.1996.tb00185.x">formal petitioning process and a set of appointed mediators</a> who resolved conflicts between users.</p>
<p>Other spaces had more informal processes for incorporating community input. For example, on bulletin board systems, users <a href="https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300248142/the-modem-world/">voted with their wallets</a>, removing critical financial support if they disagreed with the decisions made by the system’s administrators. Other spaces, like text-based Usenet newsgroups, gave users substantial power to shape their experiences. The newsgroups left obvious spam in place, but gave users tools to block it if they chose to. Usenet’s administrators argued that it was fairer to allow each user <a href="https://fishbowl.pastiche.org/2021/01/12/usenet_spam">to make decisions that reflected their individual preferences</a> rather than taking a one-size-fits-all approach.</p>
<p>The graphical web expanded use of the internet from <a href="https://www.internetworldstats.com/emarketing.htm">a few million users to hundreds of millions within a decade</a> from 1995 to 2005. During this rapid expansion, community governance was replaced with governance models inspired by customer service, which focused on scale and cost. </p>
<p>This switch from community governance to customer service made sense to the fast-growing companies that made up the late 1990s internet boom. Promising their investors that they could grow rapidly and make changes quickly, companies looked for approaches to the complex work of governing online spaces <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/20563051231196864">that centralized power and increased efficiency</a>. </p>
<p>While this customer service model of governance allowed early user-generated content sites like Craigslist and GeoCities <a href="https://datasociety.net/library/origins-of-trust-and-safety/">to grow rapidly</a>, it set the stage for the crisis of legitimacy facing social media platforms today. Contemporary battles over social media are rooted in the sense that the people and processes governing online spaces are unaccountable to the communities that gather in them. </p>
<h2>Paths to community control</h2>
<p>Implementing community governance in today’s platforms could take a number of different forms, some of which are already being experimented with.</p>
<p>Advisory boards like Meta’s <a href="https://about.meta.com/actions/oversight-board-facts/">Oversight Board</a> are one way to involve outside stakeholders in platform governance, providing independent — albeit limited — review of platform decisions. X (formerly Twitter) is taking a more democratic approach with its <a href="https://help.twitter.com/en/using-x/community-notes">Community Notes</a> initiative, which allows users to contextualize information on the platform by crowdsourcing notes and ratings.</p>
<p>Some may question whether community governance can be implemented successfully in platforms that serve billions of users. In response, we point to Wikipedia. It is entirely community-governed and has created an open encyclopedia that’s become the foremost information resource in many languages. Wikipedia is surprisingly resilient to vandalism and abuse, with robust procedures that ensure a resource used by billions remains accessible, accurate and reasonably civil.</p>
<p>On a smaller scale, total self-governance – echoing early online spaces – could be key for communities that serve specific subsets of users. For example, <a href="https://archiveofourown.org/">Archive of Our Own</a> was created after fan-fiction authors – people who write original stories using characters and worlds from published books, television shows and movies – found existing platforms unwelcoming. For example, many fan-fiction authors were <a href="https://www.theverge.com/2022/8/15/23200176/history-of-ao3-archive-of-our-own-fanfiction">kicked off social media platforms</a> due to overzealous copyright enforcement or concerns about sexual content.</p>
<p>Fed up with platforms that didn’t understand their work or their culture, a group of authors designed and built their own platform specifically to meet the needs of their community. AO3, as it is colloquially known, serves millions of people a month, includes tools specific to the needs of fan-fiction authors, and is governed by the same people it serves.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552396/original/file-20231005-25-mahqjw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="text above and below a photo of two people in lab coats standing in a hallway" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552396/original/file-20231005-25-mahqjw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552396/original/file-20231005-25-mahqjw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=817&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552396/original/file-20231005-25-mahqjw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=817&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552396/original/file-20231005-25-mahqjw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=817&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552396/original/file-20231005-25-mahqjw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1027&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552396/original/file-20231005-25-mahqjw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1027&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552396/original/file-20231005-25-mahqjw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1027&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">X, formerly Twitter, allows people to use Community Notes to append relevant information to posts that contain inaccuracies.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://twitter.com/kareem_carr/status/1709198073174311207/photo/1">Screen capture by The Conversation U.S.</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
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<p>Hybrid models, like on Reddit, <a href="https://www.redditinc.com/policies/content-policy">mix centralized and self-governance</a>. Reddit hosts a collection of interest-based communities called subreddits that have their own rules, norms and teams of moderators. Underlying a subreddit’s governance structure is a set of rules, processes and features that apply to everyone. Not every subreddit is a sterling example of a healthy online community, but more are than are not.</p>
<p>There are also technical approaches to community governance. One approach would enable users to choose the algorithms that curate their social media feeds. Imagine that instead of only being able to use Facebook’s algorithm, you could choose from a suite of algorithms provided by third parties – for example, from The New York Times or Fox News.</p>
<p>More radically decentralized platforms like Mastodon devolve control to a network of servers that are similar in structure to email. This makes it easier to choose an experience that matches your preferences. You can choose which Mastodon server to use, and can switch easily – just like you can choose whether to use Gmail or Outlook for email – and can change your mind, all while maintaining access to the wider email network. </p>
<p>Additionally, advancements in generative AI – which shows <a href="https://doi.org/10.1109/MS.2023.3265877">early promise in producing computer code</a> – could make it easier for people, even those without a technical background, to build custom online spaces when they find existing spaces unsuitable. This would relieve pressure on online spaces to be everything for everyone and support a sense of agency in the digital public sphere.</p>
<p>There are also more indirect ways to support community governance. Increasing transparency – for example, by providing access to data about the impact of platforms’ decisions – can help researchers, policymakers and the public hold online platforms accountable. Further, encouraging ethical professional norms among engineers and product designers can make online spaces more respectful of the communities they serve.</p>
<h2>Going forward by going back</h2>
<p>Between now and the end of 2024, national elections are scheduled in many countries, including Argentina, Australia, India, Indonesia, Mexico, South Africa, Taiwan, the U.K. and the U.S. This is all but certain to lead to conflicts over online spaces. </p>
<p>We believe it is time to consider not just how online spaces can be governed efficiently and in service to corporate bottom lines, but how they can be governed fairly and legitimately. Giving communities more control over the spaces they participate in is a proven way to do just that.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/213209/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ethan Zuckerman receives funding from the MacArthur Foundation, the Ford Foundation, the Knight Foundation and the (US) National Science Foundation.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Chand Rajendra-Nicolucci receives funding from the MacArthur Foundation and the Ford Foundation. </span></em></p>In the days of online bulletin board systems, community members decided what was acceptable. Reviving that approach to content moderation offers Big Tech a path to legitimacy as public spaces.Ethan Zuckerman, Associate Professor of Public Policy, Communication, and Information, UMass AmherstChand Rajendra-Nicolucci, Research Fellow, Initiative for Digital Public Infrastructure, UMass AmherstLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2136822023-10-16T14:10:38Z2023-10-16T14:10:38ZTraditional farming knowledge should be stored for future use: the technology to do this is available<p>Indigenous knowledge and traditional practices have played a critical <a href="https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/574381468765625385/pdf/multi0page.pdf">role</a> in development all over the world. For centuries, various disciplines ranging from medicine to biodiversity conservation have drawn on these resources. </p>
<p>On the African continent, societies have been guided by a wide range of beliefs, norms, customs and procedures in managing their ecological and social systems.</p>
<p>For example, <a href="http://repository.embuni.ac.ke/handle/123456789/4152">cultural values</a> and social practices have helped communities achieve sustainable agriculture. These include traditional practices in <a href="https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/83308">food preservation</a>, <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/ldr.3395">weather monitoring and forecasting</a> and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666049021000566">crop production</a>.</p>
<p>Unfortunately, indigenous knowledge of agricultural practices is rapidly disappearing, because it is not being <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Emmanuel-Attoh-3/publication/352197647_Indigenous_knowledge_and_climate_change_adaptation_in_Africa_a_systematic_review/links/60be743792851cb13d88b9b9/Indigenous-knowledge-and-climate-change-adaptation-in-Africa-a-systematic-review.pdf">preserved</a>. One possible solution is digitalisation. This involves using modern information and communication technologies to capture, store and share farmers’ traditional wisdom and practices.</p>
<p>I conducted a <a href="https://journals.co.za/doi/abs/10.10520/ejc-jpad_v57_n4_a5">literature review</a> to explore the benefits and challenges of preserving indigenous agricultural knowledge in a digital form in Africa.</p>
<p>I found that mobile phones, computers, cameras, scanners and voice recorders were useful tools for this purpose. But the process must involve the local communities that use these practices. They are the creators, guardians and sharers of indigenous knowledge through their lived experiences and practices.</p>
<p>Their participation is critical for a number of reasons. One is that they would improve the quality and accuracy of knowledge stored in digital form. Another is that they would avoid errors or misunderstandings that might arise from <a href="https://rb.gy/vsahl">language or cultural barriers</a>.</p>
<p>Digital technologies can enable wider use of <a href="https://rb.gy/qd1q1">indigenous knowledge</a>. They can promote better management of agricultural resources and preserve traditional practices. </p>
<p>I also identified several challenges that hinder the process. Policy gaps, <a href="https://core.ac.uk/reader/188123510">network connectivity issues</a> and the <a href="https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-5225-0833-5.ch010">high cost</a> of digital tools were among them.</p>
<p>The findings of this study could inform policies and interventions to record and share indigenous knowledge in Africa.</p>
<h2>Digitalisation: what’s missing?</h2>
<p>Digital technologies are already widely used in Africa, particularly among smallholder farmers. They are used in <a href="https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/b180/025358c0b38123ea1b34bad11cc0761123ca.pdf">irrigation farming</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/su13031158">precision farming</a>, drought predictions, micro-climate monitoring, and crop disease risk assessments. Efficiency, productivity and functionality are among the claimed benefits.</p>
<p>But my study found little evidence of indigenous agricultural knowledge being preserved. Some countries are making progress, however. South Africa has developed a system to document indigenous knowledge. Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda are also developing and using <a href="https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/574381468765625385/pdf/multi0page.pdf">knowledge management initiatives</a>. <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0340035216681326">In Ghana</a>, people are recording traditional knowledge of forest food and medicine. </p>
<p>More needs to be done. </p>
<h2>How it could be done</h2>
<p>Indigenous agricultural knowledge can be collected, processed, stored and shared in various formats. <a href="https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-5225-0833-5.ch010">Technologies</a> such as smartphones, voice recorders and video cameras can <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Dennis-Ocholla/publication/329359896_Information_and_Communication_Technology_Tools_for_Managing_Indigenous_Knowledge_in_KwaZulu-Natal_Province_South_Africa/links/5c0421e092851c63cab5cb99/Information-and-Communication-Technology-Tools-for-Managing-Indigenous-Knowledge-in-KwaZulu-Natal-Province-South-Africa.pdf">capture texts, videos</a>, images and voice narrations about indigenous plants and traditional agricultural practices. </p>
<p>These could cover information on crop production systems, food preservation and livestock management. Weather and seasonal forecasting would be another area to cover. Management of resources like soil and water would also be useful to record. </p>
<p>The study found that databases of these practices and information could be a great resource for farmers. They could share their experiences of applying indigenous practices on various digital platforms. Other users could provide feedback. </p>
<p>My research also showed that the internet would be a valuable tool. Information could be shared on <a href="https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/1667">platforms</a> such as Facebook, YouTube and TikTok.</p>
<h2>Hurdles to overcome</h2>
<p>The study identified several challenges facing the digitalisation of indigenous agricultural knowledge. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Dennis-Ocholla/publication/329359896_Information_and_Communication_Technology_Tools_for_Managing_Indigenous_Knowledge_in_KwaZulu-Natal_Province_South_Africa/links/5c0421e092851c63cab5cb99/Information-and-Communication-Technology-Tools-for-Managing-Indigenous-Knowledge-in-KwaZulu-Natal-Province-South-Africa.pdf">Affordability</a> of smartphones is sometimes an issue for smallholder farmers. And connectivity is sometimes poor in rural or semi-urban areas. </p>
<p>Governments could make strategic investments to overcome these challenges. </p>
<p>I argue in my paper that the application of indigenous agricultural knowledge practices could help address declining agricultural productivity on the continent. </p>
<p>In addition, I argue in favour of promoting indigenous knowledge of agricultural practices to address social challenges. Indigenous knowledge has a contribution to make to sustainable agricultural productivity and food systems. It also offers insights that may be useful for conserving natural resources such as water, forests and land.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/213682/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mourine Sarah Achieng does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Digitalisation offers a way to preserve indigenous knowledge of agricultural practices and connect new generations of farmers to knowledge and wisdom from the past.Mourine Sarah Achieng, Post Doctoral Fellow, University of South AfricaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2125422023-09-22T01:53:09Z2023-09-22T01:53:09Z30 years of the web down under: how Australians made the early internet their own<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549472/original/file-20230921-26-kkvvcm.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=22%2C31%2C2973%2C1994&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://blacktownmemories.recollect.net.au/nodes/view/3189">Blacktown City Libraries</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The internet is growing old. While the roots of the internet date back to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET">the 1960s</a>, the popular internet – the one that <a href="https://www.acma.gov.au/publications/2022-12/report/communications-and-media-australia-how-we-use-internet">99% of Australians now use</a> – is a child of the 1990s. </p>
<p>In the space of a decade, the internet moved from a tool used by a handful of researchers to something <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Latestproducts/8147.0Main%20Features1Nov%202000">most Australians</a> used – to talk to friends and family, find out tomorrow’s weather, follow a game, organise a protest, or read the news.</p>
<h2>The popular internet grows up</h2>
<p>This year marks 30 years since the release of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosaic_(web_browser)">Mosaic</a>, the first browser that integrated text and graphics, helping to popularise the web: the global information network we know today.</p>
