tag:theconversation.com,2011:/ca/topics/attention-7826/articlesAttention – The Conversation2024-01-11T19:10:53Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2173812024-01-11T19:10:53Z2024-01-11T19:10:53ZWhat is ‘parent training’ for families of children with ADHD?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566509/original/file-20231219-21-5nuf85.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=9%2C9%2C6125%2C3439&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/young-man-telling-his-wife-front-1677115807">DC Studio/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Problems with focus and impulse control can be common developmental stages through which children and adolescents naturally progress. But they can also be symptoms of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/adhd/facts.html">(ADHD)</a>, a chronic condition. </p>
<p>ADHD is a pattern of inattention or hyperactivity and impulsivity (or both) that interferes with functioning or development, and persists <a href="https://theconversation.com/do-kids-grow-out-of-adhd-as-they-get-older-218692">into adulthood</a>. ADHD affects around <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s13052-023-01456-1">7.6% of children</a> aged three to 12 years and 5.6% of teens.</p>
<p>ADHD can significantly influence family dynamics and can affect a child’s ability to learn and interact socially. Raising children with behavioural, developmental or learning difficulties can also make parenting more challenging, with parents navigating feelings of frustration, grief and guilt.</p>
<p>While medication is <a href="https://adhdguideline.aadpa.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/ADHD-Clinical-Practice-Guide-041022.pdf">most effective</a> at minimising core ADHD symptoms, non-drug interventions can also <a href="https://adhdguideline.aadpa.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/ADHD-Clinical-Practice-Guide-041022.pdf">reduce</a> the daily impacts of ADHD symptoms. Parenting/family training is one such <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15374416.2017.1390757?needAccess=true">intervention</a>. So what does it involve and is it effective?</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/adhd-medications-have-doubled-in-the-last-decade-but-other-treatments-can-help-too-191574">ADHD medications have doubled in the last decade – but other treatments can help too</a>
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<h2>Positive praise and natural consequences</h2>
<p>Parenting training is widely used and can take different forms. Sometimes a psychologist works with one or both parents to give them skills specific to their family and situation. It’s sometimes a structured in-person program for groups of parents. It can also be delivered online, at parents’ own pace or in virtual classrooms.</p>
<p>Most parent/family training will teach parents forms of:</p>
<ul>
<li><p><strong>positive praise</strong>. Notice when your child is behaving in a desirable way and give them positive feedback. For example,“Wow, you’re playing so nicely. I really like the way you’re keeping all the blocks on the table.” Praise nurtures self esteem and their sense of self. Praise teens for starting homework without being reminded or coming home at the agreed time </p></li>
<li><p><strong>effective limit-setting</strong>. Establish ground rules in a quiet moment of family time, where everyone has a say and understands the boundaries, consequences, and expectations </p></li>
<li><p><strong><a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30738545/">natural consequences</a></strong>, such as missing out on watching a TV show because packing up took too long. This allows the child to experience failure or loss, but empowers them with what they can focus on or improve the next time round</p></li>
<li><p><strong>planned ignoring of annoying but not serious behaviours</strong> such as making faces or messy rooms. Make a decision to ignore it and breathe. Model desirable behaviours, such as looking after your possessions and fitting in with family life </p></li>
<li><p><strong>positive parent-child interactions</strong>. “Connection before correction” helps a parent shape their child’s behaviour and can <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0890-8567(18)31980-4">reduce disruptions</a>.
Emotionally connect by, for example, establishing eye contact, using a gentle tone and getting down on their level. This attunement allows the child to be able to regulate their behaviour and better manage their emotions. </p></li>
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<img alt="Dad talks to child in garden" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566515/original/file-20231219-29-tw0fa5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566515/original/file-20231219-29-tw0fa5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566515/original/file-20231219-29-tw0fa5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566515/original/file-20231219-29-tw0fa5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566515/original/file-20231219-29-tw0fa5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566515/original/file-20231219-29-tw0fa5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566515/original/file-20231219-29-tw0fa5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Your responses can reduce their disruptive behaviour.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/man-in-blue-crew-neck-t-shirt-beside-woman-in-blue-crew-neck-t-shirt-eyfaunEy9dM">Max Harlynking/Unsplash</a></span>
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<p>Parents aren’t to blame for their child’s symptoms; the aim of training is to teach parents skills to meet the above-average parenting needs of children with ADHD. </p>
<p>Take inattention, for example. If a task is boring to a child with ADHD, their brain will struggle to pay attention – even if they want to. <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_tpB-B8BXk0">ADHD</a> clinical neuropsychologist Russell Barkley explains ADHD like this: the back part of the brain is where you learn, the front part is what you do, and ADHD splits them apart. You can know things but you won’t do them – it’s a performance disorder.</p>
<p>Having a few household rules, schedules, opportunities to problem-solve, effectively using instructions and, most importantly, expressions of <a href="https://5lovelanguages.com/">love</a> can give children positive environments that will help their mental health over time. </p>
<h2>How effective is parent training?</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://adhdguideline.aadpa.com.au/">Australian evidence-based ADHD treatment guidelines</a> reviewed the evidence and found medication treatment was more effective than non-pharmacological treatment in reducing core ADHD symptoms. But combined therapies were better than either treatment alone. </p>
<p>The United Kingdom’s National Institute of Clinical Excellence <a href="https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng87/chapter/Recommendations#managing-adhd">recommends</a> ADHD management plans include treatments to address the child’s psychological, behavioural and educational or occupational needs.</p>
<p>There is <a href="https://adhdguideline.aadpa.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/ADHD-Clinical-Practice-Guide-041022.pdf">evidence to support</a> parenting training for children aged five to 17, and greater evidence for its use in children under five and families of children who also have <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/oppositional-defiant-disorder/symptoms-causes/syc-20375831">oppositional defiant disorder</a> or <a href="https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/conduct-disorder">conduct disorder</a>, who require more intensive support. </p>
<p>But more research is needed about the duration and form of the parent training. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240065505">World Health Organization</a> also recommends parenting interventions because they strengthen the parent-child relationship, assist with alternatives to <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/harsh-discipline-increases-risk-of-children-developing-lasting-mental-health-problems">violent discipline</a> and reduce emotional problem behaviours in children. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/1-in-4-adults-think-smacking-is-necessary-to-properly-raise-kids-but-attitudes-are-changing-218837">1 in 4 adults think smacking is necessary to 'properly raise' kids. But attitudes are changing</a>
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<h2>How do you access parent training?</h2>
<p>Most psychologists offer family training and will charge you the same fee as a normal session. </p>
<p>You can also upskill with the free <a href="https://www.triplep-parenting.net.au/qld-en/free-parenting-courses/triple-p-online-under-12/?gad_source=1&gclid=CjwKCAiAvdCrBhBREiwAX6-6UlIdcIunlsTq4iB0-J6xZN1Bl3wA1Dj9bmN6GuXUG_InDq5HeYHPSxoCjuIQAvD_BwE#au-parents-register-now">Triple P Parenting Program</a> online. </p>
<p>Happy Families also has an online <a href="https://www.happyfamilies.com.au/shop/product/pin-parenting-adhd-the-course">parenting ADHD course</a>. </p>
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<img alt="Mother sits on laptop in doorway" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566513/original/file-20231219-15-d4eqa7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566513/original/file-20231219-15-d4eqa7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566513/original/file-20231219-15-d4eqa7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566513/original/file-20231219-15-d4eqa7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566513/original/file-20231219-15-d4eqa7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566513/original/file-20231219-15-d4eqa7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566513/original/file-20231219-15-d4eqa7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">You can do parent training online.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/a-woman-sitting-on-the-floor-using-a-laptop-ddcLX7Iis44">Surface/Unsplash</a></span>
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<p>Bond University researchers are also conducting a free, <a href="https://research.bond.edu.au/en/persons/cher-mcgillivray/?_ga=2.48431014.1617715341.1703022536-540923691.1665619219">online group parenting program</a>, which includes positive parenting skills. This will be part of a randomised control trial to develop an evidenced-based parenting intervention.</p>
<p>The aim with all of these programs is to better understand the child’s life and have <a href="https://self-compassion.org/wp-content/uploads/publications/GilbertCFT.pdf">compassionate</a> responses to their ADHD and behavioural symptoms. So rather than just focusing on their behaviour – which is an outward expression of an inward emotion – it encourages parents to embrace their uniqueness and help them in their struggles. </p>
<h2>How else can you support your child with ADHD?</h2>
<p>Set <a href="https://drsharonsaline.com/2021/05/18/parenting-older-teens-with-adhd-land-the-helicopter-and-focus-on-scaffolding/">boundaries</a> and be clear about your expectations, but also be compassionate to your child and pick your battles.</p>
<p>Break instructions into simple tasks and allow them to choose and focus on one thing they’re struggling with at a time. Brainstorm what they need to improve, or an area that frustrates them. This will often be organisation, time management and planning. Ask how you can help and stay calm. Celebrate the small wins along the way. </p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/my-kid-is-biting-hitting-and-kicking-im-at-my-wits-end-what-can-i-do-194639">My kid is biting, hitting and kicking. I’m at my wit’s end, what can I do?</a>
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<p>Be curious and seek to understand and connect with your child. Even though your relationship may feel strained or disconnected at times, remember disagreement need not destabilise the relationship. Children express their full emotions, without restraint, among people they feel most safe with. </p>
<p>Finally, ensure you look after yourself, connect with other parents who can support you. Try not to place your anxiety, stress and fears onto your child. Talk to a friend or psychologist so your child feels safe and able to share anything with you and knows you will cope.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/217381/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Cher McGillivray does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Raising children with behavioural, developmental or learning difficulties can also make parenting more challenging. So how can parent training help?Cher McGillivray, Assistant Professor Psychology Department, Bond UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2068472023-08-17T12:35:47Z2023-08-17T12:35:47ZCan coffee or a nap make up for sleep deprivation? A psychologist explains why there’s no substitute for shut-eye<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542680/original/file-20230814-9571-esc8z7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C2121%2C1412&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A cup of coffee might provide you some pep, but it won't fully make up for lost sleep. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/woman-showing-arm-raised-up-holding-coffee-cup-on-royalty-free-image/1147318074">nopponpat/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>There is no denying the importance of sleep. Everyone feels better after a good night of sleep, and lack of sleep can have <a href="https://theconversation.com/health-care-workers-are-frazzled-and-poor-sleep-may-turn-stress-into-poor-mental-health-199944">profoundly negative effects</a> on both the body and the brain. So what can be done to substitute for a lack of sleep? Put another way, how can you get less sleep and still perform at your peak?</p>
<p><a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=g35Ez50AAAAJ&hl=en">As a psychologist</a> who studies the ways in which sleep benefits memory, I’m also interested in how sleep deprivation harms memory and cognition. After some initial research on <a href="https://theconversation.com/feeling-sleepy-you-might-be-at-risk-of-falsely-confessing-to-a-crime-you-did-not-commit-54229">sleep deprivation and false confessions</a>, my students at Michigan State University’s <a href="http://psychology.psy.msu.edu/sleeplab/">Sleep and Learning Lab</a> and I wanted to see what interventions could reverse the negative effects of sleep deprivation. </p>
<p>We found a simple answer: There is no substitute for sleep. </p>
<h2>Sleep deprivation impairs cognition</h2>
<p>For many years, scientists have known that sleep deprivation reduces the ability to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41386-019-0432-6">maintain attention</a>. When asked to monitor a computer screen and press a button whenever a red dot appears – a pretty simple task – participants who are sleep deprived are much more likely to have lapses in attention. They don’t notice a bright red dot and fail to respond within a half-second. These lapses in attention are due to a <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/emres/longhourstraining/pressure.html">buildup in pressure to sleep</a> and are more common at points in the 24-hour circadian cycle when the body expects to be sleeping.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Sleep deprivation can seriously damage your body.</span></figcaption>
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<p>Research investigating the effect of sleep derivation on more complex types of thinking has shown somewhat mixed results. So my team and I sought to determine how keeping people awake for one night affected different types of thinking. We had participants perform various cognitive tasks in the evening before we randomly assigned them to either go home and sleep or stay awake all night in the laboratory. The participants who were permitted to sleep returned in the morning, and everyone completed the cognitive tasks again. </p>
<p>Along with impairments in attention, we also found that sleep deprivation led to <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/xge0000495">more placekeeping errors</a>. Placekeeping is a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030986">complex ability</a> that involves following a series of steps in order without skipping or repeating any of them. This would be similar to following a recipe to bake a cake from memory. You wouldn’t want to forget to add eggs or accidentally add the salt twice.</p>
<h2>Can caffeine replace sleep?</h2>
<p>Next, we set out to test different ways to potentially make up for a lack of sleep. What would you do if you did not sleep enough last night? Many people would reach for a cup of coffee or an energy drink. One 2022 survey found that <a href="https://foodinsight.org/caffeine-consumer-consumption-habits-and-safety-perceptions/">over 90% of the American adults sampled</a> consume some form of caffeine daily. We wanted to see whether caffeine would help maintain attention and avoid placekeeping errors after sleep deprivation. </p>
<p>Interestingly, we found that caffeine improved the ability to pay attention in sleep-deprived participants so well that their performance was <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/xlm0001023">similar to people who slept all night</a>. Giving caffeine to people who had a full night of sleep also boosted their performance. So caffeine helped everyone maintain attention, not just those who did not sleep. This result was not surprising, as other studies have had <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nbscr.2020.100051">similar findings</a>. </p>
<p>However, we found that caffeine <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/xlm0001023">did not reduce placekeeping errors</a> in either the sleep-deprived group or the group that slept. This means that if you are sleep deprived, caffeine may help you stay awake and play Candy Crush, but it likely will not help you ace your algebra exam.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542687/original/file-20230814-26-ht98cu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Person with glasses sleeping on a stack of thick files, surrounded by coffee cups and paperwork" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542687/original/file-20230814-26-ht98cu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542687/original/file-20230814-26-ht98cu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542687/original/file-20230814-26-ht98cu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542687/original/file-20230814-26-ht98cu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542687/original/file-20230814-26-ht98cu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542687/original/file-20230814-26-ht98cu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542687/original/file-20230814-26-ht98cu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Your body turns up the pressure to sleep the longer it goes without it.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/exhausted-businesswoman-lying-down-on-the-desk-and-royalty-free-image/1199872302">cyano66/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span>
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<h2>Can naps make up for lost sleep?</h2>
<p>Of course, caffeine is an artificial way to replace sleep. We also reasoned that perhaps the best way to replace sleep would be with sleep. You have likely heard that <a href="https://theconversation.com/guilty-about-that-afternoon-nap-dont-be-its-good-for-you-89023">naps during the day</a> can boost energy and performance, so it is logical to think that a nap during the night should have a similar effect. </p>
<p>We gave some of our participants the opportunity to nap for either 30 or 60 minutes during an overnight deprivation period between 4 a.m. and 6 a.m. This time period roughly coincides with the lowest point of alertness in the circadian cycle. Importantly, we found that participants who napped <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/zsab152">did no better</a> on either the simple attention task or the more complex placekeeping task than those who stayed up all night. </p>
<p>Thus, a nap in the middle of the night had no discernible benefits to cognitive performance during the morning after a night of overall sleep deprivation. </p>
<h2>Get your z’s</h2>
<p>While caffeine may help you stay awake and feel more alert, it likely won’t help you with tasks that require complex thought. And while a short nap may make you feel better on nights that you need to stay awake, it probably won’t help your performance. </p>
<p>In short, sufficient sleep is essential to your mind and brain, and there is simply no substitute for sleep.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/206847/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kimberly Fenn receives funding from the Office of Naval Research. </span></em></p>While a cup of joe or a brief nap during an all-nighter might help you feel a little more alert, it won’t offset cognitive impairments from sleep deprivation when you’re performing complex tasks.Kimberly Fenn, Professor of Psychology, Michigan State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2094782023-07-19T18:24:55Z2023-07-19T18:24:55ZMeta’s Threads platform might not be revolutionary, but it poses a challenge to Twitter<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537851/original/file-20230717-227854-4fviky.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C13%2C4500%2C2977&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Threads is the latest social media platform to try to take on Twitter</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/metas-threads-platform-might-not-be-revolutionary-but-it-poses-a-challenge-to-twitter" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>The July 5 launch of Threads, <a href="https://about.instagram.com/blog/announcements/threads-instagram-text-feature">Instagram’s new social media platform</a>, has met with considerable interest. Meta CEO Mark Zuckerberg was quick to report that <a href="https://www.threads.net/t/CuXCjGVrd6R">over 100 million users downloaded the app by the end of its first weekend</a>.</p>
<p>The apparent success of Threads stands in stark contrast to other recent social media apps such as <a href="https://techcrunch.com/2022/12/16/spill-twitter-alternative/">Spill</a>, <a href="https://techcrunch.com/2023/07/06/what-is-bluesky-everything-to-know-about-the-app-trying-to-replace-twitter/">Bluesky</a>, <a href="https://www.npr.org/2022/11/24/1139079748/leave-twitter-social-networks-mastodon-hive-post">Mastodon and others</a>.</p>
<p>Although Threads has been called <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/siladityaray/2023/07/10/with-100-million-users-in-five-days-threads-is-the-fastest-growing-app-in-history/">the fastest growing app in history</a>, it remains to be seen whether interest will be sustained over the long run.</p>
<p>Threads’ success is by no means assured. The app doesn’t present a radical departure from Twitter’s formula, doesn’t have access to <a href="https://techcrunch.com/2023/07/05/threads-no-eu-launch/">the European market due to privacy concerns</a>, and faces a <a href="https://www.semafor.com/article/07/06/2023/twitter-is-threatening-to-sue-meta-over-threads">potential lawsuit from Twitter</a> which has also introduced <a href="https://www.thestreet.com/technology/elon-musk-takes-a-desperate-swing-at-threads-newfound-popularity">revenue sharing to verified users</a>.</p>
<p>The success of Threads is perhaps less about the features of the app than the recent decisions made by Twitter <a href="https://www.dexerto.com/entertainment/mastodon-grows-by-over-200000-overnight-as-riptwitter-trends-1989657/">owner and CTO Elon Musk</a>. Accusations of <a href="https://gizmodo.com/10-times-elon-musk-censored-twitter-users-1850570720">censorship</a>, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2023/feb/15/elon-musk-changes-twitter-algorithm-super-bowl-slump-report">self promotion</a> and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2023/jul/16/elon-musk-says-twitter-cash-flow-negative">continued negative cashflow</a> have created an undeniable window of opportunity for would-be challengers.</p>
<p>Unlike Twitter’s other rivals, <a href="https://investor.fb.com/investor-news/press-release-details/2023/Meta-Reports-First-Quarter-2023-Results/default.aspx">Meta’s already expansive user base with nearly three billion users</a> means that the curiosity of a small number will allow it to quickly bypass other startups. </p>
<p>Its success will ultimately rest on whether it creates a sustainable niche for itself in the marketplace. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/DdlbvCnt0FY?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">CBC News looks at how users responded to the launch of Threads.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A complicated process</h2>
<p>Many technologies are branded as ‘innovations’ without any qualification. Innovation is a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/scipol/scv077">process</a>, and one that is defined by showing not telling. Even if a product or idea is novel, if it’s not widely adopted, it does not truly represent an innovation.</p>
<p>Innovation is best understood as an evolutionary process, defined by three features: <a href="https://www.simonandschuster.com/books/Darwins-Dangerous-Idea/Daniel-C-Dennett/9780684824710">replication, variation and selection</a>. If an idea works, duplicating it should lead to success.</p>
<p>But blindly copying someone else’s idea, concept or technology is insufficient. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1150009">Often, the context for replicating ideas typically differs from one situation to the next</a> — if only slightly. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/030631200030002002">Local resources, funding, values and attitudes must be considered</a>. If innovators ignore these differences, novel procedures, products and services will not spread.</p>
<p>Where innovation is ultimately demonstrated is through selection, which can be a conscious or unconscious process. Unconscious adoption involves <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)00405-X">blind mimicry</a>, with people copying their peers or those with high status. Conscious adoption involves understanding <a href="https://www.nngroup.com/books/design-everyday-things-revised/">what a technology can and cannot do</a>. This requires more knowledge and time.</p>
<p>The outcome of the selection is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1086/285870">the creation of a niche</a>, a segment of the social and physical environment. When a product is selected, it is because it fulfils some niche in a market. But that niche might already be occupied.</p>
<h2>Common threads</h2>
<p>Threads is inspired by Twitter and <a href="https://apnews.com/article/threads-twitter-meta-instagram-lawsuit-cloen-f6e993c4597ce15b60cc38fe602b6ce8">replicates some of its features</a>. But Threads’ rapid adoption suggests that it fulfils a niche.</p>
<p>Twitter was launched in July 2006, nearly two decades before Threads. However, <a href="https://time.com/6274774/elon-musk-twitter-u-turns/">Musk’s recent changes to Twitter</a> created space in that niche. </p>
<p>Musk is purportedly a champion of <a href="https://www.wired.com/story/vivatech-elon-musk-announcement/">free speech</a>. While his early <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/roberthart/2022/11/25/elon-musk-is-restoring-banned-twitter-accounts-heres-why-the-most-controversial-users-were-suspended-and-whos-already-back/?sh=27353a53385b">reinstatement of previously banned users</a> might suggest this, he has gone on to selectively <a href="https://www.theverge.com/2022/12/15/23512004/elon-musk-starts-banning-critical-journalists-from-twitter">ban those who questioned him</a> and appointed himself as an arbiter of content, claiming that Twitter will treat the term <a href="https://twitter.com/elonmusk/status/1671370284102819841">“cisgender” as a slur</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.newswise.com/articles/is-threads-the-new-twitter-or-will-it-unravel-social-media-expert-weighs-in">Some have speculated that the catalyst for the release of Threads</a> was Twitter’s recent <a href="https://blog.pragmaticengineer.com/twitter-vs-instagram-threads">decision to throttle — or limit access to — posts</a>. Following its launch, <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2023/07/17/threads-limits-twitter/">Threads was also forced to impose such limits, citing spam attacks</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538149/original/file-20230718-9911-jjoey5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="a composite photo of two men" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538149/original/file-20230718-9911-jjoey5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538149/original/file-20230718-9911-jjoey5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538149/original/file-20230718-9911-jjoey5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538149/original/file-20230718-9911-jjoey5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538149/original/file-20230718-9911-jjoey5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=529&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538149/original/file-20230718-9911-jjoey5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=529&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538149/original/file-20230718-9911-jjoey5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=529&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Mark Zuckerberg, Meta’s CEO, and Elon Musk, owner of Twitter, are seemingly in competition for users’ attention.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Manu Fernandez, Stephan Savoia)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There is a history of technological niches creation and competition. In <a href="https://www.theverge.com/2018/6/27/17510908/apple-samsung-settle-patent-battle-over-copying-iphone">the decade-long smartphone wars</a>, Apple sued Samsung for “<a href="https://www.macworld.com/article/797851/iphone-samsung-galaxy-poor-copy.html">blatant copying</a>.” Samsung <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2011/apr/22/samsung-apple-lawsuits-smartphones">counter-sued Apple</a>, and <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-nokia-corp-apple-patent-idUSKBN14A228">Nokia followed suit</a>. Apple also sued Microsoft <a href="https://legal.thomsonreuters.com/blog/1988-apple-sues-microsoft/">over allegedly copying display elements</a>. And <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9310.2007.00488.x">Chinese technology firms have historically been notorious for copying the products of other companies</a>.</p>
<p>While innovators and firms can create a niche, they open the door for other variants.</p>
<h2>Old problems, new threads?</h2>
<p>A major selling point for Threads is that it wants to avoid the divisive politics that have made social media a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/23808985.2021.1976070">caustic, polarized environment</a>. It is not clear how this can be accomplished in practice, as <a href="https://www.technologyreview.com/2020/11/06/1011769/social-media-moderation-transparency-censorship/">content moderation is exceedingly difficult</a>. </p>
<p>While content moderation seems like a reasonable solution to the ills of social media, <a href="https://hbr.org/2022/11/content-moderation-is-terrible-by-design">it faces many problems</a>. </p>
<p>The debates — and tensions — associated with free speech, cannot be solved by the intentions or actions of any one company, industry leader or government.</p>
<h2>A continuing thread</h2>
