tag:theconversation.com,2011:/ca/topics/classrooms-15360/articles
Classrooms – The Conversation
2024-01-24T13:29:05Z
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/221124
2024-01-24T13:29:05Z
2024-01-24T13:29:05Z
Learning to read in another language is tough: how Namibian teachers can help kids
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569258/original/file-20240115-27-so2q98.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wolfgang Kaehler/Avalon/Universal Images Group via Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>In a classroom in Namibia’s northern Oshikoto region, a teacher has written English vocabulary words on the chalkboard. She asks her learners to read them aloud. When they stumble with pronunciation, she corrects them. She also helps the youngsters to sound out words. At another school nearby, an English teacher is showing her class cartoon strips on her cellphone to help them create mental images while reading – an approach that’s proven to <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0033688220943250">enhance comprehension</a>.</p>
<p>These teachers were part of <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09500782.2023.2292597">a study</a> we conducted to understand the unique knowledge and skills that Namibian teachers have developed to teach English reading comprehension to grade 7s (who are on average 12 years old) in a diverse linguistic context. The learners’ home languages were primarily Oshiwambo, Oshindonga, Afrikaans and Otjiherero. </p>
<p>We aimed to shed light on what approaches the teachers used in their classrooms. We also wanted to explore the broader implications for Namibia’s education landscape.</p>
<p>We found that Namibian teachers had the skills to equip learners with the tools to become literate and fluent in English. In some situations the teachers tried to adapt their instruction to better reflect learners’ daily experiences and cultures. But this adaptation happened on the spur of the moment rather than being central to planned lessons.</p>
<p>We argue that using culturally appropriate, relevant examples should be a deliberate daily practice. For example, teachers could select a text or passage or story that incorporates traditions, folklore, or contemporary situations relevant to the students. </p>
<p>This would increase engagement. It would also allow students to connect more deeply with the material, fostering better comprehension by being familiar and relatable. It’s an approach has been <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/19404476.2021.1959832">repeatedly proven</a> to <a href="https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1034914.pdf">boost</a> reading comprehension.</p>
<p>Recent studies <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.2989/16073614.2023.2226175">show</a> that Namibian children have <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-031-26250-0_21">low proficiency</a> in English. Literacy is <a href="https://www.unesco.org/en/literacy/need-know">a fundamental skill</a> for personal development and societal progress.</p>
<h2>Different cultural contexts</h2>
<p>The mismatch between imported educational approaches and the realities faced by English language learners in the global south has been <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-031-26250-0_19">identified</a> as contributing to the struggles encountered in reading comprehension. </p>
<p>In Namibia, English (although it is the country’s official language) is spoken by <a href="https://biodiversity.org.na/NamLanguages.php">only 3.4% of the population</a> as a first language or mother tongue. There are 13 <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/weng.12493">recognised languages in Namibia</a>; <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/weng.12493">Oshiwambo</a> is the most prevalent first language, including in the Oshikoto region. </p>
<p>Since 2009 the Namibian Ministry of Education has administered the National Standardised Achievement Test for grades 5 and 7. This covers English, mathematics, natural science and health education. It gauges learners’ English comprehension competency and overall performance in these subjects. The results are worrying. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/2331186X.2017.1411036">In 2015 the results</a> showed that 87% of grade 7 learners scored below basic proficiency in English. The Southern and Eastern Africa Consortium for Monitoring Educational Quality also found that the country <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/2331186X.2017.1411036">did not exhibit significant improvements</a> in reading and mathematical literacy between 2005 and 2010. Its reading proficiency score in 2010 was 496.9 compared to a mean score of 511.8 for all <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/2331186X.2017.1411036">15 participating countries</a>. </p>
<h2>Our study</h2>
<p>The study involved five experienced grade 7 English teachers. All had taught the subject for five years or longer. The teachers were each affiliated with one of four combined schools in the northern Oshikoto region of Namibia, and one primary school in Windhoek, the capital city. </p>
<p>All are state schools and learners are not required to pay fees. </p>
<p>Through stimulated recall interviews and classroom observations, we gained an understanding of the teaching practices used. Stimulated recall interviews are a way of talking with people about their past experiences or actions. It’s like watching a replay of something you did, and then being asked questions about what you were thinking or feeling during that time. It helps to better understand why people make certain choices or decisions. </p>
<p>We also conducted classroom observations, quietly sitting in to watch what teachers and learners were doing. We examined the learners’ comprehension by observing how actively they participated in question and answer sessions, collaborative activities, and retelling and summary tasks.</p>
<p>The findings reveal that teachers continue to use teaching and learning practices acquired during their initial teacher education. These included previewing, reading aloud, fluency training and vocabulary development. </p>
<p>Previewing happens when teachers ask learners to take a quick look over the title, headings and pictures to get an idea of what the reading is about. It helps the learners understand what to expect and makes reading a lot easier because they already have some clues about what is coming up. </p>
<p>Reading aloud helps learners hear the words and understand them better. It is a fun way to enjoy a test or share something interesting with others. Fluency training involves practising reading smoothly and easily. And vocabulary development is learning to read words smoothly without stumbling or pausing too much. </p>
<p>The teachers’ practices were pedagogically sound. But that doesn’t guarantee improved reading comprehension for learners without sensitivity to the lived experiences and the imagined future of the learners. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/learning-to-read-is-a-journey-a-study-identifies-where-south-african-kids-go-off-track-206242">Learning to read is a journey: a study identifies where South African kids go off track</a>
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<p>The teachers did not often adapt their practices to suit their specific cultural and linguistic contexts. Most of the reading material used didn’t contain examples learners could relate to from their own daily lives. In the few instances where there was link to a learner’s background, it was made on the spur of the moment, in response to the way a lesson was progressing or stalling. </p>
<h2>Teacher training</h2>
<p>We concluded that much more intentional use of relevant material is needed to integrate learners’ prior knowledge of the world into their reading comprehension.</p>
<p>For this to happen initial teacher education programmes need to be enhanced to ensure that teachers are equipped with skills to adapt pedagogical practices to diverse cultural and linguistic contexts. Many teacher education institutions prepare educators as if they will be teaching in well-resourced urban schools, assuming learners are eager to learn, and the school community supports enhanced reading. The reality is quite different: teachers deal with crowded classrooms and don’t get much support from schools to meet learning goals.</p>
<p>To enhance reading comprehension in primary schools within diverse cultural and linguistic contexts, teachers can begin by selecting reading material and resources that reflects the cultural diversity of their students, making the content more relatable.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/221124/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
The teachers did not often adapt their practices to suit their specific cultural and linguistic contexts.
Marta Ndakalako Alumbungu, PhD student, Stellenbosch University
Nhlanhla Mpofu, Chair- Curriculum Studies, Stellenbosch University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/211811
2023-08-23T12:26:04Z
2023-08-23T12:26:04Z
How a hip-hop mindset can help teachers in a time of turmoil
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543937/original/file-20230822-19-fzf2o0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=30%2C20%2C6679%2C4426&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Confidence is a critical component of hip-hop culture.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/confident-black-woman-in-classroom-royalty-free-image/1298999131?phrase=high+school+teacher+black+woman&adppopup=true">Manu Vega via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>While hip-hop has created a lot of good memories, good music and good times, the culture has gifted society much more than just entertainment.</p>
<p>As a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=7BZ3GM8AAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">researcher who specializes in hip-hop culture</a>, I know that one of hip-hop’s greatest gifts is a <a href="https://www.tcpress.com/the-hip-hop-mindset-9780807768709#:">certain mindset that focuses on freedom of thought, flexibility and truth-telling</a>. It also includes <a href="https://doi.org/10.25148/CLJ.16.1.010605">creativity, authenticity, confidence, braggadocio, uninhibited voice and integrity</a> as those things relate to one’s community and culture.</p>
<p>In order for educators to overcome the challenges of what politicians are turning into an <a href="https://theconversation.com/politicians-seek-to-control-classroom-discussions-about-slavery-in-the-us-187057">increasingly restrictive teaching environment</a> – particularly with regard to <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-teachers-can-stay-true-to-history-without-breaking-new-laws-that-restrict-what-they-can-teach-about-racism-205452">matters of race and racism in American history</a> – I believe the hip-hop mindset has taken on a new sense of relevance in the educational arena.</p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/bans-on-critical-race-theory-could-have-a-chilling-effect-on-how-educators-teach-about-racism-163236">Many educators feel uncertainty</a> over what they can and can’t say in the classroom. They also want to stay true to themselves. Here, I offer five ways that educators can adopt the hip-hop mindset to confront the challenges they face:</p>
<h2>1. Claim your space</h2>
<p>When Run-DMC <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BcCaycrPIa0">took the stage in the 1980s</a>, they often began their show with Run – one half of the pioneering rap duo – walking on stage and saying to an eager crowd: “We had a whole lot of superstars on this stage here tonight, but I want y'all to know one thing: This is my house. And when I say ‘Who’s house?’ I want y'all to say ‘Run’s house.’”</p>
<p>Through this <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-25377-6_2">call-and-response</a> routine, the group claimed every arena in which they performed. Whether you call it posturing, braggadocio or swag, hip-hop culture has long rewarded those who confidently took control of the spaces where they work.</p>
<p>Hip-hop’s longevity is due in large part to this boldness – artists standing firm and <a href="https://wordpress.clarku.edu/musc210-hhp/hip-hop-culture-politics-exploring-the-narrative-and-power-of-rap-lyrics/fuck-tha-police-n-w-a/">fighting back</a> <a href="https://www.villagevoice.com/when-christian-america-and-the-cops-went-insane-over-n-w-a-rap-and-metal/">even when they were under attack</a>.</p>