<p>Google is now 25, Wikipedia <a href="https://www.facebook.com/wikipedia/videos/it-is-our-21st-birthday-celebrate-by-enjoying-the-gift-of-free-knowledge-togethe/921982118679471/">turned 21</a> last year, and Facebook will soon be 20. These anniversaries were marked with <a href="https://www.admscentre.org.au/event/web-search-revolution/">events</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/google-turns-25-the-search-engine-revolutionised-how-we-access-information-but-will-it-survive-ai-212367e">feature articles</a> and <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kue_Ulang_Tahun_Wikipedia.png">birthday cakes</a>. </p>
<p>But a local milestone passed with little fanfare: 30 years ago, the first Australian websites started to appear.</p>
<p>The web made the internet intelligible to people without specialist technical knowledge. Hyperlinks made it easy to navigate from page to page and site to site, while the underlying HTML code was relatively easy for newcomers to learn. </p>
<h2>Australia gets connected</h2>
<p>In late 1992, the first Australian web server was installed. The <a href="https://webarchive.nla.gov.au/awa/19961227221525/http://life.anu.edu.au/">Bioinformatics Hypermedia Server</a> was set up by David Green at the Australian National University in Canberra, who launched his LIFE website that October. LIFE later <a href="https://webarchive.nla.gov.au/awa/19961227221525/http://life.anu.edu.au/">claimed</a> to be “Australia’s first information service on the World Wide Web”.</p>
<p>Not that many Australians would have seen it at the time. In the early 1990s, the Australian internet was a university-led research network. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AARNet">Australian Academic and Research Network</a> (AARNet) connected to the rest of the world in 1989, through a connection between the University of Hawaii and the University of Melbourne. Within a year, most Australian universities and many research facilities were connected.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-australia-connected-to-the-internet-25-years-ago-28106">How Australia connected to the internet 25 years ago</a>
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<p>The World Wide Web was invented by English computer scientist Tim Berners-Lee and launched in 1991. At the time, it was just one of many communication protocols for creating, sharing and accessing information. </p>
<p>Researchers connected to AARNet were experimenting with tools like <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gopher_(protocol)">Gopher</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Relay_Chat">Internet Relay Chat</a> alongside the web.</p>
<p>Even as a research network, the internet was deeply social. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevin_Robert_Elz">Robert Elz</a>, one of the computer scientists who connected Australia to the internet in 1989, became well-known for his <a href="https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/siddhartha-vaidyanathan-on-online-cricket-text-commentary-pioneer-robert-elz-666085">online commentaries</a> on cricket matches. Science fiction fans set up mailing lists. </p>
<p>These uses hinted at what was to come, as everyday Australians got online.</p>
<h2>The birth of the public internet</h2>
<p>Throughout <a href="http://www.rogerclarke.com/II/OzI04.html">1994</a>, AARNet enabled private companies to buy network capacity and connect users outside research contexts. Ownership of the Australian internet was transferred to Telstra in 1995, as private consumers and small businesses began to move online.</p>
<p>With the release of web browsers like Mosaic and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netscape">Netscape</a>, and the increase in dial-up connections, the number of Australian websites grew rapidly. </p>
<p>At the start of 1995, there were a <a href="http://www.rogerclarke.com/II/OzWH-1201.html">couple of hundred</a>. When the Australian internet went public just six months later, they numbered in the <a href="https://books.google.com.au/books/about/Virtual_Nation.html?id=FmHSqYXCW98C&source=kp_book_description&redir_esc=y">thousands</a>. By the end of the decade there were hundreds of thousands.</p>
<h2>Everyday Australians get connected</h2>
<p>As everyday Australians went online, students, activists, artists and fans began to create a diverse array of sites that took advantage of the web’s possibilities.</p>
<p>The “cyberfeminist zine” <a href="https://webarchive.nla.gov.au/awa/19980110230739/http://geekgirl.com.au/">geekgirl</a>, created by Rosie X. Cross from her home in inner-west Sydney, combined a “Do It Yourself” punk ethos with the global distribution the web made possible. It was part of a diverse and flourishing feminist culture online.</p>
<p>Australia was home to the first <a href="https://www.timeshighereducation.com/news/online-doctorate-flies-in-face-of-convention/146942.article">fully online doctorate</a>, Simon Pockley’s 1995 PhD thesis <a href="https://webarchive.nla.gov.au/awa/19970729130000/http://www.cinemedia.net/FOD/FOD0001.html">Flight of Ducks</a>. </p>
<p>Art students presented poetry as animated gifs, labelling them “<a href="https://webarchive.nla.gov.au/awa/19970512130000/http://student.uq.edu.au/%7Es271502/index.html">cyberpoetry</a>”. Aspiring science fiction writers <a href="https://webarchive.nla.gov.au/awa/19970624130000/http://www.melbourne.net/mindgate/index.html">published</a> multimedia stories on the web.</p>
<h2>The Australian internet goes mainstream</h2>
<p>Political parties, government and media also moved online. </p>
<p><a href="https://webarchive.nla.gov.au/awa/19961219182321/http://theage.com.au/">The Age Online</a> was the first major newspaper website in Australia. Launched in <a href="https://findanexpert.unimelb.edu.au/scholarlywork/1270106-born-outside-the-newsroom--the-creation-of-the-age-online">February 1995</a>, the site beat Australia’s own national broadcaster by six months and the <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/19961230230427/http://www.nytimes.com/">New York Times</a> by a year.</p>
<p>Though The Age was first, <a href="https://webarchive.nla.gov.au/awa/19961017233008/http://www.abc.net.au/">ABC Online</a> and <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20020928000336fw_/http://home.ninemsn.com.au/homepage.asp">ninemsn</a> – linked to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outlook.com#Launch_of_Hotmail">Hotmail</a> email service – were the most popular. </p>
<p>During the 1998 federal election, ABC Online saw over <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1329878X9909300111">two million hits</a> per week. Political parties, candidates and interest groups were quick to establish a web presence, kicking off the era of online political campaigning.</p>
<p>The web also became big business. By the end of the decade, Australia had its own internet entrepreneurs, including a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malcolm_Turnbull">future prime minister</a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nine.com.au">Established media companies</a> dominated web traffic. </p>
<p>“<a href="https://www.proquest.com/newspapers/internet-fever-takes-ecorp-serious-market-comment/docview/363293857/se-2">Internet fever</a>” was sweeping Australian businesses, leading to an “<a href="https://www.proquest.com/newspapers/libertyone-takes-best-internet-stocks-frenzy/docview/363388164/se-2">internet stocks frenzy</a>”. The internet had gone mainstream and the “dot com bubble” was <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/business/small-business/when-we-went-pop-20090619-cpdr.html">rapidly inflating</a>.</p>
<h2>Looking back on the decade the popular internet was born</h2>
<p>The public, open, commercial internet is now a few decades old. Given current concerns about the state of the internet – from the <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate/Economics/Digitalplatforms">power of large digital platforms</a> to the <a href="https://www.infrastructure.gov.au/have-your-say/new-acma-powers-combat-misinformation-and-disinformation">proliferation of disinformation</a> – it might be tempting to look at the 1990s as a “golden age” for the internet. </p>
<p>However, we must resist looking back with rose-coloured glasses. What is needed is critical scrutiny of the conditions that underpinned internet use and attention to how a diversity of people incorporated technology in their lives and helped transformed it in the process. This will help us understand how we got the internet we have and how we might achieve the internet we want.</p>
<p>Understanding online history can be particularly difficult because many sites have long-since disappeared. However, archiving efforts like those of the <a href="https://archive.org/web/">Internet Archive</a> and the <a href="https://webarchive.nla.gov.au/">National Library of Australia</a> make it possible to look back and see how much things have changed, what concerns are familiar, and remember the everyday people who helped transform the internet from a niche academic network to a mass medium.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-the-internet-was-born-from-the-arpanet-to-the-internet-68072">How the Internet was born: from the ARPANET to the Internet</a>
</strong>
</em>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/212542/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kieran Hegarty receives funding from the Australian Research Council and the Austrian Federal Ministry for Climate Action, Environment, Energy, Mobility, Innovation and Technology through a Digital Humanism Junior Visiting Fellowship at the Institute for Human Sciences.</span></em></p>What did Australians do online in the 1990s? Shared bioinformatics data, made cyberfeminist zines, cruised the information superhighway …Kieran Hegarty, Research Fellow (Automated Decision-Making Systems), RMIT UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2113222023-09-07T12:23:17Z2023-09-07T12:23:17ZDo unbiased jurors exist to serve at Trump’s trials in the age of social media?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/545628/original/file-20230830-15-zfgbw1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=41%2C16%2C5452%2C3574&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Can anyone say they haven't seen any news about Donald Trump and the 2020 election?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/the-jury-box-in-the-centennial-court-room-in-the-milwaukee-news-photo/456338404">Raymond Boyd/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>As trial dates approach for former President Donald Trump’s indictments, both he and prosecutors are already claiming it will be hard to secure an impartial jury. </p>
<p>Special counsel Jack Smith has said Trump’s public statements <a href="https://apnews.com/article/trump-justice-special-counsel-jan6-truth-social-9abe1cf490ddf44179b55327f1023358">risk contaminating the jury pool</a> for the charges he will face in a federal court in Washington, D.C., related to his efforts to overturn the results of the 2020 presidential election. </p>
<p>Trump has said that the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/08/03/us/trump-jan-6-jury-washington.html">jury pool is already biased</a> because
District of Columbia residents <a href="https://thehill.com/homenews/senate/4136627-trump-allies-argue-he-cant-get-fair-trial-from-obama-appointee-in-dc/">tend to vote with the Democratic Party</a>. They certainly remember what Jan. 6, 2021, was really like on the streets of their city. And few anywhere in the U.S. have been able to avoid exposure to news coverage, online posts or in-person discussion of the 2020 election, its aftermath and the investigations that have sprung from the invasion of the Capitol and efforts to overturn the election’s results. </p>
<p>Trump’s lawyers, and those prosecuting him, aren’t the only ones grappling with the problem of finding unbiased jurors in the age of social media.</p>
<p>In October 2021, jury selection for the trial of three men accused of murdering unarmed Black jogger Ahmaud Arbery took longer than usual because <a href="https://www.npr.org/2021/10/18/1047106255/ahmaud-arbery-case-trial">many prospective jurors were exposed to media reports</a> about Arbery’s death, including a graphic video of his killing taken by one of the defendants. The jury that was ultimately selected <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2021/11/24/us/ahmaud-arbery-killing-trial-wednesday-jury-deliberations/index.html">convicted the men</a>, who were later <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2022/01/07/us/ahmaud-arbery-sentencing-killers-mcmichael-bryan/index.html">sentenced to life in prison</a>.</p>
<h2>The Supreme Court weighs in</h2>
<p>The question of an impartial jury reached the Supreme Court most recently in 2021, in the case of <a href="https://www.scotusblog.com/case-files/cases/united-states-v-tsarnaev/">Dzhokhar Tsarnaev</a>, the lone surviving Boston Marathon bomber. Much of the <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2021/10/13/boston-marathon-bomber-supreme-court-to-consider-death-sentence-for-dzhokhar-tsarnaev.html">news coverage focused on whether the court would uphold the death penalty</a> for Tsarnaev, but the case also presented a fundamental question for this era of ubiquitous social media: Is it possible to find unbiased citizens to serve on a jury in high-profile cases?</p>
<p>This question focuses on the <a href="https://glossophilia.org/2017/05/voir-dire-to-see-them-say-or-to-tell-the-truth/">voir dire</a> process, which employs a French term that roughly translates to “speak the truth.” Voir dire occurs before the start of trial, when lawyers or the judge, depending on the jurisdiction, question prospective jurors to determine whether they harbor any kind of bias or prejudice against one of the parties.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.cnn.com/2015/04/08/us/boston-marathon-bombing-trial/index.html">Tsarnaev was charged with 30 counts</a> related to the bombing of the marathon. The case had <a href="https://www.wbur.org/tag/dzhokhar-tsarnaev-trial">received widespread attention</a>, including online commentary about the defendant and pictures of him <a href="https://www.today.com/video/boston-bombing-suspect-drops-backpack-in-video-27008067930">carrying a bomb-laden backpack to the finish line</a>. Voir dire in his case was extensive, lasting 21 days and involving 1,373 prospective jurors, each of whom completed a 28-page questionnaire.</p>
<p>At some point during voir dire, Tsarnaev’s attorney wanted the judge to ask a two-part question to prospective jurors: First, whether they had seen media coverage of the case, and second, what specifically they had seen. The judge asked the first part of the question, but not the second. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/426290/original/file-20211013-15-1aqax9l.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A crowd of news cameras focused on the courthouse where the Tsarnaev trial was held." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/426290/original/file-20211013-15-1aqax9l.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/426290/original/file-20211013-15-1aqax9l.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/426290/original/file-20211013-15-1aqax9l.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/426290/original/file-20211013-15-1aqax9l.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/426290/original/file-20211013-15-1aqax9l.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/426290/original/file-20211013-15-1aqax9l.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/426290/original/file-20211013-15-1aqax9l.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">There was intense media focus on the crime and the subsequent trial; here, outside the courthouse on the first day of Dzhokhar Tsarnaev’s trial, May 4, 2015, in Boston.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/members-of-the-media-from-around-the-world-wait-outside-the-news-photo/465212542?adppopup=true">Scott Eisen/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>‘Does not suffice’</h2>
<p>Tsarnaev’s lawyers appealed the death penalty, saying in part that the trial judge should have asked what media coverage jurors had seen or read about the case to ensure a fair jury.</p>
<p>The 1st Circuit Court of Appeals <a href="https://www.wbur.org/news/2020/07/31/tsarnaev-death-sentence-overturned">found fault with the judge</a>, saying that asking the jurors “only whether they had read anything that might influence their opinion does not suffice,” because that sole question does not elicit “what, if anything, they have learned.” During the oral argument at the Supreme Court, <a href="https://www.scotusblog.com/2021/10/justices-appear-to-favor-reinstating-death-penalty-for-boston-marathon-bomber/">Justice Sonia Sotomayor noted that</a> “there was a whole lot of different publicity here.”</p>
<p>The Supreme Court ultimately ruled that “<a href="https://ballotpedia.org/United_States_v._Tsarnaev">the jury selection process was both eminently reasonable and wholly consistent</a>” with legal precedents, and upheld the death penalty sentence.</p>
<p>The court could have issued an opinion requiring lower courts to ask jurors more penetrating questions about their exposure to media accounts in high-profile cases.</p>
<p>Some lawyers believe that trial judges should be given a measure of flexibility and autonomy in <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/409/524">how they conduct voir dire</a>. Others wanted the Supreme Court to step in and <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/409/524">spell out exactly how voir dire should be conducted</a>. </p>
<p>Those favoring this latter approach pointed out that Tsarnaev was facing a death sentence and <a href="https://courses2.cit.cornell.edu/sociallaw/Tsarnaev/TsarnaevTrial.html">made four requests for a change of venue</a> to move the case from Boston because, his lawyers argued, it would be impossible to get unbiased jurors in the local area. As a <a href="https://udayton.edu/directory/law/hoffmeister_thaddeus.php">scholar of criminal law and juries</a>, I believe a strong argument could be made that any trial judge in this situation should have taken additional steps to uncover bias in prospective jurors. </p>