<p>It is unlikely that Twitter will go the way of ossified social media platforms like <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/adamhartung/2011/01/14/why-facebook-beat-myspace/">MySpace any time soon</a>.</p>
<p>For the foreseeable future, <a href="https://www.thestreet.com/technology/twitter-employee-explains-why-threads-app-poses-a-real-threat-to-elon-musk">competition between the social media giants</a> will prevail, with each defined by its own market share. Indeed, Instagram’s CEO noted that “<a href="https://www.threads.net/@mosseri/post/CuZ3LjhNl0m">the goal is not to replace Twitter</a>.”</p>
<p>What is left unaddressed in this debate is whether or not social media in its current form is <a href="https://doi.org/10.26438/ijcse/v5i10.351354">beneficial for society</a>. </p>
<p>Greater care must be taken to ensure that <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Ethical-Artificial-Intelligence-from-Popular-to-Cognitive-Science-Trust/Schoenherr/p/book/9780367697983">the social and ethical implications of these technologies</a> are part of the adoption process by individuals and society.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/209478/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jordan Richard Schoenherr does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>In the marketplace of ideas, for an app or product to be considered successful, it must be widely adopted for it to represent an innovation.Jordan Richard Schoenherr, Assistant Professor, Psychology, Concordia UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2079722023-06-23T13:39:41Z2023-06-23T13:39:41ZCan parents give their children too much attention?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533165/original/file-20230621-20-ww0y51.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=226%2C92%2C5380%2C3640&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">There's a fine balance between confidence and humility.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/spoiled-kid-concept-cheeky-preschool-child-342069872">STUDIO GRAND WEB/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Parents today spend <a href="https://ourworldindata.org/parents-time-with-kids">more time</a> with their children than ever before. Yet, at the same time, they worry more than previous generations about doing enough – believing a lack of engagement may harm their child’s future <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/jomf.12646?casa_token=K3363Odn5lsAAAAA%3A7J41fYHsXr8ZOyYOplVPwU3vSOc50RhqXgR5Be2EA-8L_GpHhaaLKTaDWshbMmLBb0xy0kaQcKw16dA">success and wellbeing</a>.</p>
<p>This can have negative impacts. Increased social pressures on mothers to be engaged with their children, compared to fathers, is negatively affecting <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10826-012-9615-z">maternal wellbeing</a>. The <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10896-020-00172-2">COVID-19 pandemic</a> and home schooling intensified this. </p>
<p>This raises an important question: how much attention is enough? Is it harmful to leave your child to their own devices? Should you ever ignore a child? Or conversely, can you overly engage with your child? As is usually the case with child development, the answer is somewhere in the middle (and most parents, reassuringly, are doing “enough”). </p>
<p>We know that a supportive parenting approach is important for child development. <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1993-01038-001">Attachment theory</a> states that when a baby has its needs met by a parent or primary caregiver in an appropriate and consistent way, they are more likely to go on to develop a secure attachment to that person.</p>
<p>This helps them to feel more confident in themselves and the world, leading to more positive cognitive, social and emotional development. However, while secure attachment is important, ever rising levels of attention won’t necessarily increase it proportionally. Instead, it is important to carefully consider the degree of engagement and balance this with supporting children to reach appropriate stages of resilience and independence.</p>
<p>One piece of evidence which gets dragged up a lot when attachment is discussed is research on the outcomes of children placed in Romanian orphanages. These children were typically significantly deprived of interaction, affection and care and did not have opportunity to develop a secure attachment. Studies of their <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1997-04485-004">later development</a> found that they had poorer physical, cognitive and social developmental outcomes. </p>
<p>These studies are important, but a world away from the spectrum of parental engagement that most parents worry about today.</p>
<p>Research examining more typical parent-child relationships finds that, yes, when <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/1745691612462585?casa_token=vbKTCFpuojcAAAAA:edAVCrzBfIbUNbzwfpnLHkRHlb2WBAqNTK0evaXhkXRBGXuEi8zwwLP9opOmLl3vch6VmcbaWbg_">mothers</a> and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273229720300307?casa_token=v_wVaMunldUAAAAA:-tkb3jR1iIt3xdSlqcfXR6Yh3RpiZmxZslwGO4cPLCnIBQ9Mhrtna80Nr66C-9DqYwIzhGbG7Q">fathers</a> are more connected to and involved with their children, social and emotional outcomes improve. </p>
<p>Talking and reading to children in their early years is particularly important for <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/desc.12764?casa_token=mb1FJDVdGAYAAAAA:bmkX7PtYiTv3R9e8W-DJbjwGahHzlYu6YLOgDwc4-6uy2nwRphgazFxohtyi_FWrUw-B59I4-SLNMJU">language and literacy</a> skills. Listening to, and supporting, children to understand and learn to <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02198/full">regulate their own emotions</a> is also important for later emotional and social wellbeing. </p>
<h2>Curiosity, confidence and narcissism</h2>
<p>On the other hand, children also need room to take the lead in their own growth and development. </p>
<p>Overly intensive or “helicopter” parenting, where parents are reluctant to leave their child to experience activities alone (obviously sometimes this is impossible, for example if the child has additional learning needs), can actually increase risk of <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10510974.2013.811434?casa_token=U2If7ob2PPMAAAAA%3ABAnO-s1YgQL5qUyyg7rIztOXRwVfN5RUf5vE5-4S9KnP2h2qBgLlRNb66lUhXyCew6nrDl6U8LZd">anxiety and poorer coping skills</a> in the children when they become teenagers and young adults. </p>
<p>That’s because children learn through having the opportunity to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2444866416301234">make mistakes</a>, taking small, <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/9/9/3134">age-appropriate risks</a> during play and <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00043125.2021.1905419?casa_token=o94Yy81bZZYAAAAA:6CYsrAT46Z1KhudYtBeD0SGB7R8bQeltr4iRPMivQzi7e3wkss_U5cqbHfzgJAVwM3H32o-x04yf">having the chance</a> to decide which activity they will engage in. </p>
<p>This builds feelings of competence, agency and autonomy. Boredom, in moderation, also encourages <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/1471-2458-11-461">active and creative play</a> which has many positive outcomes for physical, cognitive and social development, and has also been linked to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1871187116300773?casa_token=QjZlmLg_JRoAAAAA:55rxhB5nuhtALA0Vdb6urU8hd6g56Q1mGEhQRTFVoDPSW0SKZvDqmageNhqRqRqqDu77vW8G3g">increased curiosity</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Bored child with pencil up his nose." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533168/original/file-20230621-19-ys8t3j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533168/original/file-20230621-19-ys8t3j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533168/original/file-20230621-19-ys8t3j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533168/original/file-20230621-19-ys8t3j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533168/original/file-20230621-19-ys8t3j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533168/original/file-20230621-19-ys8t3j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533168/original/file-20230621-19-ys8t3j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Boredom can breed creativity.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/bored-little-boy-student-inserted-pencil-2290150083">Aiman Dairabaeva/Shuttestock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Conversely, when a child’s day is controlled for them and their path always smoothed, they can struggle to develop the <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10826-016-0466-x">coping skills and resilience</a> needed for everyday life. </p>
<p>And while it may seem attention will ultimately boost confidence, there is some evidence showing that when parents are overly focused on their children – living their lives through them, constantly validating them and putting intense pressure on them to perform – this can increase <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-92171-6_15">narcissistic traits</a> in children when they reach young adulthood. </p>
<h2>Changing and adapting</h2>
<p>How much engagement a child needs also <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10826-013-9716-3">naturally changes over time</a>. Babies and children develop physically and emotionally as they grow, and parenting that adapts to these changes is typically associated with better outcomes.</p>
<p>It doesn’t make sense to leave a young baby who has no ability to support themselves alone for long periods to “encourage their independence”. That will instead likely increase stress hormone levels in their young, developing brains. But telling your pre-teen that they need to entertain themselves for the afternoon (at home) is supporting their growth. </p>
<p>This brings us the concept of a happy medium and one of my favourite 20th century paediatricians – <a href="https://psychoanalysis.org.uk/our-authors-and-theorists/donald-woods-winnicott">Donald Winnicott</a> and his concept of “<a href="https://www.huffpost.com/entry/mom-enough_b_1528132">good enough mothering</a>”. Winnicott spent many years watching mothers and babies and concluded that sometimes not being able to meet a baby’s needs immediately and perfectly was a good thing. </p>
<p>Although he believed that responding to a baby’s needs was important, he also believed that sometimes, having to wait a little because you are finishing something else, helped a baby learn that although they are loved and cared for, the world is not a perfect place. </p>
<p>This theory has been explored over the years and written about extensively in terms of broader “<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S027753951530159X?casa_token=2zWqM31CpY4AAAAA:5z5v02GVjSMApwgE4kR4gdyCoiwpabsIZQDN2s-0B2MHQ_iVOBmfI5fe414U4y_lWt-phD0WKQ">good enough parenting</a>”, which is essentially supporting a happy medium. </p>
<p>Finally, one fascinating study looked at how much parents <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0038038514560260?casa_token=Z-TwZviexPwAAAAA:HKwqnVyt1y5Rc0hBqzYMP-2XkydrUoikA4VEjN-XpGGBaueOhmfFm2cCb0uUifIE8tuUGcs4Qhkt">felt pressure</a> to spend more time engaging with their children, and how much time they actually spent reading, doing sports, or watching television with them. </p>
<p>Surprisingly, there was no significant relationship between the parents who felt the most and least pressure, suggesting that no matter how much time you spend engaging with your child, those feelings never really go away. </p>
<p>Perhaps that is the most important lesson. The vast majority of parents do enough (and if you’re worrying about it, it’s likely you do). Instead those feelings are driven by social judgement of all things parenting related. Let’s challenge that, instead of spending all that energy on worrying whether our children get enough attention.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/207972/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amy Brown has received funding from the ESRC, MRC, NIHR, HEFCW, UKRI, Infant feeding charities and Public Health Wales. She is a trustee for First Steps Nutrition Trust.</span></em></p>There is a link between huge amounts of parental attention and the development of narcissistic traits in children.Amy Brown, Professor of Child Public Health, Swansea UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2042232023-04-25T14:06:58Z2023-04-25T14:06:58ZDobble: what is the psychology behind the game?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/522365/original/file-20230421-16-7hgsp2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=8%2C0%2C5982%2C3997&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Dobble is a card game with rules that makes it sound easier than it actually is.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/dobble-card-game-kids-billereaquitainefrance-08232021-2029552409">Ana Belen Garcia Sanchez/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Following birthday and Christmas presents, families often have a glut of new games to learn and play. Many of these games involve computers or games consoles, but with concerns about children’s <a href="https://www.forbes.com/health/family/how-much-screen-time-kids/">screen time</a> there has been a recent <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2022/12/24/board-game-popularity/">increase</a> in the popularity of traditional board and card games.</p>
<p>One non-electronic card game that has made its way into our homes is Dobble. It’s a game of observation, articulation and speed that was first released in France in 2009. </p>
<p>While the <a href="https://www.petercollingridge.co.uk/blog/mathematics-toys-and-games/dobble/">mathematics</a> behind the workings of this game is interesting, as cognitive psychologists we were also fascinated by the underlying cognitive processes that make this simple game so absorbing and challenging to play.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/VTDKqW_GLkw?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">How does Dobble work mathematically?</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The aim of the game is to be the first player to get rid of all their cards by discarding them one at a time into a central pile. Players do that as soon as they can identify, and announce, the single common symbol between the card in their hand and that on top of the pile. </p>
<p>Players must be quick as the top card will change every time your opponent(s) are able to match and discard one of their cards before you. There are 55 cards, each containing eight symbols out of a possible 57. And in any pair of cards, only one symbol matches. </p>
<p>The first task in the game is to visually search the symbols on both the card in your hand and that on the top of the central pile to find the single match. Colour, size and location are typical <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1996-04250-015">cues</a> we use when searching. But this task is more difficult than it seems due to the number and variety of symbols. Their shared features sometimes give rise to false alarms when scanning quickly. For example, the lips, heart, maple leaf and fire symbols are all red in colour. </p>
<p>The fact the target items will likely be of a different size and orientation on each card also means that we <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=HktnDAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA26&dq=perception+object+match+different+orientation&ots=wBLoJvKx-H&sig=IqWZ-6H9R4HpaOscqGXlbkjA3W4#v=onepage&q&f=false">perceive</a> the same symbol slightly differently. So a match is more difficult to identify. </p>
<p>Unlike, for example, <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/books/news/where-s-the-brains-behind-wally-6261459.html">Where’s Wally?</a>, where the object of the search is clearly defined, with Dobble we do not know on any round which item we are searching for. Indeed, this will be different for each player. </p>
<p>The task requires dividing attention by searching two visual scenes in parallel. And also holding in memory the symbols that you have viewed on one card for comparison with those on the other. </p>
<p>We may <a href="http://matt.colorado.edu/teaching/highcog/fall8/m3.pdf">switch</a> between different strategies such as scanning the symbols on both cards in the hope that the match will just “pop out”. Or we may adopt a more structured approach where we peruse each symbol in turn. </p>
<p>When demands on attention are high, we are more likely to suffer <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=Z2Sz7YgWIpQC&oi=fnd&pg=PA55&dq=inattentional+blindness+divided+attention&ots=2rrM836Idb&sig=IPiM1lTPKa-JlXAJ9QUHbZHmPvw#v=onepage&q=inattentional%20blindness%20divided%20attention&f=false">inattentional blindness</a>. That’s the phenomenon of “looking but not seeing”, whereby the item we are fixating on does not receive enough attention for us to actually notice it.</p>
<h2>Say the name</h2>
<p>Once you have found the matching symbol you must quickly announce what it is before placing your card down on the pile. This again sounds simple, but, just like producing the correct word in everyday speech, it requires the <a href="https://mybrainware.com/blog/brainware-safari-cognitive-skills-development-and-learning-to-read/">processes</a> of linking the desired concept – the symbol on the cards – with the name that represents it. </p>
<p>Also, you have to ensure that you select the appropriate word, for example saying “tortoise” rather than “turtle”. Plus you must select the correct sounds to utter that word, before finally saying it out loud. In the urgency of the game, you may find these processes don’t happen as quickly as you want them to.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A pair of hands holds a collection of round cards. There is another pile of round cards on the table beneath the hands." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/522130/original/file-20230420-18-n8asch.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C6016%2C4016&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/522130/original/file-20230420-18-n8asch.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522130/original/file-20230420-18-n8asch.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522130/original/file-20230420-18-n8asch.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522130/original/file-20230420-18-n8asch.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522130/original/file-20230420-18-n8asch.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522130/original/file-20230420-18-n8asch.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Dobble - it’s not as easy as saying what you see.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/verona-italy-february-2nd-2021-detail-1921867253">Claire Adams/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Once you have correctly articulated the matching symbol and played your card, the whole process starts again. Given the low chance of that previous symbol being the next correct match, you must inhibit (stop yourself thinking about) this recent item – its name, its location, even its colour – so that you can be open to a new search. However, you must not inhibit it completely as there is still a chance it could appear next. </p>
<p>Inhibition is also required if your opponent calls out a symbol on their card first. Even if you were about to articulate a match, you must now inhibit this vocalisation and instead restart the search for a new pairing since the reference card in the centre has now changed. This ability to switch between searches and inhibit unwanted information is one of a number of <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13803395.2010.533157">“executive”</a> organisational cognitive processes that help us in the planning and coordination of activities.</p>
<h2>Under stress</h2>
<p>And of course, all of this occurs under time pressure. Stress can increase when it seems your opponent is discarding their cards quicker. We know that increased stress levels impair our <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Tony-Buchanan/publication/320312261_Tip_of_the_Tongue_States_Increase_Under_Evaluative_Observation/links/59e0d8b1aca2724cbfd5e271/Tip-of-the-Tongue-States-Increase-Under-Evaluative-Observation.pdf">word-finding ability</a>, attention to information, inhibition of responses and <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28690203/">ability to adapt</a> to changing circumstances. All of those are vital to performing well in Dobble. </p>
<p>The bad news for parents is that many of the processes we have described <a href="https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1038/s41598-020-80866-1.pdf">decline</a> as we get older, meaning that children may have the competitive edge at Dobble.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/204223/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Dobble is a card game that originated in France in 2009. It involves observation, articulation and speed.Nick Perham, Reader in Applied Cognitive Psychology, Cardiff Metropolitan UniversityHelen Hodgetts, Reader in Applied Cognitive Psychology, Cardiff Metropolitan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2031562023-04-06T21:39:37Z2023-04-06T21:39:37ZTikTok may be bad for privacy, but is it also harming our cognitive abilities?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519909/original/file-20230406-20-mdf5s9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=447%2C0%2C4494%2C2961&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Attention isn't a single mechanism, but rather the result of a number of different mechanisms across various areas of the brain.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The United States government is <a href="https://theconversation.com/should-the-us-ban-tiktok-can-it-a-cybersecurity-expert-explains-the-risks-the-app-poses-and-the-challenges-to-blocking-it-202300">considering a national ban of TikTok</a>, a social media application used by <a href="https://newsroom.tiktok.com/en-us/150-m-us-users">over 150 million Americans</a>. Although the primary reason for the ban is privacy concerns, it presents an opportunity to consider other potential risks. </p>
<p>It is well known social media apps can negatively impact mental health outcomes, a fact even <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-58570353">acknowledged by Facebook’s leaked internal research</a>. The impact social media use may have on our cognitive abilities, however, is less well known.</p>
<p>As an attention researcher, I study all the different processes our brains use to focus and maintain attention. Attention isn’t a single mechanism, but rather the result of <a href="https://books.google.ca/books?hl=en&lr=&id=FNJI0Hu9-YIC&oi=fnd&pg=PA11&dq=klein+and+lawrence+attention&ots=5bvyAHCXzh&sig=m7M_bG_dNVwDZnvkLkTje3q76Ww&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=klein%20and%20lawrence%20attention&f=false">a number of different mechanisms across various areas of the brain</a>. </p>
<p>One of these mechanisms is <a href="https://dictionary.apa.org/executive-functions">executive functioning</a>, defined as our ability to focus on the task at hand and filter distractions. However, not all tasks are created equal: it’s easier to focus when the object of our attention is engaging and entertaining. </p>
<h2>Designed with attention in mind</h2>
<p>In order to keep you entertained, social media companies are <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/tiktok-algorithm-recommendation-get-bored-close-app-new-york-times-2021-12">constantly tracking the content you engage with</a>. This not only means the content you “like,” but also how long you spend on each piece of content. By doing this, the app methodically presents you with related content, to keep you on its platform as long as possible.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A section of a smartphone screen showing the TikTok logo" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519910/original/file-20230406-24-8n6yrz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519910/original/file-20230406-24-8n6yrz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519910/original/file-20230406-24-8n6yrz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519910/original/file-20230406-24-8n6yrz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519910/original/file-20230406-24-8n6yrz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519910/original/file-20230406-24-8n6yrz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519910/original/file-20230406-24-8n6yrz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Social media apps methodically present related content, with the aim of keeping viewers on their platforms for as long as possible.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The way social media apps present content is crucial, as many apps now use an endless scroll feature in which users simply swipe upwards to view the next piece of content. Having a continuous stream of content is meant to absorb users into what researchers refer to as a “<a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16142612">flow state</a>.” </p>
<p>We experience flow states when we are so deeply engaged in an activity that we lose our sense of time. Flow states can be highly advantageous in a work setting, as they help us stay focused and increase efficiency in completing relevant tasks. However, social media apps try to elicit flow states to make it more difficult to leave their platform.</p>
<p>To put it briefly, companies are constantly tracking our attention and leveraging this data to keep us hooked.</p>
<p>With a majority of social media users <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2021/04/07/social-media-use-in-2021/">logging in at least once a day</a>, and one-third of teenagers using these apps “<a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2022/08/10/teens-social-media-and-technology-2022/">almost constantly</a>,” it raises the question of whether social media is hurting our attention abilities. </p>
<h2>The cost of task-switching</h2>
<p>Throughout the day, many individuals multitask by alternating between work-related activities and using social media platforms. According to a study conducted on middle and high school students, teenagers spend, on average, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2012.12.001">less than six minutes on a task</a> before switching to social media or texting. </p>
<p>While some forms of multitasking are harmless, like walking and chewing gum at the same time, <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/43152412">it is not possible to effectively multitask on activities that share cognitive mechanisms</a>. Instead, we engage in “task-switching,” which involves alternating between two related activities. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A woman wearing glasses sits at a laptop while looking at a smartphone and wearing a smart watch." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519911/original/file-20230406-217-m1u4uz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519911/original/file-20230406-217-m1u4uz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519911/original/file-20230406-217-m1u4uz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519911/original/file-20230406-217-m1u4uz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519911/original/file-20230406-217-m1u4uz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519911/original/file-20230406-217-m1u4uz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519911/original/file-20230406-217-m1u4uz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">it is not possible to effectively multitask on activities that share cognitive mechanisms.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Think of trying to read while simultaneously engaging in conversation: it’s not possible without disengaging from one of these activities, since they both involve language processing. Social media and most forms of work fall into this category.</p>
<p>One of the problems with task switching lies in “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6613(03)00028-7">switch costs</a>,” a term used to describe the negative effect that re-engaging with a task has on your cognition. This means every time you open social media while studying for school or working at your job, you will be slower and more error prone for a period of time when getting back to work. </p>
<p>Not surprisingly, people who typically engage with multiple forms of media at once show general decreases in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.06.035">sustained attention</a>, or the ability to maintain focus. It is much better to block off time for work: <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10656219.2016.1191926">20 continuous minutes of work</a> is significantly better than four five-minute blocks separated by brief social media breaks.</p>
<h2>What about executive functioning?</h2>
<p>There is limited research measuring the impact of social media use on the various aspects of executive functioning, but researchers do know a bit about how <a href="https://doi.org/10.2466/02.09.18.PR0.110.2.501-517">social media addiction</a> may impact cognition. </p>
<p>Social media addiction was determined based on a developed questionnaire which asks questions on how social media impacts mood, whether the person experiences withdrawal, and whether it negatively impacts different areas of their life. If the person scores high enough on this scale, they are considered to meet the criteria for social media addiction.</p>
<p>Those who meet that criteria tend to be more impulsive than non-addicted social media users, as measured by a <a href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100010428">risk-assessment task</a>, in which those addicted to social media tend to make more risky choices associated with long-term losses. </p>
<p>People in the study were also more impulsive after being exposed to social media during the testing session, compared to when they were tested without exposure. However, overall, individuals with social media addiction functioned normally on many of the other cognitive assessment tasks, so it appears impulsivity is the main component of cognition being impacted with problematic social media users.</p>
<p>It’s not all bad news, though: there are possible cognitive benefits associated with social media use for some people. Researchers found social media use in middle-aged and older adults can help improve executive functioning because of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2020.106388">the increased access to social connection it provides</a>. This offers a support channel to individuals who are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.5174">at risk for cognitive decline due to social isolation or loneliness</a>.</p>
<h2>Internet trends as a measure of attention</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Students in a lecture hall all looking at their phones" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519912/original/file-20230406-20-77rm56.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519912/original/file-20230406-20-77rm56.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519912/original/file-20230406-20-77rm56.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519912/original/file-20230406-20-77rm56.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519912/original/file-20230406-20-77rm56.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519912/original/file-20230406-20-77rm56.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519912/original/file-20230406-20-77rm56.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A new TikTok trend of putting multiple media in one video suggests a growing preference for content that demands less attentional effort.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Until there is more research on social media use and its effects on attention, we can look at alternate sources of data to make some early predictions. </p>