<p>Strong confidence gives artists the guts to be nonconformists, to tell the truth and to try something new – practices that I believe will benefit teachers in the midst of political efforts to control what they say.</p>
<h2>2. Form a squad or a crew</h2>
<p>From the early days to now, hip-hop artists have always formed
<a href="https://www.seoultherapy.co.uk/post/a-guide-to-k-hip-hop-crews#">squads or crews</a> to perform as emcees or dancers, who often battle to show who has the best lyrics or dance moves.</p>
<p>Early examples include the Rock Steady Crew and New York City Breakers, who famously squared off against one another in an <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-Xu48tnr4qQ">iconic scene</a> from the 1984 hip-hop movie “Beat Street.”</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/-Xu48tnr4qQ?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Breakdancing battle scene from the movie “Beat Street.”</span></figcaption>
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<p>Your squad isn’t just your personal friends – they are your colleagues and comrades in the struggle. They are your trusted village of truth tellers, possibility partners and strategic thinkers. Educators can lean on their squad to help strategize and stay sane. </p>
<p>A squad or crew need not be confined to just one school. Queen Latifah, Monie Love, A Tribe Called Quest and De La Soul – who were either solo acts or individual groups – were all part of an even larger artistic community called <a href="https://www.avclub.com/a-beginner-s-guide-to-hip-hop-collective-native-tongues-1798239179">Native Tongues</a>. </p>
<p>Just as hip-hop artists are often part of larger groups, educators can similarly build a larger community of support.</p>
<p>Partnering with local nonprofits and community organizations could prove important now more than ever. These organizations can host and facilitate learning experiences that might be prohibited in a classroom. Through these partnerships, students can get free, community-based programs that enable them to have freer discussions that might not be allowed within a public school in a state that restricts what educators can say.</p>
<h2>3. Remix</h2>
<p>One of the most popular strategies of creating hip-hop music is the remix – where a song’s producer will create a new version of a song, sometimes by borrowing or sampling beats from other songs, changing up the pace, or even introducing new lyrics that weren’t part of the original.</p>
<p>A classic example would be KRS-One’s 1988 song “Still #1.” Whereas the <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hw_UMdFSSlo">original version</a> was laid back, the <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5gZ6tLhUAHY&t=42s">“Numero Uno” remix</a> featured a sample of an upbeat Latin jazz song and even opened in Spanish.</p>
<p>Embracing the art of remixing might offer a viable way for educators to respond to efforts to censor what students can read in school or educators can teach in class.</p>
<p>For instance, in school districts or states where certain books or topics have been outlawed, educators can use <a href="https://www.cnet.com/culture/how-teenagers-can-borrow-banned-books-for-free-from-brooklyn-public-library/">Books Unbanned</a> – a program in which teens and young adults can access e-books using a national library card. Educators can create a free guide of resources for families that include information on similar programs.</p>
<p>A remix may also be helpful with school funding. Schools at all levels could <a href="https://www.yesmagazine.org/social-justice/2022/01/11/critical-race-theory-scholars-counter-funded-attacks">secure grant and foundational support</a>, which can provide the resources to fund community-based partnerships and the freedom to establish specialized initiatives.</p>
<h2>4. Go crate digging</h2>
<p><a href="https://medium.com/cuepoint/the-lost-art-of-cratedigging-4ed652643618">Crate digging</a> is a critical part of the remix. It is the process of sifting through old vinyl records, typically stored in old milk crates or cardboard boxes, to find a long-forgotten song to use in a remix.</p>
<p>Similarly, teachers can turn to the tactics and strategies employed by educators from different eras to see how they dealt with the educational exclusion and erasure of their day. After desegregation, for instance, a new struggle emerged in the 1960s and 1970s to make school lessons more <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307/2668212">culturally and racially inclusive</a>. </p>
<p>By examining the work of legendary educators like <a href="https://www.cnet.com/culture/how-teenagers-can-borrow-banned-books-for-free-from-brooklyn-public-library/">Septima Clark</a>, today’s teachers can uncover ideas and opportunities to re-imagine historical efforts like the <a href="https://snccdigital.org/people/septima-clark/">Citizenship Schools</a> initiative that Clark developed. These mobile schools – or <a href="https://snccdigital.org/people/septima-clark/">“rolling schools”</a> as they were called – took learning into community spaces. These schools paved the way for programs like the Freedom Schools that were later developed by the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, or SNCC, and are still in operation today by the <a href="https://www.childrensdefense.org/programs/cdf-freedom-schools/">Children’s Defense Fund</a>. Communities around the country partner with the Children’s Defense Fund to offer local Freedom Schools.</p>
<h2>5. Still keep it real</h2>
<p>As a teenage fan of hip-hop in the early 1990s, I remember the phrase “keep it real” – which is an expression of authenticity – as being <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2022/06/08/keeping-it-real-has-lost-its-true-meaning/">extremely popular</a>. At the time, it felt like intense pressure to keep it real and to represent your community. I now look back and appreciate that it actually wasn’t pressure, but rather permission to be authentic.</p>
<p>Educators don’t have to champion the new laws and policies that restrict what they can teach – they just have to follow them. But there’s no restriction against “keeping it real” and discussing the new laws and policies as a civics lesson.</p>
<p>So, when the lesson or class is about current events, students could examine various laws being enacted to restrict the teaching of Black history.</p>
<p>Educators may find themselves facing a growing number of challenges from state legislatures as they increasingly invade their classroom spaces and curtail the kind of content they can teach in class. I believe by adopting the hip-hop mindset, educators will be better prepared to do the kind of battle required to prevail on behalf of truth-telling, authenticity, creativity and all the other habits of mind that made hip-hop the defiant and resilient culture that it has become.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/211811/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Toby Jenkins does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
The same boldness that enabled hip-hop to endure can benefit teachers in the classroom, a hip-hop scholar writes.
Toby Jenkins, Professor of Higher Education, University of South Carolina
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/208576
2023-07-03T11:52:41Z
2023-07-03T11:52:41Z
How new state laws and book ban movements have made the teaching of US history contentious – 5 essential reads
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534449/original/file-20230627-33290-9o7a5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=44%2C22%2C7304%2C4880&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Certain state laws are banning the instruction of critical race theory.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/students-typing-on-their-personal-tablets-royalty-free-image/494616066?phrase=high+school+classroom&adppopup=true">FatCamera/E+ via Getty Images </a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Of all the subjects taught in America’s public schools, few have become as contentious as U.S. history. At least <a href="https://www.chalkbeat.org/22525983/map-critical-race-theory-legislation-teaching-racism">37 states have adopted</a> new measures that limit how America’s undeniable <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/02/22/books/review/a-history-of-race-and-racism-in-america-in-24-chapters.html">history of racism</a> – from chattel slavery to Jim Crow – can be discussed in public school classrooms.</p>
<p>Educators in certain states face laws that restrict classroom discussions about racism. Florida’s <a href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/florida-moves-to-restrict-what-schools-can-teach-about-systemic-racism">Stop Woke Act</a> for example, limits what educators can say about racism in K-12 schools. </p>
<p>For insight on the restrictive laws and what educators can do, The Conversation compiled a roundup of archival stories from several scholars that explain their origin and intent, as well as how they could potentially affect everyday instruction in America’s schools. </p>
<h2>1. The value of learning about systemic racism</h2>
<p>History educators <a href="https://www.studythepast.org">Jeffrey L. Littlejohn</a> and <a href="https://www.shsu.edu/academics/history/faculty/jeffrey-l-littlejohn-phd">Zachary Montz</a> described how <a href="https://www.texastribune.org/2021/06/15/abbott-critical-race-theory-law/">restrictions on teaching about systemic racism</a> in Texas public schools prevent students from learning vital historical lessons. </p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/juneteenth-jim-crow-and-how-the-fight-of-one-black-texas-family-to-make-freedom-real-offers-lessons-for-texas-lawmakers-trying-to-erase-history-from-the-classroom-207678">The scholars referenced</a> <a href="https://easttexashistory.org/items/show/10">Joshua Houston</a>, an enslaved servant from Texas who became the county’s first Black county commissioner, and his son <a href="https://easttexashistory.org/items/show/2">Samuel Walker</a>, who notably founded a school which served as one of the first county training schools for African Americans in Texas.</p>
<p>“Americans cannot appreciate the accomplishments of Joshua and Samuel Walker Houston without examining the vicious realities of Jim Crow society,” Littlejohn and Montz wrote. “The lesson of their lives, and of the Juneteenth holiday, is that freedom is a precious thing that requires constant work to make real.”</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/juneteenth-jim-crow-and-how-the-fight-of-one-black-texas-family-to-make-freedom-real-offers-lessons-for-texas-lawmakers-trying-to-erase-history-from-the-classroom-207678">Juneteenth, Jim Crow and how the fight of one Black Texas family to make freedom real offers lessons for Texas lawmakers trying to erase history from the classroom</a>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534367/original/file-20230627-29-w2lrsx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="View of a classroom, with the educator teaching while standing next to a map of the world." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534367/original/file-20230627-29-w2lrsx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534367/original/file-20230627-29-w2lrsx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534367/original/file-20230627-29-w2lrsx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534367/original/file-20230627-29-w2lrsx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534367/original/file-20230627-29-w2lrsx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534367/original/file-20230627-29-w2lrsx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534367/original/file-20230627-29-w2lrsx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Some educators across the U.S. worry about the backlash from teaching about racial discrimination.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/rear-view-of-teenage-girls-and-boys-learning-in-royalty-free-image/1345022793?phrase=classrooms&adppopup=true">Maskot via Getty Images</a></span>
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<h2>2. The importance of historical knowledge</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/people/individual/boaz-dvir">Boaz Dvir</a>, an assistant professor of journalism at Penn State and grandson of Holocaust survivors, is concerned that many educators <a href="https://theconversation.com/im-an-educator-and-grandson-of-holocaust-survivors-and-i-see-public-schools-failing-to-give-students-the-historical-knowledge-they-need-to-keep-our-democracy-strong-203868">are shying away</a> from examining racism and genocide in the classroom due to new and proposed state laws that restrict conversations on crimes against humanity.</p>