<p>Those on the other side believe that requiring more questions will unduly lengthen the voir dire process and encroach on juror privacy. Despite these misgivings, courts around the country are increasingly questioning jurors about <a href="https://www.americanbar.org/groups/tort_trial_insurance_practice/publications/the_brief/2016_17/winter/voir_dire_becomes_voir_google_ethical_concerns_of_21st_century_jury_selection/">such topics as social media and their use of the internet</a>. </p>
<h2>Can’t unplug a juror</h2>
<p>There is a larger discussion currently happening in the legal community about whether courts in the digital age can find objective jurors.</p>
<p>Finding unbiased jurors in the pre-digital age, even in high-profile cases, was challenging but nothing like today. Once chosen, <a href="https://www.americanbar.org/groups/public_education/resources/law_related_education_network/how_courts_work/jurydeliberate/">jurors needed to maintain that unbiased status</a> and were told not to discuss the case with anyone and to avoid radio, television and newspapers. If the case involved the death penalty, jurors might be <a href="https://law.jrank.org/pages/10160/Sequestration.html">sequestered</a>. </p>
<p>Today, that same approach won’t work.</p>
<p>Few jurors can go eight hours, much less a whole week, without using their smartphone or social media. Many people share aspects of their life with others in real time through social media, which is incompatible with jury service. In fact, being a juror makes their social media posts more interesting to others.</p>
<p>In Tsarnaev’s case, <a href="https://www.wbur.org/news/2019/12/11/dzhokhar-tsarnaev-death-sentence-appeal-boston">juror No. 138 had a running dialogue about the case on Facebook with his friends</a>.</p>
<p>Today’s jurors also have much more information available to them. By way of example, from April 4 to May 16, 2022, the Johnny Depp v. Amber Heard trial <a href="https://www.axios.com/2022/05/17/amber-heard-johnny-depp-trial-social-media">generated more social media interactions</a> per article than inflation, the Russian invasion of Ukraine, or the leak of the Supreme Court’s abortion decision. In the past, news stories about a crime or the defendant would have been difficult to discover or access. Now they are just a click away – or may even be included in notifications pushed to jurors’ phones.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/426297/original/file-20211013-19-zem2rd.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Investigators in white suits examining the bombing scene at the Boston Marathon." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/426297/original/file-20211013-19-zem2rd.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/426297/original/file-20211013-19-zem2rd.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=374&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/426297/original/file-20211013-19-zem2rd.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=374&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/426297/original/file-20211013-19-zem2rd.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=374&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/426297/original/file-20211013-19-zem2rd.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=469&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/426297/original/file-20211013-19-zem2rd.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=469&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/426297/original/file-20211013-19-zem2rd.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=469&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">On April 16, 2013, investigators examine the scene near the finish line of the Boston Marathon, one day after two blasts killed three and injured more than 260 people.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/SupremeCourtBostonMarathonBombing/6d6dd5e671c54c97b941413ef2c9d2e9/photo?Query=Tsarnaev%20jury&mediaType=photo&sortBy=arrivaldatetime:desc&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=94&currentItemNo=0">AP Photo/Elise Amendola, File</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Dealing with the connected juror</h2>
<p>Judges across the country take a variety of approaches to protect defendants from biased juries in the digital age. </p>
<p>Attorneys and judges will ask potential jurors questions. In addition, attorneys will investigate jurors to learn what they know about the case. This happens both in the courtroom at <a href="https://www.americanbar.org/groups/tort_trial_insurance_practice/publications/the_brief/2016_17/winter/voir_dire_becomes_voir_google_ethical_concerns_of_21st_century_jury_selection/">voir dire and online</a>, where attorneys research jurors’ digital footprints, including social media posts. The question of how far to pry during voir dire was the main issue of concern in Tsarnaev’s case. </p>
<p>Once chosen, jurors are told to follow the court’s instructions, but the lure of social media can be all too tempting. Thus, courts impose penalties on jurors who <a href="https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/ucollr83&div=13&id=&page=">are unable to follow the rules on seeking out information or discussing the case</a>. </p>
<p>These penalties include holding jurors in contempt of court, taking their devices or imposing sequestration, in which jurors are put up in hotels <a href="https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/ucollr83&div=13&id=&page=">away from their family and devices</a>. The common theme with all penalties is that once imposed, they make citizens less inclined to want to serve as jurors.</p>
<h2>Question time</h2>
<p>Some legal experts believe that if jurors are given sufficient information about the case, they will be less inclined to violate court rules and go online to look for information or discuss the case. One way to improve the appropriate flow of information to jurors is <a href="https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/ucollr83&div=13&id=&page=">to allow them to ask questions during trial</a>.</p>
<p>Finally, there are calls to change jury instructions to fit the modern times. Since today’s jurors are so receptive to learning information online, they may have to be told why practices that they regularly use are prohibited while on jury duty. Those explanations could help jurors abide by the rules.</p>
<p>The jury, throughout its approximately 400-year history in America, has witnessed many changes in society. Through each one, the jury has adapted and survived. Thus, I believe it is highly likely the jury will weather the storm of the digital age.</p>
<p><em>This is an updated version of an <a href="https://theconversation.com/do-unbiased-jurors-exist-in-an-age-of-social-media-169125">article</a> originally published Oct. 15, 2021.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/211322/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Thaddeus Hoffmeister does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Trump’s lawyers, and those prosecuting him, aren’t the only ones grappling with the problem of finding unbiased jurors in the age of social media.Thaddeus Hoffmeister, Professor of Law, University of DaytonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2110812023-08-08T13:41:05Z2023-08-08T13:41:05ZInternet shutdowns: here’s how governments do it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541286/original/file-20230804-17-3ju57z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">BigNazik/GettyImages</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Senegal’s government has shut down internet access in response to <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/senegal-government-cuts-mobile-internet-access-amid-deadly-rioting-2023-06-04/">protests about the sentencing of opposition leader Ousmane Sonko</a>. This is a <a href="https://www.accessnow.org/campaign/keepiton/">tactic</a> governments are increasingly using during times of political contention, such as elections or social upheaval. The shutdowns can be partial or total, temporary or prolonged. They may target specific platforms, regions, or an entire country.</p>
<p>I’m a researcher who investigates the <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11558-022-09483-z">causes</a> and <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/00223433231168190">consequences</a> of internet access disruptions and censorship in various African countries. This includes understanding how shutdowns work. </p>
<p>It’s important to understand the complex technicalities behind internet shutdowns, for at least two reasons. </p>
<p>First, understanding how an internet shutdown works shows whether or how it can be circumvented. This makes it possible to support affected communities. </p>
<p>Second, the way a shutdown works shows who is responsible for doing it. Then the responsible actors can be held to account, both legally and ethically. </p>
<p>Different forms of shutdowns require different levels of technical sophistication. More sophisticated forms are harder to detect and attribute. </p>
<p>There are two common strategies governments use to disrupt internet access: <a href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/6678649">routing disruptions and packet filtering</a>.</p>
<h2>How to shut down the internet</h2>
<p><strong>Routing disruptions</strong></p>
<p>Every device connected to the internet, whether it’s your computer, smartphone, or any other device, has an IP (internet protocol) address assigned to it. This allows it to send and receive data across the network. </p>
<p>An autonomous system is a collection of connected IP networks under the control of a single entity, for instance an internet service provider or big company. </p>
<p>These autonomous systems rely on protocols – called border gateway protocols – to coordinate routing between them. Each system uses the protocol to communicate with other systems and exchange information about which internet routes they can use to reach different destinations (websites, servers, services etc). </p>
<p>So, if an autonomous system, like an internet service provider, suddenly withdraws its border gateway protocol routes from the internet, the block of IP addresses they administer disappears from the routing tables. This means they can no longer be reached by other autonomous systems. </p>
<p>As a consequence, customers using IP addresses from that autonomous system can’t connect to the internet.</p>
<p>Essentially this tactic stops information from being transmitted. Information can’t find its destination, and people using the internet will not be able to connect. </p>
<p>The disruption of border gateway protocols can easily be detected from the outside due to changes in the global routing state. They can also be attributed to the internet service provider administering a certain autonomous system. </p>
<p>For instance, data suggests that the infamous <a href="https://policycommons.net/artifacts/1302785/egyptian-government-attacks-egypts-internet/1906077/">internet shutdown in Egypt in 2011</a> – an unprecedented blackout of internet traffic in the entire country – was the result of tampering with border gateway protocols. It could be <a href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/6678649">traced back to individual autonomous systems</a> and hence internet service providers. </p>
<p>Border gateway protocol disruptions that entirely disconnect customers from the internet are rare. These disruptions can easily be detected by outside observers and traced back to individual organisations or service providers. In addition, shutting down entire networks is the most indiscriminate form of an internet shutdown and can <a href="https://freemyinternet.info/3_about_internet_shutdowns">cause significant collateral damage</a> to a country’s economy.</p>
<p><strong>Packet filtering</strong></p>
<p>To target specific content, governments often use packet filtering – shutting down only parts of the internet. </p>
<p>Governments can use packet filtering techniques to block or disrupt specific content or services. For instance, internet service providers can block access to specific IP addresses associated with websites or services they wish to restrict, such as 15.197.206.217 associated with the social media platform WhatsApp. </p>
<p>Governments also increasingly use <a href="https://democracyinafrica.org/a-new-anti-democratic-tool-the-deep-packet-inspection-technique/">deep packet inspection</a> technology as a tool to filter and block specific content. It’s commonly used for surveillance. Deep packet inspection infrastructure enables the inspection of data packets and hence the content of communication. It’s a more tailored approach to blocking content and makes circumvention more difficult. </p>
<p>In <a href="https://ooni.org/post/2023-senegal-social-media-blocks/">Senegal</a>, internet service providers likely used deep packet inspection to block access to WhatsApp, Telegram, Facebook, Instagram, Twitter and YouTube. </p>
<p>When internet shutdowns are done through packet filtering, only individuals within the affected network are able to detect the shutdown. Therefore, <a href="https://ensa.fi/active-probing/">active probing</a> is required to detect the shutdown. This is a technique that’s used by cybersecurity researchers and civil society actors to study the extent and methods of internet censorship in different regions.</p>
<h2>Violation of rights</h2>
<p>Though the two most common strategies are <a href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/6678649">routing disruptions and packet filtering</a>, there are many other tools governments can use. For instance, <a href="https://www.ncr-iran.org/en/news/iran-protests/iran-is-moving-towards-a-complete-internet-shutdown-one-bite-at-a-time/">domain name system manipulation</a>, <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/political-science-research-and-methods/article/hot-topics-denialofservice-attacks-on-news-websites-in-autocracies/A50BD0533D1132765F64C2700E5822FC">denial of service attacks</a>, or the blunt sabotage of physical infrastructure. A <a href="https://www.accessnow.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/A-taxonomy-of-internet-shutdowns-the-technologies-behind-network-interference.pdf">detailed overview</a> of techniques is provided by Access Now, an NGO defending digital civil rights of people around the world.</p>
<p>There is wide agreement that internet shutdowns are a violation of fundamental rights such as freedom of expression. However, governments are developing increasingly sophisticated means to block or restrict access to the internet. It’s therefore important to closely monitor the ways in which internet shutdowns are being implemented. This will help to provide circumvention strategies and hold the implementers to account.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/211081/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lisa Garbe does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>There are different tactics that governments can use to block the internet, some more sophisticated than others.Lisa Garbe, Research Fellow, WZB Berlin Social Science Center.Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2092082023-08-07T12:06:45Z2023-08-07T12:06:45ZYoung people need more support coping with online sexual harms<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540255/original/file-20230731-157556-npzrog.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=15%2C0%2C5309%2C2985&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Motivating young people to think critically about online risks helps them understand how stereotypes, inequalities and sexist double standards impact people online.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/young-people-need-more-support-coping-with-online-sexual-harms" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>Digital technologies and the internet have become a part of daily life for many young people in Canada and worldwide. While that increased connectivity brings many benefits, it can also open youth up to online harm and abuse. It is important that meaningful supports are in place to protect young people from sexual harm. </p>
<p>In 2020, humanitarian organization Plan International <a href="https://www.planinternational.nl/uploaded/2020/09/SOTWGR2020-CommsReport-EN.pdf?x10967">surveyed just over 14,000 young girls and women</a> aged 15-25 in 22 countries, including Canada. Fifty-eight per cent of participants reported having personally experienced some form of online harassment, including sexual harassment. </p>
<p>People who have experienced these problems report <a href="https://www.cigionline.org/publications/supporting-safer-digital-spaces/">significant adverse effects</a> on their well-being, including <a href="https://webfoundation.org/2020/11/the-impact-of-online-gender-based-violence-on-women-in-public-life/">lower self-esteem, increased anxiety, stress</a> and even <a href="http://www.bwss.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/CyberVAWReportJessicaWest.pdf">attempts at self-harm</a>.</p>
<p>Further, research has shown that rates of sexual harm have increased among people with one or multiple marginalized identities like race, <a href="https://www.cigionline.org/static/documents/SaferInternet_Special_Report.pdf">sexual orientation</a> or a disability. </p>
<p>Young people who <a href="https://mediasmarts.ca/sites/default/files/2023-07/report_ycwwiv_trends_recommendations.pdf">experience this kind of discrimination</a> can face a higher risk of significant mental health problems.</p>
<p>Despite the severity of these harms, much of Canadian education, social supports and laws do not provide young people with the tools and protection they want and need. </p>
<p>Parents, teachers, technology companies, civil society organizations and governments are grappling with how to support young people in these cases. So, where are we going wrong?</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540262/original/file-20230731-104526-v5p4rm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A young woman looks at a phone with an upset look." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540262/original/file-20230731-104526-v5p4rm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540262/original/file-20230731-104526-v5p4rm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540262/original/file-20230731-104526-v5p4rm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540262/original/file-20230731-104526-v5p4rm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540262/original/file-20230731-104526-v5p4rm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540262/original/file-20230731-104526-v5p4rm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540262/original/file-20230731-104526-v5p4rm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Online harassment and abuse can negatively impact a young person’s mental health and self-esteem.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>We need to use the right words</h2>