<p>One group of scientists looked at <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-09311-w">how long hashtags spend on the top 50 charts</a> as a measure of attention span. Researchers found that in 2013, a hashtag stayed in the top 50 for an average of 17.5 hours. This number gradually decreased to 11.9 hours by 2016. This may reflect how our capacity to engage our attention shrinks as more content becomes available.</p>
<p>More recently, there has been a trend on TikTok of <a href="https://kotaku.com/subway-surfers-tiktok-corecore-video-collage-psychology-1850061976">using split-screening to display multiple videos at once</a>. This is a new development that reflects the desire to multitask media, where a viewer can shift their eyes to another stream of content as soon as any level of boredom arises. While further research is needed to determine potential cognitive costs associated with this new style of media, the trend suggests a growing preference for content that demands less attentional effort.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/203156/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Colin McCormick receives funding from an NSERC CGS-D award. </span></em></p>With most social media users logging in at least once a day, and one-third of teens using these apps almost constantly, it raises the issue of whether social media is hurting our attention abilities.Colin McCormick, PhD Student in Cognitive Science, Dalhousie UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2028182023-03-30T15:22:15Z2023-03-30T15:22:15ZToo many digital distractions are eroding our ability to read deeply, and here’s how we can become aware of what’s happening — podcast<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518297/original/file-20230329-24-kr4oj3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C51%2C3840%2C2103&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Constant distractions affect our ability to concentrate.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Staying focused on a single task for a long period of time is a growing concern. We are confronted with and have to process incredible amounts of information daily, and our brains are often functioning in overdrive to manage the processing and decision-making required. </p>
<p>In an era of ceaseless notifications from apps, devices and social media platforms, as well as access to more information than we could possibly consider, how do we find ways to manage? And is the way we think, focus and process information changing as a result?</p>
<p>In this episode of The Conversation Weekly, we speak with three researchers who study human-computer interaction, technology design and literacy about how all of these demands on our attention are affecting us, and what we can do about it.</p>
<iframe src="https://embed.acast.com/60087127b9687759d637bade/6425436b8168410011e26a64" frameborder="0" width="100%" height="190px"></iframe>
<p><iframe id="tc-infographic-561" class="tc-infographic" height="100" src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/infographics/561/4fbbd099d631750693d02bac632430b71b37cd5f/site/index.html" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<h2>Enhancing learning</h2>
<p>Maryanne Wolf is the director of the Center for Dyslexia, Diverse Learners and Social Justice at the University of California in the United States. Her book, <a href="https://www.harpercollins.com/products/proust-and-the-squid-maryanne-wolf"><em>Proust and the Squid</em></a>, presents a history of how the reading brain developed. Since its publication in 2008, Wolf has published extensively on literacy and reading research.</p>
<p>Wolf believes that reading is important because it contributes to a person’s potential and enhances the ability to learn, think and be discerning: </p>
<p>“I’ve become, in essence, obsessed with the deep reading processes that expand the reading brain of the child to achieve their academic potential. But that foundation expands over time with everything we read and learn, so that we begin to be human beings who have the ability to take their background knowledge, use with logical thinking to infer what is the truth — or the lack of truth — in what they are reading.”</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518306/original/file-20230329-26-ysz14o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="a child lying on the floor reads from a book" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518306/original/file-20230329-26-ysz14o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518306/original/file-20230329-26-ysz14o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518306/original/file-20230329-26-ysz14o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518306/original/file-20230329-26-ysz14o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518306/original/file-20230329-26-ysz14o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518306/original/file-20230329-26-ysz14o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518306/original/file-20230329-26-ysz14o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Reading can help children develop empathy and logical thinking.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shu</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Wolf is concerned that the amount of interaction we have with our screens and devices — and the speed at which we necessarily have to function — has changed us by removing from us the ability to be present.</p>
<p>“We have all changed. We don’t even realize it, but there’s a patience that’s needed inside ourselves to give attention to inference, empathy, critical analysis. It takes effort. And we’re so accustomed to going so fast that the immersiveness is difficult.”</p>
<h2>Capturing attention</h2>
<p>Kai Lukoff is an assistant professor at Santa Clara University in the U.S., where he directs the Human-Computer Interaction Lab. He researches how apps, platform and technology designers attempt to capture a user’s attention.</p>
<p>“There are a thousand or more engineers, developers, designers on the other side of the screen who are purposefully or intentionally designing these services in order to capture your attention, to get you to spend more time on the site, to get you to click on more ads. And it can be difficult to resist or even understand what’s happening to you when you feel tempted or lost. But of course, that’s not by accident.”</p>
<p>And so as a response, we learn how to quickly sift through content. In other words, we skim as an adaptive strategy. Skimming undermines the kind of attention Wolf notes is required to reap the intellectual, mental and cognitive benefits of deeper reading.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518296/original/file-20230329-14-qr1qnh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="a man holds two smartphones in his hand while sitting in front of a laptop showing charts on its screen" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518296/original/file-20230329-14-qr1qnh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518296/original/file-20230329-14-qr1qnh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518296/original/file-20230329-14-qr1qnh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518296/original/file-20230329-14-qr1qnh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518296/original/file-20230329-14-qr1qnh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518296/original/file-20230329-14-qr1qnh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518296/original/file-20230329-14-qr1qnh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">There’s a cognitive cost to media multi-tasking.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Cognitive cost</h2>
<p>Daniel Le Roux, a senior lecturer at Stellenbosch University in South Africa, is a computer scientist who investigates the psychology of human-computer interaction. He looks at the effects of what we’re doing when we’re “media multitasking,” how we navigate multiple platforms, events and processes — both online and offline — at the same time.</p>
<p>“Everybody’s doing it, and it’s, in a large way, a natural adaptation to the technological environment that that has been created around us.”</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/your-phone-and-your-brain-what-we-know-so-far-161116">Your phone and your brain - what we know so far</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Media multi-tasking, like skimming, is an adaptive response to an environment inundated with information. And media multi-tasking comes at a cognitive cost, Le Roux points out.</p>
<p>“We incur what we might call a switch cost; that means our performance in our focal task is going to suffer. If you think of driving as the focal task, the reason we prohibit drivers from using their smartphones while they’re driving is it because it distracts them from the task of driving.”</p>
<hr>
<p>This episode was hosted by Nehal El-Hadi and written by Mend Mariwany. The executive producer is Mend Mariwany. Eloise Stevens does our sound design, and our theme music is by Neeta Sarl.</p>
<p>You can find us on Twitter <a href="https://twitter.com/TC_Audio">@TC_Audio</a>, on Instagram at <a href="https://www.instagram.com/theconversationdotcom/">theconversationdotcom</a> or <a href="mailto:podcast@theconversation.com">via email</a>. You can also subscribe to The Conversation’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/newsletter">free daily email here</a>. A transcript of this episode will be available soon.</p>
<p>Listen to “The Conversation Weekly” via any of the apps listed above, download it directly via our <a href="https://feeds.acast.com/public/shows/60087127b9687759d637bade">RSS feed</a> or find out <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-listen-to-the-conversations-podcasts-154131">how else to listen here</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/202818/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kai Lukoff's doctoral research was funded in part by the U.S. National Science Foundation and a Google Faculty Research Award.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Daniel B. le Roux and Maryanne Wolf do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>With the proliferation of social media platforms, smart devices and apps, the demands on our attention have never been greater. But how is this affecting our ability to process and retain information?Nehal El-Hadi, Science + Technology Editor & Co-Host of The Conversation Weekly Podcast, The ConversationDaniel Merino, Associate Science Editor & Co-Host of The Conversation Weekly Podcast, The ConversationLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2018502023-03-23T12:39:26Z2023-03-23T12:39:26ZThis course asks, ‘What is mindfulness?’ – but don’t expect a clear-cut answer<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516706/original/file-20230321-26-ds3etu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=6%2C15%2C2110%2C1396&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Practicing mindfulness doesn't have to mean being removed from the world.
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/shot-of-an-attractive-young-woman-sitting-alone-on-royalty-free-image/1317735408?phrase=mindfulness&adppopup=true">PeopleImages/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span></figcaption></figure><figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Text saying: Uncommon Courses, from The Conversation" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/499014/original/file-20221205-17-kcwec8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/499014/original/file-20221205-17-kcwec8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499014/original/file-20221205-17-kcwec8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499014/original/file-20221205-17-kcwec8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499014/original/file-20221205-17-kcwec8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499014/original/file-20221205-17-kcwec8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/499014/original/file-20221205-17-kcwec8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption"></span>
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</figure>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/topics/uncommon-courses-130908">Uncommon Courses</a> is an occasional series from The Conversation U.S. highlighting unconventional approaches to teaching.</em> </p>
<h2>Title of course:</h2>
<p>“What is Mindfulness?”</p>
<h2>What prompted the idea for the course?</h2>
<p>As <a href="https://www.memphis.edu/philosophy/people/bios/kevin-taylor.php">a professor of religion and ethics</a>, particularly Asian traditions, I had already been interested in teaching a course about mindfulness. Its popularity seems to be surging: I see “<a href="https://www.mindful.org/magazine/">Mindful</a>” on magazine racks, and almost everyone I’ve met at my university has used the word at some point.</p>
<p>But oftentimes people say to be “mindful” when they mean “pay attention” or “don’t forget”: being “mindful” of a slippery road, say, or telling students to be “mindful of the deadline.” I started wondering what other people meant each time they used the word. This made me realize my course shouldn’t be a lecture about mindfulness, but an opportunity to explore what it is in the first place.</p>
<h2>What does the course explore?</h2>
<p>The course explores the origins of mindfulness in yoga and Buddhism. <a href="https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/74750/the-heart-of-the-buddhas-teaching-by-thich-nhat-hanh/">Mindful meditation</a> – being attentive to one’s body, feelings and thoughts – is part of one of the Buddha’s central teachings, <a href="https://tricycle.org/magazine/noble-eightfold-path/">the Noble Eightfold Path</a>, and considered key to enlightenment.</p>
<p>But we explore the many meanings of “mindfulness” that have emerged in recent decades, too. American professor <a href="https://jonkabat-zinn.com/">Jon Kabat-Zinn</a> is credited with popularizing the kind of mindfulness that has caught on with non-Buddhists today, starting with his “<a href="https://mbsrtraining.com/">mindfulness-based stress reduction” program</a> in the 1970s. </p>
<p>Some people are upset that mindfulness has <a href="https://theconversation.com/mindfulness-meditation-can-make-some-americans-more-selfish-and-less-generous-160687">become too mainstream</a> and fear that it has lost its intended meaning. Buddhism scholar <a href="https://cob.sfsu.edu/directory/ronald-purser">Ronald Purser</a>’s book “<a href="https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/600158/mcmindfulness-by-ronald-purser/">McMindfulness</a>,” for example, argues that capitalist societies have embraced mindfulness as a way to put the burden of mental health back on the individual rather than address root problems.</p>
<p>Students in my class read a variety of these perspectives and discuss themes such as mindfulness and mental health, mindful eating and breathing, environmental mindfulness and even meditation apps. In the end, I want each student to decide for themselves what mindfulness is.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516441/original/file-20230320-22-oz34km.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A woman in exercise clothes does a yoga pose inside a dark cathedral with stained glass windows." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516441/original/file-20230320-22-oz34km.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516441/original/file-20230320-22-oz34km.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516441/original/file-20230320-22-oz34km.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516441/original/file-20230320-22-oz34km.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516441/original/file-20230320-22-oz34km.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516441/original/file-20230320-22-oz34km.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516441/original/file-20230320-22-oz34km.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Mia Michelson-Bartlett, yoga teacher and manager of visitors’ services, practices yoga and mindfulness meditation inside the Cathedral of St. John the Divine in New York City.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/mia-michelson-bartlett-yoga-teacher-and-cathedral-manager-news-photo/1231935869?phrase=mindfulness%20&adppopup=true">Angela Weiss/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Why is this course relevant now?</h2>
<p>I first proposed this course right before the arrival of COVID-19, so when it launched for the first time, we met remotely over Zoom. I was tempted to drop the class after we went remote, but I quickly realized that it might help students who were wrestling with mental health issues at the beginning of the pandemic.</p>
<p>Each student kept a journal of our topics every week to practice mindfulness and to explore some of the therapeutic techniques. First, I asked them to find examples of the word in their everyday experiences – used on a poster at the student rec center, for example. </p>
<p>Later, I asked them to practice <a href="https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/74750/the-heart-of-the-buddhas-teaching-by-thich-nhat-hanh/">breathing and visualization techniques</a> from <a href="https://theconversation.com/thich-nhat-hanh-who-worked-for-decades-to-teach-mindfulness-approached-death-in-that-same-spirit-175495">the influential Vietnamese monk Thich Nhat Hanh</a>, such as asking yourself every hour “What am I doing?” and reflecting on your mind, emotions and posture.</p>
<h2>What’s a critical lesson from the course?</h2>
<p>Buddhism changes dramatically depending on “whose” Buddhism you are talking about. The dalai lama’s form of Tibetan Buddhism, for example, is not the same as the Zen Buddhism of <a href="https://theconversation.com/thich-nhat-hanh-who-worked-for-decades-to-teach-mindfulness-approached-death-in-that-same-spirit-175495">Thich Nhat Hanh</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516439/original/file-20230320-20-sbmzh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A row of monks stand next to a small crowd of schoolchildren in uniform as one monk takes a child's hand." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516439/original/file-20230320-20-sbmzh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516439/original/file-20230320-20-sbmzh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516439/original/file-20230320-20-sbmzh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516439/original/file-20230320-20-sbmzh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516439/original/file-20230320-20-sbmzh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516439/original/file-20230320-20-sbmzh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516439/original/file-20230320-20-sbmzh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Zen master Thich Nhat Hanh reaches for a student’s hand during a meditation walk on a ‘day of mindfulness’ in Hong Kong in 2007.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/pupil-cheng-ka-ki-looks-surprised-as-zen-master-thich-nhat-news-photo/1125039441?phrase=thich%20nhat%20hanh&adppopup=true">Steve Cray/South China Morning Post via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It’s the same with mindfulness. Thirteenth-century <a href="https://www.asianstudies.org/publications/eaa/archives/dogen-his-life-religion-and-poetry/">Zen master Dōgen</a> taught pupils to seek mindfulness in seated meditation. Five hundred years later, on the other hand, Zen master Hakuin taught <a href="https://www.proquest.com/docview/237191277">mindfulness in the midst of activity</a> – practicing it not just on the meditation pillow, but amid the hustle and bustle of the streets.</p>
<p>All forms of Buddhism, though, focus on transforming suffering into <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-the-world-can-learn-from-the-buddhist-concept-loving-kindness-171354">lovingkindness</a>. So teaching this course has persuaded me that if the way you teach mindfulness helps someone, it doesn’t matter if it’s “real” Buddhist mindfulness or not. If pop culture’s version of the concept relieves someone’s suffering, then I don’t want to be a gatekeeper and say, “This is not real mindfulness.”</p>
<h2>What will the course prepare students to do?</h2>
<p>All of the students in this course are first-semester freshmen. The class began as a way to get them to think critically about what mindfulness is but also offers tools to deal with the stress of college life.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.colorado.edu/today/2018/11/13/healthy-buffs-making-gains-your-rest-days">Muscles grow</a> after they heal and rest. The same is true when it comes to learning. Our minds need to take time to breathe, <a href="https://gcci.uconn.edu/2019/03/22/a-little-pause-goes-a-long-way-using-the-pause-procedure-in-teaching/">reflect on new information</a> and absorb it.</p>
<p>I also hope students will understand that taking care of oneself can be an act of care for others. Just as on an airplane we are told to put on our own oxygen mask before helping the person next to us, we all need to take care of our own mental health in order to help those around us.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/201850/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kevin C. Taylor does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Mindfulness is everywhere in pop culture today, but that doesn’t mean people agree on what it means.Kevin C. Taylor, Director of Religious Studies and Instructor of Philosophy, University of MemphisLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1939522022-12-08T00:50:18Z2022-12-08T00:50:18ZPing, your pizza is on its way. Ping, please rate the driver. Yes, constant notifications really do tax your brain<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/493434/original/file-20221104-16-oohqhq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C1000%2C666&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/business-lunch-workplace-vegetarian-pizza-sharing-1481255771">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>A ping from the pizza company. A couple of pings from your socials. Ping, ping, ping from your family WhatsApp group trying to organise a weekend barbecue. </p>
<p>With all those smartphone notifications, it’s no wonder you lose focus on what you’re trying to do do. </p>
<p>Your phone doesn’t even need to ping to distract you. There’s <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2015-28923-001">pretty good</a> <a href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/full/10.1086/691462">evidence</a> the mere presence of your phone, silent or not, is enough to divert your attention.</p>
<p>So what’s going on? More importantly, how can you reclaim your focus, without missing the important stuff?</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/no-youre-probably-not-addicted-to-your-smartphone-but-you-might-use-it-too-much-89853">No, you're probably not 'addicted' to your smartphone – but you might use it too much</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Is it really such a big deal?</h2>
<p>When you look at the big picture, those pings can really add up. </p>
<p>Although estimates vary, the average person checks their phone <a href="https://irep.ntu.ac.uk/id/eprint/30085/1/PubSub7601_Andrews.PDF">around 85 times</a> <a href="https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/trapped-in-the-net-are-we-all-addicted-to-our-smartphones-20190531-p51t44.html">a day</a>, roughly once every 15 minutes.</p>
<p>In other words, every 15 minutes or so, your attention is likely to wander from what you’re doing. The trouble is, it can take <a href="https://lifehacker.com/how-long-it-takes-to-get-back-on-track-after-a-distract-1720708353">several minutes</a> to regain your concentration fully after being <a href="https://www.ics.uci.edu/%7Egmark/chi08-mark.pdf">interrupted</a> by your phone.</p>
<p>If you’re just watching TV, distractions (and refocusing) are no big deal. But if you’re driving a car, trying to study, at work, or spending time with your loved ones, it could lead to some fairly substantial problems.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/should-mobile-phones-be-banned-in-schools-we-asked-five-experts-98708">Should mobile phones be banned in schools? We asked five experts</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Two types of interference</h2>
<p>The pings from your phone are “exogenous interruptions”. In other words, something external, around you, has caused the interruption.</p>
<p>We can <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-46276-9_21">become conditioned</a> to feeling excited when we hear our phones ping. This is the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1046/j.1360-0443.2002.00015.x">same pleasurable feeling</a> people who gamble can quickly become conditioned to at the sight or sound of a poker machine.</p>
<p>What if your phone is on silent? Doesn’t that solve the ping problem? Well, no.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/497303/original/file-20221125-22-pcpvqs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Woman working with smartphone on desk" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/497303/original/file-20221125-22-pcpvqs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/497303/original/file-20221125-22-pcpvqs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/497303/original/file-20221125-22-pcpvqs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/497303/original/file-20221125-22-pcpvqs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/497303/original/file-20221125-22-pcpvqs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/497303/original/file-20221125-22-pcpvqs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/497303/original/file-20221125-22-pcpvqs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Is your phone on silent? You can still get distracted.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/woman-writing-on-a-notebook-beside-teacup-and-tablet-computer-733856/">Tirachard Kumtanom/Pexels</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>That’s another type of interruption, an internal (or endogenous) interruption.</p>
<p>Think of every time you were working on a task but your attention drifted to your phone. You may have fought the urge to pick it up and see what was happening online, but you probably checked anyway.</p>
<p>In this situation, we can become so strongly conditioned to expect a reward each time we look at our phone we don’t need to wait for a ping to trigger the effect. </p>
<p>These impulses are powerful. Just reading this article about checking your phone may make you feel like … checking your phone.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/phubbing-snubbing-your-loved-ones-for-your-phone-can-do-more-damage-than-you-realise-194039">'Phubbing': snubbing your loved ones for your phone can do more damage than you realise</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Give your brain a break</h2>
<p>What do all these interruptions mean for cognition and wellbeing? </p>
<p>There’s increasing evidence push notifications are associated with <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352853217300159">decreased productivity</a>, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2451958820300051">poorer concentration</a> and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0927537116300136">increased distraction</a> at work and school. </p>
<p>But is there any evidence our brain is working harder to manage the frequent switches in attention? </p>
<p>One study of people’s brain waves <a href="https://www.hindawi.com/journals/cin/2016/5718580/">found</a> those who describe themselves as heavy smartphone users were more sensitive to push notifications than ones who said they were light users. </p>
<p>After hearing a push notification, heavy users were significantly worse at recovering their concentration on a task than lighter users. Although push notification interrupted concentration for both groups, the heavy users took much longer to regain focus. </p>
<p>Frequent interruptions from your phone can also leave you <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0747563219302596">feeling stressed</a> by a need to respond. Frequent smartphone interruptions are also associated with <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360131519301319">increased FOMO</a> (fear of missing out). </p>
<p>If you get distracted by your phone after responding to a notification, any subsequent <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/2050157921993896">procrastination</a> in returning to a task can also leave you feeling guilty or frustrated.</p>
<p>There’s <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0747563219300883">certainly evidence</a> suggesting the longer you spend using your phone in unproductive ways, the lower you tend to rate your wellbeing. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/constantly-texting-your-friends-about-problems-may-be-increasing-your-anxiety-83960">Constantly texting your friends about problems may be increasing your anxiety</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>How can I stop?</h2>
<p>We know switching your phone to silent isn’t going to magically fix the problem, especially if you’re already a frequent checker. </p>
<p>What’s needed is behaviour change, and that’s hard. It can take several attempts to see lasting change. If you have ever tried to quit smoking, lose weight, or start an exercise program you’ll know what I mean.</p>
<p>Start by turning off all non-essential notifications. Then here are some things to try if you want to reduce the number of times you check your phone:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>charge your phone overnight in a different room to your bedroom. Notifications can prevent you falling asleep and can repeatedly rouse you from essential sleep throughout the night</p></li>
<li><p>interrupt the urge to check and actively decide if it’s going to benefit you, in that moment. For example, as you turn to reach for your phone, stop and ask yourself if this action serves a purpose other than distraction</p></li>
<li><p>try the <a href="https://www.themuse.com/advice/take-it-from-someone-who-hates-productivity-hacksthe-pomodoro-technique-actually-works#:%7E:text=The%20Pomodoro%20Technique%20is%20a,are%20referred%20to%20as%20pomodoros">Pomodoro method</a> to stay focused on a task. This involves breaking your concentration time up into manageable chunks (for example, 25 minutes) then rewarding yourself with a short break (for instance, to check your phone) between chunks. Gradually increase the length of time between rewards. Gradually re-learning to sustain your attention on any task can take a while if you’re a high-volume checker.</p></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/health-check-can-your-brain-be-full-40844">Health Check: can your brain be 'full'?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/193952/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sharon Horwood does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Your phone doesn’t even need to ping for you to be distracted. Here’s how to reclaim your focus.Sharon Horwood, Senior Lecturer in Psychology, Deakin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1805072022-05-02T16:27:19Z2022-05-02T16:27:19ZHow to boost your attention and ability to function with meditation, exercise and sleep<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/456691/original/file-20220406-17347-en9ej.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C137%2C1280%2C708&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Executive functioning is a component of attention that helps us prioritize what we want to engage with and filter out unwanted interference.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Pixabay)</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/how-to-boost-your-attention-and-ability-to-function-with-meditation--exercise-and-sleep" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>Whether you’re driving a car with children yelling in the backseat or trying to read a book in a coffee shop while someone talks loudly on their phone, attention is essential for navigating and interacting with the world. </p>