<p>Consequently, Dvir wrote that <a href="https://www.claimscon.org/millennial-study/">an alarming 63% of American millennials and Generation Z</a> lacked basic knowledge about the murder of <a href="https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/holocaust">six million Jews</a> during the Holocaust. </p>
<p>According to Dvir without vital lessons on such crimes against humanity and the factors that give rise to them, students “may not have the knowledge and insight they need to sustain and thrive in a 21st-century democracy.”</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/im-an-educator-and-grandson-of-holocaust-survivors-and-i-see-public-schools-failing-to-give-students-the-historical-knowledge-they-need-to-keep-our-democracy-strong-203868">I'm an educator and grandson of Holocaust survivors, and I see public schools failing to give students the historical knowledge they need to keep our democracy strong</a>
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<h2>3. Critical race theory’s impact on AP courses</h2>
<p><a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=3J0bLuMAAAAJ">Suneal Kolluri</a>, a researcher who studies <a href="https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654318787268">Advanced Placement courses</a> – which provide students an opportunity to earn college credit while still in high school – raises another <a href="https://theconversation.com/advanced-placement-courses-could-clash-with-laws-that-target-critical-race-theory-186018">set of concerns</a> regarding AP history and other history courses. </p>
<p>In 2022, two Oklahoma school districts got <a href="https://www.edweek.org/leadership/two-okla-districts-get-downgraded-accreditations-for-violating-states-anti-crt-law/2022/0">downgraded accreditation</a> for violating the state’s anti-critical race theory law – a field of intellectual inquiry that looks into how race has been embedded into the legal system. Kolluri described his concern that AP courses could face similar penalties in states with restrictions on conversations on race.</p>
<p>“At a time when mostly Republican-led state legislatures have passed a rash of laws to restrict how public schoolteachers can educate students about America’s racist past, I worry that AP courses like U.S History and U.S. Government and Politics could be in jeopardy,” Kolluri wrote. “The danger is posed by those who support the various new state laws against the teaching of divisive topics and critical race theory.” </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/advanced-placement-courses-could-clash-with-laws-that-target-critical-race-theory-186018">Advanced Placement courses could clash with laws that target critical race theory</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Student reads textbook in library." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534893/original/file-20230629-17-fpapcr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534893/original/file-20230629-17-fpapcr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534893/original/file-20230629-17-fpapcr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534893/original/file-20230629-17-fpapcr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534893/original/file-20230629-17-fpapcr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534893/original/file-20230629-17-fpapcr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534893/original/file-20230629-17-fpapcr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Research shows book banners often target stories by and about people of color and LGBTQ+ individuals.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/student-reading-a-book-in-library-royalty-free-image/951226090?phrase=textbooks+library&adppopup=true">kundoy/Moment via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>4. The ongoing battle over book bans</h2>
<p>Book bans in the 1980s focused on <a href="https://www.edweek.org/education/opinion-the-great-secular-humanism-debate-reveals-a-truth-about-public-schooling/1985/10">secular humanism</a>, because it argued that there can be fulfillment without a belief in God. But of late, book bans have focused largely on critical race theory. </p>
<p><a href="https://fredlpincus.com">Fred L. Pincus</a>, a professor of sociology at the University of Maryland examined how the book ban movement in the 1980s relates to the one occurring today. He wrote that both book ban movements objected to the critical teaching about race and racism. </p>
<p>Pincus <a href="https://theconversation.com/battles-over-book-bans-reflect-conflicts-from-the-1980s-177888">also wrote</a> that right-wing critics have claimed that critical race theory is designed to cause white students to feel guilty. As of June 2023, a total of 214 local, state and federal government entities across the U.S. have introduced <a href="https://crtforward.law.ucla.edu">699 anti-critical race theory bills</a> and other measures.</p>
<p>“Of course, some white students – and other students, too, for that matter – will feel uncomfortable upon learning not only about the history of American racism but also its present manifestations,” Pincus wrote. “Reality is sometimes uncomfortable.”</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/battles-over-book-bans-reflect-conflicts-from-the-1980s-177888">Battles over book bans reflect conflicts from the 1980s</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>5. How to teach about racism within the new laws</h2>
<p><a href="https://uncpress.org/author/1338-w-fitzhugh-brundage/">W. Fitzhugh Brundage</a>, a professor of history at University of North Carolina, examined the ways teachers could stay true to American history without breaking any of the new laws. </p>
<p>For example, he suggested <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-teachers-can-stay-true-to-history-without-breaking-new-laws-that-restrict-what-they-can-teach-about-racism-205452">ways to mention slavery</a> within the context of lessons about other topics, such as the free market before the Civil War and how it relied on violence and forced labor.</p>
<p>“Given the current political climate in the U.S., there is no reason to assume more laws that govern what can be taught in public schools will not be passed,” Brundage wrote. “But based on how the laws are being written, there are still plenty of ways for teachers to tackle difficult subjects, such as racism in American society.” </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-teachers-can-stay-true-to-history-without-breaking-new-laws-that-restrict-what-they-can-teach-about-racism-205452">How teachers can stay true to history without breaking new laws that restrict what they can teach about racism</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Editor’s note: This story is a roundup of articles from The Conversation’s archives.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/208576/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
Scholars examine how state laws that restrict lessons on race could affect students and educators.
Jamaal Abdul-Alim, Education Editor, The Conversation
Jusneel Mahal, Freelance editor, The Conversation
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/204778
2023-05-15T12:34:19Z
2023-05-15T12:34:19Z
Short meetings could encourage teachers to stay on the job
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525733/original/file-20230511-42642-h5nbrs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=20%2C50%2C6689%2C4396&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Teacher turnover annually costs school districts thousands of dollars.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/school-counselor-talks-withe-group-of-students-royalty-free-image/950887440?phrase=teacher+principal&adppopup=true">SDI Productions via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/research-brief-83231">Research Brief</a> is a short take about interesting academic work.</em> </p>
<h2>The big idea</h2>
<p>A single, 10-minute meeting between teachers and their principals can increase teacher job satisfaction, our new research shows. This increase in job satisfaction could potentially encourage teachers to stay in the profession longer, thereby reducing turnover and potentially saving school districts hundreds of thousands of dollars. </p>
<p>Our pilot study <a href="https://journals.sfu.ca/cvj/index.php/cvj/article/view/113/235">findings were published</a> in the Journal of Leadership, Equity, and Research.</p>
<p>By combining surveys and digital conferencing to gauge how teachers felt before and after they met with their principals, we implemented a novel research design that, to the best of our knowledge, has never been attempted previously. The three teachers who had the meetings were compared to four teachers who did not meet with their principals.</p>
<p>Although there are many factors, such as <a href="https://theconversation.com/is-it-time-for-teachers-to-get-a-raise-199687">relatively low salaries</a> and lack of support from colleagues, that <a href="https://learningpolicyinstitute.org/node/2448">contribute to teacher turnover</a>, teachers also frequently mention <a href="https://doi.org/10.3102/0162373716659929">inadequate support from school principals</a> as a major reason for leaving the profession. Due to increasing demands on school administrators’ time, a commitment of only 10 minutes could have a lot of appeal if later on, that 10 minutes can save countless hours that would otherwise be spent on attracting and hiring new teachers to replace the ones that leave.</p>
<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p>Half of U.S. teachers <a href="https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED556348">leave the profession within their first five years on the job</a>. These early departures occur most often in <a href="https://learningpolicyinstitute.org/product/teacher-turnover-report">schools located in poorer, rural and inner-city areas</a>. </p>
<p>Very often these schools have <a href="https://www.gao.gov/assets/gao-23-105180.pdf">higher percentages of students who require remedial or specialized learning environments</a>. In terms of subject matter, <a href="https://epaa.asu.edu/index.php/epaa/article/view/3696/2228">many schools are struggling</a> to find qualified math and science teachers, as well as teachers who are certified to teach English language learners.</p>
<p>Studies have also shown that many schools with lower student achievement <a href="https://learningpolicyinstitute.org/sites/default/files/product-files/Teaching_Experience_Report_June_2016.pdf">have disproportionately high numbers of inexperienced teachers</a>.</p>
<p>While our study involved 10-minute meetings, we recognize that school principals need to do more than just hold these meetings to ensure they are supporting their teachers effectively. Recent research has shown that COVID-19 <a href="https://cceam.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/ISEA-2021-49-No-1.pdf#page=115">led to lower job satisfaction among teachers</a>, placing greater demands on school principals to support their teachers.</p>
<p>Depending on the location, the <a href="https://nieer.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/NCTAFCostofTeacherTurnoverpolicybrief.pdf">cost of replacing each teacher</a> is between US$10,000 and $20,000. Taken nationally, these costs amount to $7.3 billion annually that could be spent on facilities, programs, meals and supplies to directly assist students.</p>
<h2>What’s next</h2>
<p>We are making plans to expand this intervention research to include a much larger population of teachers – 500 from one state, to be exact – and administrators.</p>
<p>We also plan to investigate the role that social media plays in how the general public, and specifically aspiring teachers, view the teaching profession. Thirty years ago, burned-out teachers were limited in expressing their workplace challenges to friends, family and others in their local communities. With the advent of social media, however, they are able to broadcast these struggles to anyone with internet access, across the country and around the world. </p>
<p>Determining the factors that contribute to the number of teachers who enter the profession is also just as important as keeping teachers in their classrooms longer.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/204778/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>James Martinez does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Could a 10-minute meeting between teachers and principals reduce teacher turnover? A researcher explores the possibilities.