<p><a href="https://1332d589-88d9-46fd-b342-d3eba2ef6889.usrfiles.com/ugd/1332d5_0b255967851a48c580f8a3c23e786399.pdf">Our research shows</a> that terms like “cyberbullying” no longer capture the scope of harms young people experience in digital spaces. Using this term can downplay the seriousness of the issue because it evokes an idea of schoolyard teasing rather than some of the more serious forms of sexual harms that youth can experience.</p>
<p>These digital harms can include <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-83734-1_31">receiving unsolicited explicit images</a>, sexual harassment, exploitative sexual extortion and non-consensual distribution of intimate images. Many of these behaviours fall outside of what the average person would imagine when they think of cyberbullying and require new terminology that accurately describes what youth are experiencing.</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/be-careful-with-photos-talk-about-sex-how-to-protect-your-kids-from-online-sexual-abuse-139971">Be careful with photos, talk about sex: how to protect your kids from online sexual abuse</a>
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<p>As a group of leading scholars studying the unique challenges of navigating relationships and sexual experiences online, we have adopted the term “technology-facilitated sexual violence” to describe the sexual harms young people experience in digital spaces.</p>
<p>Our website offers a <a href="https://www.diydigitalsafety.ca/resources">hub of resources</a> to help support young people and address technology-facilitated sexual violence.</p>
<p>Through our five-year research project, <a href="https://www.diydigitalsafety.ca/">Digitally Informed Youth (DIY) Digital Safety</a>, we will engage with young people and the adults who support them. This is the first research project in Canada to specifically examine technology-facilitated sexual violence among young people aged 13-18 years old. We aim to understand their challenges, how they cope and their ideas for solutions.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.diydigitalsafety.ca/publications">Our research</a> has emphasized that tackling this problem requires acknowledging young people’s integrated digital and physical lives and recognizing that technology as a tool can both facilitate harm and can be harnessed to combat such harm. </p>
<h2>Lack of Canadian research</h2>
<p>Educators and policymakers must understand the problem within the unique context of Canadian society. Although there is a growing amount of Canadian research on technology-facilitated sexual violence, most research on this topic has been conducted in countries like the United States or Australia.</p>
<p>Specifically, there is little research on what young people in Canada are experiencing online, what terminology we should use to identify these harms and what supports young people find effective. Additionally, some young people in Canada face challenges because they live in remote communities or have less access to supportive resources.</p>
<p>It is essential to have contextual evidence-based research so that educators can talk to young people about their rights, understand what behaviour is harmful and know how young people should respond to abusive sexual behaviours online. Youth voices and perspectives must be included in this analysis.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540270/original/file-20230731-227785-volgbk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="One person placing their hands around another's." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540270/original/file-20230731-227785-volgbk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540270/original/file-20230731-227785-volgbk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540270/original/file-20230731-227785-volgbk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540270/original/file-20230731-227785-volgbk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540270/original/file-20230731-227785-volgbk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540270/original/file-20230731-227785-volgbk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540270/original/file-20230731-227785-volgbk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Supporting young people means creating solutions based on trust and open dialogue.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Consistent and accessible support</h2>
<p>As technology has evolved, the Canadian legal system has introduced laws to address sexual harms against young people and adults, such as criminal laws against <a href="https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/c-46/section-163.1.html">child pornography</a>, <a href="https://laws.justice.gc.ca/eng/AnnualStatutes/2007_20/FullText.html">child luring</a>, <a href="https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/c-46/section-162.HTML">voyeurism</a> and <a href="https://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/rp-pr/other-autre/cndii-cdncii/p6.html">non-consensual distribution of intimate images</a>.</p>
<p>However, young people still receive <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0964663917724866">confusing messages</a> about how these laws apply to them and which sexual behaviours are harmful. For example, many young people receive inaccurate <a href="https://needhelpnow.ca/app/en/resources_involving_safe_adult">victim-blaming messaging</a> about images they may take of their bodies.</p>
<p>Legal interventions may be an appropriate response in some of the most serious cases of technology-facilitated sexual violence, but <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/17416590221142762">young people need more than legal measures</a>. In reality, many are looking for various forms of support from schools, friends, <a href="https://mediasmarts.ca/sites/default/files/2023-07/report_ycwwiv_trends_recommendations.pdf">family</a>, non-profit organizations and victim-service organizations.</p>
<p>Currently, school curricula and policies across Canada address technology-facilitated sexual violence in various ways, and the approaches vary significantly among provinces and territories. In some regions, there is minimal or even no language related specifically to technology-facilitated sexual violence in the curricula and policies. </p>
<p>With technology being a consistent part of young people’s lives, it is key that school policies and curricula are updated to address the realities of young people’s increasingly digitized relationships.</p>
<p>To update school policies and curricula effectively, some researchers suggest promoting the concept of being good <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/14681811.2023.2204223">“sexual citizens”</a> among young people. This means encouraging them to navigate their lives and relationships with a solid ethical and interpersonal foundation. This model shifts away from victim-blaming and abstinence-only messaging. Instead, it focuses on fostering healthy relationships and communication.</p>
<p>Motivating young people to think critically about online risks is an empowering approach. It helps them acknowledge the influence that stereotypes, inequalities and sexist double standards have in these discussions and how they impact individuals’ access to power and resources.</p>
<p>Relying on legal scare tactics or surveillance methods by caregivers and tech companies <a href="https://mediasmarts.ca/sites/default/files/2023-07/report_ycwwiv_trends_recommendations.pdf">undermines trust between young people and the adults in their lives</a>. It also raises concerns among youth about how platforms are using the data collected from them. </p>
<p>Instead, we need solutions based on trust and open dialogue, and for parents, educators, technology companies and policymakers to engage with young people as the first step to creating a culture shift.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/209208/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alexa Dodge's research receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC). </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Christopher Dietzel receives funding from iMPACTS: Collaborations to Address Sexual Violence on Campus; Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC) Partnership Grant 895–2016-1026 (Project Director, Shaheen Shariff, Ph.D., James McGill Professor, McGill University).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kaitlynn Mendes receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC) and the Canada Research Chairs Program.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Suzie Dunn's research receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC). </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Estefania Reyes does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>New approaches are needed to address the scope of abuse young people can experience when online.Estefania Reyes, PhD student, Sociology, Western UniversityAlexa Dodge, Assistant Professor of Criminology, Saint Mary’s UniversityChristopher Dietzel, Postdoctoral fellow, the Sexual Health and Gender Lab, Dalhousie UniversityKaitlynn Mendes, Canada Research Chair in Inequality and Gender, Western UniversitySuzie Dunn, Assistant Professor, Law, Dalhousie UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2093252023-08-04T12:28:12Z2023-08-04T12:28:12ZTaylor Swift’s Eras Tour is a potent reminder that the internet is not real life<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540883/original/file-20230802-19-bmnrpl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=604%2C1233%2C4162%2C2500&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Swift performs at Gillette Stadium on May 19, 2023, in Foxborough, Mass., during her Eras Tour.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/taylor-swift-performs-onstage-during-taylor-swift-the-news-photo/1491637582?adppopup=true">Scott Eisen/TAS23 via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In the weeks leading up to June 16, 2023, when I attended the Pittsburgh leg of <a href="https://www.yahoo.com/entertainment/taylor-swift-gives-bonuses-totaling-215418698.html">Taylor Swift’s Eras Tour</a>, the online chatter about the 33-year-old singer had become draining. </p>
<p>The internet was ablaze with rumors about <a href="https://theconversation.com/rooting-for-the-anti-hero-how-fans-turned-taylor-swifts-short-relationship-with-matty-healy-into-a-political-statement-207108">Swift dating Matty Healy</a>, the lead singer of the English pop-rock band The 1975. Some Swifties – the term used for diehard Taylor Swift fans – berated the pop superstar for dating Healy, who’d become mired in controversy for appearing on a podcast whose hosts <a href="https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-news/the-1975-matty-healy-ice-spice-apology-1234721163/">made racist comments about the rapper Ice Spice</a>. </p>
<p>As the Pittsburgh leg of the tour approached, I wondered if I were about to dive headfirst into an angry mob of tens of thousands of Swifties. </p>
<p>On the day of the show, Acrisure Stadium was mobbed with 72,000 people, but the Swifties in attendance were far from angry. </p>
<p>In that moment we became deeply connected by our shared love and admiration for Swift’s music. Sociologist Emile Durkheim described this phenomenon as “<a href="https://doi.org/10.15195/v6.a2">collective effervescence</a>,” the unique surge in feeling when large groups of people come together for a shared purpose. </p>
<p>“It was rare, I was there, I was there,” Swift belted out during “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9OQBDdNHmXo">All Too Well</a>.” </p>
<p>I was there, too, as life events touched by Swift flashed by: sitting at my first desktop computer as a teenager in Kathmandu, Nepal, replaying “Love Story” on LimeWire; my first week in the U.S., during the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards, when <a href="https://www.vox.com/culture/2019/8/26/20828559/taylor-swift-kanye-west-2009-mtv-vmas-explained">Kanye West infamously interrupted Swift</a>; how Swift’s eighth studio album, “<a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/26/arts/music/taylor-swift-folklore-review.html">Folklore</a>,” brought me back to life after it seemed as if the world were on the verge of imploding in 2020. </p>
<h2>Collective delusion</h2>
<p>The Eras Tour was not my first experience of collective effervescence. Nor was it the first time I felt such a strong disconnect between the online and offline worlds. </p>
<p>Right before the pandemic began, there was the painfully quiet fizzling out of the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/08/us/politics/bernie-sanders-drops-out.html">Bernie 2020 movement</a>. As a volunteer for that campaign, I had the remarkable experience of connecting with other Americans who wanted a Bernie Sanders presidency. </p>
<p>I especially appreciated how this role connected me to the people who make up the Nepali diaspora in the U.S. We hoped to improve our immigrant experiences, whether it involved no longer fearing the deportation of loved ones <a href="https://berniesanders.com/issues/">or easier access to health care</a>.</p>
<p>But then repeated news cycles about “<a href="https://www.latimes.com/politics/story/2020-02-19/bernie-sanders-supporters-toxic-online-culture">toxic Bernie Bros</a>” seemed to drain the movement’s momentum. Mainstream media outlets reported that Sanders’ base was <a href="https://www.bostonglobe.com/2020/03/04/metro/intractable-bernie-bros-what-they-might-mean-sanders-campaign/">made up of white male cyberbullies</a>. Negative tweets had been amplified, and the words and behaviors of a few Sanders supporters all of a sudden were being portrayed as representative of an entire movement.</p>
<p>The contrast between what was being said online versus my own experiences was jarring: Here I was working to find transportation for 80-year-old Nepali grandmas who didn’t speak English but wanted to vote for Sanders. </p>
<p>Post-election analysis would show that the Bernie Bro <a href="https://www.msnbc.com/opinion/myth-white-bernie-bro-has-quietly-vanished-n1276377">trope was entirely constructed</a>; there was no evidence to show that young white men made up a majority of Sanders’ supporters. The movement, in fact, consisted of a diverse <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/bernie-sanders-powered-by-diverse-liberal-coalition-forces-a-reckoning-for-democrats/2020/02/23/d6a15766-5641-11ea-9000-f3cffee23036_story.html">coalition of people from marginalized races and genders</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Women clap and hold blue 'Bernie' signs." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540887/original/file-20230802-8013-x6v564.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540887/original/file-20230802-8013-x6v564.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540887/original/file-20230802-8013-x6v564.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540887/original/file-20230802-8013-x6v564.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540887/original/file-20230802-8013-x6v564.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540887/original/file-20230802-8013-x6v564.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540887/original/file-20230802-8013-x6v564.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Supporters of Sen. Bernie Sanders cheer during a Get Out to Caucus Rally in Las Vegas, Nev., on Feb. 21, 2020.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/supporters-hold-bernie-placards-as-democratic-presidential-news-photo/1202571834?adppopup=true">Frederic J. Brown/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
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<h2>A vocal minority sets the agenda</h2>
<p>Online narratives distort real life more often than you might realize. </p>
<p>Research consistently shows that a small minority of people who have social media accounts post the vast majority of content. </p>
<p>In what’s termed the “<a href="https://www.nngroup.com/articles/participation-inequality/">90-9-1 rule</a>,” 90% of users on these websites only “lurk” or read content, 9% of the users reply or re-post with occasional new contributions, and only 1% of the users frequently create new content. </p>
<p>Pioneered by Jakob Neilson, the 90-9-1 rule is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.invent.2014.09.003">one of many theories</a> within internet studies that describe participation rates, and different scholars find support for different variations of this rule. Reddit, for example, has <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/443332/reddit-monthly-visitors/">over 1 billion</a> monthly active users, but according to a 2017 conference paper, <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/321063802_Predicting_User-Interactions_on_Reddit">an overwhelming majority of Reddit users are lurkers</a>. X, the website and app formerly known as Twitter, had <a href="https://www.bankmycell.com/blog/how-many-users-does-twitter-have">around 350 million</a> users as of 2023; however, research from 2019 found that 75% of its users <a href="https://doi.org/10.1145/3308560.3316705">were lurkers</a>.</p>
<p>In other words, most of the discussions happening on websites like Reddit and Twitter come from a vocal minority of users – <a href="https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/n5d9j">whose posts are then curated and boosted by algorithms</a>.</p>
<p>Nonetheless, in the past decade, the news media have increasingly constructed narratives about collective reality based on what happens in these websites. </p>
<p>Of course, toxic online behavior exists in all online communities. But it represents the words of a smaller minority of users within the already small minority of people who post content online. Media narratives that emphasize certain groups as toxic based on online behavior – whether they are describing fandom or politics – fall into the trap of confusing the internet with real life.</p>