<p>However, attention has a limited capacity, meaning we can only process so many things at once. This is why it’s essential to be able to filter out distractions that can divert focus from the task at hand. </p>
<p>New research highlights the importance of daily meditation, exercise and sleep for improving executive functioning, a component of attention that helps us prioritize what we want to engage with and filter out unwanted interference.</p>
<p>I am currently conducting my PhD research in the <a href="https://www.dal.ca/faculty/science/psychology_neuroscience/faculty-staff/our-faculty/raymond-klein.html">Klein Lab at Dalhousie University</a>, which studies all things attention-related. This involves both fundamental research looking at how different areas of the brain contribute to how people interact with the world, and applied research developing game-like tools that measure attention in children. <a href="http://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3904">I recently published a review of over 70 studies</a> looking at how different aspects of lifestyle impact attention. </p>
<h2>Executive function</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A man seen from behind with circuitous arrows in different colour pointing in different directions" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/460586/original/file-20220429-23-r8k7cz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/460586/original/file-20220429-23-r8k7cz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/460586/original/file-20220429-23-r8k7cz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/460586/original/file-20220429-23-r8k7cz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/460586/original/file-20220429-23-r8k7cz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/460586/original/file-20220429-23-r8k7cz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/460586/original/file-20220429-23-r8k7cz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Executive functioning kicks in when you are trying to focus in a distracting setting.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Pixabay/Gerd Altmann)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>When we study attention in the lab, we break it down into a number of unique components which serve different purposes. Executive functioning is the component that kicks in when you are trying to focus in a distracting setting, like holding a conversation when your favourite TV show is on in the background, or when you are dealing with an impulse, like resisting the urge to have another potato chip. </p>
<p>Executive functioning is also involved in monitoring for distracting thoughts, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018298">like getting caught up in a daydream</a>. It is affected by a number of different disorders, including <a href="https://doi.org/10.1097/chi.0b013e31814cf953">attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder</a> (ADHD) and <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jnnp.72.3.400">depression</a>. </p>
<p>My review found that by implementing daily meditation, getting consistent exercise and maintaining healthy sleeping habits, you can boost the efficiency of your executive functioning. So if you want to improve your productivity and reduce your impulsivity, you may want to consider making these changes in your routine.</p>
<h2>Meditation</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A woman with her eyes closed" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/460587/original/file-20220429-21-ledyov.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/460587/original/file-20220429-21-ledyov.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/460587/original/file-20220429-21-ledyov.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/460587/original/file-20220429-21-ledyov.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/460587/original/file-20220429-21-ledyov.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/460587/original/file-20220429-21-ledyov.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/460587/original/file-20220429-21-ledyov.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Meditation is one of the best ways to improve executive functioning.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Piqsels)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Meditation is one of the best ways to improve executive functioning. Even after <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0707678104">just five days doing 20 minutes of meditation daily</a>, there were boosts to how well individuals could filter out distractions. There didn’t appear to be a superior technique for meditation, as long as the main objective was <a href="https://dictionary.apa.org/attentional-focus">attentional control</a> (focusing on something specific). A common technique used to elicit attentional control in meditation is to focus on breathing while trying to let go of unwanted thoughts.</p>
<p>Some studies also looked at yoga, which involves components that resemble meditation. However, yoga didn’t improve executive functioning like other techniques where the main goal was attentional control, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1089/acm.2016.0185">although the yogis did improve their overall response speed</a>. </p>
<p>It’s not clear how long these improvements to attention last after meditating, but it is clear that for anyone looking to improve their executive functioning, attention should be part of their daily routine. </p>
<h2>Exercise</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A man on a running track positioned to start a sprint" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/460589/original/file-20220429-27-1mvq35.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/460589/original/file-20220429-27-1mvq35.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/460589/original/file-20220429-27-1mvq35.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/460589/original/file-20220429-27-1mvq35.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/460589/original/file-20220429-27-1mvq35.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/460589/original/file-20220429-27-1mvq35.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/460589/original/file-20220429-27-1mvq35.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">People who reported getting six hours of physical activity per week showed improved executive functioning over sedentary individuals.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Piqsels)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The government of Canada recommends that people over 18 get <a href="https://csepguidelines.ca/">150 minutes of exercise a week</a> to maintain health. This also plays a significant role in executive functioning. I explored how different factors impacted executive functioning, including how often individuals were exercising, how hard were they exercising and what exercise activities were they performing. </p>
<p>People who reported getting <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0101478">six hours of physical activity per week showed improved executive functioning over sedentary individuals</a>. Additionally, those in a high-intensity sprint program for a two-week period <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2018.00241">not only outperformed a control group in their measures of executive functioning, they also made fewer mistakes</a>.</p>
<p>While standing and treadmill desks did generate improvements to other aspects of physical health after just four days, <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2017.00353">they did not get the same boost to cognition that was seen with other moderate to high-intensity exercises</a>. This means that if you want those boosts to cognition, you need to really get your heart rate up.</p>
<h2>Sleep</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A man sleeping in bed with a blue and white striped duvet" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/460592/original/file-20220429-17-fzvmvm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/460592/original/file-20220429-17-fzvmvm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/460592/original/file-20220429-17-fzvmvm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/460592/original/file-20220429-17-fzvmvm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/460592/original/file-20220429-17-fzvmvm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/460592/original/file-20220429-17-fzvmvm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/460592/original/file-20220429-17-fzvmvm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Reduced sleep made people slower to react and more prone to making mistakes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Pexels/Andrea Piacquadio)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It’s also important to consider how much sleep you are getting, as people often reduce their rest for work and social obligations. Although a few studies in the review did find that reduced sleep generated poorer executive functioning, the more common outcome was worse performance across the board. Reduced sleep didn’t impact specific components of attention in the same way that meditation and exercise did. Instead, it made people slower to react and more prone to making mistakes.</p>
<p>However, most of the sleep research included in the review involved keeping people up for 24 hours. This isn’t very representative of how most people experience a reduction in sleep. Future research should consider how people’s sleep quality is impacting their executive functioning. This information is especially important for those who work in scenarios where lapses in attention pose a potential risk, like air traffic controllers or those who operate heavy machinery. </p>
<p>There are many aspects of our cognition that are out of our control. Executive functioning abilities <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0963721411429458">are largely influenced by genetics</a>. However, this review provides promising evidence that there are changes you can make to your daily routine that can provide a nice boost to your focus. </p>
<p>So, if you want that extra edge, start meditating, get your heart rate up and get to bed early!</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/180507/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Colin McCormick receives funding from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada. </span></em></p>Research highlights the importance of daily meditation, exercise and sleep for improving executive functioning, a component of attention that helps people focus.Colin McCormick, PhD Student in Cognitive Science, Dalhousie UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1809872022-04-13T14:04:40Z2022-04-13T14:04:40ZCannabis: how it affects our cognition and psychology – new research<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457938/original/file-20220413-18-9vrqt0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=57%2C182%2C6432%2C4063&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Agave Photo Studio</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/trippy-cannabis-leaf-psychedelic-marijuana-containing-1878250624">Agave Photo Studio/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Cannabis has been used by humans for thousands of years and is one of the most popular drugs today. With effects such as feelings of joy and relaxation, it is also legal to prescribe or take in several countries.</p>
<p>But how does using the drug affect the mind? In three recent studies, published in <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/02698811211050548">The Journal of Psychopharmacology</a>, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41386-022-01316-2">Neuropsychopharmacology</a> and the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/ijnp/article/24/11/859/6291328?login=true">International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology</a>, we show that it can influence a number of cognitive and psychological processes. </p>
<p>The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime reported that, in 2018, approximately 192 million people worldwide aged between 15 and 64 used cannabis recreationally. Young adults are particularly keen, with <a href="https://wdr.unodc.org/wdr2020/field/WDR20_Booklet_2.pdf">35% of people</a> between the ages of 18 and 25 using it, while only 10% of people over the age of 26 do.</p>
<p>This indicates that the main users are adolescents and young adults, whose <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/npp2014236">brains are still in development</a>. They may therefore be <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0149763413000821">particularly vulnerable to the effects of cannabis use</a> on the brain in the longer term.</p>
<p>Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is the main psychoactive compound in cannabis. It acts on the brain’s “endocannabinoid system”, which are receptors which respond to the chemical components of cannabis. The cannabis receptors are densely populated in prefrontal and limbic areas in the brain, which are <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306452296004289?casa_token=9N2NfCLjBcYAAAAA:dW7OiYLQwO9KRg_yEPyFiWibvbLhsQURPqPCoz3M9FVa51ZngM-Hh4Uv8v25C2UZuKX4JkrGGsc">involved in reward and motivation</a>. They regulate signalling of the brain chemicals dopamine, gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and glutamate. </p>
<p>We know that dopamine is involved in motivation, reward and learning. GABA and glutamate play a part in cognitive processes, including learning and memory.</p>
<h2>Cognitive effects</h2>
<p>Cannabis use can affect cognition, especially in those with cannabis-use disorder. This is characterised by the persistent desire to use the drug and disruption to daily activities, such as work or education. It has been estimated that <a href="http://repository.poltekkes-kaltim.ac.id/657/1/Diagnostic%20and%20statistical%20manual%20of%20mental%20disorders%20_%20DSM-5%20%28%20PDFDrive.com%20%29.pdf">approximately 10% of cannabis users</a> meet the diagnostic criteria for this disorder.</p>
<p>In our research, we tested the cognition of 39 people with the disorder (asked to be clean on the day of testing), and compared it with that of 20 people who never or rarely used cannabis. We showed that participants with the condition had significantly worse performance on memory tests from the <a href="https://www.cambridgecognition.com/">Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB)</a> compared to the controls, who had either never or very rarely used cannabis. It also negatively affected their “executive functions”, which are mental processes including flexible thinking. This effect seemed to be linked to the age at which people started taking the drug – the younger they were, the more impaired their executive functioning was. </p>
<p>Cognitive impairments have been noted in mild cannabis users as well. Such users tend to make <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3242860/">riskier decisions than others</a> and have more problems with planning.</p>
<p>Although most studies have been conducted in males, there <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34261559/">has been evidence</a> of sex differences in the effects of cannabis use on cognition. We showed that, while male cannabis users had poorer memory for visually recognising things, female users had more problems with attention and executive functions. These sex effects persisted when controlling for age; IQ; alcohol and nicotine use; mood and anxiety symptoms; emotional stability; and impulsive behaviour.</p>
<h2>Reward, motivation and mental health</h2>
<p>Cannabis use can also affect how we feel – thereby further influencing our thinking. For example, some previous research has suggested that reward and motivation – along with the brain circuits involved in these processes – <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34509513/">can be disrupted</a> when we use cannabis. This may affect our performance at school or work as it can make us feel less motivated to work hard, and less rewarded when we do well. </p>
<p>In our recent study, we used a brain imaging task, in which participants were placed in a scanner and viewed orange or blue squares. The orange squares would lead to a monetary reward, after a delay, if the participant made a response. This set up helped us investigate how the brain responds to rewards. We focused particularly on the ventral striatum, which is a key region in the brain’s reward system. We found that the effects on the reward system in the brain were subtle, with no direct effects of cannabis in the ventral striatum. However, the participants in our study were moderate cannabis users. The effects may be more pronounced in cannabis users with more severe and chronic use, as seen in cannabis use disorder.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Image of fMRI brain scan pictures." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457950/original/file-20220413-9289-f5ndvs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457950/original/file-20220413-9289-f5ndvs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457950/original/file-20220413-9289-f5ndvs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457950/original/file-20220413-9289-f5ndvs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457950/original/file-20220413-9289-f5ndvs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457950/original/file-20220413-9289-f5ndvs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457950/original/file-20220413-9289-f5ndvs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Brain scans can help investigate how people respond to rewards.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/scan-film-mri-466075553">toysf400/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There is also evidence that cannabis can lead to mental health problems. We have shown that it <a href="https://academic.oup.com/ijnp/article/24/11/859/6291328?login=true">is related to higher “anhedonia”</a> – an inability to feel pleasure – in adolescents. Interestingly, this effect was particularly pronounced during the COVID-19 pandemic lockdowns. </p>
<p>Cannabis use during adolescence has also been reported as a risk factor for developing psychotic experiences as well as schizophrenia. One study showed that cannabis use moderately increases the risk of psychotic symptoms in young people, but that it <a href="https://www.bmj.com/content/bmj/330/7481/11.full.pdf?casa_token=PjjvgM0oqsYAAAAA:t1S-G9g2X1fVGG1NdVSwQjaPQFovGLDBa7I6bn-S4IqJNR4tUoUusX18IpTk0K-DR7IoFxSz26UP">has a much stronger effect</a> in those with a predisposition for psychosis (scoring highly on a symptom checklist of paranoid ideas and psychoticism).</p>
<p>Assessing 2,437 adolescents and young adults (14-24 years), the authors reported a six percentage points increased risk – from 15% to 21% – of psychotic symptoms in cannabis users without a predisposition for psychosis. But there was a 26-point increase in risk – from 25% to 51% – of psychotic symptoms in cannabis users with a predisposition for psychosis. </p>
<p>We don’t really know why cannabis is linked to psychotic episodes, but hypotheses suggests dopamine and glutamate <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6953551/">may be important</a> in the neurobiology of these conditions.</p>
<p>Another study of 780 teenagers suggested that the association between cannabis use and psychotic experiences was also <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31326579/">linked to a brain region called the “uncus”</a>. This lies within the parahippocampus (involved in memory) and olfactory bulb (involved in processing smells), and has a large amount of cannabinoid receptors. It has also previously been associated with schizophrenia and psychotic experiences. </p>
<p>Cognitive and psychological effects of cannabis use are ultimately likely to depend to some extent on dosage (frequency, duration and strength), sex, genetic vulnerabilities and age of onset. But we need to determine whether these effects are temporary or permanent. One article summarising many studies has suggested that with mild cannabis use, the effects may weaken <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6137521/">after periods of abstinence</a>. </p>
<p>But even if that’s the case, it is clearly worth considering the effects that prolonged cannabis use can have on our minds – particularly for young people whose brains are still developing.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/180987/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Barbara Jacquelyn Sahakian receives funding from the Leverhulme Trust and the Lundbeck Foundation. Her research work is conducted within the NIHR Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre (BRC) Mental Health and Neurodegeneration Themes and the NIHR MedTech and in vitro diagnostic Co-operative (MIC). She consults for Cambridge Cognition.
</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Christelle Langley is funded by the Leverhulme Trust.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Martine Skumlien receives funding from the Aker Foundation. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tianye Jia receives funding from the National Natural Science Foundation of China.</span></em></p>Cannabis use is linked to poorer memory, attention and mental health.Barbara Jacquelyn Sahakian, Professor of Clinical Neuropsychology, University of CambridgeChristelle Langley, Postdoctoral Research Associate, Cognitive Neuroscience, University of CambridgeMartine Skumlien, PhD Candidate in Psychiatry, University of CambridgeTianye Jia, Professor of Population Neuroscience, Fudan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1779852022-04-07T12:26:45Z2022-04-07T12:26:45ZMental health problems come with an added ‘cost’ of poorer cognitive function – a neuropsychologist explains<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/455334/original/file-20220330-5678-1x2xdee.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=120%2C86%2C5630%2C3707&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The cognitive difficulties that accompany mental health disorders can potentially lead to misdiagnoses and improper treatment.
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/backlit-teenager-sitting-in-a-dark-indoor-doorway-royalty-free-image/1281225732?adppopup=true">Elva Etienne/Moment via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/research-brief-83231">Research Brief</a> is a short take about interesting academic work.</em></p>
<h2>The big idea</h2>
<p>All types of mental disorders come with a hidden cost in the form of cognitive dysfunction, including deficits in memory, attention, executive functions and processing speed, according to a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2021.102007">comprehensive study</a> that my colleagues and I published in June 2021 in the journal Clinical Psychology Review. </p>
<p>We found that both diagnosable mental disorders, as well as some common symptoms such as anxiety and worry, carry a so-called “cognitive price.” We termed this phenomenon “The C Factor” – short for cognitive dysfunction. This can be defined either as lower performance on cognitive tests or reduction in cognitive abilities such as attention and memory. Our analysis suggests that it can be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-014-1001-2">found across disorders</a> and that it constitutes an integral part of poorer mental health.</p>
<p>Our team analyzed data from all existing meta-analyses and systematic reviews of cognitive function across all disorders recognized by the <a href="https://www.psychiatry.org/psychiatrists/practice/dsm">Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders</a>. We included 97 meta-analyses covering 29 disorders. Overall, our study incorporated data from more than 200,000 individuals.</p>
<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p>In recent decades, mental disorders have become <a href="https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/mental-illness-is-far-more-common-than-we-knew/">increasingly prevalent in the U.S.</a> and around the world, particularly in young adults and adolescents. Even before the pandemic, <a href="https://www.nami.org/mhstats#">1 in 5 Americans suffered from a mental disorder</a>. </p>
<p>In fact, the most comprehensive study to date examining the worldwide prevalence of mental disorders projected that 55% of Americans will <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18188442/">meet criteria for at least one mental disorder</a> over the course of their lifetime. Notably, that study – which was conducted 15 years ago – examined diagnosable disorders. But, in fact, the prevalence of lifetime experience of clinically meaningful symptoms in the general population is much higher. For example, one study found that although only about 20% of Americans will meet formal criteria for major depressive disorder in their lifetime, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031912-114409">62% of Americans will experience meaningful symptoms of depression</a>.</p>
<p>Since our findings demonstrate that poorer mental health is associated with at least some degree of cognitive dysfunction, this type of deficiency may be far more common than previously thought. </p>
<p>These findings are important because some mental disorders may be misdiagnosed based on cognitive dysfunction. For instance, a college student who struggles with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jocrd.2012.09.001">obsessive-compulsive disorder</a> should be expected to have some difficulties in areas such as concentration, organization, time management and memory. However, in such a case, these cognitive challenges do not stem from conditions such as dyslexia or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, but rather from OCD. This potential confusion may lead to a misdiagnosis. </p>
<p>Indeed, ADHD, a disorder characterized by deficits in executive functions, <a href="https://www.pghr.org/post/the-global-misdiagnosis-of-adhd-and-the-devastating-long-term-effects">is one of the most misdiagnosed disorders</a> across all age groups. According to one 2010 study, about 20% of youths diagnosed with ADHD and receiving medications <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhealeco.2010.06.003">are misdiagnosed</a>. In addition, there is evidence that doctors all too readily prescribe <a href="https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2014-1500">stimulant medications for symptoms of inattention</a>, even without a complete or formal diagnosis of ADHD. </p>
<p>Therefore, lack of knowledge about cognitive dysfunctions associated with OCD in the example above could lead to inappropriate treatment. Indeed, stimulant medication <a href="https://doi.org/10.4088/jcp.15r10601">may increase irritability and anxiety</a> and exacerbate cognitive dysfunction in such individuals. So it is crucial that mental health professionals gain a better understanding of how mental health and cognitive dysfunction go hand in hand, particularly in the context of misinterpretation of cognitive symptoms.</p>
<h2>What still isn’t known</h2>
<p>Two major questions arise from the results of our study. First, why does any significant mental health issue come with a cost in the form of cognitive dysfunction? That seems surprising given that various mental health disorders differ significantly in terms of symptoms and type of interventions. Our team is working to unravel the factors that can have a negative impact on cognitive functioning, including reduced motivation, low effort and lower self-efficacy.</p>
<p>Second, what is the actual mechanism underlying this phenomenon? For example, if we find that general suffering is common to all mental disorders, what is the specific mechanism by which suffering hinders performance on cognitive tests? More research is needed to examine these questions.</p>
<p>[<em>You’re smart and curious about the world. So are The Conversation’s authors and editors.</em> <a href="https://memberservices.theconversation.com/newsletters/?source=inline-youresmart">You can read us daily by subscribing to our newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/177985/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amitai Abramovitch does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>While only about 20% of people would qualify for a formal diagnosis of a mental disorder, more than 60% express symptoms of those disorders – and those symptoms can lead to cognitive difficulties.Amitai Abramovitch, Associate Professor of Psychology, Texas State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1804992022-04-04T20:43:37Z2022-04-04T20:43:37ZBruce Willis’s aphasia diagnosis draws attention to a common language disorder<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/456211/original/file-20220404-13-kc2qvo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=230%2C15%2C3052%2C2302&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Aphasia is a language disorder that affects about 30 per cent of stroke patients.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Denis Makarenko/Shutterstock.com)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Until the recent news that <a href="https://variety.com/2022/film/news/bruce-willis-retiring-acting-apashia-1235219017/">Bruce Willis</a> had been diagnosed with aphasia and was retiring from acting, many people were <a href="https://www.aphasia.org/2020-aphasia-awareness-survey/">unfamiliar with the condition</a>. Despite its low profile, aphasia is not uncommon. </p>
<p>Across <a href="https://www.sac-oac.ca/news-events/news/speech-hearing-month-2021-what-aphasia">Canada</a> and the <a href="https://www.aphasia.org/">United States</a>, it’s estimated that more than two million people are living with aphasia and its associated challenges in communication and in using and understanding language.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.aphasia.ca/">Aphasia</a> affects language abilities, including listening, speaking, reading and writing. Some common language symptoms that occur in individuals living with aphasia are:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Difficulty coming up with the right word. An individual might use a related word (for example, they may say or write “daughter” when trying to find the word “niece”) or even use a made up word (for example, say or write “pitsy” when trying to find the word “niece”).</p></li>
<li><p>Making mistakes in grammar or syntax such as omitting word endings. Examples include leaving off the plural “s” or “ed” to indicate past tense, or putting words in the wrong order, such as: “The cat was his ran house out.”</p></li>
<li><p>Needing more time to process what is said to them and needing more time to formulate a response.</p></li>
<li><p>Difficulty understanding individual letters, speech sounds or words when listening or reading, even though prior to the onset of aphasia, these letters, sounds and words were automatically understood.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>For individuals with aphasia who use sign language, their ability to use and understand signs is also negatively affected. Some people with aphasia may also experience problems using and understanding nonverbal means of communication, such as gestures and facial expressions.</p>