James Martinez, Assistant Professor of Educational Leadership, University of Tennessee
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/199591
2023-02-12T19:11:01Z
2023-02-12T19:11:01Z
Open-plan classrooms are trendy but there is little evidence to show they help students learn
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509111/original/file-20230209-16-rnf0x9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=37%2C82%2C4955%2C3233&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>If you step into a newly built school these days, chances are you will see classrooms that look very different to the classrooms most of us spent our school years in as children.</p>
<p>On a recent visit to a new primary school in Melbourne, Grattan Institute’s education team entered a large room that contained two classes, separated not by a wall but a wide pillar that left room for teachers and students to move between the two “classroom” spaces.</p>
<p>In the first space, students were leaning forward at their desks, concentrating on their teacher. The room was very noisy. The teacher was only metres from her students, but her voice was all but drowned out by the second “classroom” on the other side.</p>
<p>This appears to be the trend in new classroom buildings around Australia.</p>
<p>For example, in 2017 the New South Wales government committed to building open-plan classrooms, <a href="https://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/news/nsw/120-kids-to-be-taught-in-openplan-classrooms-in-new-schools/news-story/7e1e3a9525a3f2fbd12286ed8eb4b052">each for up to 120 students</a>, at more than 100 new schools. The Victorian government is building “<a href="https://www.schoolbuildings.vic.gov.au/flexible-learning-classrooms">new flexible learning communities</a>”.</p>
<h2>What does the research say about open-plan classrooms?</h2>
<p>Arguments in favour of open-plan classrooms <a href="https://www.arc.gov.au/news-publications/media/feature-articles/designing-classroom-match-21st-century-teaching">use phrases</a> such as “21st century teaching” and “innovative design”.</p>
<p>The idea is to have flexible classroom spaces that can cater for large groups of students, while also allowing students to break into smaller groups, directing their own learning while receiving support from a team of teachers working collaboratively. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1356343070573404161"}"></div></p>
<p>But there is limited evidence open-plan classrooms help learning. In 2018 the University of Melbourne published a <a href="https://apo.org.au/node/188746">systematic review</a> that only found 21 relevant studies since the 1960s that evaluated the impact of educational spaces on student learning outcomes. Of these, the studies showed open-plan environments had mixed effects on academic performance.</p>
<p>We do know too much noise is bad for learning. A 2015 <a href="https://asa.scitation.org/doi/10.1121/1.4931903">Australian study</a> compared speech perception in traditional and open-plan kindergarten classrooms and found noise coming from other classes in the open-plan setting made it more likely for students to misunderstand their teacher. The <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0003682X15002029">study</a> found traditional classrooms were the only classroom type to be within or close to recommended noise levels.</p>
<p>Many open-plan learning spaces don’t align with internationally recognised <a href="https://www.education.vic.gov.au/school/teachers/teachingresources/practice/improve/Pages/hits.aspx">evidence-based strategies</a> for high-impact teaching.</p>
<p>For example, explicit teaching – where the teacher explains key concepts and procedures clearly and models how to solve problems to the whole class – is difficult to do well in a noisy environment. Imagine trying to teach division of fractions to your Year 5 class while the Year 4 class on the other side of the pillar practices their Mandarin oral language presentations.</p>
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<h2>Too much noise is bad for all students</h2>
<p>Of course, traditional classrooms can also be noisy, but a <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23771426/">2013 United Kingdom survey</a> of 2,500 high school students across six schools suggested students at schools with traditional classrooms were more positive about their school acoustics than students at schools with open-plan classrooms.</p>
<p>Too much noise is bad news for all students. But it is particularly worrying for students who have issues with hearing, <a href="https://theconversation.com/is-your-child-having-trouble-learning-they-may-have-auditory-processing-disorder-62491">auditory processing</a>, and other additional learning needs, such as ADHD.</p>
<p>This is also inconsistent with state governments’ stated priorities of ensuring schools are inclusive spaces that cater for students with <a href="https://www.vic.gov.au/inclusive-education-for-students-with-disabilities">additional learning needs</a>.</p>
<h2>New classrooms should be built using evidence</h2>
<p>State governments need to review the existing research – and seek more if needed – and ensure all new classrooms can support the learning of all students. This includes those with additional learning needs and those unlucky enough to be seated at the back of an open-plan classroom.</p>
<p>This is consistent with a 2022 <a href="https://www.parliament.nsw.gov.au/lcdocs/inquiries/2836/Report%20No.%2047%20-%20Planning%20and%20delivery%20of%20school%20infrastructure%20in%20NSW.pdf">NSW parliamentary inquiry</a> into school infrastructure, which recommended school design should follow evidence, not fads.</p>
<p>Where necessary, state governments should also provide schools with funding to fix existing open-plan classrooms so teachers can reduce noisy distractions. Teachers should not have to build their own classroom walls “<a href="https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/recipe-for-chaos-amid-noise-and-distraction-20230206-p5cid0.html">with whiteboards and shelving</a>”.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/classroom-design-should-follow-evidence-not-architectural-fads-89861">Classroom design should follow evidence, not architectural fads</a>
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</em>
</p>
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<p>Some state governments are spending significant funds building new schools and upgrading others in coming years. For example, the NSW government is spending <a href="https://www.schoolinfrastructure.nsw.gov.au/">A$8.6 billion</a> on school infrastructure over the next four years. Queensland is spending <a href="https://statements.qld.gov.au/statements/95656">A$2 billion</a> on education infrastructure this year alone. </p>
<p>While investments in school infrastructure are of course welcome, the danger is many classrooms may be built in ways that undermine effective teaching. Classrooms designs should not create more work for teachers, just to make sure their students can hear them - and each other - speak.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Brigette Garbin contributed to the analysis of this piece, and previously worked as a researcher at the Grattan Institute.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/199591/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anika Stobart is a senior associate at the Grattan Institute. The Grattan Institute began with contributions to its endowment of $15 million from each of the Federal and Victorian Governments, $4 million from BHP Billiton, and $1 million from NAB. In order to safeguard its independence, Grattan Institute’s board controls this endowment. The funds are invested and contribute to funding Grattan Institute's activities. Grattan Institute also receives funding from corporates, foundations, and individuals to support its general activities as disclosed on its website.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jordana Hunter is Education Program Director at the Grattan Institute. </span></em></p>
Open-plan classrooms can be very noisy. And this is bad for all students, especially those with hearing or learning difficulties.
Anika Stobart, Senior Associate, Grattan Institute
Jordana Hunter, School Education Program Director, Grattan Institute
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/190420
2022-09-14T00:28:44Z
2022-09-14T00:28:44Z
What happens when your classmates keep leaving? The impact of school transience on pupils ‘left behind’
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/484142/original/file-20220912-12-g19oz0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5691%2C3788&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The claim last week by National Party leader Christopher Luxon that 100,000 New Zealand schoolchildren were chronically truant quickly turned into an argument about terminology, statistics and how to interpret them.</p>
<p>In fact, it appears Luxon was referring to a <a href="https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/national/474365/figures-unclear-on-how-many-students-are-wagging-school">figure from term one</a> this year that showed 101,861 children were “chronically absent”. This means they miss 70% or more half-days of school, but is not the same as being truant.</p>
<p>The wider political context of the debate was the current concern over youth crime and <a href="https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/education/129642747/no-quick-fixes-in-battle-against-poor-school-attendance">attendance levels</a> in general. While truancy and chronic absenteeism are an obvious focus, there is another problem that deserves just as much attention: transience.</p>
<p>This refers to the frequent movement of students from one school to another. It’s linked to poverty and is typically driven by changes in family or employment circumstances, or by changes in housing availability.</p>
<p>Often overlooked in discussions of transience, however, is the impact it has on the school environment – and particularly on those students who are not transient themselves.</p>
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<h2>The impact of transience</h2>
<p>The development of positive social relationships and social skills during childhood increases the likelihood of positive outcomes later in life. Schools provide opportunities for students to form bonds with peers and, through these relationships, build important social and emotional skills.</p>
<p>But a school’s ability to nurture social skills and relationships can be undermined by external factors such as poverty, which is linked to increased transience.</p>
<p>According to the Ministry of Education, children are <a href="https://www.educationcounts.govt.nz/statistics/transient-students">considered transient</a> if they attend two or more schools in a single school year. Over their eight years of primary school, some children change schools as often as ten times.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-cost-of-living-crisis-means-bolder-budget-decisions-are-needed-to-lift-more-nz-children-out-of-poverty-181466">The cost of living crisis means bolder budget decisions are needed to lift more NZ children out of poverty</a>
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<p>Although transience has been <a href="https://www.educationcounts.govt.nz/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/208388/Transient-Students-2020-Indicator-Report.pdf">declining since 2016</a>, transience rates are almost six times higher at low <a href="https://www.education.govt.nz/school/funding-and-financials/resourcing/operational-funding/school-decile-ratings/">decile</a> schools than high decile schools. Sadly, compared to other OECD countries, Aotearoa New Zealand has one of the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18559440/">highest rates</a> of residential mobility among families of school children.</p>
<p>Children who move schools frequently can experience peer rejection, bullying, mental health problems, and, in some cases, demonstrate antisocial behaviour. Transience can also affect the school environment by disrupting or unsettling established classroom routines.</p>
<p>Children who attend highly transient schools are affected by the constant flux of peers moving in or out of the school community, which erodes social networks, social skill development and classroom climate.</p>
<h2>Measuring the impact of transience</h2>
<p>School programmes designed to build the social skills needed to mitigate the negative impact of transience have been shown to work. But less is known about the effect on students who attend schools with high transience rates, but who are not transient themselves.</p>
<p>Our <a href="https://researchspace.auckland.ac.nz/handle/2292/39481">research</a> explored the impact of Kiwi Can, a values and life skills programme operated by the <a href="https://dinglefoundation.org.nz/">Graeme Dingle Foundation</a> charity, on the classroom climate and social health of children. </p>
<p>The programme teaches positive relationships, integrity, resilience and respect. The curriculum is standardised, but can be tailored to the needs of the school. One Kiwi Can lesson is delivered each week to each class over the course of the school year.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-student-absences-arent-the-real-problem-in-americas-attendance-crisis-170063">Why student absences aren't the real problem in America's 'attendance crisis'</a>
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<p>We used a student questionnaire about positive relationships and classroom climate in 15 Kiwi Can schools (763 students) and nine control schools (456 students) at the start and end of an academic school year.</p>
<p>Seven Kiwi Can schools were classified as “new” because they had been in the programme for less than two years. The eight that had been in the programme for two or more years were classified as “experienced”.</p>
<p>We calculated the rate of transience for all schools using the number of students who completed both surveys as a proportion of the school roll. Rates were classified as “high” if the transience level was equal to or greater than 33%, “middle” between 32% and 15%, and “low” if under 15%.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/484213/original/file-20220913-16-jj94lj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/484213/original/file-20220913-16-jj94lj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/484213/original/file-20220913-16-jj94lj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/484213/original/file-20220913-16-jj94lj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/484213/original/file-20220913-16-jj94lj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/484213/original/file-20220913-16-jj94lj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/484213/original/file-20220913-16-jj94lj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Programmes that teach positive relationships, integrity, resilience and respect can make a difference.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Getty Images</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Helping non-transient pupils</h2>
<p>In our sample, five Kiwi Can schools were classified as having high transience rates. Of these, three were classified as experienced.</p>
<p>We found non-transient children attending highly transient schools struggle to forge healthy social relationships, feel connected to their peers or schools, behave in prosocial ways, and show caring and compassion for others.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/truancy-parents-who-take-children-on-holiday-during-term-time-not-the-problem-46050">Truancy: parents who take children on holiday during term time not the problem</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>They also seemed to feel less safe in their schools and enjoyed their schooling experience less than those in more stable (less transient) school environments.</p>
<p>While all schools reported lower scores against all these measures by the end of the year, this was greatest in schools with the highest rates of transience and the shortest experience of Kiwi Can. High transience schools that had longer experience with Kiwi Can had end-of-year results similar to those in middle transience schools.</p>
<p>Importantly, sustained participation in the Kiwi Can programme was found to mitigate the negative effects of transience for non-transient children. In fact, children who attended experienced Kiwi Can schools showed fewer declines in their social health over the course of the school year than children who attended new Kiwi Can schools in highly transient communities.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/teacher-shortages-are-a-global-problem-prioritising-australian-visas-wont-solve-ours-189468">Teacher shortages are a global problem – 'prioritising' Australian visas won't solve ours</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>More support for schools</h2>
<p>This work draws much needed attention to the complexities of transience, which affects not only children who move frequently, but also those who do not.</p>
<p>Although we are all aware of the impact of poverty and should be working towards a long-term solution, we must also do what we can now to mitigate the negative impact of transience on the health and wellbeing of our tamariki (children).</p>
<p>Transience negatively affects children who don’t move a lot, but this can be mitigated through positive youth development programmes.</p>
<p>Long term investment is needed to support whole school programmes that nurture social skills and help children feel more connected to school. But schools must be funded to deliver these programmes consistently if we are to support the needs of those “left behind”.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/190420/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Children who move schools often can struggle. But so too can those who stay put while others come and go. More attention needs to be paid to these often-forgotten victims of school transience.