<p>In the weeks when Swift was dating Healy, a vocal minority of Swifties came head-to-head with <a href="https://whatstrending.com/hosts-of-the-adam-friedland-show-explain-matty-healy-comments-after-they-resurfaced-online/">a vocal minority of Healy’s defenders</a>. Then the celebrity pair ended their relationship, and collective attention moved on from that topic almost immediately. </p>
<p>Several weeks of nonstop debate, attacks and hand-wringing ended up being utterly meaningless – except to social media companies that converted this brief obsession into clicks, engagement and ad revenue.</p>
<p>My forthcoming book, “<a href="https://www.davidson.edu/people/aarushi-bhandari">Attention and Alienation</a>,” brings renewed focus to an increasingly demystified phenomenon: The online <a href="https://www.doi.org/10.5195/JWSR.2023.1100">attention economy</a> maximizes profits by designing <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/beq.2020.32">algorithms that boost engagement</a>, particularly by promoting negativity and outrage.</p>
<h2>Oligarchy of the ‘extremely online’</h2>
<p>Sometimes the consequences of mistaking the internet for real life are dire.</p>
<p>Take reproductive health. Online rage about <a href="https://www.npr.org/2022/06/24/1102305878/supreme-court-abortion-roe-v-wade-decision-overturn">the Supreme Court’s decisions to overturn Roe. v. Wade</a> <a href="https://trends.google.com/trends/explore?date=today%203-m&geo=US&q=roe%20v%20wade&hl=en-US">peaked within a few days</a> and people moved on to different topics. </p>
<p>Today, reports about reproductive health care take up <a href="https://news.google.com/search?q=roe%20v%20wade&hl=en-US&gl=US&ceid=US%3Aen">very little news media space</a> compared with garden-variety trending topics <a href="https://news.google.com/search?for=barbenheimer&hl=en-US&gl=US&ceid=US%3Aen">like “Barbenheimer”</a> – the double blockbuster release of the movies “Barbie” and “Oppenheimer” on July 21, 2023.</p>
<p>In the real world, many people continue to suffer from lack of access to lifesaving reproductive health care <a href="https://reproductiverights.org/maps/abortion-laws-by-state/">across the U.S.</a>, while the online chattering class celebrates the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/film/2023/jul/23/barbie-review-greta-gerwig-margot-robbie-ryan-riotous-candy-coloured-feminist-fable">radical feminism of the “Barbie” movie</a>. </p>
<p>Perhaps it’s time to sideline social media and the internet when evaluating the nature of our collective reality. Reality exists outside of our devices, whereas social media algorithms push whatever keeps us tethered to the screen. There is little evidence to support the idea that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/cccr.12097">online discourse represents collective experiences</a>.</p>
<p>That might be easier said than done: <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2022/06/27/twitter-is-the-go-to-social-media-site-for-u-s-journalists-but-not-for-the-public/">94% of journalists say they</a> use social media for their jobs.</p>
<p>But as an internet researcher – and Taylor Swift fan – I am hopeful that experiences like the Eras Tour will wake up more people to the fact that human beings are more united than social media algorithms would have us believe.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/209325/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>I was a volunteer for the Bernie 2020 campaign. </span></em></p>Media outlets increasingly construct narratives about collective reality based on what’s happening on social media.Aarushi Bhandari, Assistant Professor of Sociology, Davidson CollegeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2093842023-07-31T12:21:15Z2023-07-31T12:21:15ZCyber governance in Africa is weak. Taking the Malabo Convention seriously would be a good start<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538831/original/file-20230723-40270-cicrdz.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">African countries are lagging behind in digital advancements.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia Commons</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>_Several African countries are pursuing digital transformation ambitions – applying new technologies to enhance the development of society. But concerns exist over the absence of appropriate policies across the continent to create a resilient and secure cyber environment. </p>
<p><em><a href="https://www.bradford.ac.uk/staff/nifeanyiajufo/">Nnenna Ifeanyi-Ajufo</a>, a <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/25741292.2023.2199960">technology law expert</a>, explains the current cyber governance situation in Africa.</em></p>
<h2>What is cyber governance and why is it so important?</h2>
<p>Cyber governance is an important aspect of the international cybersecurity strategy for preventing and mitigating cyber threats. It features oversight processes, decision-making hierarchies and international cooperation. It also includes systems for accountability and responsible state behaviour in cyberspace. In recent years, cyber governance has been prominent in diplomatic and political agendas when regions or countries need to work together.</p>
<p>To promote digital transformation, cyberspace must be made secure and stable, using appropriate governance standards. </p>
<p>Digital transformation offers Africa tremendous opportunities. These include the economic empowerment of citizens, transparent governance and less corruption. But digital transformation can only happen on the continent if its digital spaces are trusted, secure and resilient. </p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/its-time-for-governments-to-help-their-citizens-deal-with-cybersecurity-100771">It's time for governments to help their citizens deal with cybersecurity</a>
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<h2>How are African governments doing on this front?</h2>
<p>Not very well. In 2014, the African Union Commission adopted the <a href="https://au.int/sites/default/files/treaties/29560-treaty-0048_-_african_union_convention_on_cyber_security_and_personal_data_protection_e.pdf">African Union Convention on Cybersecurity and Personal Data Protection</a>. It is also known as the Malabo Convention. It is supposed to provide principles and guidelines to ensure cybersecurity and stability in the region. </p>
<p><a href="https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/2305121.pdf#page=2">Only 15</a> out of the 55 AU member states have ratified the convention. These include Ghana, Mauritius, Togo and Rwanda. </p>
<p>Cyber governance has political dimensions. African countries are rooted in historical and cultural contexts that have an impact on politics and governance. Governance mechanisms in the region are further affected by political instability and conflicts. </p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/five-things-south-africa-must-do-to-combat-cybercrime-186089">Five things South Africa must do to combat cybercrime</a>
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<p>The borderless nature of cyberspace presents particular challenges. This is especially so for African states that are accustomed to controlling activities in their territory. </p>
<p>The result of this has been a misunderstanding of cyber governance. This has manifested in internet shutdowns and restrictions of online activities for citizens. We have seen recent examples of this in <a href="https://theconversation.com/senegals-internet-shutdowns-are-another-sign-of-a-democracy-in-peril-207443">Senegal</a>, <a href="https://www.mfwa.org/network-disruptions-how-govts-in-west-africa-violated-internet-rights-in-2022/">Burkina Faso</a>, <a href="https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2023/03/ethiopians-in-social-media-blackout-for-second-month/">Ethiopia</a> and <a href="https://www.mfwa.org/network-disruptions-how-govts-in-west-africa-violated-internet-rights-in-2022/">Nigeria</a>.</p>
<p>African leaders’ views on regulating the digital space vary. This is clear from their reluctance to ratify the Malabo Convention. </p>
<p>Often, international standards collide with the realities of developing states. This is true for states in Africa that are on the wrong side of the digital divide. This means they lack the capacity, skills and infrastructure to govern cyberspace to international standards. Overall, this limited institutional and technical capacity implies that effective cyber governance may not exist in practice for Africa. </p>
<p>There are some good stories, though. Ghana has <a href="https://africacenter.org/spotlight/ghana-multistakeholder-cyber-security/">ratified</a> the Malabo Convention and the <a href="https://www.coe.int/en/web/cybercrime/the-budapest-convention">Convention on Cybercrime</a> of 2001. It also passed a <a href="http://ir.parliament.gh/bitstream/handle/123456789/1800/CYBERSECURITY%20ACT%2C%202020%20%28ACT%201038%29.pdf?sequence=1">Cybercrime Act</a> into law in 2020 and has developed a robust <a href="https://afyonluoglu.org/PublicWebFiles/strategies/Africa/Ghana%202014%20National%20Cyber%20Security%20Policy%20and%20Strategy-EN.pdf">cybersecurity strategy</a>. </p>
<h2>What needs to happen to bring all countries in line?</h2>
<p>Preserving cyber stability is a collaborative effort. African countries need to find ways to work together to foster appropriate policies or strategies. Adopting the Malabo Convention would show that countries see the importance of cooperation in governing the digital environment. </p>
<p>Greater coordination is also necessary at a regional level. For example, the Southern African Development Community has adopted <a href="https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Cybersecurity/Documents/SADC%20Model%20Law%20Cybercrime.pdf">a model law on cybercrime</a>. The Economic Community of West African States has developed a <a href="https://issafrica.org/ctafrica/uploads/Directive%201:08:11%20on%20Fighting%20Cyber%20Crime%20within%20ECOWAS.pdf">directive on fighting cybercrime</a>. Regional organisations have a key role to play in formulating policies and delivering outcomes. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/senegals-internet-shutdowns-are-another-sign-of-a-democracy-in-peril-207443">Senegal's internet shutdowns are another sign of a democracy in peril</a>
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<p>Beyond ratifying the Malabo Convention, African states must also rethink best practices and the value of strategic regional partnerships. These partnerships are important because they create shared responsibility in a borderless space.</p>
<p>Africa must approach diplomacy strategically in this space and seek increased representation at global dialogues. The African Union remains largely absent from the evolving UN processes on cyber governance development. This implies that African interests, realities and domestic capabilities won’t get enough attention in the processes. There is also a need to bridge the institutional and technical gaps that have prevented African states from participating fully. </p>
<p>Committing to the Malabo Convention would provide a framework for united cyber governance norms and standards across the continent. As the international community continues to define these standards, Africa should be included.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/209384/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nnenna Ifeanyi-Ajufo does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The borderless nature of cyberspace presents particular challenges for African states used to controlling activities in their territory.Nnenna Ifeanyi-Ajufo, Professor of Technology Law, University of BradfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2082702023-07-10T18:07:26Z2023-07-10T18:07:26ZSex or social media? The sacrifices we’re willing to make to stay online<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/535668/original/file-20230704-20-uh6ied.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=22%2C22%2C4970%2C2784&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Some adolescents even describe feeling a sense of stress and poor emotional well-being when not online.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/sex-or-social-media-the-sacrifices-were-willing-to-make-to-stay-online" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>Your alarm clock goes off, it’s time to start your day. What’s the first thing you do? What about right before you go to bed? If your answer is scrolling social media, <a href="https://www.reviews.org/mobile/cell-phone-addiction/">you’re not alone</a>. People are spending increasing amounts of time on social media, with reports from 2023 suggesting an average worldwide usage of <a href="https://datareportal.com/reports/digital-2023-global-overview-report">two and a half hours</a> a day.</p>
<p>With more social media apps and websites coming online, that amount of time is likely to increase. U.S. tech company Meta recently launched <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-66112648">Threads</a>, the newest social media platform vying for our time. The app is meant to rival Elon Musk’s Twitter.</p>
<p>With <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/617136/digital-population-worldwide/">4.8 billion</a> social media users worldwide as of 2023, social media has become a mainstay in everyday life, particularly among younger generations. Some adolescents even describe feeling a sense of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2020.106364">stress and poor emotional well-being</a> when not online. So much so that terms like FOMO (fear of missing out) and <a href="https://doi.org/10.4103%2Fjfmpc.jfmpc_71_19">Nomophobia (No Mobile Phone Phobia)</a> have been popularized to explain the feelings and thoughts some people experience when disconnected from their smartphone or their social media.</p>
<h2>Social media use</h2>
<p>As we become increasingly dependent on social media for entertainment and information, it can be challenging to create space between ourselves and our social media profiles. So much so that <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1057/ejis.2012.1">too much enjoyment from and time spent</a> on social media can result in strong usage habits, and in more extreme cases, addiction. </p>
<p>As researchers who study societal relationships with these technologies, we began to wonder the lengths young adults might go to maintain their connection to social media. To answer this question, <a href="https://www.igi-global.com/article/a-social-media-give-and-take/324106">we conducted a study</a> of 750 Canadians, aged 16-30 years old, who regularly use social media. We asked them about their social media usage patterns, their relationship with social media and the sacrifices they would be willing to make to remain on social media.</p>
<p>Our findings showed that smartphones were the most used method for accessing social media and approximately 95 per cent of participants had access to at least two social media accounts, with Instagram, Facebook, and YouTube among the most popular.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536133/original/file-20230706-16210-hcw4hs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Pair of hands typing on a keyboard." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536133/original/file-20230706-16210-hcw4hs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536133/original/file-20230706-16210-hcw4hs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536133/original/file-20230706-16210-hcw4hs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536133/original/file-20230706-16210-hcw4hs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536133/original/file-20230706-16210-hcw4hs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536133/original/file-20230706-16210-hcw4hs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536133/original/file-20230706-16210-hcw4hs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">As we become increasingly dependent on social media for entertainment and information, it can be challenging to create space between ourselves and our social media profiles.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
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<p>Additionally, nearly half reported checking social media nine or more times a day, whereas only about one in every 10 people checked social media twice a day or less. The most popular times of day that people accessed their phone were in the morning and evening. However, access during the afternoon, at night and on the weekend was still frequent. </p>
<p>Interestingly, despite an average age just over 24 years old, nearly half of the young adults surveyed indicated they have had a social media account for close to or more than a decade, suggesting prolonged usage and interest from an early age. </p>
<h2>What trade-offs are young adults willing to make?</h2>
<p>Respondents were asked to consider what they would be willing to sacrifice to maintain their social media presence. Trade-offs fell into the following categories: food/drink, hobbies, possessions, career, appearance, relationships, health and life. </p>
<p>Approximately 40 per cent of respondents were willing to give up caffeine, alcohol and video games. Another 30 per cent or so were willing to give up playing sports, watching TV and eating at their favourite restaurant for an entire year. </p>
<p>When asked to make appearance or possession-related trade-offs, another 10 to 15 per cent said they would rather gain 15 pounds, shave their head, give up their driver’s licence, never travel again and live without air conditioning. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536134/original/file-20230706-29-m1fn6s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="People using laptops and smartphones sitting on the ground." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536134/original/file-20230706-29-m1fn6s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536134/original/file-20230706-29-m1fn6s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=369&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536134/original/file-20230706-29-m1fn6s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=369&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536134/original/file-20230706-29-m1fn6s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=369&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536134/original/file-20230706-29-m1fn6s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=464&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536134/original/file-20230706-29-m1fn6s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=464&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536134/original/file-20230706-29-m1fn6s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=464&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">With 4.8 billion social media users worldwide as of 2023, social media has become a mainstay in everyday life, particularly among younger generations.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