<h2>Causes of aphasia</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A silhouette of a head with a maze, and a red line going from through the maze from the braid to the mouth" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/456217/original/file-20220404-15-yuez6j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/456217/original/file-20220404-15-yuez6j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/456217/original/file-20220404-15-yuez6j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/456217/original/file-20220404-15-yuez6j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/456217/original/file-20220404-15-yuez6j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/456217/original/file-20220404-15-yuez6j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/456217/original/file-20220404-15-yuez6j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Aphasia affects language abilities including listening, speaking, reading and writing.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Aphasia is not a disease, but rather a consequence of damage to the language-dominant regions of the brain. This brain damage is typically caused by a stroke (<a href="https://www.heartandstroke.ca/stroke/what-is-stroke">interruption of blood flow to or within the brain</a>), or sometimes by a traumatic brain injury, a brain tumour or an infection, such as meningitis. Stroke is the <a href="https://doi.org/10.3109/17549507.2010.520090">most common cause</a>, with aphasia affecting approximately <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2016.03.006">30 per cent of stroke patients</a>. </p>
<p>Aphasia is also <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.410110607">a key component</a> of a progressive neurodegenerative disease called <a href="https://www.aphasia.org/aphasia-resources/primary-progressive-aphasia/">primary progressive aphasia</a>, a type of <a href="https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/dementia/frontotemporal-dementia">frontotemporal dementia</a>.</p>
<p>Because the parts of the brain that support language also support other cognitive abilities, individuals living with aphasia may experience some difficulties in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1044/1058-0360(2012/11-0067)">attention, memory and thinking skills</a> like problem solving or planning. People living with aphasia may be challenged in these other cognitive functions because we often use and understand language in concert with these other functions. For example, rehearsing out loud or using your inner mind’s voice to repeat silently the items you have been asked to pick up at the store.</p>
<p>There is great <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awab377">variability in the language symptoms</a> experienced by individuals living with aphasia. For example, one individual may experience significant difficulties equally across all language modalities. Another person may experience difficulties primarily in their verbal output and few difficulties with understanding what is said, written or gestured. </p>
<p>Likewise, there is a spectrum of aphasia severity. Some people with aphasia may only be able to understand short, common words. Others may only experience comprehension difficulties when reading books or following complex podcasts that include, for example, technical jargon or complex stories. </p>
<p>Variability also is common among those living with aphasia who are bilingual or multilingual. One individual with aphasia might experience similar difficulties in all of their languages while another might struggle more in one versus another of their languages.</p>
<h2>Living with aphasia</h2>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="A bald man in a black suit with other people behind him" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/456213/original/file-20220404-21-pldbem.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/456213/original/file-20220404-21-pldbem.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=852&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/456213/original/file-20220404-21-pldbem.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=852&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/456213/original/file-20220404-21-pldbem.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=852&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/456213/original/file-20220404-21-pldbem.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1071&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/456213/original/file-20220404-21-pldbem.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1071&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/456213/original/file-20220404-21-pldbem.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1071&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Like Bruce Willis, who has retired from acting, many people with aphasia are unable to remain in their vocation of choice.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(THE CANADIAN PRESS/Frank Gunn)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Regardless of the breadth and severity of the language symptoms, aphasia is challenging for those living with the language disorder, as well as for their family and friends. Having aphasia can make it difficult to complete daily activities like reading prescription medication labels, booking an appointment or using a phone. </p>
<p>Like Willis, many individuals with aphasia will not be able to remain in their vocation of choice. Aphasia also can lead to negative consequences for social roles, relationships and activities. Consider how many components of parenting involve language (listening to your child’s day at school, reading with your child, reprimanding) and how essential communication is to maintaining close relationships with family and friends. </p>
<p>Most leisure activities similarly involve language, whether it is reading for pleasure, watching movies or travelling. Because of these daily struggles, many individuals with aphasia also experience <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s13063-016-1257-9">mental health issues such as depression</a>.</p>
<h2>Assessment and services for people with aphasia</h2>
<p>However, there is help and hope for those with aphasia. Decades of aphasia research indicate <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD000425.pub4">there are many interventions</a> to improve individuals’ language abilities and help them compensate for their language impairments. An important first step for getting help is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1161/STR.0b013e3181e7512b">seeking an assessment from a speech-language pathologist</a>. </p>
<p>Given the various manifestations of aphasia, a comprehensive assessment is needed to determine its presence and an individual’s language and communication strengths and weaknesses. The assessment also will help the <a href="https://www.sac-oac.ca/">speech-language pathologist</a> identify <a href="https://www.heartandstroke.ca/services-and-resources/aphasia-services">interventions that can help individuals living with aphasia</a> and their family and friends achieve their language and communication goals.</p>
<p>In addition to assessment and intervention services, family and friends can <a href="https://www.sac-oac.ca/sac-resource-page-stroke-awareness">find other ways</a> to <a href="https://www.aphasia.ca/">support someone living with aphasia</a>. </p>
<p>By sharing his diagnosis of aphasia, Willis and his family are helping <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/02687038.2019.1702847">increase awareness</a> of this complex and often debilitating language disorder. Increasing awareness among the public and health-care professionals is an important step in ensuring that individuals living with aphasia <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/09638288.2020.1722264">can participate in their community and receive appropriate health-care services</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/180499/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Across Canada and the United States, more than two million people are living with aphasia and its language and communication challenges.Laura Murray, Associate Dean of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies, Faculty of Health Sciences, Western UniversityJ.B. Orange, Professor and Acting Director, School of Communication Sciences and Disorders; Scientific Director, Canadian Centre for Activity and Aging, Western UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1789232022-03-11T09:03:50Z2022-03-11T09:03:50ZUkraine doomscrolling can harm your cognition as well as your mood – here’s what to do about it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/450984/original/file-20220309-2144-1epf3dx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=160%2C50%2C6548%2C4416&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Doomscrolling can have a huge impact on our attention, memory and mood.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/apathy-portrait-tired-sleepy-black-man-2048163437">Prostock-studio/Shutterstcok</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Many people have experienced chronic stress <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-chronic-stress-changes-the-brain-and-what-you-can-do-to-reverse-the-damage-133194">since the pandemic lockdowns</a>. Added to this are the climate crisis, the increasing cost of living and most recently threats to European and global security due to the conflict in Ukraine. </p>
<p>To some, it may seem that there is never any good news anymore. This is of course not true, but when we’re doomscrolling - spending an excessive amount of screen time devoted to reading negative news - we can become locked into thinking it is. </p>
<p>Doomscrolling can promote feelings of anxiety and depression. For example, consider how sad and exhausted you may feel when watching a drama with tragic events and sad music in the background. In contrast, if you watch a funny film or romantic comedy with lively music, you may feel upbeat and energised. This is due to two psychological phenomena: “<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3253810/">mood induction</a>” (an intervention that can change our mood) and <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-do-children-learn-empathy-56623">empathy</a>. </p>
<p>Serotonin is an important brain chemical for regulating mood, and it can drop when we are chronically stressed or saddened by bad news for extended periods of time. Studies show that it is even possible to <a href="https://assets.researchsquare.com/files/nprot-2336/v1/5c547d54-6dfc-4552-a6fa-f29ee83f5914.pdf?c=1631825036">exacerbate the effects of reducing serotonin</a> in healthy people through mood induction by playing sad music. Pharmacological treatments which increase serotonin are used to treat depression and anxiety. </p>
<p>Empathy is a good trait which helps us live successfully with others and promotes a flourishing society. However, excessive empathy, when viewing tragic world events on the news, may lead to ruminating on negative thoughts, which have an impact on our mental health and wellbeing. Constantly thinking negative thoughts can lead to depression or anxiety. </p>
<p>Such conditions can over time have a huge effect on our minds, leading to actual cognitive impairments such as reduced attention or problems with memory and reasoning. After all, if negative information hijacks our attention and memory, it will drain cognitive power that could be used for other things. And when we are constantly soaking up negative news and recording negative memories, we feel even more down – creating a vicious cycle. </p>
<p>The longer we are stuck with a low mood, the harder it becomes for us <a href="https://theconversation.com/iq-tests-cant-measure-it-but-cognitive-flexibility-is-key-to-learning-and-creativity-163284">to think flexibly</a>, easily switching between different perspectives. This is how we can become “stuck” with a thought such as “this is never going to end” or “there is no good news” – leading to intense feelings of powerlessness and helplessness.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Image of MRI brain scans." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/450988/original/file-20220309-18-nxxa4r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/450988/original/file-20220309-18-nxxa4r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/450988/original/file-20220309-18-nxxa4r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/450988/original/file-20220309-18-nxxa4r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/450988/original/file-20220309-18-nxxa4r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/450988/original/file-20220309-18-nxxa4r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/450988/original/file-20220309-18-nxxa4r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Doomscrolling could make our brains less flexible.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/close-series-magnetic-resonance-scan-human-744824245">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>You don’t have to be clinically depressed to develop problems with attention, though. We know that attention is critical for cognition and mental health and that technology <a href="https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/distracted-mind">can affect it</a>. </p>
<p>For example, one study examined the effects of receiving real-time instant messages on their mobile phones while studying for a test. The group who were interrupted by messages took significantly <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360131509002656?via%3Dihub">longer to complete the test</a> and experienced increased levels of stress compared to the group who were able to study without distraction. We know that problems of severe distraction are seen in <a href="https://www.biologicalpsychiatryjournal.com/article/S0006-3223(20)31381-0/fulltext">attention deficit hyperactivity disorder</a>. </p>
<p>So it isn’t just the negative content we are consuming that can harm our attention, the very technology we are using to access it is also a problem. And this may ultimately affect our performance at work, school or even in social settings.</p>
<p>Problems with attention can itself make us more anxious – creating another feedback loop. Over-focusing our attention on threatening things, such as obsessively checking the latest tragic news, can in fact be detrimental to wellbeing. In severe cases it may lead to repetitive checking behaviour, seen in obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD). And we know that children with OCD and perfectionism <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34224907/">have increased levels of anxiety</a>. </p>
<h2>Reset your brain</h2>
<p>So what can we do about it? It is important to avoid obsessive doomscrolling but instead show resilience and gain mastery over the situation. To do that, you need to have some positive moments of respite. So try to schedule something you enjoy and which relaxes and de-stresses you daily, such as reading a good book, watching a fun film, visiting friends and family or <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41398-021-01459-8">mindfulness training</a>. Exercise or learning something new, such as a different language or a musical instrument, can also be good – boosting both mood as well as cognition. </p>
<p>Another way to take control of the situation is by taking action, perhaps joining or supporting a charity that is involved in helping civilians in Ukraine. When you perform an act of kindness, it <a href="https://theconversation.com/six-ways-to-reboot-your-brain-after-a-hard-year-of-covid-19-according-to-science-151332">activates the reward system</a> in the brain – and gives you some power over the situation.</p>
<p>If you continue to be disturbed by doomscrolling, you may wish to contact a clinical psychologist who can help you reduce this activity and its effects, through the use of cognitive behavioural therapy. Interestingly, one study showed it is possible to improve your mood through <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/psychological-medicine/article/abs/pilot-study-of-positive-mood-induction-in-euthymic-bipolar-subjects-compared-with-healthy-controls/B6FB50A7E02BC88D6509A240D9AAEC21">cognitive mood induction</a> – rewarding people for their performance on a cognitive test.</p>
<p>In a modern globalised world with many forms of technology and constant bombardment of information and streams of stimulation – some good and some bad – it is important to identify your goals. But it is equally important to develop a strategy for achieving them and for avoiding distraction. So the bottom line is to try to stay positive and resilient – for your sake and others. </p>
<p>After all, what use are we in helping to solve difficult global challenges, such as conflict and climate change, if we’re so depressed and cognitively depleted that we can’t think of the best actions to take?</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/178923/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Barbara Jacquelyn Sahakian receives funding from the Leverhulme Trust and the Lundbeck Foundation. Her research work is conducted within the framework of the NIHR MedTech and in vitro diagnostic Co-operative (MIC) and the NIHR Biomedical Research Centre (BRC) Mental Health and Neurodegeneration themes. She consults for Cambridge Cognition.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Christelle Langley receives funding from the Leverhulme Trust.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Chun Shen receives funding from National Natural Sciences Foundation of China (No. 82101617).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jianfeng Feng receives funding from NSFC. </span></em></p>What use are we in helping to solve difficult global challenges if we’re so depressed and cognitively depleted that we can’t think of the best actions to take?Barbara Jacquelyn Sahakian, Professor of Clinical Neuropsychology, University of CambridgeChristelle Langley, Postdoctoral Research Associate, Cognitive Neuroscience, University of CambridgeChun Shen, Postdoctoral research fellow, Fudan UniversityJianfeng Feng, Professor of Science and Technology for Brain-Inspired Intelligence, Fudan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1772962022-02-18T14:33:12Z2022-02-18T14:33:12ZThere are challenges but also potential benefits of digital distractions<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/447276/original/file-20220218-44643-6kokyt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=24%2C20%2C2671%2C2025&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/cute-funny-girl-sitting-comfy-armchair-1470755900">GoodStudio/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>We are in the midst of a battle for our attention. Our devices have hijacked our brains and destroyed our collective ability to concentrate – to the extent that we’re even seeing the emergence of a “<a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/family/life/curse-goldfish-generation-phones-making-us-forgetful/">goldfish generation</a>”. That, at least, is the story that’s increasingly being told. But should we be paying attention to it?</p>
<p>Journalist Johann Hari’s new book, <a href="https://www.vox.com/vox-conversations-podcast/2022/2/8/22910773/vox-conversations-johann-hari-stolen-focus">Stolen Focus</a>, has just joined a chorus of voices lamenting the attention crisis of the digital age. His and other recent books reflect, and perhaps fuel, a public perception that our focus is under attack.</p>
<p>Indeed, in <a href="https://www.kcl.ac.uk/policy-institute/assets/how-people-focus-and-live-in-the-modern-information-environment.pdf">new research</a> by the Policy Institute and Centre for <a href="https://attentionstudies.org/">Attention Studies at King’s College London</a>, we found some clear concerns. </p>
<p>Faced with the kinds of findings that arose from our research, it is easy to be nostalgic about a past that existed before the digital revolution. But new technologies have been blamed for causing crises of distraction long before the digital age, so how should we respond to the current challenges?</p>
<h2>An attention crisis?</h2>
<p>We surveyed a nationally representative sample of 2,093 UK adults in September 2021, asking about their perceptions of their attention spans, their beliefs in various claims about our ability to focus, and how they use technology today.</p>
<p>Half of those surveyed felt their attention spans were shorter than they used to be, compared with a quarter who didn’t. And three-quarters of participants agreed we’re living through a time where there’s non-stop competition for our attention from a variety of media channels and information outlets.</p>
<p>The distraction caused by mobile phones in particular appeared to be a real issue. Half of those surveyed admitted they couldn’t stop checking their phones when they should be focusing on other things – and this wasn’t just an issue for the young. Despite the generational stereotypes of teenagers glued to their screens, a majority of middle-aged people said they struggle with this too.</p>
<p>And although many recognised that they spent a lot of time on their phones, they still hugely underestimated just how much. The public’s average guess was that they checked their phones <a href="https://www.kcl.ac.uk/policy-institute/assets/how-people-focus-and-live-in-the-modern-information-environment.pdf">25 times a day</a> but according to previous research, the reality is more likely somewhere between 49 and 80 times a day.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="People looking at their phones." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/447277/original/file-20220218-17-1p03a7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/447277/original/file-20220218-17-1p03a7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=306&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447277/original/file-20220218-17-1p03a7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=306&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447277/original/file-20220218-17-1p03a7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=306&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447277/original/file-20220218-17-1p03a7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=385&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447277/original/file-20220218-17-1p03a7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=385&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447277/original/file-20220218-17-1p03a7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=385&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">People of all ages surveyed worried that they were too easily distracted by their phones.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/happy-people-using-smartphones-men-women-2112903008">GoodStudio/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There has long been a worry about the threat to attention brought by new cultural forms, whether that’s social media or the <a href="https://victorianweb.org/genre/sensation.html">cheap paperback sensation novels</a> of the 19th century. Even as far back as ancient Greece, Socrates lamented that the written word creates “<a href="https://newlearningonline.com/literacies/chapter-1/socrates-on-the-forgetfulness-that-comes-with-writing">forgetfulness in our souls”</a>“. There has always been a tendency to fear the effects new media and technologies will have on our minds.</p>
<p>The reality is we simply don’t have the long-term studies that tell us whether our collective attention span has actually shrunk. What we do know from our study is that people overestimate some of the problems. For example, half of those surveyed wrongly believed the <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-38896790">thoroughly debunked</a> claim that the average attention span among adults today is just eight seconds, supposedly worse than that of a goldfish. There’s not really any such thing as an average attention span. Our ability to focus varies hugely depending on the individual and the task at hand.</p>
<h2>Attention snacking</h2>
<p>It’s also important to not overlook the many benefits that technology brings to how we live. Much of the public surveyed recognised these, so while half thought big tech and social media were ruining young people’s attention spans, roughly another half felt that being easily distracted was more to do with people’s personalities than any negative influence that technology may or may not have.</p>
<p>That aside, is "dispersed” attention always a bad thing?</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Woman in supermarket looks at her phone as she grabs for a box." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/447280/original/file-20220218-43804-g919i8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/447280/original/file-20220218-43804-g919i8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447280/original/file-20220218-43804-g919i8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447280/original/file-20220218-43804-g919i8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447280/original/file-20220218-43804-g919i8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=520&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447280/original/file-20220218-43804-g919i8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=520&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447280/original/file-20220218-43804-g919i8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=520&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Does getting distracted by phones stop people from efficiently completing tasks?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/customer-choosing-buying-food-smartphone-grocery-2097481591">GoodStudio/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Two-thirds of the public in our study believed switching focus between different media and devices harms our ability to complete simple tasks – a belief confirmed by <a href="https://www.pnas.org/content/106/37/15583">psychological studies</a>. Intriguingly, half of the public also believed multi-tasking at work, switching frequently between email, phone calls, or other tasks, can create a more efficient and satisfactory work experience.</p>
<p>So what if we explore the benefits of distraction as well as the negative impacts? Might we find a more balanced picture in which distraction is not always in and of itself a bad thing, but a problem in certain contexts and productive in others? In other words, what if those lamenting a crisis in attention are not wrong, but only represent part of the picture?</p>
<p>For all the challenges we experience in having our attention toggle between tasks, in some scenarios, this might help refresh the mind, keep us alert, and stimulate brain connections and creativity. Unified attention may be an ideal, but it may not always be a realistic good for the type of animal that we humans are.</p>
<p>We hear about the benefits for the body of “<a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/sounds/play/p09ws5kv">exercise snacking</a>” or circuit training, so perhaps we need to ask how we might harness the potential benefits for the mind of “attention snacking”. The brain is, after all, a physical organ.</p>
<p>There is no question that we need to figure out how to live better with the “attention economy”, and that the monetisation of our attention is challenging us in fundamental ways. However, our electronic gadgets are not going away and we need to learn how to harness them (and the distractions they pose) for individual and social good.</p>
<p>Our attention has always been the only real currency we have, and for that reason, it has always been fought over; this is not a new problem, but in the digital age it is taking new forms. We need a better response to this situation – one that understands the risks but is also bolder in asking questions about the opportunities.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/177296/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Marion Thain is Director of the Centre for Attention Studies at King's College London (a university research centre). </span></em></p>‘Attention snacking’ may help keep us alert.Marion Thain, Dean of the Faculty of Arts and Humanities, King's College LondonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1735052022-01-04T13:07:30Z2022-01-04T13:07:30ZWhy does experiencing ‘flow’ feel so good? A communication scientist explains<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/438296/original/file-20211218-25-1ktuz4s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=87%2C227%2C2868%2C1623&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Research shows that people who have flow as a regular part of their lives are happier and less likely to focus on themselves.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/winter-holidays-in-ski-resort-royalty-free-image/1280113636?adppopup=true">Yulkapopkova/E+ via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>New years often come with new resolutions. Get back in shape. Read more. Make more time for friends and family. My list of resolutions might not look quite the same as yours, but each of our resolutions represents a plan for something new, or at least a little bit different. As you craft your 2022 resolutions, I hope that you will add one that is also on my list: feel more flow.</p>
<p>Psychologist Mihály Csíkszentmihályi’s <a href="https://www.harpercollins.com/products/flow-mihaly-csikszentmihalyi">research on flow</a> started in the 1970s. He has called it the “<a href="https://www.ted.com/talks/mihaly_csikszentmihalyi_flow_the_secret_to_happiness">secret to happiness</a>.” Flow is a state of “optimal experience” that each of us can incorporate into our everyday lives. One characterized by immense joy that makes a life worth living.</p>
<p>In the years since, researchers have gained a vast store of knowledge about what it is like to be in flow and how experiencing it is important for our overall mental health and well-being. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-53468-4_1">In short</a>, we are completely absorbed in a highly rewarding activity – and not in our inner monologues – when we feel flow. </p>
<p>I am an <a href="https://communication.ucdavis.edu/people/rwhuskey">assistant professor of communication and cognitive science</a>, and I have been studying flow for the last 10 years. My <a href="https://cogcommscience.com/">research lab</a> investigates what is happening in our brains when people experience flow. Our goal is to better understand how the experience happens and to make it easier for people to feel flow and its benefits.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A man paints on canvas in a studio." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/438884/original/file-20211222-21-jswvjh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/438884/original/file-20211222-21-jswvjh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438884/original/file-20211222-21-jswvjh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438884/original/file-20211222-21-jswvjh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438884/original/file-20211222-21-jswvjh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438884/original/file-20211222-21-jswvjh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438884/original/file-20211222-21-jswvjh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Flow can arise when playing games or engaged in artistic pursuits, like writing, photography, sculpting and painting.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/young-asian-male-woman-paint-drawing-acrylic-color-royalty-free-image/1314904308?adppopup=true">Somyot Techapuwapat/Moment via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What it is like to be in flow?</h2>
<p>People often say flow is like “being in the zone.” Psychologists Jeanne Nakamura and Csíkszentmihályi <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9088-8_16">describe it</a> as something more. When people feel flow, they are in a state of intense concentration. Their thoughts are focused on an experience rather than on themselves. They lose a sense of time and feel as if there is a merging of their actions and their awareness. That they have control over the situation. That the experience is not physically or mentally taxing.</p>