Rachel Williamson-Dean, Postgraduate Research Fellow, Faculty of Education and Social Work, University of Auckland, Waipapa Taumata Rau
Gavin Brown, Professor of Learning Development and Professional Practice, University of Auckland, Waipapa Taumata Rau
Pat Bullen, Senior Lecturer in Learning, Development and Professional Practice, University of Auckland, Waipapa Taumata Rau
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/165519
2021-09-22T18:57:35Z
2021-09-22T18:57:35Z
Rich kids and poor kids face different rules when it comes to bringing personal items to school
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421143/original/file-20210914-15-15d4dse.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=37%2C24%2C8058%2C5462&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Some preschoolers are encouraged to bring in their favorite toy or stuffed animal, while others risk having it confiscated.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/teddy-bear-hugs-with-happy-3-years-girl-royalty-free-image/1178841461">Layland Masuda/Moment Collection via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/research-brief-83231">Research Brief</a> is a short take about interesting academic work.</em></p>
<h2>The big idea</h2>
<p>Poor preschoolers get fewer chances than wealthier children to bring their prized personal possessions to school. That’s what I found in my <a href="https://academic.oup.com/socpro/advance-article-abstract/doi/10.1093/socpro/spab019/6324468">two-year comparative ethnographic study</a> of two preschools in Madison, Wisconsin. One of the preschools primarily serves middle-class white children and the other primarily serves poor children of color.</p>
<p>In the preschool that served mostly poor kids, the teachers made a rule that kids could not bring toys, games, stuffed animals or other personal items to school. The stakes felt too high to these teachers. Some students’ families were recently evicted and had few toys. Other students’ families did buy them toys but at great financial cost, and families didn’t want these items broken. Teachers also worried about toys being stolen. The items that I observed children try to bring in ranged from expensive action figures to random board game pieces to sparkly ponytail holders. </p>
<p>I then observed an affluent school and found that teachers actually encouraged children to bring their personal items to school. The teachers hosted a weekly show and tell. Kids could bring toys, objects from nature or anything else to show and tell. Teachers also encouraged kids to bring books to read with their peers and stuffed animals to cuddle at nap time any day of the week. Because these teachers knew their students’ families were financially well-off, they made classroom rules that allowed children to celebrate their personal property.</p>
<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p>This gulf in how kids experience classroom rules about property matters for three reasons. </p>
<p>First, I observed that when children brought personal stuff to school, they used the items to connect with friends or just to hold and enjoy by themselves throughout the day. This was true whether they were encouraged to bring the items in or they successfully sneaked them in.</p>
<p>Bringing special personal objects to school provided the kids with a form of what sociologists call <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/2378023116633712">substantive dignity</a> – the sense that one belongs in a wider community but is still respected as a unique individual. My research suggests that <a href="https://www.urban.org/features/segregated-start">preschool segregation</a> creates pressures for teachers of poor children to forbid personal property at school, closing off a pathway to substantive dignity for these children.</p>
<p>Second, the disparity in children’s degree of control over property connects to other researchers’ findings that affluent children have more control over their experience within schools. From <a href="https://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=50">school uniform rules</a> to how much of their <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122411427177">teacher’s help</a> they get when working on assignments, affluent children grow up expecting more special attention from authority figures. They are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122411427177">more comfortable asking for accommodations</a>, and this matters in college and as they <a href="https://www.doi.org/10.1177/0038040715614913">transition to adulthood</a>. In contrast, poor and working-class children experience more encouragement to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122414546931">defer to the rules of an institution</a>. My research suggests that affluent children’s comfortable access to personal property in preschool is an additional mechanism by which they come to feel entitled to individualized attention in workplaces and other institutions.</p>
<p>Third, one consequence of the no-personal-items rule at the poor preschool was that a handful of students – all boys of color – sneaked toys in anyway. Sometimes these children were caught and were disciplined by having their items taken and being sent to the quiet area. As a result, property rules contributed to differences in discipline on race and gender lines. This aligns with other scholars’ findings that boys of color <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/socpro/spaa011">experience more punishment</a> as early as preschool, and this pattern continues through <a href="https://safesupportivelearning.ed.gov/sites/default/files/Discipline_Disparities_Overview.pdf">K-12 schooling</a>. </p>
<h2>What still isn’t known</h2>
<p>My research observed broad, social experiences that children had over time. However, social scientists will need to do more research to determine how teachers’ rules about controlling children’s personal property use differ across a wider range of preschools. Another question is how teachers manage kids’ access to personal items in mixed-income preschools.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/165519/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Casey Stockstill does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
When students are allowed to bring personal items for show and tell, it can build their senses of self-worth, belonging and control. But poor kids often don’t get that opportunity.
Casey Stockstill, Assistant Professor of Sociology, University of Denver
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/165947
2021-08-24T18:57:03Z
2021-08-24T18:57:03Z
COVID-19 has spurred investments in air filtration for K-12 schools – but these technologies aren’t an instant fix
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/417256/original/file-20210820-13-1vqpfu4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Low-cost air-ventilation systems have been installed in many classrooms across the U.S. to help reduce COVID-19 transmission.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/small-children-with-face-mask-back-to-school-after-royalty-free-image/1268258062?adppopup=true">Halfpoint Images/Moment via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The COVID-19 pandemic has brought increased attention to indoor air quality and the effect that ventilation has on reducing disease transmission in indoor spaces. A <a href="https://infrastructurereportcard.org/cat-item/schools/">recent infrastructure survey</a> reported that of the nearly 100,000 operating public school buildings across the U.S., more than a third have an immediate need for upgrades to the ventilation systems that help control indoor air quality and the spread of “aerosols.”</p>
<p>Aerosol is the term used to describe the millions of microscopic particles that float in air – both indoors and out. People constantly inhale and exhale aerosols, some of which include allergens, particles from automobile exhaust, wildfire ash and microbes. </p>
<p>Our University of Colorado <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=BpJEifoAAAAJ&hl=en">environmental engineering team</a> has been studying the microbiological components of indoor air, called “bioaerosols”, for more than 25 years. We have surveyed the ventilation systems of hundreds of <a href="https://co.chalkbeat.org/2021/2/1/22256894/school-districts-exploring-new-ways-reduce-covid-through-air">K-12 classrooms</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s40168-015-0132-3">health care facilities</a> <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/health/interactive/2021/indoor-air-quality-safety-experiment/">and restaurants</a>. And we have provided facilities managers with affordable plans to improve indoor air quality.</p>
<p>Our own work <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/ina.12403">as well as others’</a> has found that many classrooms are unfortunately poorly ventilated, and that better ventilation can reduce student absences due to illness – both during a pandemic and more normal times.</p>
<p>After surveying the installation of air filtration systems over the past year, we found that they can significantly improve air quality in classrooms by lowering aerosol levels, which in turn lowers COVID-19 transmission risk. But effective installation is key.</p>
<h2>A new age of filtration</h2>
<p>As the <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-use-ventilation-and-air-filtration-to-prevent-the-spread-of-coronavirus-indoors-143732">pandemic continues to highlight</a> the need for better ventilation and indoor air quality, <a href="https://schools.forhealth.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/19/2020/06/Harvard-Healthy-Buildings-Program-Schools-For-Health-Reopening-Covid19-June2020.pdf">many academic institutions</a>, <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/community/schools-childcare/ventilation.html">government agencies</a>, nongovernmental organizations and <a href="https://www.ashrae.org/technical-resources/resources">professional building science societies</a> have been promoting better building-management practices to improve school ventilation. </p>
<p>Some building scientists have called for bringing the ventilation conditions in schools up to the levels prescribed for medical clinics. Unfortunately, the infrastructure investments required for that level of upgrade are well out of practical reach for many public buildings: Between 2008 and 2017 alone, <a href="https://infrastructurereportcard.org/cat-item/schools/">state capital funding for schools</a> was cut by $20 billion, or 31%. </p>
<p>In the <a href="https://infrastructurereportcard.org/cat-item/schools/">absence of funding</a> for major building upgrades, simple in-room filtration technologies have been installed in some schools to improve ventilation in classrooms where many students spend their days in close quarters. However, these filters have only been deployed in a small fraction of public schools across the country.</p>
<p>This technology, called high efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filtration, was born in the aerospace industry more than 50 years ago. HEPA filtration has been proved to efficiently remove microscopic airborne particles – including respiratory viruses – from air in higher occupancy spaces like classrooms. </p>
<p>Over the past few years, a new generation of HEPA filters have emerged from the U.S. commercial sector. These filters are more compatible with educational settings and less intrusive than their research-grade counterparts that are commonly used in the aerospace and pharmaceutical sectors, where “clean rooms” are needed. These latest models include improvements like multidirectional intake, reduced noise, lower power requirements, better durability and relatively small footprints. </p>
<p>HEPA filters have also become more widely used over the past couple of decades in homes in response to the recognition of <a href="https://www.prb.org/resources/childhood-asthma-a-growing-american-epidemic/">rising asthma rates among children</a>. But until the COVID-19 pandemic, they were rarely used in public school settings. </p>
<h2>Bringing fresher air to classrooms</h2>
<p>Over the 2021 spring academic semester, our team installed hundreds of new HEPA filters in public elementary classrooms in Denver, Colorado, the largest metropolitan school district in the Mountain West. These upgrades were possible due to a recent <a href="https://denver.cbslocal.com/2021/01/11/cu-denver-schools-air-filter/">industry-university cooperative</a> effort between the University of Colorado, the Intel foundation and the Carrier Corporation, a multinational ventilation equipment company. Together, these organizations contributed more than $500,000 for large-scale ventilation assessments, HEPA filter installations and other air quality improvements for Denver-area schools.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/417271/original/file-20210820-25-11rj122.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/417271/original/file-20210820-25-11rj122.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/417271/original/file-20210820-25-11rj122.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417271/original/file-20210820-25-11rj122.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417271/original/file-20210820-25-11rj122.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417271/original/file-20210820-25-11rj122.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417271/original/file-20210820-25-11rj122.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417271/original/file-20210820-25-11rj122.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">University of Colorado, Boulder, professor Mark Hernandez, engineering student Ricardo Reyes and architecture student Halle Sago take microbial counts on a classroom desk in Boulder in spring 2021.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Glenn Asakawa/CU Boulder</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A yet-unpublished poll of teachers in many of those classrooms overwhelmingly reported that this new generation of HEPA filters were welcome and easy to accommodate in their classrooms. </p>