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<p>When asked to make more serious trade-offs relating to their relationships, health, or life, fewer were willing to make the sacrifice. For example, fewer than five per cent of participants said they would be willing to contract a sexually transmitted infection, or be diagnosed with a life-threatening illness like cancer rather than give up social media.</p>
<p>However, nearly 10 out of every 100 participants did say they would accept being unable to have children, give up sex or give up one year of their life to maintain their social media connections. When asked to give up more years of life, almost five out of every 100 and three out of every 100 participants said they would give up five or 10 years of their life, respectively.</p>
<p>Some young adults are willing to give up a considerable amount to maintain their access to social media. Notably, participants were far more likely to make food, drink and hobby-related sacrifices, followed by possessions and appearance-related trade-offs, compared to more serious concessions. However, knowing that even a small proportion of participants were willing to make health and life-related sacrifices is, quite honestly, scary. </p>
<p>We are not the kind of researchers who want to rid the world of social media. Quite the opposite, we use it ourselves. Rather, like most things in this world, we see the benefits and consequences and want to encourage conversations, reflection and thinking about how and why we use social media.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/208270/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Paige Coyne receives funding from SSHRC.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sarah Woodruff receives funding from SSHRC.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bailey Csabai does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Social media has become a mainstay in everyday life, particularly among younger generations. And some are even willing to make trade-offs to stay online.Paige Coyne, PhD Candidate, Department of Kinesiology, University of WindsorBailey Csabai, Research and Graduate Assistant, Faculty of Human Kinetics, University of WindsorSarah Woodruff, Professor, Director of the Community Health, Environment, and Wellness Lab, University of WindsorLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2077182023-06-15T05:42:56Z2023-06-15T05:42:56ZTwitter is refusing to pay Google for cloud services. Here’s why it matters, and what the fallout could be for users<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532104/original/file-20230615-23-5exc5n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=37%2C75%2C4983%2C3267&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Amid an ongoing cost-cutting effort, Twitter has now refused to pay the bills to renew its multi-year contract with Google Cloud, <a href="https://www.platformer.news/p/twitter-stiffs-google">Platformer has reported</a>. </p>
<p>We’ve all heard of “<a href="https://www.cloudflare.com/learning/cloud/what-is-the-cloud/">the cloud</a>” – but what does it have to do with Twitter? And more to the point, what will the consequences be for Twitter users if Google Cloud pulls the plug on the platform? </p>
<h2>What are cloud computing services?</h2>
<p>To put it simply, “the cloud” is an assembly of computing resources
that are remotely accessible over the internet. These resources are leased out to internet-connected organisations so they don’t have to buy and maintain their own. </p>
<p>In Twitter’s case, these resources include storage space for very large quantities of data, as well as a suite of programs that perform various operations on these data, as agreed upon in the contract. All of this takes place across a <a href="https://kinsta.com/docs/data-center-locations/#:%7E:text=(southamerica%2Dwest1)-,Council%20Bluffs%2C%20Iowa%2C%20USA%20(us%2Dcentral1),%2C%20USA%20(us%2Dwest1)">global network</a> of physical servers.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/wheres-your-data-its-not-actually-in-the-cloud-its-sitting-in-a-data-centre-64168">Where's your data? It's not actually in the cloud, it's sitting in a data centre</a>
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<p>Cloud computing is a convenient and cost-effective business model, which has gained much favour from enterprises large and small.</p>
<p>Currently, a handful of <a href="https://www.ciodive.com/news/aws-microsoft-google-cloud-market-share/623004/">players</a> dominate this market. In the lead is Amazon Web Services (AWS) which <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/967365/worldwide-cloud-infrastructure-services-market-share-vendor/">holds about 32%</a> of the market. Amazon became the first <a href="https://www.techtarget.com/whatis/feature/The-history-of-cloud-computing-explained">cloud provider in 2006</a> and has since established a comfortable lead over its rivals, Microsoft Azure (23%) and Google Cloud (10%). </p>
<p><a href="https://www.linkedin.com/advice/0/how-do-you-ensure-reliability-scalability">Reliability</a> and <a href="https://www.simplilearn.com/what-is-cloud-scalability-article#what_is_cloud_scalability">scalability</a> are perhaps the most important requirements a company will have of its cloud service provider. And when it comes to reliability, “redundancy” is key. </p>
<p>Redundancy means that if one data centre goes down, there are multiple others with duplicate data that can seamlessly step into service. And if the quantity of user data is high in one particular data centre, the extra load can be farmed out to another. In this way, peak traffic periods can be managed without loss of performance.</p>
<h2>What might happen if Google pulls the plug?</h2>
<p>It seems Twitter is at loggerheads with its cloud provider, Google Cloud. The company is <a href="https://www.platformer.news/p/twitter-stiffs-google">reportedly</a> disputing its Google Cloud bill as it seeks to renegotiate its contract with Google. </p>
<p>The issue appears to be rooted in a disagreement over service quality and performance. Twitter doesn’t think it’s getting value for money, and is withholding the latest payment in its US$1 billion <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/tech/elon-musk-twitter-google-cloud-b2355804.html">contract</a> with Google Cloud.</p>
<p>Under the contract, Google Cloud hosts many of Twitter’s trust and safety services. If the disagreement isn’t resolved by the end of the month, and if Twitter severs ties with Google Cloud, this could seriously threaten its ability to fight spam, remove child sexual abuse material and generally protect accounts. </p>
<p>Google also currently allows Twitter users to <a href="https://help.twitter.com/en/using-twitter/create-twitter-account#googlesso">sign up</a> with their Google account. And Twitter profiles are highly <a href="https://www.courts.ca.gov/opinions/links/S230051-LINK21.PDF">ranked</a> in Google searches, by virtue of Twitter’s close ties with Google. This favoured status could be in jeopardy if the two companies can’t come to terms.</p>
<p>Apart from Google Cloud, Twitter also has a multi-year <a href="https://techcrunch.com/2020/12/15/twitter-taps-aws-for-its-latest-foray-into-the-public-cloud/">cloud computing contract</a> with AWS to offer a host of functions. According to reports, it has also withheld payments from Amazon in the past and owed some US$70 million in bills as of March. Amazon responded by threatening to withhold payments for advertising it runs on the platform.</p>
<h2>Why is Twitter refusing to pay?</h2>
<p>The dispute can perhaps be understood as yet another attempt by Twitter to radically reduce operating <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/jackkelly/2022/10/26/how-twitter-meta-oracle-and-apple-are-cutting-costs-and-workers/?sh=381514653ba4">costs</a>. It’s a a trend that began late last year when Elon Musk acquired the company for US$44 billion. </p>
<p>Musk, who just appointed former NBC Universal advertising executive <a href="https://mashable.com/article/twitter-ceo-linda-yaccarino-email-elon-musk">Linda Yaccarino as Twitter CEO</a>, has implemented a suite of <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/11/22/technology/elon-musk-twitter-cost-cutting.html">cost-cutting measures</a> since the takeover – among these, the firing of <a href="https://siliconangle.com/2022/12/30/twitter-reportedly-closes-sacramento-data-center-part-cost-cutting-initiative/">more than half</a> of the company’s 7,500 employees.</p>
<p>Looking at the big picture, we see Musk in the throes of trying to make Twitter a leaner, more efficient business. </p>
<h2>Cracking down on malicious misuse</h2>
<p>At stake in this dispute are services that help keep Twitter free of malicious, dangerous and offensive content. Twitter’s battle against this content, as well as against spam and bots, has been ongoing. While it’s difficult to predict the outcome of the dispute with Google, it’s likely Twitter will take whatever course of action helps the company save money. </p>
<p>That could mean moving those services to a different provider, or retaining Google Cloud’s services but on more favourable terms. Another possibility (although less likely) is for Twitter to migrate those particular services in-house where it will have more control. But this would also require spending and human resources to manage the data. </p>
<p>In a worst-case scenario, Twitter may collapse or destabilise if certain elements within it go offline. Aside from Twitter trolls, this outcome would be in nobody’s best interest. So it’s more likely Twitter and Google Cloud will find a mutually agreeable way forward. </p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/instead-of-showing-leadership-twitter-pays-lip-service-to-the-dangers-of-deep-fakes-127027">Instead of showing leadership, Twitter pays lip service to the dangers of deep fakes</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/207718/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Tuffley does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Cloud computing is a way for businesses to access extra computational resources over the internet. Without it, the internet as we know it would malfunction.David Tuffley, Senior Lecturer in Applied Ethics & CyberSecurity, Griffith UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2074432023-06-13T17:55:33Z2023-06-13T17:55:33ZSenegal’s internet shutdowns are another sign of a democracy in peril<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531610/original/file-20230613-2513-5v2chn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Protestors gather in Madrid to demand justice and democracy in Senegal.
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Photo by Marcos del Mazo/LightRocket via Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Senegal’s government <a href="https://twitter.com/OpenObservatory/status/1664611174854303745?s=20">began blocking</a> several digital platforms – including Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Telegram and YouTube – in certain areas on 1 June. Days later, it <a href="https://ifex.org/internet-shut-down-as-senegal-plunges-into-chaos/">extended the disruptions</a> to all mobile internet and several television stations. </p>
<p>The social networks were shut down for two days. This was followed by a four-day mobile internet shutdown. </p>
<p>Given that <a href="https://www.bbc.com/afrique/articles/clkd970r443o">nearly all</a> Senegalese internet users access it through their mobile phones, these moves constituted a near total block on digital communications and information. <a href="https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/IT.NET.USER.ZS?locations=SN">Internet penetration</a> in Senegal has exploded in recent years. A decade ago, only 13% of the population was online. By 2021, a majority (58%) were. Social media powers many <a href="https://www.cnn.com/videos/business/2020/01/23/senegal-social-media-business-mpa.cnn">small businesses</a>.</p>
<p>The moves come after <a href="https://www.hrw.org/news/2023/06/05/senegal-violent-crackdown-opposition-dissent">serious political unrest</a>. At least 16 people have been killed and hundreds arrested in protests in Dakar, Ziguinchor and other areas following the conviction of opposition leader Ousmane Sonko. </p>
<p>Supporters of Sonko’s Patriots of Senegal party <a href="https://foreignpolicy.com/2023/06/01/senegal-ousmane-sonko-trial-conviction-protests-macky-sall-election/">criticised</a> the charges brought by the <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/senegal-seeks-10-year-jail-sentence-opposition-leaders-rape-trial-2023-05-24/">public prosecutor</a> as politically motivated. Sonko was acquitted of rape and convicted of “immoral behaviour”.</p>
<p>In justifying the internet blockages, interior minister Antoine Félix Abdoulaye Diome <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2023/06/05/africa/sixteen-killed-senegal-protests-intl/index.html">cited</a> threats of <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/senegal-government-cuts-mobile-internet-access-amid-deadly-rioting-2023-06-04/">“hateful and subversive”</a> messages. </p>
<p>This is not the first time the Senegalese government has disrupted access to the internet. It did so in <a href="https://africafreedomnetwork.com/senegal-tv-shutdown-and-internet-restored/">2021</a>, when protests erupted following Sonko’s arrest. In that case, the shutdowns lasted only a few hours. </p>
<p>Internet shutdowns in Africa are increasingly common. Disruptions were <a href="https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1DvPAuHNLp5BXGb0nnZDGNoiIwEeu2ogdXEIDvT4Hyfk/edit#gid=798303217">documented</a> in 11 African countries in 2022, and six between January and May 2023. Recent cases include Ethiopia, Libya, Sudan and Zimbabwe. </p>
<p>Every country with an internet shutdown since January 2022 has had a worse record than Senegal on protecting civil liberties, as <a href="https://freedomhouse.org/countries/freedom-world/scores">assessed</a> by Freedom House. Senegal has been seen as a relative bright spot of democratic development on the continent. </p>
<p>However, recent years have brought warning signs. <a href="https://www.france24.com/en/20190114-senegal-opposition-leaders-khalifa-sall-karim-wade-barred-presidential-election">Opposition leaders</a> have been barred from contesting elections by court cases which may have been politically motivated. Opposition-leaning voters have claimed they have been <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-senegal-politics/senegals-main-opposition-to-boycott-future-elections-after-masquerade-idUSKBN1AP2HJ">disenfranchised</a>. </p>
<p>Recent violence and the government’s shutdown of the internet are certain to heighten fears of democratic backsliding.</p>
<p>As one who has done <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/jeff-conroy-krutz-775157">research</a> on how media and access to political information in sub-Saharan Africa affect relationships between groups, I can say that restricting the internet is sure to carry costs. </p>
<h2>Public reactions</h2>
<p>Firstly, international and domestic groups focused on civic freedoms have condemned the shutdowns. <a href="https://twitter.com/AmnestySenegal/status/1664630722269683712">Amnesty Sénégal</a> has called them “contrary to international law” and said they “cannot be justified by imperatives of security”.</p>
<p>Secondly, there will be financial costs – for the country as well as for individuals. A total shutdown <a href="https://netblocks.org/cost/">could cost</a> the Senegalese economy almost US$8 million per day. In addition, disrupting digital communications during times of crisis has <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2019/04/23/shut-down-social-media-if-you-dont-like-terrorism/">costs</a> for the population. Individuals need to be able to contact and locate family and friends, determine zones of safety, and make arrangements for transport, food, water and medical care. </p>
<p>The damage to livelihoods is significant.</p>
<p>Thirdly, the shutdowns could arouse public ire.</p>
<p>President Macky Sall’s government might be concluding that any popular backlash will be concentrated among segments of the population already favourable to the opposition, namely urban, underemployed youth.</p>
<p>By clamping down, his hope was to limit protests, while not eroding his base support. </p>
<p>Senegalese opinion on this question, at least in principle, is rather closely divided. According to a <a href="https://www.afrobarometer.org/survey-resource/senegal-round-8-data-2021/">nationally representative survey</a> conducted by Afrobarometer, a nonpartisan, pan-African public opinion research organisation, in December 2020-January 2021, only 54% of Senegalese respondents agreed with the statement that</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Unrestricted access to the internet and social media helps people to be more informed and active citizens, and should be protected.</p>
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<p>But 42% agreed with an alternative option, that:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Information shared on the internet and social media is dividing Senegalese, so access should be regulated by the government.</p>
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<p>While this question is not about shutdowns specifically, it provides insight into the Senegalese public’s general inclinations about government involvement in this area.</p>
<p>According to Afrobarometer, those who report using digital media on at least a weekly basis are more supportive of unrestricted access than those who do not, 59% to 47%. Urban-dwellers are more supportive than rural-dwellers (58% to 50%), and men are slightly more supportive than women (55% to 52%). </p>