<p>Most importantly, flow is what researchers call an autotelic experience. Autotelic derives from two Greek words: autos (self) and telos (end or goal). Autotelic experiences are things that are worth doing in and of themselves. Researchers sometimes call these intrinsically rewarding experiences. Flow experiences are intrinsically rewarding.</p>
<h2>What causes flow?</h2>
<p>Flow occurs when a task’s <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9088-8_16">challenge is balanced with one’s skill</a>. In fact, both the task challenge and skill level have to be high. I often tell my students that they will not feel flow when they are doing the dishes. Most people are highly skilled dishwashers, and washing dishes is not a very challenging task.</p>
<p>So when do people experience flow? Csíkszentmihályi’s <a href="https://www.wiley.com/en-us/Beyond+Boredom+and+Anxiety%3A+Experiencing+Flow+in+Work+and+Play%2C+25th+Anniversary+Edition-p-9780787951405">research in the 1970s</a> focused on people doing tasks they enjoyed. He studied swimmers, music composers, chess players, dancers, mountain climbers and other athletes. He went on to study how people can find flow in more <a href="https://www.basicbooks.com/titles/mihaly-csikszentmihalhi/finding-flow/9780465024117/">everyday experiences</a>. I am an avid snowboarder, and I regularly feel flow on the mountain. Other people feel it by practicing yoga – not me, unfortunately! – by riding their bike, cooking or going for a run. So long as that task’s challenge is high, and so are your skills, you should be able to achieve flow.</p>
<p>Researchers also know that people can experience flow by using <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2885.2004.tb00318.x">interactive media</a>, like <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167207310026">playing a video game</a>. In fact, <a href="https://www.wiley.com/en-us/Beyond+Boredom+and+Anxiety%3A+Experiencing+Flow+in+Work+and+Play%2C+25th+Anniversary+Edition-p-9780787951405">Csíkszentmihályi said</a> that “games are obvious flow activities, and play is the flow experience par excellence.” <a href="https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/305501/reality-is-broken-by-jane-mcgonigal/">Video game developers</a> are very familiar with the idea, and they think hard about how to <a href="https://www.oreilly.com/library/view/theory-of-fun/9781449363208/">design games so that players feel flow</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/439289/original/file-20220104-19-82f3iv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Diagram of the relationship between difficulty of a challenge, skill level and the experience of flow." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/439289/original/file-20220104-19-82f3iv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/439289/original/file-20220104-19-82f3iv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439289/original/file-20220104-19-82f3iv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439289/original/file-20220104-19-82f3iv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439289/original/file-20220104-19-82f3iv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439289/original/file-20220104-19-82f3iv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439289/original/file-20220104-19-82f3iv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Flow occurs when a task’s challenge – and one’s skills at the task – are both high.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Adapted from Nakamura/Csíkszentmihályi</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Why is it good to feel flow?</h2>
<p>Earlier I said that Csíkszentmihályi called flow “the secret to happiness.” Why is that? For one thing, the experience can help people <a href="https://doi.org/10.1521/soco.2021.39.4.526">pursue their long-term goals</a>. This is because research shows that taking a break to do something fun can help enhance one’s <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167220941998">self-control, goal pursuit and well-being</a>. </p>
<p>So next time you are feeling like a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12107">guilty couch potato</a> for playing a video game, remind yourself that you are actually doing something that can help set you up for long-term success and well-being. Importantly, quality – and not necessarily quantity – matters. Research shows that spending a lot of time playing video games only has a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.202049">very small influence</a> on your overall well-being. Focus on finding games that help you feel flow, rather than on spending more time playing games.</p>
<p>A recent study also shows that flow helps people <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.05.005">stay resilient</a> in the face of adversity. Part of this is because flow can help <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000479">refocus thoughts</a> away from something stressful to something enjoyable. In fact, studies have shown that experiencing flow can help guard against <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2017.09.017">depression and burnout</a>.</p>
<p>Research also shows that people who experienced <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0242043">stronger feelings of flow had better well-being</a> during the COVID-19 quarantine compared to people who had weaker experiences. This might be because feeling flow helped distract them from worrying. </p>
<h2>What is your brain doing during flow?</h2>
<p>Researchers have been studying flow for nearly 50 years, but only recently have they begun to decipher what is going on in the brain during flow. One of my colleagues, media neuroscientist René Weber, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2885.2009.01352.x">has proposed</a> that flow is associated with a specific brain-network configuration. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.pbr.2017.06.012">Supporting Weber’s hypothesis</a>, studies show that the experience is associated with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.08.019">activity in brain structures</a> implicated in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsr021">feeling reward</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsv133">pursuing our goals</a>. This may be one reason why flow feels so enjoyable and why people are so focused on tasks that make them feel flow. Research also shows that flow is associated with <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2016.00169">decreased activity</a> in brain structures implicated in self-focus. This may help explain why feeling flow can help distract people from worry.</p>
<p>[<em>Get the best of The Conversation, every weekend.</em> <a href="https://memberservices.theconversation.com/newsletters/?nl=weekly&source=inline-weeklybest">Sign up for our weekly newsletter</a>.]</p>
<p><a href="https://www.medianeuroscience.org/">Weber</a>, <a href="https://www.jacobtfisher.com/">Jacob Fisher</a> and I have developed a video game called <a href="https://github.com/asteroidimpact/asteroid_impact_py3">Asteroid Impact</a> to help us better study flow. In my own research, I have participants <a href="https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-018-0612-6">play Asteroid Impact</a> while having their brain scanned. My work has shown that flow is associated with a specific brain network configuration that has <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/joc/jqy043">low energy requirements</a>. This may help explain why we do not experience flow as being physically or mentally demanding. I have also shown that, instead of maintaining one stable network configuration, the brain actually <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/joc/jqab044">changes its network configuration</a> during flow. This is important because <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nn.3470">rapid brain network reconfiguration</a> helps people adapt to difficult tasks.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Asteroid Impact" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/438518/original/file-20211220-18663-1qo5axk.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/438518/original/file-20211220-18663-1qo5axk.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438518/original/file-20211220-18663-1qo5axk.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438518/original/file-20211220-18663-1qo5axk.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438518/original/file-20211220-18663-1qo5axk.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438518/original/file-20211220-18663-1qo5axk.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438518/original/file-20211220-18663-1qo5axk.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A player controls a spaceship to collect crystals and avoid asteroids in a video game called Asteroid Impact.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jacob Fisher via https://github.com/asteroidimpact/asteroid_impact_py3</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What more can the brain tell us?</h2>
<p>Right now, researchers do not know how brain responses associated with flow contribute to well-being. With very <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-018-5378-0">few exceptions</a>, there is almost no research on how brain responses actually cause flow. Every neuroscience study I described earlier was correlational, not causal. Said differently, we can conclude that these brain responses are associated with flow. We cannot conclude that these brain responses cause flow.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.05.005">Researchers think</a> the connection between flow and well-being has something to do with three things: suppressing brain activation in structures associated with thinking about ourselves, dampening activation in structures associated with negative thoughts, and increasing activation in reward-processing regions.</p>
<p>I’d argue that testing this hypothesis is vital. Medical professionals have started to use video games in <a href="https://www.akiliinteractive.com/">clinical applications</a> to help treat attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, or ADHD. Maybe one day a clinician will be able to help prescribe a Food and Drug Adminstration-approved video game to help bolster someone’s resilience or help them fight off depression. </p>
<p>That is probably several years into the future, <a href="https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/8cxyh">if it is even possible at all</a>. Right now, I hope that you will resolve to find more flow in your everyday life. You may find that this helps you achieve your other resolutions, too.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/173505/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Richard Huskey does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Research shows that people with more flow in their lives had a higher sense of well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic. Scientists are beginning to explore what happens in the brain during flow.Richard Huskey, Assistant Professor of Communication and Cognitive Science, University of California, DavisLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1669502021-09-07T20:07:48Z2021-09-07T20:07:48ZIf you’re annoyed by other people’s fidgeting or finger-tapping, you’re not alone: Misokinesia affects 1 in 3<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/419857/original/file-20210907-23-1givmyz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=853%2C103%2C4725%2C3681&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Annoyance with others' fidgeting can reduce peoples' ability to enjoy social interactions, impair one's ability to learn in the classroom and create difficulties at work.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Are you bothered by seeing someone else fidget? Do you ever have strong negative feelings, thoughts or physical reactions when viewing other peoples’ repetitive movements such as foot shaking, finger tapping or gum chewing?</p>
<p>Well, if you do, you aren’t alone. </p>
<p>In <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-96430-4">a new study</a> we ran as attentional neuroscientists, we put that question to a sample of over 2,700 undergraduates and found that more than one-third said yes. And it wasn’t just students who had such sensitivities. When we went out and asked people in the general population about how they feel when others around them begin to twiddle, tap or jiggle, they too reported negative reactions at a similar rate. </p>
<p>Many of us humans, it turns out, are challenged by fidgeting.</p>
<h2>‘Hatred of movement’</h2>
<p>Termed misokinesia, or “the hatred of movement” in Greek, these reactions can have <a href="https://drezracowan.com/misokinesia">serious social impacts</a> for those who experience them. As our findings confirmed, it can reduce peoples’ ability to enjoy social interactions, impair one’s ability to learn in the classroom and create difficulties at work. </p>
<p>There was a lot of individual variability in the range of challenges people reported: some had a lot of difficulties, some just a few. We also discovered that these negative social impacts seem to increase with age — the older you get, the more intense and widespread your misokinesia reactions may be.</p>
<p>And perhaps even more surprising? We’re only learning this now.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A man's hands twiddling his thumbs" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/419317/original/file-20210903-13-3a75bd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/419317/original/file-20210903-13-3a75bd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/419317/original/file-20210903-13-3a75bd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/419317/original/file-20210903-13-3a75bd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/419317/original/file-20210903-13-3a75bd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/419317/original/file-20210903-13-3a75bd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/419317/original/file-20210903-13-3a75bd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A study on misokinesia found one in three people is annoyed or angered when other people twiddle thumbs, tap a foot, or otherwise fidget.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For several decades there has been growing scientific recognition of a similar challenge associated with hearing the sounds other people make. If you are bothered by sounds like slurping, lip-smacking and gum chewing, you may have a disorder called misophonia. It’s defined, in a paper that has not been peer-reviewed, as a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1101/2021.04.05.21254951">decreased tolerance to specific sounds, in which such sounds evoke strong negative emotional, physiological and behavioural responses</a>.</p>
<p>Misokinesia, on the other hand, has remained in the scientific shadows. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0054706">Originally mentioned</a> in a study of misophonia by the Dutch psychiatrist Arjan Schröder and his colleagues in 2013, it had never been the focus of a peer-reviewed study until our paper was published in August. So for now, we have a lot more questions than answers.</p>
<p>Most prominent among these is, why are so many of us bothered by fidgeting?</p>
<h2>Why we fidget</h2>
<p>We think the answer might tie back to why we fidget in the first place. In addition to evidence suggesting that we often fidget as a way to mindlessly burn <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.283.5399.212">extra calories</a>, another clear reason is that we do it when we are feeling <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10615806.2014.919386">nervous or anxious</a>. And that’s where the problem may be for those who have to see it.</p>
<p>The trouble is, our human brains are equipped with an exquisite capacity to mimic the actions we see others perform. This is the function of our so-called “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.neuro.27.070203.144230">mirror neuron system</a>,” which helps us understand the actions and intentions of others by “mirroring” their actions in the same brain areas that we would use to make similar actions of our own. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Fingers drumming on a desk" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/419319/original/file-20210903-25-dhzc00.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/419319/original/file-20210903-25-dhzc00.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/419319/original/file-20210903-25-dhzc00.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/419319/original/file-20210903-25-dhzc00.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/419319/original/file-20210903-25-dhzc00.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/419319/original/file-20210903-25-dhzc00.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/419319/original/file-20210903-25-dhzc00.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Misokenesia can affect social interactions, ability to learn in school or workplace interactions.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>While this can be critical to normal human <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2013.0184">social interactions</a>, if we start mirroring actions that we associate with anxiety and other negative emotional states — actions like nervous fidgeting — that very well may trigger those negative states as we observe them. While this is speculative for now, we will soon be exploring it as an explanation for misokinesia in a new set of experiments.</p>
<p>But importantly, there is also a lot more to misokinesia’s immediate impacts than just the potential rush of negative emotions whenever fidgeting is encountered, and this raises another pressing question we’ve been pursuing.</p>
<h2>Fidgeting and attention</h2>
<p>In a new experiment we have yet to publish, we recently asked people to watch a pair of short instructional videos that showed a person talking, and then after each video we gave them a memory assessment, to determine how much information they retained from each one. The critical manipulation was that in one video the person talking occasionally fidgeted with their hand, and in the other they did not.</p>
<p>In interviews we’ve had with misokinesics, a common report is that beyond the aversive reactions fidgeting can trigger, it also impedes peoples’ ability to pay attention to whatever else may be happening around them. And so this raised another question for us — does misokinesia distract people from their surroundings?</p>
<p>The answer, our preliminary data suggest, is yes.</p>
<p>For those with higher levels of misokinesia, their memory performance was worse relative to both those not reporting any sensitivities, and those with lower sensitivity levels. And the effect wasn’t just due to overall poorer memory systems in those with higher levels of misokinesia; they performed equally well on basic assessments of memory.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/419860/original/file-20210907-13-q8kc73.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A woman in business clothes clicking a ballpoint pen" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/419860/original/file-20210907-13-q8kc73.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/419860/original/file-20210907-13-q8kc73.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/419860/original/file-20210907-13-q8kc73.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/419860/original/file-20210907-13-q8kc73.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/419860/original/file-20210907-13-q8kc73.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/419860/original/file-20210907-13-q8kc73.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/419860/original/file-20210907-13-q8kc73.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Repetitive motions such as clicking a pen or tapping a finger can trigger negative reactions in people with misokinesia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>While this second study is still awaiting peer-review, what it helps to confirm is that misokinesia isn’t just an experience of negative emotions. It alters how people can engage with the world around them, impacting what they see, hear, or might otherwise simply enjoy.</p>
<p>This also helps to explain something else we’ve recently found. </p>
<p>In unpublished interviews we’ve had with misokinesics, they have reported adopting a variety of strategies to help them cope with these negative emotions and attentional distractions, including leaving rooms, blocking individuals from view, seeking out cognitive behavioural therapy and even physically mimicking the observed fidgeting behaviour. </p>
<p>Given what we’re now learning about misokinesia, this shouldn’t be surprising — the impacts can be serious, people need support, and we need to be more aware of this widespread social challenge.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/166950/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Todd Handy receives funding from NSERC. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sumeet Jaswal does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>If fidgety movements like drumming fingers or a swaying foot annoy you, there’s a word for that: Misokinesia.Todd Handy, Professor of Psychology, University of British ColumbiaSumeet Jaswal, PhD Student in Psychology, University of British ColumbiaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1645362021-07-23T12:15:25Z2021-07-23T12:15:25ZA winning edge for the Olympics and everyday life: Focusing on what you’re trying to accomplish rather than what’s going on with your body<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412756/original/file-20210722-13-1s2pyjg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=87%2C554%2C4116%2C2831&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Athletes' game-time concentration is legendary – but what should they be focusing on?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/germanys-defender-benjamin-henrichs-and-brazils-midfielder-news-photo/1234108664">Yoshikazu Tsuno/AFP via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>How do you get to the Olympics? Practice, practice, practice … but also know what to concentrate on during the heat of competition.</p>
<p>How fast someone runs, swims or rows; how high or long they jump; how accurately they hit a target; how well they balance; or how much weight they can lift depends to a significant extent on where they focus their attention.</p>
<p>I’m a sport scientist who for decades has <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=66RHFowAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">studied how people learn motor skills</a>. In the late 1990s I began examining how a performer’s <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20037032/">focus of attention</a> influences learning. </p>
<p>Research suggests that what an athlete concentrates on can be the difference between winning the gold and not even making the team. What might be surprising is that shifting your focus from within yourself – what’s going on in your body – to what’s out there – what you’re trying to accomplish – is a winning strategy.</p>
<h2>An athlete’s brain is busy</h2>
<p>Consider what the brain needs to do to organize complex movements.</p>
<p>It must coordinate the contractions of the necessary muscles – ensuring that they happen at the right time, for the proper duration, and with the required intensity. It also must inhibit other muscles, basically telling those not involved in the movement to stay on the sidelines for the moment.</p>
<p>Temporary task-specific connections among relevant brain networks are a precondition for smooth, efficient and precise movements. The functional <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0077764">connectivity</a> of certain brain areas and the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.01.003">suppression</a> of other areas enable an athlete to produce elegant jump shots, tennis strokes, golf swings or tumbling routines.</p>
<p>Learning to produce effective brain activation patterns is a long-term process, of course. Achieving a skill level at which performance is consistently accurate, automatic, fluent and economical requires considerable practice. Athletes hone their skills over many years or even decades.</p>
<p>Nevertheless, at the moment they perform, their focus of attention plays a critical role. If athletes have the wrong focus, their performance will suffer.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412757/original/file-20210722-25-p8zm52.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="female archer pulls back the bowstring" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412757/original/file-20210722-25-p8zm52.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412757/original/file-20210722-25-p8zm52.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412757/original/file-20210722-25-p8zm52.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412757/original/file-20210722-25-p8zm52.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412757/original/file-20210722-25-p8zm52.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412757/original/file-20210722-25-p8zm52.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412757/original/file-20210722-25-p8zm52.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Thinking of how the arrow will fly into the target yields better results than thinking about how your hand should grip the bow.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/in-this-handout-image-provided-by-the-world-archery-news-photo/1233565513">Dean Alberga/Handout/World Archery Federation via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Where to target your focus</h2>
<p>Based on the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2012.723728">findings of numerous studies</a>, it’s clear athletes should never concentrate on their own movements – what movement scientists call an internal focus of attention.</p>
<p>This might seem contradictory to the way many people learn a new sport. After all, those who instruct others in the process of acquiring movement skills typically refer to body movements. Think of a coach telling a young basketball player to flick her wrist while shooting the ball, or a golf coach telling a player to focus on his hip rotation. Consequently, athletes think about how to move their body parts, particularly in the early stages of learning. </p>
<p>But surveys have found that <a href="https://doi.org/10.12678/1089-313X.20.1.23">even experienced athletes often focus internally</a>. Especially when they’re under pressure – as they would be during competition – they tend to concentrate on their movements. Often, the result is that they “choke.”</p>
<p>Instead, for <a href="https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-015-0999-9">optimal performance</a>, the focus should be on the movement goal. This is called an external focus of attention.</p>
<p>It can mean concentrating on a target to be hit, such as the corner of a goal, a golf hole, a bull’s-eye or a catcher’s mitt. It can also be the intended motion or trajectory of an implement such as a javelin, discus or barbell; the desired spin of a ball; the force exerted against an apparatus or piece of equipment, the floor or an opponent; the water being pushed back in swimming or rowing; or the finish line in a race.</p>
<p>What it is not is the hand releasing the object or pulling the water back, the muscles producing the force, or the speed of leg movements.</p>
<h2>More efficient to focus on what than how</h2>
<p>Focusing on the intended outcome of your actions, rather than your body movements, reveals the body’s remarkable capability to produce effective and efficient movements. Even <a href="https://journals.humankinetics.com/view/journals/jmld/1/1/article-p2.xml">movement form</a> or <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02640414.2015.1012102?journalCode=rjsp20">technique</a> often improves immediately when a person switches from an internal to an external focus of attention. The body does what it has to do to complete the action – unless you interfere via conscious attempts to control your movements.</p>
<p>Researchers have noted the effects of an external focus on many aspects of performance: improved movement <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200902795323">accuracy</a>, enhanced <a href="https://rua.ua.es/dspace/bitstream/10045/67983/1/jhse_Vol_12_N_2_463-479.pdf">balance</a>, greater <a href="https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000001194">maximum forces</a>, higher <a href="https://doi.org/10.1260/1747-9541.5.4.533">speed</a> and better <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2011.10599779">endurance</a>.</p>
<p>With an external focus, movements are more efficient. Because brain and muscle activity are optimized, the resulting movements are produced with less energy. This is seen, for example, in <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19787539/">reduced oxygen uptake</a> or <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2013-03359-002">lower heart rates</a> for the same physical work when performers adopt an external focus.</p>
<p>Researchers have quantified just how much of an edge this focus shift can provide to athletes. With an external focus:</p>
<ul>
<li>The same <a href="https://doi.org/10.1260/1747-9541.6.1.99">swimmers swam 1.4% faster</a> over the length of a 25-yard pool.</li>
<li>Resistance-trained individuals produced <a href="https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000001194">9% greater maximal forces</a>, or were able to complete <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2011.10599779">11.4% more repetitions</a> with the same weight.</li>
<li>Boxers <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2016.1175651">punched 4% faster and 5% more forcefully</a>.</li>
<li>Runners needed <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/02640410903150467">9.5% less oxygen for the same running speed and distance</a>.</li>
<li>Kayakers completed a 100-meter wildwater sprint <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2020.102708">4.3% (or 1.3 seconds) faster</a>.</li>
</ul>
<p>Considering that races are often won or lost by very small margins, sometimes in the range of hundredths of a second, an athlete’s focus of attention can determine whether or not they win a medal. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412758/original/file-20210722-17-1p60ge.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="older man leans in and looks at his hands on the piano keyboard" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412758/original/file-20210722-17-1p60ge.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412758/original/file-20210722-17-1p60ge.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412758/original/file-20210722-17-1p60ge.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412758/original/file-20210722-17-1p60ge.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412758/original/file-20210722-17-1p60ge.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412758/original/file-20210722-17-1p60ge.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412758/original/file-20210722-17-1p60ge.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Don’t overthink it – let your hands do what they know how to do.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/the-elderly-man-enjoy-playing-piano-at-home-royalty-free-image/1191366938">Nitat Termmee/Moment via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Plenty of benefits beyond Olympic stadium</h2>