<p>But like all engineering solutions, air filter effectiveness depends on proper installation. Our team’s field studies demonstrate that a simple “plug-and-play” approach will not address the complicated reality of aerosol exposures in densely occupied classrooms. In many situations, we have found HEPA filters that were undersized and placed inappropriately – such as facing a wall or in a remote corner – and sometimes not even turned on. </p>
<p>Networks of HEPA filters need to be thoughtfully installed, and the process must take into consideration other factors such as existing ventilation system performance, ceiling height, desk layouts and the presence or absence of ceiling fans. HEPA filters can only work up to their full potential if schools have the right number of them, they are the appropriate size and are placed in optimal positions. </p>
<p>The best HEPA filter installations consider details like student seating charts, high traffic areas and other variables based on student behaviors. Fortunately, building facility managers and custodial staff can be trained, with modest time investment, to install, operate and maintain HEPA filters in classrooms, with minimal distraction to teachers. </p>
<h2>Air quality improvements are an investment in health and education</h2>
<p>A 2020 <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/23744731.2020.1794499">review on indoor air quality strategies </a> estimates that an individual HEPA filter, sized for elementary school classrooms with average energy use, costs about $361. This is consistent with our team’s experience in the Denver Public Schools system, where we typically installed at least two units per classroom at a cost of less than $800 per room. We estimate that this is roughly equal to the cost of one extra textbook per student over an academic year. In our opinion, that is well worth the potential improvement in indoor air quality in classrooms.</p>
<p>In-room HEPA filtration is a long-term investment that supplements existing ventilation systems. And though COVID-19 was the impetus for the installation of many HEPA filters, they are effective for far more than just reducing exposures to airborne viruses. Well-maintained and properly functioning filtration systems also reduce exposure to wildfire ash that can penetrate buildings, as well as allergens and other unwanted particles like automobile exhaust, tire detritus and construction dust. </p>
<p>But even the best indoor HEPA filtration cannot guarantee protection from airborne respiratory threats in schools. HEPA filters are effective only as part of an integrated approach. Ultimately, masks, distancing and reducing the number of students packed into tight spaces will determine how well students are protected from COVID-19.</p>
<p>HEPA filters are the modern analogy of “seat-belts” for indoor air quality in the age of COVID-19. If fitted correctly, they can only help lower the exposures to COVID-19 and other aerosols that students experience during their school days. </p>
<p>[<em>Understand new developments in science, health and technology, each week.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/science-editors-picks-71/?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=science-understand">Subscribe to The Conversation’s science newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/165947/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mark Hernandez receives funding from the National Science Foundation and National Institutes of Health, as well as a host of public and private companies and philanthropic organizations supporting air quality research in our built environment, including the Reckitt company, the Clorox company, the Intel Foundation, and the Ryan Innovation Group.</span></em></p>
Air-ventilation upgrades have been badly needed in U.S. classrooms since long before the pandemic. Low-tech filtration systems that cost about the same as a textbook per student can make a big difference.
Mark Thomas Hernandez, S. J. Archuleta Professor of Environmental Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/145966
2020-10-05T18:05:59Z
2020-10-05T18:05:59Z
When COVID-19 superspreaders are talking, where you sit in the room matters
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/361701/original/file-20201005-22-1an6y3q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C123%2C5491%2C3532&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Classroom experiments show how the coronavirus can spread and who's at greatest risk. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/engineering-tutor-explaining-concept-during-royalty-free-image/872025858">Tom Werner via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>It doesn’t take long for airborne coronavirus particles to make their way through a room. At first, only people sitting near an infected speaker are at high risk, but as the meeting or class goes on, the <a href="https://theconversation.com/aerosols-are-a-bigger-coronavirus-threat-than-who-guidelines-suggest-heres-what-you-need-to-know-142233">tiny aerosols</a> can spread. </p>
<p>That doesn’t mean everyone faces the same level of risk, however.</p>
<p>As <a href="https://www.clarkson.edu/people/suresh-dhaniyala">an engineer</a>, I have been conducting experiments tracking how aerosols move, including those in the size range that <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid2609.201806">can carry viruses</a>.</p>
<p>What I’ve found is important to understand as more people return to universities, offices and restaurants and more meetings move indoors as temperatures fall. It points to the highest-risk areas in rooms and why <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-use-ventilation-and-air-filtration-to-prevent-the-spread-of-coronavirus-indoors-143732">proper ventilation is crucial</a>.</p>
<p>As we saw this past week <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2020/10/02/how-did-trump-get-covid-and-who-has-he-infected/3590490001/">with President Donald Trump and others in Washington</a>, the coronavirus can spread quickly in close quarters if precautions aren’t taken. University campuses have also been struggling with COVID-19. Cases among 18- to 22-year-olds <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/69/wr/mm6939e4.htm?s_cid=mm6939e4_w">more than doubled</a> in the Midwest and Northeast after schools reopened in August. </p>
<p>As the case numbers rise, the risk to anyone who spends time in those rooms rises as well.</p>
<h2>An experiment shows who’s at greatest risk</h2>
<p>Most current models describing the role of ventilation on the <a href="https://www.nist.gov/services-resources/software/fatima">fate of airborne microbes in a room</a> assume the air is well mixed, with the particle concentration uniform throughout. In a poorly ventilated room or small space, that is likely true. In those scenarios, the entire room is a high-risk region.</p>
<p>However, in larger spaces, such as classrooms, good ventilation reduces risk, but likely not uniformly. My research shows that how high the level of risk gets depends a lot on ventilation.</p>
<p>To understand how the coronavirus can spread, we injected aerosol particles similar in size to those from humans into a room and then monitored them with sensors. We used a 30-foot by 26-foot university classroom designed to accommodate 30 students that had a ventilation system that met <a href="https://www.ashrae.org/technical-resources/standards-and-guidelines">the recommended standards</a>. </p>
<p>When we released particles at the front of the classroom, they reached all the way to the back of the room within 10 to 15 minutes. However, because of active ventilation in the room, the concentrations at the back, about 20 feet from the source, were about one-tenth of the concentrations close to the source.</p>
<p>That suggests that with appropriate ventilation, the highest risk for getting COVID-19 could be limited to a small number of people near the infected speaker. As the time spent indoors with an infected speaker increases, however, risk extends to the entire room, even if ventilation is good.</p>
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<h2>CDC finally acknowledges the aerosol risk</h2>
<p>In the past, the transmission of respiratory diseases has focused on the role of larger particles that are generated when we sneeze and cough. These droplets fall quickly to the ground, and social distancing and <a href="https://theconversation.com/which-mask-works-best-we-filmed-people-coughing-and-sneezing-to-find-out-143173">mask wearing</a> can largely prevent infection from them.</p>
<p>The bigger concern now is the role of <a href="https://theconversation.com/aerosols-are-a-bigger-coronavirus-threat-than-who-guidelines-suggest-heres-what-you-need-to-know-142233">tiny particles known as aerosols</a> that are generated when we talk, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/ina.12751">sing</a> or even just breathe. These particles, often smaller than 5 micrometers, can escape from cloth face masks and <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/aerosols/pdfs/Aerosol_101.pdf">linger in air for up to about 12 hours</a>. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention finally <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/how-covid-spreads.html">acknowledged that risk</a> on Oct. 5 after Trump was hospitalized and several other people in or close to the administration tested positive for COVID-19.</p>
<p>While these smaller particles, on average, carry less virus than larger particles that people emit when they cough or sneeze, the high infectivity of SARS-CoV-2 combined with the <a href="http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jinf.2020.06.067">high viral load</a> before symptoms appear makes these particles important for airborne disease transmission. </p>
<h2>How much ventilation is enough?</h2>
<p>To minimize COVID-19 transmission indoors, the CDC’s top <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/hierarchy/default.html">recommendation</a> is to eliminate the source of infection. Remote learning has effectively done this on many campuses. For face-to-face teaching, engineering measures such as ventilation, partition shields and filtration units can directly remove particles from the air.</p>
<p>Of all the engineering controls, ventilation is probably the most effective tool to minimize infection spread. </p>
<p>Understanding how ventilation lowers your risks of getting COVID-19 starts with air exchange rates. An air exchange of one per hour means that the air supplied to the room over one hour equals the volume of air in the room. Air exchange rate <a href="https://www.epa.gov/indoor-air-quality-iaq/how-much-ventilation-do-i-need-my-home-improve-indoor-air-quality">ranges from less than one for homes</a> to around <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/infectioncontrol/guidelines/environmental/appendix/air.html">15-25 for hospital operating rooms</a>. </p>
<p>For classrooms, the current regulations of primary air flow correspond to an air exchange of about six per hour. That means that every 10 minutes, the amount of air brought into the room equals that of the volume of the room.</p>
<p>How high the concentration gets depends in part on the number of people in the room, how much they emit and the air exchange rate. With social distancing reducing classroom populations by half and everyone wearing masks, the air in many indoor spaces is actually cleaner now than it was before the pandemic.</p>
<h2>Parts of the room to avoid</h2>
<p>It’s important to remember that not all parts of a room are at equal risk.</p>
<p>The corners of the room will likely have a lower air exchange – so particles can linger there longer. </p>
<p>[<em>Research into coronavirus and other news from science</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/science-editors-picks-71/?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=science-corona-research">Subscribe to The Conversation’s new science newsletter</a>.]</p>
<p>Being close to an air exit vent could mean that airborne particles from the rest of the room could wash over you. A study of <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid2607.200764">ventilation airflow in a restaurant in China</a> traced its role in several COVID-19 illnesses among the patrons there.</p>
<p>About 95% of particles in the room will be removed by a properly functioning <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/infectioncontrol/guidelines/environmental/appendix/air.html">ventilation system in 30 minutes</a>, but an infected person in the room means those particles are also continuously emitted. The pace of particle removal can be accelerated by increasing the air exchange rate or adding other engineering controls such as filtration units. Opening windows will also often increase the effective air exchange rate.</p>
<p>As schools, restaurants, malls and other communal spaces start accommodating more people indoors, understanding the risks and following the <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/index.html">CDC’s recommendations</a> can help minimize infection spread.</p>
<p><em>This story has been updated with the CDC’s newly released guidance on aerosols.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/145966/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Suresh Dhaniyala receives funding from the National Science Foundation </span></em></p>
Experiments in college classrooms show how tiny respiratory droplets known as aerosols can spread, even with good ventilation. The risk isn’t the same in every seat.