<p>We also see that support for unrestricted internet increases with education – 49% with no formal schooling supported it, while 58% with secondary education or higher did. And youth aged 18-35 are more supportive of unrestricted internet than those over 46 are (54% to 48%).</p>
<p>Those who report having protested in the past are more supportive of unrestricted internet than those who have not (61% to 52%). Finally, of those who said they would vote for Sonko in the next election, an overwhelming 70% favoured unrestricted internet. A bare majority (53%) of Sall’s supporters did.</p>
<p>The figures suggest that those who support unrestricted access are from the same demographics most likely to be taking to the streets – young, urban males who are digitally literate, and <a href="https://storyteller.iom.int/stories/everyone-wants-succeed-creating-sustainable-alternatives-irregular-migration-senegal">frustrated</a> by their inability to convert their educational attainment to gainful employment.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/restricting-digital-media-is-a-gamble-for-african-leaders-159788">Restricting digital media is a gamble for African leaders</a>
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<p>.</p>
<h2>A risky gambit</h2>
<p>Independent observers like <a href="https://freedomhouse.org/country/senegal/freedom-world/2022">Freedom House</a> have characterised Senegal as “one of Africa’s most stable electoral democracies” and highlighted its “relatively independent media and free expression”.</p>
<p>The Parti Socialiste, which had ruled since independence in 1960, was ousted through <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/WPcap/2000-03/21/070r-032100-idx.html">peaceful elections in 2000</a>. <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-senegal-election/senegal-wins-as-wade-concedes-election-defeat-idUSBRE82P06420120326">Another incumbent</a> lost in similar fashion in 2012.</p>
<p>But Senegal’s hard-fought reputation as a democratic beacon is beginning to erode. The background to the events of the past two weeks is that President Sall is considering <a href="https://www.lemonde.fr/en/le-monde-africa/article/2023/05/04/senegal-macky-sall-tempted-by-controversial-third-presidential-term_6025442_124.html">seeking a third term</a> next year, which many say would be unconstitutional.</p>
<p>Sall is therefore surely watching his support among young, urban Senegalese. His predecessor, Abdoulaye Wade, came to power in 2000 on a wave of support from this cohort, but lost to Sall 12 years later as that support eroded. </p>
<p>Sall, whose support in Dakar <a href="https://www.cairn-int.info/article-E_AFCO_267_0187--the-2019-presidential-election-in.htm">plummeted</a> from 74% in 2012 to 49% in 2019, fears the same fate. Sonko, with his base in the disaffected urban youth, appeared to be just the type of candidate who could stifle Sall. </p>
<p>The challenge for Sall’s government, though, is that any short-term benefits that come from limiting protests could be outweighed by a further hardened and expanded opposition among urban youth. </p>
<p>Harms to the economy could soften support more broadly. Any further erosion of support among crucial demographics could prove ruinous for him and his allies.</p>
<p><em>This article has been updated to reflect that interior minister Antoine Felix Abdoulaye Diome cited threats of “dissemination of hateful and subversive messages” in justifying the internet blockages and not “fake news”.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/207443/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jeff Conroy-Krutz does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Restricting the internet in Senegal is costly. There will be financial costs and damage to livelihoods.Jeff Conroy-Krutz, Associate Professor of Political Science, Michigan State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2070332023-06-08T20:07:12Z2023-06-08T20:07:12ZWhat is the ‘splinternet’? Here’s why the internet is less whole than you might think<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530739/original/file-20230608-28-h3pjj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=125%2C188%2C5712%2C2802&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>“Splinternet” refers to the way the internet is <a href="https://theconversation.com/country-rules-the-splinternet-may-be-the-future-of-the-web-81939">being splintered</a> – broken up, divided, separated, locked down, boxed up, or otherwise segmented.</p>
<p>Whether for nation states or corporations, there’s money and control to be had by influencing <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-future-of-the-internet-looks-brighter-thanks-to-an-eu-court-opinion-109721">what information people can access and share</a>, as well as the costs that are paid for this access. </p>
<p>The idea of a splinternet isn’t new, nor is the problem. But recent developments are likely to enhance segmentation, and have brought it back into new light. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/meta-just-copped-a-a-1-9bn-fine-for-keeping-eu-data-in-the-us-but-why-should-users-care-where-data-are-stored-206186">Meta just copped a A$1.9bn fine for keeping EU data in the US. But why should users care where data are stored?</a>
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<h2>The internet as a whole</h2>
<p>The core question is whether we have just one single internet for everyone, or whether we have many.</p>
<p>Think of how we refer to things like the sky, the sea, or the economy. Despite these conceptually being singular things, we’re often only seeing a perspective: a part of the whole that isn’t complete, but we still experience directly. This applies to the internet, too.</p>
<p>A large portion of the internet is what’s known as the “deep web”. These are the parts search engines and web crawlers generally don’t go to. Estimates vary, but a rule of thumb is that approximately 70% of the web is “deep”.</p>
<p>Despite the name and the anxious news reporting in some sectors, the deep web is mostly benign. It refers to the parts of the web to which access is restricted in some ways.</p>
<p>Your personal email is a part of the deep web – no matter how bad your password might be, it requires authorisation to access. So do your Dropbox, OneDrive, or Google Drive accounts. If your work or school has its own servers, these are part of the deep web – they’re connected, but not publicly accessible by default (we hope).</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/searching-deep-and-dark-building-a-google-for-the-less-visible-parts-of-the-web-58472">Searching deep and dark: Building a Google for the less visible parts of the web</a>
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<p>We can expand this to things like the experience of multiplayer videogames, most social media platforms, and much more. Yes, there are parts that live up to the ominous name, but most of the deep web is just the stuff that needs password access.</p>
<p>The internet changes, too – connections go live, cables get broken or satellites fail, people bring their new <a href="https://theconversation.com/six-things-every-consumer-should-know-about-the-internet-of-things-78765">Internet of Things devices</a> (like “smart” fridges and doorbells) online, or accidentally open their computer ports to the net.</p>
<p>But because such a huge portion of the web is shaped by our individual access, we all have our own perspectives on what it’s like to use the internet. Just like standing under “the sky”, our local experience is different to that of others. No one can see the full picture. </p>
<h2>A fractured internet poised to fracture even more</h2>
<p>Was there ever a single “Internet”? Certainly the US research computer network called <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/ARPANET">ARPANET</a> in the 1960s was clear, discrete, and unfractured.</p>
<p>Alongside this, in the ‘60s and '70s, governments in the Soviet Union and Chile also each worked on similar network projects called <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OGAS">OGAS</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Cybersyn">CyberSyn</a>, respectively. These systems were proto-internets that could have expanded significantly, and had themes that resonate today – OGAS was heavily surveilled by the KGB, and CyberSyn was a social experiment destroyed during a far-right coup.</p>
<p>Each was very clearly separate, each was a fractured computer network that relied on government support to succeed, and ARPANET was the only one to succeed due to its significant government funding. It was the kernel that would become the basis of the internet, and it was <a href="https://home.cern/science/computing/where-web-was-born">Tim Berners-Lee’s work on HTML at CERN</a> that became the basis of the web we have today, and something he <a href="https://theconversation.com/snowden-and-berners-lees-campaign-for-an-open-internet-24329">seeks to protect</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530749/original/file-20230608-25-jdt55.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A pencil drawing on a stamp showing a smiling man next to two computer screens with www on them" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530749/original/file-20230608-25-jdt55.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530749/original/file-20230608-25-jdt55.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530749/original/file-20230608-25-jdt55.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530749/original/file-20230608-25-jdt55.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530749/original/file-20230608-25-jdt55.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=492&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530749/original/file-20230608-25-jdt55.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=492&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530749/original/file-20230608-25-jdt55.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=492&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Marshall Islands released a postal stamp in 1999 celebrating English computer scientist Tim Berners-Lee as the inventor of the World Wide Web.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/marshall-islands-circa-2000-postage-stamp-150910184">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Today, we can see the unified “Internet” has given way to a fractured internet – one poised to fracture even more.</p>
<p>Many nations effectively have their own internets already. These are still technically connected to the rest of the internet, but are subject to such distinct policies, regulations and costs that they are distinctly different for the users.</p>
<p>For example, Russia maintains a Soviet-era-style surveillance of the internet, and is far from alone in doing so – thanks to Xi Jinping, there is now “<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/news/2018/jun/29/the-great-firewall-of-china-xi-jinpings-internet-shutdown">the great firewall of China</a>”.</p>
<p>Surveillance isn’t the only barrier to internet use, with harassment, abuse, censorship, taxation and pricing of access, and similar internet controls being a major issue <a href="https://rsf.org/sites/default/files/a4_predateur-en_final.pdf">across many countries</a>.</p>
<p>Content controls aren’t bad in themselves – it’s easy to think of content that most people would prefer didn’t exist. Nonetheless, these national regulations lead to a splintering of internet experience depending on which country you’re in.</p>
<p>Indeed, every single country has local factors that shape the internet experience, from language to law, from culture to censorship.</p>
<p>While this can be overcome by tools such as VPNs (virtual private networks) or shifting to blockchain networks, in practice these are individual solutions that only a small percentage of people use, and don’t represent a stable solution.</p>
<h2>We’re already on the splinternet</h2>
<p>In short, it doesn’t fix it for those who aren’t technically savvy and it doesn’t fix the issues with commercial services. Even without censorious governments, the problems remain. In 2021, Facebook <a href="https://theconversation.com/stuff-up-or-conspiracy-whistleblowers-claim-facebook-deliberately-le">shut down Australian news content</a> as a protest against the News Media Bargaining Code, leading to <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-wechat-model-how-facebooks-ban-could-change-the-business-of-news-155629">potential change in the industry</a>.</p>
<p>Before that, organisations such as Wikipedia and Google <a href="https://www.battleforthenet.com/july12/">protested the winding back of network neutrality provisions</a> in the US in 2017 following <a href="https://sopastrike.com/">earlier</a> <a href="https://www.battleforthenet.com/sept10th/">campaigns</a>.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/facebooks-news-blockade-in-australia-shows-how-tech-giants-are-swallowing-the-web-155832">Facebook's news blockade in Australia shows how tech giants are swallowing the web</a>
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<p>Facebook (now known as Meta) attempted to create a walled garden internet in India called Free Basics – this led to a massive outcry about corporate control in late 2015 and early 2016. Today, <a href="https://theconversation.com/meta-just-copped-a-a-1-9bn-fine-for-keeping-eu-data-in-the-us-but-why-should-users-care-where-data-are-stored-206186">Meta’s breaches of EU law</a> are placing its business model at risk in the territory.</p>
<p>This broad shift has been described in the past by my colleague Mark Andrejevic in 2007 as <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10714420701715365">digital enclosure</a> – where states and commercial interests increasingly segment, separate and restrict what is accessible on the internet.</p>
<p>The uneven overlapping of national regulations and economies will interact oddly with digital services that cut across multiple borders. Further reductions in network neutrality will open the doors to restrictive internet service provider deals, price-based discrimination, and lock-in contracts with content providers.</p>
<p>The existing diversity of experience on the internet will see users’ experiences and access continue to diverge. As internet-based companies increasingly rely on exclusive access to users for tracking and advertising, as services and ISPs overcome falling revenue with lock-in agreements, and as government policies change, we’ll see the splintering continue.</p>
<p>The splinternet isn’t that different from what we already have. But it does represent an internet that’s even less global, less deliberative, less fair and less unified than we have today.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/tim-berners-lees-plan-to-save-the-internet-give-us-back-control-of-our-data-154130">Tim Berners-Lee's plan to save the internet: give us back control of our data</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/207033/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Robbie Fordyce is affiliated with the Australian Communications Consumer Action Network.</span></em></p>There’s really no such thing as one global internet – it all depends on your perspective. But the internet is poised to fracturing even more.Robbie Fordyce, Lecturer, Communications and Media Studies, Monash UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2008922023-05-01T19:08:27Z2023-05-01T19:08:27ZAre you under digital distress? 3 ways tech-triggers may be affecting your mental health<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521725/original/file-20230418-20-r6tg4p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=25%2C224%2C5725%2C3604&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Small, proactive countermeasures can reduce digital distress and make us feel more empowered over our mental health.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Pexels/Andrea Piacquadio)</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/are-you-under-digital-distress-3-ways-tech-triggers-may-be-affecting-your-mental-health" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p><a href="https://www.mentalhealthweek.ca/">Mental Health Week</a>, which runs from May 1 to 7, provides an opportunity to reflect on our collective well-being. In addition to rising <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fapps.12304">mental health issues</a>, there seems to be a general <a href="https://dictionary.apa.org/malaise">malaise</a> across normally well individuals in society. This is manifesting as cognitive and physical exhaustion, limited patience, disinterest in work and a resentment of the stressors in our lives. </p>
<p>Many of these stressors may be coming from interactions with technology: small but frequent frustrations that quickly dissipate, but when added up become micro-aggressive tech-triggers of <em>digital distress</em>, defined here as a form of <a href="https://dictionary.apa.org/psychological-distress">psychological distress</a> caused by a dysfunctional user experience with technology. </p>
<p>Tech-triggers are pervasive, yet seemingly innocuous because we’ve learned to click them away or compartmentalize their effects. No one is going to do anything about them until we acknowledge their harm, and that it’s a problem. Here are three main types of tech-triggers and their corresponding effects to consider if this is affecting you. </p>
<h2>Pop-ups & prompts — I’m lost!</h2>
<p>Pop-ups are designed to interrupt and draw our attention through notifications, calendar reminders, software updates, website ads, low-battery alerts and more. <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/22/jobs/22shifting.html">Frequent disruptions put us on high alert</a> like a jack-in-the-box, triggering a release of adrenaline, norepinephrine and cortisol. These chemicals are designed to make us be alert and ready to protect ourselves when we are under threat; but when we are not in actual danger, they just make us feel like we’re on edge.</p>
<p>Prompts for our username and password can be the ultimate trigger. With many people having login details for numerous websites, it can be challenging to keep track of it all. And often, trying to log into one of your accounts can feel like an oppressive regime of trial and error, sifting through your memory for ludicrously jumbled passwords and immemorable usernames.</p>