<p>While most people will never be Olympians, an external focus provides benefits regardless of the performer’s level of expertise, age or (dis)ability, or the type of skill.</p>
<p>[<em>Over 100,000 readers rely on The Conversation’s newsletter to understand the world.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=100Ksignup">Sign up today</a>.]</p>
<p>Whether you are learning to play a musical instrument or are an <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0022429418801573">experienced musician</a>, an external focus will result in better performance. Whether you are an older adult with <a href="https://doi.org/10.2522/ptj.20080045">Parkinson’s disease</a> or a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2019.1626489">young healthy adult</a>, your balance will be enhanced by an external focus. Whether you are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcomdis.2013.02.002">unimpaired</a> or had a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0269215513513963">stroke</a>, you will perform <a href="https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.56.4.380">activities of daily living</a> more effectively with an external focus.</p>
<p>It turns out your body can more masterfully execute the actions you desire if you’re able to move your conscious focus from what your body is doing and instead think about what you want to accomplish.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/164536/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gabriele Wulf does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A researcher who studies physical skills explains how getting your conscious thoughts out of the way lets your body do what it knows how to do, better.Gabriele Wulf, Distinguished Professor, Department of Kinesiology and Nutrition Sciences, University of Nevada, Las VegasLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1636422021-07-01T01:25:27Z2021-07-01T01:25:27ZWhat is daydreaming? Parts of the brain show sleep-like activity when your mind wanders<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/409047/original/file-20210630-25-mdldot.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C2081%2C1323&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Our attention is a powerful lens, allowing our brains to pick out the relevant details out of the overwhelming flow of information reaching us every second. </p>
<p>However, scientists <a href="https://science.sciencemag.org/content/330/6006/932">estimate</a> we spend up to half our waking lives thinking about something other than the task at hand: our minds are wandering. This is striking considering the potential negative consequences, from decreased school or work performance to tragic traffic accidents.</p>
<p>We also know that mind-wandering and lapses of attention are more common when we are sleep-deprived, which suggests they may happen when the neurons in our brain start behaving in a way that resembles sleep. We tested the relationship between sleep and lapses of attention in new research published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-021-23890-7">Nature Communications</a>.</p>
<p>By monitoring people’s brainwaves against their self-reported states of attention, we found that mind-wandering seems to happen when parts of the brain fall asleep while most of it remains awake. </p>
<h2>Parts of the brain can sleep while you’re awake</h2>
<p>Directing our attention inwards can be very useful. It can let us focus on our inner thoughts, manipulate abstract concepts, retrieve memories, or discover creative solutions. But the ideal balance between focusing on the outer and inner worlds is hard to strike, and our ability to stay focused on a given task is surprisingly limited.</p>
<hr>
<p><a href="https://open.spotify.com/episode/6vdmzMsR4I2ygSTbfLJzUi?si=j9Cco_ygSSGIpRGMYRTOZQ&context=spotify%3Ashow%3A14O3EsEGWQ4mK3XpKzsncP&t=1605&dl_branch=1"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/420288/original/file-20210909-17-1wy3dsd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=212&fit=crop&dpr=1" alt="Promotional image for podcast" width="100%"></a>
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<em>Find other ways to listen to <a href="https://theconversation.com/back-to-school-what-works-to-keep-children-safe-from-covid-19-podcast-167125">The Conversation Weekly podcast</a> here.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>When we get tired, our control of attention goes awry. At the same time, our brains starts showing local activity that resembles sleep while most of the brain appears clearly awake. This phenomenon, known as “local sleep”, was first seen in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature10009">sleep-deprived animals</a> and then <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnins.2019.00949/full">in humans</a>. </p>
<p>We wanted to investigate whether local sleep might also happen in well-rested people, and whether it could trigger shifts in attention. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/memory-and-attention-difficulties-are-often-part-of-a-normal-life-119539">Memory and attention difficulties are often part of a normal life</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Wandering minds and blank minds</h2>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/409046/original/file-20210630-15-7nbvoo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/409046/original/file-20210630-15-7nbvoo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/409046/original/file-20210630-15-7nbvoo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=613&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/409046/original/file-20210630-15-7nbvoo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=613&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/409046/original/file-20210630-15-7nbvoo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=613&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/409046/original/file-20210630-15-7nbvoo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=770&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/409046/original/file-20210630-15-7nbvoo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=770&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/409046/original/file-20210630-15-7nbvoo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=770&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Sustained Attention to Response Tasks (SARTs) in the experiment asked participants to view a stream of either faces or digits, and press a button if the face was smiling or the digit was a 3. At the same time, their brainwaves were recorded and they were asked at random intervals about whether they were paying attention.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-021-23890-7">Andrillon et al, Nature Communications (2021)</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>To better understand the relationship between brain activity and lapses of attention, we asked healthy young volunteers to perform a rather boring task requiring continuous attention. As anticipated, their attention frequently shifted away from the task. And when their attention lapsed, their performance decreased.</p>
<p>But we also wanted to know what exactly was going through their minds when their attention was not on the task. So we interrupted them at random intervals and asked them what they were thinking about at that moment.</p>
<p>Participants could indicate whether they were focusing on the task, their mind was wandering (thinking about something other than the task), or their mind was blank (not thinking about anything at all).</p>
<p>In parallel, we recorded their brain activity with an electroencephalogram, which consists of a set of sensors placed on the head that can monitor the rhythms of the brain. Thanks to this non-invasive brain imaging technique, we could search for signs of sleep within wakefulness during the entire task. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-what-happens-in-our-bodies-when-we-sleep-94301">Curious Kids: What happens in our bodies when we sleep?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>In particular we focused on “slow waves”, a hallmark of sleep involving brief silences from assemblies of neurons. Our hypothesis was that these lapses in neuron activity could explain lapses in attention. </p>
<p>We found local slow waves could predict episodes of mind wandering and mind blanking as well as changes in participants’ behaviour during these lapses of attention.</p>
<p>Importantly, the location of slow waves distinguished whether participants were mind wandering or blanking. When slow waves occurred in the front of the brain, participants had the tendency to be more impulsive and to mind wander. When slow waves occurred in the back of the brain, participants were more sluggish, missed responses and mind blanked. </p>
<h2>Sleep-like brainwaves predicts failure of attention</h2>
<p>These results can easily be understood through the concept of local sleep. If sleep-like slow waves really do correspond to local bouts of sleep in people who are otherwise awake, the effect of the slow waves should depend on where they occur in the brain and the function of those brain regions as we have found.</p>
<p>This suggests that a single phenomenon – local sleep intrusions during waking hours – could explain a broad range of attentional lapses, from mind-wandering and impulsivity to “going blank” and sluggishness.</p>
<p>Furthermore, our results suggest that local sleep might represent an everyday phenomenon that can affect us all, even if we are not particularly sleep-deprived. Our participants were simply going about the task at hand. Yet, without realising it, parts of their brains seemed to go offline repeatedly throughout the experiment.</p>
<h2>Local sleep and attentional deficits</h2>
<p>We are currently exploring whether this phenomenon of local sleep could be exacerbated in some individuals. For example, most people suffering from attentional deficits and/or hyperactivity disorders (ADHD) also report disrupted sleep. This may result in an increase in local sleep episodes during the day and could explain part of their attentional problems.</p>
<p>Finally, this new study reaffirms how sleep and wakefulness can be intermingled in the human brain. It parallels <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2468867319301889">studies</a> in sleep showing how the brain can locally “wake up” in order to process sensory information coming from the environment. Here, we show the opposite phenomenon and how sleep intrusions during wakefulness can make our minds wander somewhere or nowhere. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/improving-sleep-in-children-with-adhd-has-some-lessons-for-all-parents-78536">Improving sleep in children with ADHD has some lessons for all parents</a>
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</em>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/163642/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Thomas Andrillon receives funding from the Human Frontier Science Program and the National Health and Medical Research Council. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jennifer Windt receives funding from the Australian Research Council and the National Health and Medical Research Council.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Naotsugu Tsuchiya receives funding from the Australian Research Council, the National Health Medical Research Council, the Fundamental Question Institute and Fetzer Franklin Fund, a donor advised fund of Silicon Valley Community Foundation, and the Japan Society for Promotion of Science. </span></em></p>When you lose focus or your mind goes blank, sections of your brain may be having a quick snooze.Thomas Andrillon, Chercheur en neurosciences à l'Institut du Cerveau - Paris Brain Institute, InsermJennifer Windt, Senior Research Fellow, Monash UniversityNaotsugu Tsuchiya, Professor, Monash UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1586172021-05-14T12:37:10Z2021-05-14T12:37:10ZTo navigate the dangers of the web, you need critical thinking – but also critical ignoring<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/406451/original/file-20210615-3629-bog7jr.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C4%2C1511%2C906&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Online, critical ignoring is just as important as critical thinking. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/illustration/computer-data-royalty-free-illustration/1069651200?adppopup=true">romeocane1/ iStock / Getty Images Plus</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The web is a treacherous place. </p>
<p>A website’s author may not be its author. References that confer legitimacy may have little to do with the claims they anchor. Signals of credibility like a <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/05/opinion/dot-org-domain.html">dot-org domain</a> can be the artful handiwork of a Washington, D.C., public relations maven. </p>
<p>Unless you possess multiple Ph.D.’s – in virology, economics and the intricacies of immigration policy – often the wisest thing to do when landing on an unfamiliar site is to ignore it.</p>
<p>Learning to ignore information is not something taught in school. School teaches the opposite: to read a text <a href="http://www.ascd.org/publications/educational-leadership/dec12/vol70/num04/Closing-in-on-Close-Reading.aspx">thoroughly and closely</a> before rendering judgment. Anything short of that is rash. </p>
<p>But on the web, where a witches’ brew of <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-switch/wp/2015/12/22/regulators-have-a-warning-for-ads-that-masquerade-as-real-content/">advertisers</a>, <a href="https://www.opensecrets.org/news/2020/05/dark-money-networks-fake-news-sites/">lobbyists</a>, <a href="https://www.wired.com/story/wired-guide-to-conspiracy-theories/">conspiracy theorists</a> and <a href="https://www.lawfareblog.com/foreign-funded-ngos-political-power-and-democratic-legitimacy">foreign governments</a> conspire to hijack attention, the same strategy spells doom. Online, critical ignoring is just as important as critical thinking. </p>
<p>That’s because, like a pinball bouncing from bumper to bumper, our attention careens from notification to text message to the next vibrating thing we must check. </p>
<p>The cost of all this overabundance, as the late Nobel Laureate Herbert Simon observed, is scarcity. A flood of information depletes attention and fractures the ability to concentrate. </p>
<p>Modern society, <a href="https://digitalcollections.library.cmu.edu/awweb/awarchive?type=file&item=33748">wrote Simon</a>, faces a challenge: to learn to “allocate attention efficiently among the overabundance of sources that might consume it.” </p>
<p>We’re losing the battle between attention and information.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/400119/original/file-20210511-23-vv8cru.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A man at a desk with several computer screens and looking at his cellphone." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/400119/original/file-20210511-23-vv8cru.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/400119/original/file-20210511-23-vv8cru.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/400119/original/file-20210511-23-vv8cru.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/400119/original/file-20210511-23-vv8cru.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/400119/original/file-20210511-23-vv8cru.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/400119/original/file-20210511-23-vv8cru.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/400119/original/file-20210511-23-vv8cru.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">It’s possible to learn how to ignore what’s calling to us from the web.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/man-working-in-home-office-royalty-free-image/1300319507?adppopup=true">MoMo Productions/DigitalVision/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>‘Glued to the site’</h2>
<p>As <a href="http://scholar.google.com/citations?user=cw1v_08AAAAJ&hl=en">an applied psychologist</a>, I study how people determine what is true online.</p>
<p>My research team at <a href="https://sheg.stanford.edu/">Stanford University</a> recently tested a national sample of <a href="https://purl.stanford.edu/cz440cm8408">3,446 high school students</a> on their ability to evaluate digital sources. Armed with a live internet connection, students examined a <a href="http://co2science.org/about/mission.php">website</a> that claims to “disseminate factual reports” on climate science. </p>
<p>Students were asked to judge whether the site was reliable. A screen prompt reminded them that they could search anywhere online to reach their answer. </p>
<p>Instead of leaving the site, the vast majority did exactly what school teaches: They stayed glued to the site – and read. They consulted the “About” page, clicked on technical reports, and examined graphs and charts. Unless they happened to possess a master’s degree in climate science, the site, filled with the trappings of academic research, looked, well, pretty good. </p>
<p>The few students – less than 2% – who learned <a href="https://www.motherjones.com/environment/2009/12/dirty-dozen-climate-change-denial-11-idso-family/">the site was backed by the fossil fuel industry</a> did so not because they applied critical thinking to its contents. They succeeded because they hopped off the website and consulted the open web. They used the web to read the web. </p>
<p>As a student who searched the internet for the group’s name wrote: “It has ties to large companies that want to purposefully mislead people when it comes to climate change. According to <a href="https://usatoday30.usatoday.com/tech/science/2006-09-20-scientists-exxon_x.htm">USA Today</a>, Exxon has sponsored this nonprofit to pump out misleading information on climate change.”</p>
<p>Instead of getting tangled up in the site’s reports or suckered into its neutral-sounding language, this student did what professional fact checkers do: She evaluated the site by leaving it. Fact checkers engage in what we call <a href="https://www.niemanlab.org/2017/10/even-smart-people-are-shockingly-bad-at-analyzing-sources-online-this-might-be-an-actual-solution/">lateral reading</a>, opening up new tabs across the top of their screens to search for information about an organization or individual before diving into a site’s contents. </p>
<p>Only after consulting the open web do they gauge whether expending attention is worth it. They know that the first step in critical thinking is knowing when to deploy it.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/400121/original/file-20210511-13-gq513h.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A man in a suit standing in a rowboat on a sea filled with binary symbols." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/400121/original/file-20210511-13-gq513h.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/400121/original/file-20210511-13-gq513h.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/400121/original/file-20210511-13-gq513h.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/400121/original/file-20210511-13-gq513h.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/400121/original/file-20210511-13-gq513h.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/400121/original/file-20210511-13-gq513h.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/400121/original/file-20210511-13-gq513h.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A flood of information depletes attention and fractures the ability to concentrate.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/man-adrift-in-tiny-boat-in-binary-ocean-royalty-free-image/466169430?adppopup=true">bestdesigns/iStock/Getty Images Plus</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Critical thinking</h2>
<p>The good news is that students can be taught to read the internet this way. </p>
<p>In an <a href="https://misinforeview.hks.harvard.edu/article/lateral-reading-college-students-learn-to-critically-evaluate-internet-sources-in-an-online-course/">online nutrition course</a> at the University of North Texas, we embedded short instructional videos that demonstrated the dangers of dwelling on an unknown site and taught students how to evaluate it. </p>
<p>At the beginning of the course, students were duped by features that are ludicrously easy to game: a site’s “look,” the presence of links to established sources, strings of scientific references or the sheer quantity of information a site provides. </p>
<p>On the test we gave at the beginning of the semester, only three in 87 students left a site to evaluate it. By the end, over three-quarters did. Other researchers, teaching the same strategies, have found <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s41235-021-00291-4">similarly hopeful</a> results. </p>
<p>Learning to resist the lure of dubious information demands more than a new strategy in students’ digital tool box. It requires the humility that comes from facing one’s vulnerability: that despite formidable intellectual powers and critical thinking skills, no one is immune to the slippery ruses plied by today’s digital rogues. </p>
<p>By dwelling on an unfamiliar site, imagining ourselves smart enough to outsmart it, we squander attention and cede control to the site’s designers. </p>
<p>Spending a few moments vetting the site by drawing on the awesome powers of the open web, we regain control and with it our most precious resource: Our attention.</p>
<p>[<em>Understand key political developments, each week.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/politics-weekly-74/?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=politics-understand">Subscribe to The Conversation’s politics newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/158617/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sam Wineburg has received funding from the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation, the Poynter Institute, and the Spencer Foundation.</span></em></p>School teaches us to read a text carefully in order to understand it. But on the web, ignoring information is a survival skill.Sam Wineburg, Professor of Education and (by courtesy) History, Stanford UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1587462021-05-07T12:44:58Z2021-05-07T12:44:58ZPopping toys, the latest fidget craze, might reduce stress for adults and children alike<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/398729/original/file-20210504-23-va72wt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5974%2C3988&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Popping toys like this one can relieve stress and anxiety and are just plain fun.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/cute-faceless-child-playing-pop-fidget-1948671091">Inna Reznik/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The newest fidget craze is popping toys. Adults and kids <a href="https://www.bountyparents.com.au/news-views/pop-it-fidget-toy-craze/">all over the world</a> have been <a href="https://www.newsday.com/lifestyle/family/popping-toys-long-island-1.50198045">buying up</a> this endlessly reusable version of a longtime favorite fidget activity: popping bubble wrap. Made of silicone and coming in a range of colors, shapes and sizes, they are half-sphere “bubbles” that can be pushed in, making a satisfying soft popping sound. After “popping” them all, you can turn the toy over and start again from the other side. </p>
<p>Some might remember the <a href="https://theconversation.com/fidget-toys-arent-just-hype-77456">fidget spinner craze of 2017</a> and the controversy that these devices caused, with some teachers even <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/answer-sheet/wp/2017/06/01/schools-are-banning-fidget-spinners-calling-them-nuisances-and-even-dangerous/">banning them from classrooms</a>. Popping toys raise the perennial question of whether and when fidget toys might be useful. Are they a nuisance? Or could having them help you or your children manage <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/09/us/quarantine-mental-health-gender.html">pandemic stress and fuzzy thinking</a>? </p>
<p>Over the past several years, <a href="https://setlab.soe.ucsc.edu/people.php">my research group</a> has taken a deep look at <a href="https://doi.org/10.1145/3196709.3196790">how children</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1145/2971485.2971557">and adults</a> use fidget toys and objects. What we found tells us that these items are not <a href="https://theconversation.com/whats-behind-the-fidget-spinner-fad-77140">a fad that will soon disappear</a>. Despite sometimes being <a href="http://www.npr.org/2017/05/14/527988954/whirring-purring-fidget-spinners-provide-entertainment-not-adhd-help">annoying distractions for others</a>, fidget items seem to have practical uses for both adults and children, especially in stressful times.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1367587881414324229"}"></div></p>
<h2>Understanding fidgeting</h2>
<p>Fidgeting didn’t start with the popping toy and spinner crazes. If you’ve ever clicked a ballpoint pen again and again, you’ve used a fidget item. As part of our work, we’ve asked people what items they like to fidget with and how and when they use them. (We’ve been <a href="http://fidgetwidgets.tumblr.com">compiling their answers online</a> and welcome <a href="http://fidgetwidgets.tumblr.com/submit">additional contributions</a>.)</p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="silver and black USB thumb drive facing upwards" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/399282/original/file-20210506-17-14q6ps6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/399282/original/file-20210506-17-14q6ps6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/399282/original/file-20210506-17-14q6ps6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/399282/original/file-20210506-17-14q6ps6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/399282/original/file-20210506-17-14q6ps6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/399282/original/file-20210506-17-14q6ps6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/399282/original/file-20210506-17-14q6ps6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">People report using USB thumb drives as fidget items.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/flash-drive-closeup-on-white-background-royalty-free-image/1251951463">Yevgen Romanenko/Moment via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>People often report that fidgeting with an object in their hand helps them stay focused when doing a long task or keeping still and attentive in a long meeting. Objects people fidget with include paper clips, USB thumb drives, earbuds and sticky tape. But people also buy specialized items such as a popping toys for this purpose.</p>
<h2>Fine-tuning for focus</h2>
<p>Psychology research about sensation seeking tells us that people often try to adjust their experiences and their environments so that they provide <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Sensation-Seeking-Psychology-Revivals-Beyond-the-Optimal-Level-of-Arousal/Zuckerman/p/book/9781315755496">just the right level of stimulation</a>. Different people function well under different circumstances. Some like total quiet to help them focus, while others are happiest working in a busy, noisy environment. </p>
<p>The optimal level of stimulation varies <a href="https://www.steelcase.com/insights/articles/quiet-ones/">among people</a> and can change for one person throughout the course of a day <a href="https://www.brainscape.com/blog/2015/07/noise-can-help-you-study/">depending on what they are trying to do</a>. People fine-tune their environments to get things just right – for example, <a href="https://www.15five.com/blog/getting-sht-done-in-an-open-office/">putting on headphones in a noisy office environment</a> to switch to less distracting noise.</p>
<p>A person who can’t get up and walk around to feel more energized or go have a cup of tea to calm down may find it helpful to use a fidget item to stay focused and calm while also staying put.</p>
<p>Another common reason for fidgeting that we saw among adults in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1145/2971485.2971557">our online study</a> is that some fidget objects – such as a favorite smooth stone – can be used to calm them down and achieve a more relaxed, contemplative or even mindful state. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1145/3196709.3196790">Children also</a> spoke about how fidget items help them manage emotions. For example, they might squeeze a stress ball when they feel angry, or they might stroke a soft, fuzzy toy when they are anxious.</p>
<h2>Relieving anxiety, focusing attention</h2>
<p>The self-reported data we got from adults and children aligns with <a href="https://www.brainbalancecenters.com/blog/2014/11/fidgeting-strategies-for-kids-with-neurodevelopmental-disorder/">anecdotal accounts</a> that fidget toys can help children with attention or anxiety issues stay focused and calm in the classroom. In fact, fidget toys have been <a href="https://www.therapyshoppe.com/category/8-fidget-toys">available for kids</a> to use for therapeutic purposes for quite some time. </p>
<p>There hasn’t yet been a definitive research study about the impact of these toys. In one <a href="https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ853381">preliminary study</a> looking at stress ball use, sixth graders who used these fidget toys during instruction independently reported that their “attitude, attention, writing abilities, and peer interaction improved.” </p>
<p>The closest significant research is a study by <a href="https://mindbrain.ucdavis.edu/people/jschweit">University of California, Davis behavioral science professor Julie Schweitzer</a> of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/09297049.2015.1044511">letting children with ADHD fidget</a> – wriggle, bounce or otherwise move gently in place – while they work on a lab-based concentration task called the “<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/BF03192844">flanker paradigm</a>.” She found that more overall movement in children with ADHD, as measured using an accelerometer on the ankle, did help them perform this cognitively demanding task. After I learned about her research, I approached Schweitzer to join forces, and we’re currently <a href="https://news.ucsc.edu/2020/07/fidget-ball.html">collaborating on the first rigorous study of the effects of fidget objects on people with ADHD</a>, with support from the National Institutes of Health. We aim to better understand how using fidget toys may support people’s cognition. </p>
<p>To do this, my team built a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1145/3290607.3313015">“smart” fidget ball</a> that senses when and how it’s used. Schweitzer’s team is tracking exactly when study participants fidget as they work, and how this correlates with changes in their performance on challenging thinking tasks. (If you happen to live in the Northern California Bay Area, <a href="https://bit.ly/3gZ7vq7">you can apply to take part in the study</a>.)</p>
<p>My group is also working with specialists in children’s social-emotional learning and technology, including <a href="https://www.kcl.ac.uk/people/petr-slovak">Petr Slovak of King’s College London</a>, to understand whether and how giving kids a “smart” fidget item that can respond to their touch might help calm them down and improve their self-soothing skills. We built a small “anxious creature” that children could hug and pet to calm it down. The creature begins with a fast heartbeat and then settles into happy purring once it is soothed. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1145/3274429">Early</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.2196/14029">results</a> are promising and have recently been applied by commercial product developers to create <a href="https://www.purrble.com/">an interactive toy for calming kids</a>.