Suresh Dhaniyala, Bayard D. Clarkson Distinguished Professor of Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering, Clarkson University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/131587
2020-06-12T10:00:03Z
2020-06-12T10:00:03Z
I redesigned a school playground for my PhD – and the children got better marks learning outside
<p>The coronavirus pandemic has disrupted the education of at least <a href="https://news.un.org/en/story/2020/04/1062232">1.5 billion</a> school students. That’s more than 90% of the world’s children. Although many schools in the west, along with private schools in the developing world, have continued some school activities online, more than <a href="https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000373233">50%</a> of learners worldwide do not have a household computer. The absence of face-to-face learning and opportunities for playing with friends will have hugely impacted child mental health. </p>
<p>Countries are taking different approaches as to when, where and how to reopen schools, and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/education/2020/may/17/denmark-can-teach-england-safe-reopening-of-schools-covid-19">some places</a> are emphasising the benefits of <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2020/may/10/scotland-eyes-outdoor-learning-as-model-for-reopening-of-schools?fbclid=IwAR2o_w7Ri8IQ8QEU1Li2UqqMuo5cOFU-ftkzjPnEHGNh0zwv-8_XTWN3s6Q">outdoor learning</a>.</p>
<p>Research has shown that an outdoor environment can improve children’s motivation and well-being, and can contribute to increasing children’s <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/16/22/4320">physical activity</a> and <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/10.1080/14733285.2018.1490007">learning outcomes</a>. Learning in nature has been shown to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1353829214000379?casa_token=HlkNEA102HUAAAAA:Bny2Iap4UxriqiwYT4ZRJyJIIMiZP56x4ddJsxmLTLfaTNYbYoXeiN1lJE8ezLwaOMcRnx8GcA">reduce stress</a> and boost <a href="https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/9/Suppl_1/A20.3">mental well-being</a>.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/scotlands-outdoor-play-initiative-has-some-lessons-for-the-rest-of-the-world-132429">Scotland’s outdoor play initiative has some lessons for the rest of the world</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338562/original/file-20200529-96736-n8qg4q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338562/original/file-20200529-96736-n8qg4q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338562/original/file-20200529-96736-n8qg4q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338562/original/file-20200529-96736-n8qg4q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338562/original/file-20200529-96736-n8qg4q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338562/original/file-20200529-96736-n8qg4q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338562/original/file-20200529-96736-n8qg4q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Evidence shows that learning outdoors is beneficial in many ways.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/group-diverse-kids-hands-raising-cheerfully-633470828">Rawpixel.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Outdoor learning was traditionally practised in countries across the African and Asian continents, but is increasingly valued less. In many cases, it is only perceived as an option when there is no functioning classroom. But now, more than ever, the benefits of outdoor learning must be capitalised on all over the world.</p>
<h2>Bangladesh</h2>
<p>I have been researching outdoor learning environments for more than 10 years. While most research in this area is concentrated in western countries, my own has focused on Bangladesh.</p>
<p>In Bangladesh the net enrolment rate at primary schools is nearly 100%, but only 32% of the children reach <a href="https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/education/2017/09/08/school-enrollment-high-dropouts-even-higher/">higher secondary level</a> (typically completed at ages 16-18). There are many reasons for this <a href="http://www.theindependentbd.com/arcprint/details/72409/2016-12-15">high dropout rate</a>, including poverty and child marriage. </p>
<p>But one reason that is rarely considered is the quality of the learning environment. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237344153_Participatory_Evaluation_Causes_of_Primary_School_Drop-Out">Evidence shows</a> many students drop out because they do not feel attracted to school and did not like the traditional teaching and learning environment.</p>
<p>Teaching and learning outdoors has been core to the education system in the Indian subcontinent and was practised widely before the education system was formalised. It is still being practised in the town of <a href="https://www.thebetterindia.com/66627/santiniketan-rabindranath-tagore-bengal/">Shantiniketan</a>, India, established by the Nobel Laureate poet and philanthropist Rabindranath Tagore. But the idea is not mainstream and the political, physical and social infrastructure to support its wider implementation is absent.</p>
<p>I looked into whether learning in an outdoor environment can improve children’s academic attainment, motivation and play in a Bangladeshi primary school as part of <a href="https://era.ed.ac.uk/handle/1842/23480">my PhD</a>. School grounds in Bangladesh are largely barren fields without any features. Clearly this needed to change if outdoor learning was to be encouraged. The school I worked with was a primary school 80 kilometre from the capital city Dhaka. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338567/original/file-20200529-96727-lspo5u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338567/original/file-20200529-96727-lspo5u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338567/original/file-20200529-96727-lspo5u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338567/original/file-20200529-96727-lspo5u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338567/original/file-20200529-96727-lspo5u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338567/original/file-20200529-96727-lspo5u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338567/original/file-20200529-96727-lspo5u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The original schoolground.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">© Matluba Khan</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>I wanted the children’s input for the redesign. I asked Grade IV children (eight- to 12-year-olds) what they would like to have in their playground for both learning and play. The children drew pictures and shared their thoughts. I brainstormed with teachers separately and asked what they would need in the outdoor learning environment in order to take curricular teaching and learning outdoors. </p>
<p>Then we all participated in a model making workshop, led by the children. I supplied materials based on the drawings made by children and suggestions offered by teachers. We have presented the model to the local community who came forward to help us with whatever resources they could offer. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338563/original/file-20200529-96699-tf47e3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338563/original/file-20200529-96699-tf47e3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338563/original/file-20200529-96699-tf47e3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338563/original/file-20200529-96699-tf47e3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338563/original/file-20200529-96699-tf47e3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338563/original/file-20200529-96699-tf47e3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338563/original/file-20200529-96699-tf47e3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The model.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">© Matluba Khan</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A new classroom</h2>
<p>The children wanted places to explore and experiment, to play and learn together, to challenge them physically and intellectually, to make things and be creative, to connect with nature, to be alone and to reflect. <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14729679.2014.896746">Studies with</a> children from different parts of the world have yielded similar results, showing these preferences are universal.</p>
<p>Teachers, meanwhile, told me that nature can offer opportunities to try out science. They wanted different types of vegetation and a garden in the schoolyard. They requested an area with different loose materials such as twigs, branches, seeds and egg crates to help them demonstrate number theories and other mathematical problems. They also asked for some group learning settings for group activities and an outdoor classroom.</p>
<p>All of these preferences were then taken into account when the Bangladeshi architect, Fuad Abdul Quaium, and myself designed the school ground. We hired local masons and used low-cost materials and technology. The children designed a mural. The school ground was ready for use in January 2015. The teachers led children outdoors regularly for their maths and science lessons.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338565/original/file-20200529-96741-1g7i66a.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338565/original/file-20200529-96741-1g7i66a.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338565/original/file-20200529-96741-1g7i66a.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338565/original/file-20200529-96741-1g7i66a.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338565/original/file-20200529-96741-1g7i66a.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338565/original/file-20200529-96741-1g7i66a.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338565/original/file-20200529-96741-1g7i66a.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The mural.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">© Matluba Khan</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>My <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0013916519860868">research</a> showed that the children’s attainment in maths and science improved after teaching and learning outdoors. The Grade IV children performed significantly better in maths and science compared to a comparable school which had had no change in the environment. </p>
<p>Hands-on learning outdoors made learning fun and engaging for everyone, but particularly benefited underachievers. We found that children who didn’t interact much in the classroom setting were more pro-active and participated more in their outdoor sessions.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338566/original/file-20200529-96713-uhnbii.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338566/original/file-20200529-96713-uhnbii.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338566/original/file-20200529-96713-uhnbii.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338566/original/file-20200529-96713-uhnbii.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338566/original/file-20200529-96713-uhnbii.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338566/original/file-20200529-96713-uhnbii.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338566/original/file-20200529-96713-uhnbii.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The new schoolground.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">© Matluba Khan</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>An outdoor future</h2>
<p>Outdoor classrooms can also provide the space to maintain social distancing while learning. But the school ground should be designed in a way to support teaching and learning, and teachers need training in use of their school ground and surroundings for teaching.</p>
<p>My research strengthens the already existing evidence on benefits of outdoor learning. The study also generates new evidence for its use outside western countries, suggesting outdoor learning has the potential to improve the quality of education all over the world.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/131587/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Matluba Khan is co-founder and chair of the board for A Place in Childhood (APiC), a Scottish Charitable Incorporated Organisation. She received funding from Charles Wallace Bangladesh Trust to complete part of the research study mentioned in the article. </span></em></p>
The need for social distancing due to coronavirus means now is the time for schools across the world to embrace outdoor learning.