<p>Keeping such things in our heads is antithetical to the way our <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wellness/2023/03/13/brain-memory-pandemic-covid-forgetting/">memory works</a>, and repeat, failed attempts can create the same psychological state as being lost. The state of being <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1056492615578915">psychologically lost</a> involves feeling isolated, uncertain and disoriented.</p>
<p>With too many pop-ups and prompts, we may be in constant <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/fight-or-flight-response">fight or flight mode</a>. It’s no wonder they make us feel lost and jumpy. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521914/original/file-20230419-28-8i63q3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A man sitting at a table looks at his phone with a stressed look on his face." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521914/original/file-20230419-28-8i63q3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521914/original/file-20230419-28-8i63q3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521914/original/file-20230419-28-8i63q3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521914/original/file-20230419-28-8i63q3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521914/original/file-20230419-28-8i63q3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521914/original/file-20230419-28-8i63q3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521914/original/file-20230419-28-8i63q3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Many of the stressors we face come from our interactions with technology.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Digital clutter — I’m failing!</h2>
<p>Digital clutter creates a slow-burn of deep-seated awareness that there is too much to manage, and we’re failing at it. <a href="https://www.inc.com/david-finkel/overwhelming-inbox-heres-a-simple-trick-to-try-before-declaring-email-bankruptcy.html">Unclearable email queues</a>, cluttered digital folders and our inability to complete tech-tasks (like printing photos or deleting old drafts) can create a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1006/anbe.1998.1049">psychological state of failure</a>. Organizing and decluttering is our way of feeling in control, but sometimes there is just so much to manage. It can feel defeating. </p>
<p>So, too, can the <a href="https://hbr.org/2022/01/the-psychology-of-your-scrolling-addiction">infinite scroll feature</a> on social media apps. Long sessions of scrolling, swiping and tapping make our brain check out and send neurochemical signals of <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/carolinebeaton/2016/04/07/this-is-what-happens-to-your-brain-when-you-fail-and-how-to-fix-it/?sh=37399ad01b81">demotivation and failure</a>. </p>
<p>This may be a combination of rising cortisol and lowering dopamine, which creates a biophysical experience of feeling stressed and bored at the same time. </p>
<p>This might be amplified by the frequent failure experienced with other tech-triggers, such as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/154193121005400437">disruptive</a> software updates and continuously newer versions of tech, just different enough to make you feel like you don’t know what you are doing. </p>
<p>This constant state of upgrade is antithetical to how we learn. Humans are <a href="https://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2015/09/23/carol-dweck-revisits-the-growth-mindset.html?print=1">motivated by growth</a>: we like to learn more and get better at tasks, not to feel suddenly stupid and slowed down. With too much to sort through and more on the way, our system is frequently triggered for failure. It’s no wonder we feel overwhelmed. </p>
<h2>Cyber insecurity — I’m afraid!</h2>
<p>A third tech-trigger is caused by apprehensions about our cyber-security and how safe our digital information <em>really</em> is. Although online shopping and banking seems secure, there can be a sneaking suspicion that our credit card and financial information are not as protected as we’re told. We manage this fear with a few clicks, or perhaps with a <a href="https://time.com/6200717/online-shopping-psychology-explained/">purchase that restores our sense of control</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/ca/basics/terror-management-theory">Terror management theory</a> suggests that societies gain comfort through avoidance. Is it possible people click “allow all” on cookie notifications to make themselves feel better? If so, the same theory explains how this can also trigger existential anxiety and depression. With so much at stake, our system is frequently triggered to feel unsafe, and it’s no wonder our brain is warning us to stay alert. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521917/original/file-20230419-26-ppr208.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A graphic showing a man running away from a laptop with envelopes flying out of it." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521917/original/file-20230419-26-ppr208.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521917/original/file-20230419-26-ppr208.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521917/original/file-20230419-26-ppr208.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521917/original/file-20230419-26-ppr208.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521917/original/file-20230419-26-ppr208.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521917/original/file-20230419-26-ppr208.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521917/original/file-20230419-26-ppr208.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Digital clutter creates a slow-burn of deep-seated awareness that there is too much to manage, and we’re failing at it.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What can we do about it?</h2>
<p>The effects of these tech-triggers mean we might regularly feel lost, stupid and afraid. The question is: what can we do about it? Many of these interactions are embedded in our work and lifestyles and yet, our bodies and minds are telling us this isn’t right. </p>
<p>Digital distress may be our body’s way of warning us that something’s got to change. If so, awareness is a start, and can help us better manage the situation and regulate our responses. Here are a few things you can try:</p>
<p>• Take the time to review your settings for pop-up blockers, cookies, authorized data access and notifications. Turn them off (or better yet, set a time to turn off your devices) and see if you feel more calm. </p>
<p>• Schedule time for sorting through digital clutter before it becomes overwhelming (or better yet, consider what you want to receive or save in the first place). If you don’t deal with it now, you’ll have to deal with it later with more stress.</p>
<p>• Stay alert for workplace tech-triggers and challenge them when they first arise. Some so-called solutions are problematic, like having to log in to the same account repeatedly throughout the day or having to go through too many authentication steps. Employers might reconsider tactics if employee mental health is on the line. </p>
<p>We can also create small changes that make us less tech-dependent, such as bringing back wall clocks so we can glance at time without a screen; noting schedules on paper to avoid being drawn into email via our digital calendar; and change our settings in apps and devices to have more control over our digital experience.</p>
<p>Small, proactive countermeasures can increase our self-efficacy in a way that will reduce our digital distress and make us feel more empowered over our mental health.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/200892/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Brittany Harker Martin does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Many stressors may be coming from interactions with technology: small but frequent frustrations that quickly dissipate, but when added up trigger digital distress.Brittany Harker Martin, Associate Professor, Leadership, Policy & Governance, University of CalgaryLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2033062023-04-16T12:19:04Z2023-04-16T12:19:04ZWant to be a social media influencer? You might want to think again<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520680/original/file-20230413-28-fxw1gb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C36%2C8179%2C5420&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The world of influencing is not always as honest and exciting as it's cracked up to be.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/want-to-be-a-social-media-influencer-you-might-want-to-think-again" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>Canadians <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/1317217/time-spent-on-social-media-in-canada/">spend more than two hours per day</a> on social media platforms. Social media is becoming more prevalent every day, and influencers and those that want to be influencers are too. </p>
<p>Influencing is an all-new career option that, until recently, didn’t exist. A <a href="https://digitalmarketinginstitute.com/blog/9-of-the-biggest-social-media-influencers-on-instagram">social media influencer</a> is someone who has established a reputation for being knowledgeable about a specific topic or industry and has an online following that they engage with.</p>
<p>Social media influencers <a href="https://sprott.carleton.ca/2022/12/the-power-of-persuasion-the-key-to-influencer-follower-relationships/">build relationships</a> with their followers through the content they share and interactions on live streams, comments and chats. This in turn builds a greater sense of community and ultimately gives influencers more influential power. However, the world of influencing is not always as honest and exciting as it’s cracked up to be. </p>
<h2>Allure of influencing</h2>
<p>As experts in social media and health outcomes, we recently <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/09760911231159690">examined the aspirations, desires and rationales of becoming a social media influencer among young adults</a>. We asked 750 Canadians between 16-30 years old, who were mostly women, about their social media use and thoughts about social media influencers. </p>
<p>The results showed that 75 per cent of participants wanted to become social media influencers. The top three stated reasons for wanting to become social media influencers were for the money, being able to try new products or services and because they thought the work would be fun. </p>
<iframe src="https://www.tiktok.com/embed/v2/7161549657150115078?lang=en-US" style="border:0;width:100%;min-height:800px;" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>Other factors, such as excessive social media use; knowing, following or trusting influencers; and being willing to accept money to market a product even if they didn’t like it, also informed aspirations to become a social media influencer.</p>
<p>Influencers often edit their content, <a href="https://healthcare.utah.edu/healthfeed/2022/09/impact-of-social-media-teens-mental-health">creating a highly desirable image</a> that is not always reflective of reality. Some might <a href="https://medium.com/plus-marketing/why-do-influencers-promote-products-that-they-dont-use-887ba80c09cc">promote products</a> they may not truly believe in or like for financial gain. This suggests not all social media influencers are as trusting as users perceive them to be. </p>
<p>According to one U.S. study, one-third of young people trust <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/debgordon/2022/12/20/33-of-gen-zers-trust-tiktok-more-than-doctors-new-survey-shows/?sh=78af2b6b6c7b">health influencers</a> on TikTok more than their doctors. This is seriously concerning, as influencers do not need any academic or professional credentials, and tend to curate their online persona through opinions rather than facts. </p>
<h2>More disadvantages than benefits</h2>
<p>Many social media users feel a career as an influencer is <a href="https://apnews.com/press-release/globe-newswire/business-media-social-media-39312e45ee2a748049cbd1ec4862b6e3">more desirable than a traditional career</a>. Influencers tend to be <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/09760911221113449">idolized</a>, especially by younger generations. So it’s not surprising that many of them are interested in a career in influencing. However, the disadvantages may outweigh the benefits.</p>
<p>Most participants in our study cited financial gain as the main reason for wanting to become a social media influencer, but the career might not be as lucrative as some think. It is true that top influencers can earn millions of dollars on their respective platforms, but this is the exception rather than the rule. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/CqeJPMUv7ZT/?hl=en","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<p>The average user who monetizes their content will bring in significantly less depending on the platform, number of followers, <a href="https://blog.hootsuite.com/how-much-do-influencers-make/">method of marketing</a> and the type of content they are creating. </p>
<p>While there is limited research on what types of content are easier to monetize, many top influencers belong to different genres. That suggests <a href="https://blog.hootsuite.com/top-influencers/">intangible factors</a>, like how authentic an influencer is perceived to be and how well they communicate and connect with their followers, are the most important keys to success. </p>
<p>Some platforms such as YouTube require <a href="https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/72851">meeting certain thresholds of subscribers and viewers</a> before content can be monetized, with no guarantee that the creator will ever meet that threshold, even if they post regularly.</p>
<p>On top of an unpredictable income, another disadvantage is volatile job security. Social media networking sites use <a href="https://blog.hootsuite.com/social-media-algorithm/">algorithms</a> to sort posts on a user’s feed to ensure that the user sees content that the algorithm deems is relevant to them at any given time. </p>
<p>As this technology advances, it is becoming more difficult than ever to predict how algorithms popularize content. Even well-established content creators <a href="https://digiday.com/marketing/content-creators-say-they-struggle-to-keep-up-with-their-audiences-as-social-media-platforms-evolve/">struggle to diversify their content and meet the ever-changing demands of seemingly random algorithms</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520932/original/file-20230413-14-woa80b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A smartphone with social media app icons." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520932/original/file-20230413-14-woa80b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520932/original/file-20230413-14-woa80b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520932/original/file-20230413-14-woa80b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520932/original/file-20230413-14-woa80b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520932/original/file-20230413-14-woa80b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520932/original/file-20230413-14-woa80b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520932/original/file-20230413-14-woa80b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Some platforms require meeting subscriber thresholds before content can be monetized, with no guarantee the creator will ever meet that threshold, even if they post regularly.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Unforeseen challenges</h2>
<p>Unforeseen national policy changes can also add uncertainty. Canada’s impending <a href="https://www.parl.ca/legisinfo/en/bill/44-1/c-11">Bill C-11</a> will require streaming platforms like YouTube to promote a minimum amount of Canadian content to its Canadian users.</p>
<p>This is <a href="https://macleans.ca/politics/why-youtubers-like-me-oppose-bill-c-11/">worrisome</a> for some Canadian content creators, as Bill C-11 does not <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/entertainment/bill-c-11-explained-1.6759878">specifically define</a> what is considered Canadian content, and has the potential to reduce the visibility of their content and make it difficult for them to reach the same number of users.</p>
<p>Similarly, the <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-64792894">TikTok bans in Canada</a>, <a href="https://apnews.com/article/why-is-tiktok-being-banned-7d2de01d3ac5ab2b8ec2239dc7f2b20d">the U.S.</a> and <a href="https://apnews.com/article/tiktok-ban-privacy-cybersecurity-bytedance-china-2dce297f0aed056efe53309bbcd44a04">elsewhere</a> have some content creators on edge about <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/hamilton/tiktok-ban-income-1.6765323">potentially losing access to the platform</a>.</p>
<p>All these issues make influencing a difficult career to break into and maintain. It is important for those interested in making a career out of influencing to be aware of these challenges. </p>
<p>As a form of independent entrepreneurship, influencing comes with no regulation, training or support. The result of this can be young content creators struggling with physical and mental health issues brought on by <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330033878_Social_Media_Influencer_and_Cyberbullying_A_Lesson_Learned_from_Preliminary_Findings">cyberbullying</a> and high stress.</p>
<p>With more young people wanting to be influencers, it is our job to educate rather than dissuade. By highlighting these realities, we hope to mitigate some of the negative outcomes associated with a career in social media influencing.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/203306/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>As social media becomes more prevalent in our lives, a career as an influencer may seem enticing. But those interested in this new career should be aware of the challenges.Sheldon Fetter, PhD Student, Department of Kinesiology, University of WindsorPaige Coyne, PhD Candidate, Department of Kinesiology, University of WindsorSamantha Monk, PhD Student, Department of Kinesiology, University of WindsorSarah Woodruff, Professor, Director of the Community Health, Enviornment, and Wellness Lab, University of WindsorLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.