(I served briefly as a paid consultant on the toy’s initial research and development but have no ongoing financial stake.)</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="arms of a child wearing camo sweatshirt and holding a white fidget spinner at a school desk with pencil, eraser and green fidget spinner on desk in background" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/399290/original/file-20210506-13-1586bxc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/399290/original/file-20210506-13-1586bxc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/399290/original/file-20210506-13-1586bxc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/399290/original/file-20210506-13-1586bxc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/399290/original/file-20210506-13-1586bxc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/399290/original/file-20210506-13-1586bxc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/399290/original/file-20210506-13-1586bxc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Fidget spinners can be helpful and sometimes distracting in classrooms.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/6th-grade-girl-using-fidget-spinner-wellsville-new-york-usa-news-photo/929067606">Education Images/Universal Images Group via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Avoiding distraction</h2>
<p>If fidget items are so helpful, why were <a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/fidget-spinners-banned-from-top-high-schools-2017-5">schools banning the spinners</a>, and why did <a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/fidget-spinners-are-being-banned-from-classrooms-2017-5">teachers take them away</a>? Not all fidget items are created equal. Some are more distracting than others. The fidget items most therapists recommend can be used without looking and don’t attract other people’s attention too much with motion or noise. Fidget-spinner motion distracted other kids in classrooms. </p>
<p>Popping toys don’t have movement that attracts others’ eyes, but they do make some noise. Kids in our study reported that noise was a reason they got fidget toys taken away in class. For this reason, popping toys might not be as welcome as the world slowly returns to more in-person learning. But they might be great for kids (or adults) who can hit the mute button in online school and meetings. </p>
<p>[<em>You’re smart and curious about the world. So are The Conversation’s authors and editors.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=youresmart">You can read us daily by subscribing to our newsletter</a>.]</p>
<p>Though research is still ongoing, therapists’ practical experience and both adults’ and kids’ self-reflections suggest that fidget toys can be helpful for emotional and cognitive support. There may actually be some benefits in getting yourself or your child a fidget toy to power you through a wall of boring Zoom meetings or a stressful school day.</p>
<p><em>This is an updated version of <a href="https://theconversation.com/fidget-toys-arent-just-hype-77456">an article</a> originally published on May 17, 2017.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/158746/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Katherine Isbister has received gift funding in the past from Committee for Children, a non-profit, to support her research on smart fidgets, and currently has support from the National Institutes of Health (NIH) for research into the efficacy of fidgeting devices. Isbister received consulting funds to transfer knowledge from her research team's basic research to aid in the design and development of the Purrble device, but has no financial stake in that product. </span></em></p>Though research is still ongoing, therapists’ practical experience and adults’ and kids’ self-reflections suggest that fidget toys can be helpful for emotional and cognitive support.Katherine Isbister, Professor of Computational Media, University of California, Santa CruzLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1581542021-04-06T04:48:04Z2021-04-06T04:48:04ZLockdown mental fatigue rapidly reversed by social contact, study finds<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/393083/original/file-20210401-13-f7w8p.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5414%2C3571&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Emerging from isolation has a profound effect on our cognitive functions.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/girl-social-phobia-hides-her-face-647654332">Koldunova Anna/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Many of us are looking forward to a summer of relative freedom, with road-mapped milestones that will grant us more opportunities to see our friends and family. But we’ll be carrying the effects of months of isolation into those meetings, including a sense that our social skills will need dusting off, and our wits will need sharpening.</p>
<p>The mental effects of lockdown have been profound. Social isolation has been shown to cause people’s <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16594799/">mental health to deteriorate</a> even if they have no history of <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/society/2020/may/16/uk-lockdown-causing-serious-mental-illness-in-first-time-patients">previous psychological problems</a>. Alongside this drop in mood, loneliness has been linked with a host of cognitive problems, including <a href="https://theconversation.com/here-is-why-you-might-be-feeling-tired-while-on-lockdown-135502">fatigue</a>, <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/news/2020/jun/anxiety-depression-levels-fall-lockdown-eased">stress</a> and <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24729533/">problems with concentration</a>.</p>
<p>In our <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/acp.3821">recent study</a>, we set out to understand how people recovered from last year’s period of social isolation, tracking their cognitive function as the UK transitioned from a full lockdown to reduced social restrictions in summer 2020. Promisingly, we found that people swiftly recovered from cognitive issues when given the chance to blow away the cobwebs by socialising once again.</p>
<h2>Mass isolation</h2>
<p>Lockdowns have given psychologists a unique opportunity to study the effects of social isolation on the general population. Such effects are normally only studied in <a href="https://content.iospress.com/articles/journal-of-alzheimers-disease/jad180501">older adults</a>, or in very special groups of people such as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actaastro.2012.08.013">astronauts</a>, <a href="https://bjsm.bmj.com/content/40/6/556">desert trekkers</a> and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0272494409000723?via%3Dihub">polar explorers</a>. But for over a year now, ordinary people of all ages have been experiencing prolonged periods with minimal social contact.</p>
<p>We know that humans derive many benefits from socialising. These range from <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(04)00767-7">preventing dementia</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-9536(02)00075-8">enhancing memory</a> to improvements in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.archger.2018.12.014">concentration and the ability to think clearly</a>. When our social lives shrank last March, we lost these cognitive payouts too. </p>
<p>To investigate what happens when these payouts return, we <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.588604/full">surveyed</a> hundreds of Scottish adults between May and July 2020: a period when strict national lockdown restrictions were gradually eased. It was the perfect time to observe how the benefits of socialising might change how people think and feel. </p>
<p>Unsurprisingly, we found that people’s moods were lowest when we first approached them in May. Those who were shielding or living alone suffered the most and only began to feel better when the final restrictions were eased towards the end of our survey period in July. But our study was most interested in other psychological indicators: those that would show whether people’s cognitive abilities improved when they had more opportunities to socialise.</p>
<h2>Psychological recovery</h2>
<p>To measure this, we asked our survey participants to complete <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/acp.3821">a series of online tests</a> to assess changes in their <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/flanker-task">attention</a>, learning ability, <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/memory/working-memory">working memory</a> – and even their perception of time.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-year-of-blursdays-how-coronavirus-distorted-our-sense-of-time-in-2020-151512">A year of blursdays: how coronavirus distorted our sense of time in 2020</a>
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<p>Attention, learning ability and working memory are all essential for tasks we might perform at work or while studying. They’re indicators of how well we remember things we’ve learned, how long we can concentrate on a task, and how many tasks we can juggle in our heads at one time. </p>
<p>All of these indicators improved rapidly as lockdown restrictions eased, with clear week-on-week improvements each time we returned to our study participants for more data. This suggests that we’re likely to enjoy a similarly speedy boost in our ability to work when lockdown restrictions ease this time around. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A couple with a picnic basket chatting with masks on at a social distance" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/393122/original/file-20210401-19-1hjak87.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/393122/original/file-20210401-19-1hjak87.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=271&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/393122/original/file-20210401-19-1hjak87.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=271&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/393122/original/file-20210401-19-1hjak87.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=271&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/393122/original/file-20210401-19-1hjak87.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=341&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/393122/original/file-20210401-19-1hjak87.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=341&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/393122/original/file-20210401-19-1hjak87.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=341&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Socialising helps us sharpen our wits and boost our moods.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/couple-have-date-during-coronavirus-lockdown-1779001934">Maksim Shmeljov/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>We’ve all been experiencing varying degrees of loneliness and isolation, so it’s no wonder that we’re running low on the benefits that socialising can bring. Our findings offer concrete proof that lockdown makes us all a little more distracted, sluggish and fatigued – cognitive problems that may be affecting our performance at work and our social interactions outside of it. </p>
<p>But the speed at which we witnessed cognitive function improve once people began socialising again last summer shows that there’s hope. As days lengthen, the weather improves, and society reopens, our study suggests that renewed social contact will quickly and thoroughly reverse any cognitive decline we’ve experienced during the most recent lockdown.</p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/hope-isnt-mere-wishful-thinking-its-a-valuable-tool-we-can-put-to-work-in-a-crisis-146271">'Hope' isn't mere wishful thinking – it's a valuable tool we can put to work in a crisis</a>
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<p>Our findings extend beyond the unique circumstances brought about by the pandemic. While there’s no denying that humans are social creatures, psychologists are only now beginning to recognise just how integral social interaction is to every aspect of our wellbeing and mental ability – and how isolation, whether for elderly people or those with extreme vocations, can affect our mental health and aptitude across so many measures.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/158154/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Christopher Hand receives funding from the Chief Scientist Office (Scotland).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dr Greg Maciejewski receives funding from the Chief Scientist's Office, Royal Society of Edinburgh, Experimental Psychology Society, and EU.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dr Joanne Ingram receives funding from the Chief Scientist Office and The Royal Society of Edinburgh. Dr Ingram is a member of the Scottish Green Party and a trustee of the Awesome Foundation Glasgow. </span></em></p>The study found people bounce back from their mental sluggishness soon after emerging from isolation.Christopher Hand, Lecturer, Psychology, Glasgow Caledonian UniversityGreg Maciejewski, Lecturer in Psychology, University of the West of ScotlandJoanne Ingram, Lecturer in Psychology, University of the West of ScotlandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1540362021-02-01T12:12:41Z2021-02-01T12:12:41ZTouchscreens may make toddlers more distractible – new three-year study<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/381123/original/file-20210128-23-techgb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=7%2C15%2C5168%2C3430&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/toddler-staring-tablet-education-gadget-dependency-770994562">riggleton/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Working from home as a parent, a touchscreen device can be a marvellous tool. Pass one to your child, and they’ll be quietly occupied for your Zoom meeting, or for the crunch time as you approach an important deadline. Yet touchscreens can also feel like a tradeoff for parents, who have long feared that screen time may be harmful for their childrens’ development.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-81775-7">Our three-year study</a> following children from the age of one to three-and-a-half measured the link between touchscreen use and toddlers’ attention. For the first time, we were able to show that toddlers who used touchscreens were less able to avoid distractions when completing a task on a screen than toddlers with no or low daily touchscreen use. On the other hand, we found that toddlers with high daily touchscreen use were better able to spot flashy, attention-grabbing objects when they first appear on a screen.</p>
<p>These findings are important given the rising levels of screen time observed during COVID-19 national lockdowns. In the UK, for instance, <a href="https://www.psy.ox.ac.uk/news/ep-researchers-find-that-uk-lockdown-linked-to-widening-disadvantage-gap-for-babies-and-toddlers">three in four parents have reported</a> that their children have spent more time watching TV or playing with a tablet during lockdowns. <a href="https://www.ofcom.org.uk/about-ofcom/latest/media/media-releases/2020/uk-internet-use-surges">Individual adult screen time</a> also went up by an hour across the board during the UK’s spring lockdown.</p>
<p>Even before the pandemic, mobile media was already an integral part of family life. Some <a href="https://www.ofcom.org.uk/research-and-data/media-literacy-research/childrens/children-and-parents-media-use-and-attitudes-report-2019">63% of toddlers aged three to four</a> used a tablet at home in 2019 – more than double the percentage identified by similar research in 2013. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27531985/">In our previous studies</a>, we recorded daily touchscreen-device usage by children as young as six months of age.</p>
<h2>Toddlers on tablets</h2>
<p>Mobile touchscreen media, such as smartphones and tablets, are a common form of entertainment for infants and toddlers. But there has been growing concern that touchscreen use in toddlers may negatively affect the development of their attention. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A young girl uses a touchscreen phone on a kitchen table" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/381185/original/file-20210128-13-3i84r8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/381185/original/file-20210128-13-3i84r8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381185/original/file-20210128-13-3i84r8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381185/original/file-20210128-13-3i84r8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381185/original/file-20210128-13-3i84r8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381185/original/file-20210128-13-3i84r8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381185/original/file-20210128-13-3i84r8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Young children are using touchscreen technology more than ever during lockdowns.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/girl-play-phone-cafe-during-waiting-299527919">Elena Stepanova/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>The first few years of life are critical for children to <a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/full/10.1146/annurev-devpsych-121318-085114">learn how to control their attention</a>, selecting relevant information from the environment while ignoring distractions. These early attention skills are known to promote later social and academic success – but until recently there was no empirical scientific evidence to suggest a negative impact of touchscreen use on attention control.</p>
<p>In 2015, we started the <a href="https://www.cinelabresearch.com/tablet-project">TABLET Project</a> at Birkbeck’s Centre for Brain and Cognitive Development to see whether any such association might exist. We followed 53 one-year-old infants who had different levels of touchscreen usage. We observed them through toddlerhood (18 months) and up to pre-school age (three-and-a-half years). </p>
<p>At each age, parents reported online how long their child spent using a touchscreen device (tablet, smartphone or touchscreen laptop) each day. Families also visited our <a href="http://www.cbcd.bbk.ac.uk/babylab">Babylab</a> to complete a set of experimental assessments with the research team. This included some computer tasks which used an eye-tracker, enabling researchers to quantify very precisely what babies looked at on a screen. </p>
<p>By measuring how fast and how often toddlers looked at objects that appeared in different screen locations, we could understand how children controlled their attention. We were particularly interested in their “saliency-driven” attention (an automatic form of attention which allows us to react quickly to moving, bright or colourful objects) and their “goal-driven” attention (a voluntary form of attention that helps us focus on task-relevant things).</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/380990/original/file-20210127-13-1m2ruyt.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/380990/original/file-20210127-13-1m2ruyt.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/380990/original/file-20210127-13-1m2ruyt.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/380990/original/file-20210127-13-1m2ruyt.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/380990/original/file-20210127-13-1m2ruyt.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/380990/original/file-20210127-13-1m2ruyt.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/380990/original/file-20210127-13-1m2ruyt.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">An example of what appears on screen when we measure toddlers’ attention. Illustrated by Ana Maria Portugal, researcher in the TABLET team.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>After three years of data collection, we found that infants and toddlers with high touchscreen use had faster saliency-driven attention. This means they were quicker to spot new stimuli on the screen, like a cartoon lion which suddenly appears. This effect replicated and confirmed our findings in <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapediatrics/fullarticle/2769281">a previous study in 2020</a>.</p>
<p>We then presented tasks that directly required toddlers to suppress their saliency-driven attention and instead use voluntary attention. We found that the children with higher touchscreen use were both slower to deliberately control their attention, and less able to ignore distracting objects when trying to focus their attention on a different target.</p>
<h2>Grabbing attention</h2>
<p>Our research is not conclusive and does not demonstrate a causal role of touchscreens. It could also be that more distractible children happen to be more attracted by and absorbed in the attention-grabbing features of interactive screens. </p>
<p>And, while touchscreens share similarities with TV, and video gaming, our new research finds different associations with attention than previously reported with these other media platforms. This suggests that touchscreens might produce different effects on the developing brain than other screens.</p>
<p>Next, we want to conduct further research which might help us draw conclusions about the positives and negatives of touchscreens for toddlers. For instance, while being faster at spotting a new stimulus on a screen may at first appear to be a negative finding, it’s easy to imagine vocations and situations in which this skill might be incredibly useful – such as air traffic control, or airport security screening. </p>
<p>In our increasingly complex audiovisual media environment, it might actually be useful to prime young children on the digital technologies they’ll use to learn, work, and play. But our findings also present a possible downside: that toddlers with high touchscreen use may find it harder to avoid distraction in busy settings like nursery classrooms.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/154036/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ana Maria Portugal received funding from the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span><a href="mailto:rb2246@bath.ac.uk">rb2246@bath.ac.uk</a> receives funding from Wellcome Trust. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Professor Tim Smith receives funding from Leverhulme Trust, Nuffield Foundation, Wellcome, ESRC, and Bial. Professor Smith collaborates with Hopster TV.</span></em></p>Young children may find it harder to control their attention if they use touchscreens regularly.Ana Maria Portugal, Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Center of Neurodevelopmental Disorders, Karolinska InstitutetRachael Bedford, Associate Professor, Department of Psychology, University of BathTim J. Smith, Professor, Department of Psychological Sciences, Birkbeck, University of LondonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1511432021-01-07T19:09:31Z2021-01-07T19:09:31ZPhysical activity is good for your concentration – here’s why<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374811/original/file-20201214-23-12333ej.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=11%2C5%2C3982%2C2652&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Even short periods of physical activity can improve concentration throughout the day.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/asian-boys-girls-fitness-outdoor-concept-1661190802">Somkid Saowaros/ Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Whether it’s during the post-lunch slump or just one of those days, we all struggle to concentrate on what we’re doing sometimes, whether that’s at work, school, or home. Being able to concentrate on what we’re doing would inevitably make us more productive, but that’s often easier said than done. For people looking to improve their concentration, exercise is often recommended as the antidote – and for good reason, as research shows that physical activity can improve concentration in people of all ages.</p>
<p>I’ll define “concentration” as our ability to focus on a task and ignore distractions. So in order to have good concentration, we need to have two important aspects of cognitive function working at their best. The first is sustained attention, in which we’re able to focus on certain pieces of information for prolonged periods of time. The second is executive function, which is our ability to think and make decisions at a complex level.</p>
<p>But how does exercise help us improve these skills? Most research into the effects of exercise on concentration have studied the links in young people in schools. This is likely because of the clear effect concentration has on academic achievement, with a key priority of schools being to improve academic achievement and exam results. </p>
<p>Research shows that acute bouts of physical activity (such as walking or running during break) have a positive effect on concentration in young people. This effect has been shown after various forms of physical activity including <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306452209001171?casa_token=37HK-ayyiTwAAAAA:ySXJUH_4zsOWtktEyYKLusdGsLueDqHeY4Y1Sx3OioJjKKeIPWX01lbx5V4eQWGF-p4U2fPEA9Q">walking</a>, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4929070/">running</a> and <a href="http://irep.ntu.ac.uk/id/eprint/33530/1/11030_Cooper.pdf">team games</a> (such as football and basketball). But this effect tends to only last for around one hour, so regular opportunities to be active across the school day are important.</p>
<p>Another really interesting discovery is that young people with higher levels of fitness demonstrate <a href="https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12889-020-09484-w">superior concentration</a>, when compared with less fit children. For example, young people who have higher cardiorespiratory fitness display better concentration than those who are less fit. So based on current evidence, regular physical activity appears to be very important for improving concentration in children.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Two boys challenge each other for the ball during a football match." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374792/original/file-20201214-21-1sltqid.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374792/original/file-20201214-21-1sltqid.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374792/original/file-20201214-21-1sltqid.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374792/original/file-20201214-21-1sltqid.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374792/original/file-20201214-21-1sltqid.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374792/original/file-20201214-21-1sltqid.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374792/original/file-20201214-21-1sltqid.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Team sports are especially good for concentration.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/boys-kicking-football-on-sports-field-172398914">Fotokostic/ Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>Although there’s less evidence in adults, research does still show that acute bouts of physical activity, such as a 20 minute walk or jog, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006899312004003?casa_token=4VvVk8VEeEQAAAAA:RNAGs9jDIA2bu13i47PjgMIbP1Axyeov0GNcUGGPu_U_zqPkvOSGhiCvg0Gl9ogOreE26QUfZpQ">enhance concentration</a> for up to one hour afterwards. Studies have also shown that having people take breaks for physical activity during the work day improves self-reported concentration and mood – both of which could improve productivity. Physical activity and higher levels of physical fitness have even been shown to benefit many parts of brain function – including concentration – in <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2015-55483-005">people aged 65 and over</a>.</p>
<p>We have less information though about the mechanisms that explain why physical activity improves our concentration. We think that it could be caused by certain psychological mechanisms – such as feeling more alert and having better mood following physical activity – that improve concentration. Increased blood flow to the brain and changes in the <a href="https://physoc.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.14814/phy2.12163">parts of the brain</a> that are activated during and <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2011-02060-009">after exercise</a> have also been suggested.</p>
<h2>Get moving</h2>
<p>But which types of exercise are best? The simple answer to this question is that it depends on a lot of things.</p>
<p>Some evidence shows that any exercise which <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0212482">requires decision making</a> (such as team games, like football and hockey) might be particularly beneficial to concentration, due to the fact that your brain is engaged during these types of exercise.</p>
<p>But research also shows that any exercise which is extremely vigorous or exhausting, such as high-intensity interval training workouts may – at least in the short-term – actually have a <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5504581/#:%7E:text=Maximal%20intensity%20exercise%20in%20children,improve%20following%20a%20recovery%20period.">negative effect on concentration</a>, due to the fact that it’s very difficult to concentrate when exhausted.</p>
<p>The research is clear, however, that short bouts of moderate, physical activity are great at improving concentration immediately following exercise. This might include going for a brisk walk, a run, or even a leisurely cycle. But the best type of physical activity is one that you enjoy, and can be easily incorporated into daily life. Ultimately, people need to be able to regularly perform physical activity in order to gain both immediate and long-term benefits. </p>
<p>So if you spend a lot of time sitting at your desk during the work day, regular activity breaks will help you to keep your concentration on the task in hand. Even just taking your dog for a short walk or running to the shop for a quick errand will help.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/151143/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Simon Cooper has received no research funding that directly impacts upon the content of this article.</span></em></p>Research shows short bouts of physical activity can boost your concentration for up to one hour.Simon Cooper, Senior Lecturer in Sport Science, Nottingham Trent UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1423292020-10-16T11:45:02Z2020-10-16T11:45:02ZAttention! How successful golfers stay focused on those crucial shots<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/363693/original/file-20201015-19-10h3agv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=82%2C0%2C4166%2C2828&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Even shots that look easy need proper concentration.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/woman-golf-player-crouching-study-green-279631133">Otmar W/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Sporting history is <a href="https://www.standard.co.uk/sport/snatching-defeat-from-the-jaws-of-victory-famous-sporting-collapses-6391115.html">littered</a> with tales of defeat snatched from the jaws of victory. Famously, the US golfer <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2020/apr/14/doug-sanders-obituary">Doug Sanders</a> was a three-foot putt away from winning the 1970 Open Championship in St Andrews. He missed. Not only did it lose him the championship, it cost him several sponsorship and endorsement deals too.</p>
<p>Sanders later <a href="https://www.irishtimes.com/sport/sanders-reflects-on-a-missed-putt-and-missed-boats-1.102514">recalled</a> that he missed the crucial shot because he was wondering where to bow first when he’d won. The golfer failed to direct his attention to the information that mattered most before he took his shot. His mind had wandered. Sanders was no longer concentrating on what he needed to do to sink his putt.</p>
<p>The mechanism that helps us to realise the mind has wandered has become an area of interest in the field of sports psychology because it is the process which enables athletes to re-focus their attention. If they are aware of – and listen to – this mechanism, they are less likely to succumb to distractions. Crucially, having this knowledge and awareness means psychologists, athletes and coaches can put into place interventions to take control of attention, enabling a player to concentrate on the information that is most relevant.</p>
<p>Our <a href="https://journals.humankinetics.com/view/journals/tsp/34/1/article-p11.xml">research</a> over the last four years has sought to understand what enables concentration in sport. In particular we examined golfers’ beliefs, knowledge and understanding of their own ability to focus to explain the processes behind concentration.</p>
<p>We specifically chose this sport because golfers normally experience changes in their concentration before, after and between shots. This means the game provides a useful lens to examine the processes that enable the focusing and re-focusing of attention.</p>
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<h2>In the spotlight</h2>
<p>Our research revealed that this attention-alerting mechanism can be understood as an ongoing process called “meta-attention”, which has its origins in educational psychology but is also considered <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781315784946">relevant to sport</a>. Meta-attention simply means the awareness, knowledge and control of attention – the mechanism that reminds us to pay attention to what we believe is most important in any given situation.</p>
<p>If we picture our attention as a spotlight – one that can shine not just outwards to our environment, but inwards into our own minds – meta-attention is the awareness of where the spotlight is shining and what we do to direct its beam. </p>
<p>But while we have awareness of how attention may operate, like the spotlight, it is only recently that research has looked further to understand the mechanisms that may be directing the spotlight. In particular, our study has developed a theory to understand the processes that can help divert a spotlight, uncovering the mechanisms that underlie concentration.</p>
<p>To understand what golfers know about attention, I interviewed eight elite golfers. These revealed how golfers evaluated the resources they needed for the shot they were taking, such as a past experience, then put in place a plan which was followed by a consistent pre-shot routine. This might entail creating a mental image of where the player wants the ball to go while performing practice swings for example. </p>
<p>Afterwards, the golfers explained, they would run though their post-shot routine where they reflected on the outcome of the shot. Then they would switch off, directing their spotlight to less relevant thoughts, like a drink at the bar.</p>
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<img alt="Golfer taking a shot on a beautiful course on a sunny blue-sky day." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/363724/original/file-20201015-21-14qoyjv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/363724/original/file-20201015-21-14qoyjv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363724/original/file-20201015-21-14qoyjv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363724/original/file-20201015-21-14qoyjv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363724/original/file-20201015-21-14qoyjv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363724/original/file-20201015-21-14qoyjv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363724/original/file-20201015-21-14qoyjv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Meta-attention is the process which enables players to fully concentrate on taking a shot.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/smiling-african-american-man-cap-sunglasses-666708034">Shutterstock</a></span>
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<h2>Golf aloud</h2>
<p>Our <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1612197X.2020.1766536?journalCode=rijs20">second study</a> followed on from our original research, examining what meta-attention looks like as it happens during a performance. Here, with club-level golfers, we used a research method called “think aloud”, where every thought and internal speech has to be spoken out loud. Viewing meta-attention in a live performance setting allowed us to examine golfers’ awareness of their attention, including what was illuminated by their attentional spotlight and the strategies they used to direct it.</p>
<p>The results showed that during performance, golfers engaged in the process of meta-attention and used control strategies such as pre-shot routines. Interestingly, furthering established understanding, each golfer did not verbalise drawing on “attention resources” like past experiences, for every shot. Instead it seems this process may be largely automatic, suggesting that golfers are only aware of drawing on attention resources at times when they are most needed. </p>
<p>The study revealed that when golfers did verbalise their attention resources, it tended to be for more challenging shots – reflecting on training experiences prior to a recovery shot from a bunker, for example. In line with our theoretical understanding of meta-attention was the way club-level golfers implemented consistent control strategies – like pre- and post-shot routines – and frequently focused on helpful environmental information such as a clear visual target which could be seen from the tee. </p>
<p>The think aloud findings showed that golfers would often move their spotlight to information that they felt would be most useful to their game throughout performance. In other words, when faced with a challenge, they might consciously look for a similar experience to guide and inform the situation they are facing.</p>
<p>Having awareness of, and acting upon, the information that is highlighted to help players concentrate is key. If golfers perceive their spotlight is not shining on information they believe to be most relevant – like Doug Sanders experienced – then they can initiate control strategies to redirect the spotlight.</p>
<p>Noting some of the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10413200903403216">previous research</a> alongside our own findings, we recommend golfers opt for consistent pre- and post-shot routines when it comes to concentration. In doing so, players have greater control of their attention and are less likely to miss the shot of a lifetime, like the unfortunate Sanders. Once asked if he ever thought of his career-defining miss, the breezy golfer replied: “Only every four or five minutes.”</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/142329/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alex Oliver does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>For optimal concentration, players need to cultivate ‘meta-attention’, the mechanism that enables us to refocus our attention when the mind has wandered.Alex Oliver, PhD Psychology Researcher School of Health & Life Sciences, Glasgow Caledonian UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.