Matluba Khan, Lecturer in Urban Design, Cardiff University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/124330
2019-11-28T11:42:12Z
2019-11-28T11:42:12Z
Fluorescent lighting in school could be harming your child’s health and ability to read
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/304269/original/file-20191128-178101-1nltr18.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=26%2C8%2C2963%2C2120&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Reading problem or problem with the lights?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/school-education-literacy-concept-asian-girl-419267809?src=37ae4cb7-cf31-4335-a7ad-59c3fbc30f8b-1-15">shutterstock/ Chinnapong</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>If you step into any British classroom, chances are you’ll be greeted by the bright white light of fluorescent lamps. Schools began to introduce fluorescent lighting in the mid 1950s and rows of these low cost, long life, high efficacy lamps tend to be the lighting of choice in many schools around the world.</p>
<p>But some fluorescent lighting could actually be <a href="https://insights.ovid.com/crossref?an=00006324-199108000-00012">causing eye-strain and headaches</a>. This is down to the fact that many fluorescent tubes (but not all) vary in colour and brightness continually. This is because the light of fluorescent bulbs is produced by a gas discharge (like lightning) twice with each cycle of the alternating current.</p>
<p>The variation in colour comes about because ultraviolet light from the discharge is converted to visible light by a coating of phosphor on the inside of the lamp and this continues to glow between flashes. The resulting coloured flicker is too rapid to be seen, but it results in an electrical signal from the back of the eye, indicating that our <a href="https://insights.ovid.com/crossref?an=00006324-199108000-00012">cells respond to the variation</a>. </p>
<p>This rapid fluctuation of light from fluorescent lamps is known to affect the way our <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/001872088602800108">eyes move across text</a> and it interferes with <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/14771535950270040301">the performance of visual tasks</a>. And while it does not affect everybody, it can have a serious effect on a few. <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/096032718902100102">Indeed, one study</a> found incidences of headaches and eye-strain in a London office halved when the fluorescent flicker was reduced. </p>
<h2>How colour can help</h2>
<p>Fluorescent lighting installed in the last ten years does not usually flicker in this way. But a 2009 <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0272494408001011">survey</a> found 80% of classrooms were still lit with the old-fashioned flickering fluorescent lighting – so it’s reasonable to suspect that there may well be some of the old-fashioned bulbs still lurking in schools across the UK.</p>
<p>Some children affected by the flicker see an improvement in the clarity of text when a sheet of coloured plastic – <a href="https://www.wiley.com/engb/Reading+Through+Colour%3A+How+Coloured+Filters+Can+Reduce+Reading+Difficulty%2C+Eye+Strain%2C+and+Headaches-p-9780470851166">a coloured overlay</a> – is placed on the page. Children who use coloured overlays find they are able to read more quickly – and often report a reduction in eye strain and headaches. One possible reason is that a coloured filter can reduce the <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/096032719002200205">variation in colour</a> that occurs with the old-fashioned fluorescent lighting. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/ive-always-wondered-do-fluorescent-lights-emit-uv-and-can-it-harm-me-90317">I've always wondered: do fluorescent lights emit UV, and can it harm me?</a>
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<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/303708/original/file-20191126-112539-5wacd3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/303708/original/file-20191126-112539-5wacd3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303708/original/file-20191126-112539-5wacd3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303708/original/file-20191126-112539-5wacd3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303708/original/file-20191126-112539-5wacd3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=507&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303708/original/file-20191126-112539-5wacd3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=507&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303708/original/file-20191126-112539-5wacd3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=507&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">If you have to spend a lot of time under fluorescent light, make sure fluorescent lamps are controlled by high-frequency electronic circuitry.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/lights-ceiling-211201642?src=486d24e8-eccd-46d8-bb04-436aac40bdb6-1-1">Shutterstock/addkm</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Some colours will be more suitable than others at reducing any effects of the rapid variation in colour and brightness from fluorescent lights, depending on the phosphors in the lamps, and how much the children have experienced the flicker and adapted to it. </p>
<p>Experience has also shown that some children will use their overlays for a limited time until they report the overlay is no longer effective. When this occurs, a change in colour can sometimes restore the beneficial effect. Many children who find coloured overlays useful benefit from wearing <a href="http://www.s4clp.org/">glasses with coloured lenses</a>. Indeed, research shows that people who wear coloured lenses experience <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0042698916300402">long-term effects of adaptation</a> on their perception of colour.</p>
<h2>The migraine link</h2>
<p>Of course, fluorescent lighting isn’t just found in schools and the impact isn’t just something that affects children. Many offices are filled with tube lighting and it’s known there’s a link between fluorescent lighting and migraines, too.</p>
<p>Many children, for example, who benefit from coloured overlays suffer headaches and have a history of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8265152">migraine in the family</a>. The brain is <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1111/j.1468-2982.2007.01502.x">excitable</a> in people with migraine, and their brains use large amounts of oxygen when they look at things they find uncomfortable.</p>
<p>But research has found that normal oxygenation is <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0333102411409076">restored with coloured filters</a> – provided the colour is individually chosen as comfortable for viewing text. Indeed, people with migraine often have an aversion to fluorescent lighting, and for reading, often choose colours that are <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2411-5150/3/4/62">not typical</a> of conventional lighting. </p>
<p>Clearly, then, it would be preferable for schools and workplaces to replace the old-fashioned fluorescent lighting with newer electronic circuitry that removes the 100-per-second variation. This would not only be healthier for children and teachers but also reduce the running costs. This is particularly important given that <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/409409/Reading_the_next_steps.pdf">one in five children</a> in England cannot read well by the age of 11 – and, for at least some of these children, fluorescent lighting could be part of the problem.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/124330/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Arnold J Wilkins designed the _Intuitive Colorimeter_ . He also designed the Intuitive Overlays but no longer receives royalties. </span></em></p>
But there is an answer.
Arnold J Wilkins, Professor of Psychology, University of Essex
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/94172
2018-04-09T04:07:05Z
2018-04-09T04:07:05Z
Will sorting classrooms by ability improve marks? It depends on the mix
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/213323/original/file-20180405-189813-nz5w2p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">It's important to carefully select an appropriate pupil mix, especially to support weaker students.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Parents and teachers are interested in ensuring children perform their best in school. <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2013/03/lets-go-back-to-grouping-students-by-ability/274362/">Some</a> <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/answer-sheet/wp/2013/06/07/why-grouping-students-by-ability-makes-sense/">believe</a> putting smart students together can improve educational outcomes. But <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780444537072000037">evidence</a> about <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780444534293000041">the impact of classmate or schoolmate quality</a> (as measured by, say, test scores) on individual performance in an educational setting is only just beginning to accumulate.</p>
<p>Establishing the presence and size of peer effects in education is important. Targeted educational interventions for one group of students may spill over to their classmates. Deliberately sorting students may raise the average attainment of pupils in ways other interventions may not.</p>
<h2>Who are your friends?</h2>
<p>The principal aim of <a href="http://goo.gl/cYbcbm">our study</a> was to estimate the impact the quality a student’s class and schoolmates has on academic performance. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/213324/original/file-20180405-189795-pq9cma.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/213324/original/file-20180405-189795-pq9cma.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=379&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/213324/original/file-20180405-189795-pq9cma.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=379&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/213324/original/file-20180405-189795-pq9cma.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=379&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/213324/original/file-20180405-189795-pq9cma.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=477&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/213324/original/file-20180405-189795-pq9cma.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=477&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/213324/original/file-20180405-189795-pq9cma.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=477&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">It’s important to carefully select an appropriate pupil mix, especially to support weaker students.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Unfortunately, it’s not as easy as simply taking the outcomes of a student with good peers and comparing those to the outcomes of a student with bad peers, because students tend to choose their peers. The difference in outcomes may be due to differences in other factors that affect peer quality and the academic outcomes simultaneously, such as parental investment in education. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-some-migrant-school-students-do-better-than-their-local-peers-theyre-not-just-smarter-93741">Why some migrant school students do better than their local peers (they're not 'just smarter')</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Also, any particular student is a peer of other students. Thus, this student <a href="https://academic.oup.com/restud/article-abstract/60/3/531/1570385">can influence the outcomes of their peers just as much as their peers affect their outcomes</a>. </p>
<p>A final complication is that students belonging to the same school are exposed to the same factors or shocks that could drive their outcomes. So, any seemingly correlated peer effect may simply be due to exposure to the same environment.</p>
<p>Ideally, one would take a random sample of students, assign half to classrooms with good peers and the other half with bad peers, then take the difference in average outcomes. Obviously, there are sound ethical objections to such an experiment. Instead, we have to rely on a more complicated strategy to estimate the impact of peer quality. In our case, we use changes in one’s peer quality that we believe are not due to self-selection, reflection, or correlated factors to see how these changes translate to individual academic performance.</p>
<p>Using data on English children, our study shows peer quality has a small effect on an individual’s test scores at age 18. But a large proportion of low-ability students has a detrimental impact on the performance of average children. In addition, academically weaker students are influenced most by their peers. All together, putting a weak student in a class with other weak students would be detrimental for all of them.</p>
<p>The variation in peer effects is a particularly interesting result. To demonstrate this, we ranked students by ability. Weaker students are on the left and better students on the right, as measured by their test scores taken at around age 14. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/212950/original/file-20180403-189821-1df6vb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/212950/original/file-20180403-189821-1df6vb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=437&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/212950/original/file-20180403-189821-1df6vb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=437&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/212950/original/file-20180403-189821-1df6vb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=437&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/212950/original/file-20180403-189821-1df6vb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=549&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/212950/original/file-20180403-189821-1df6vb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=549&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/212950/original/file-20180403-189821-1df6vb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=549&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Estimated effects of average peer ability at age 14 on test scores taken at age 17–18 by deciles of own ability. The grey area represents 95% confidence intervals.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author provided</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A one-standard-deviation increase in peer quality (as measured by average test scores earlier in life) improves one’s performance in exams taken at around age 17–18 by over 50 points in the bottom quintile. This effect diminishes as we take better and better students. As we move from left to right, the impact estimate, represented by the red line, declines.</p>
<p>Two studies present findings similar to ours. In both cases, the researchers examine how changes in peer quality affect school performance as students transition from primary to secondary school in the UK. </p>
<p><a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/obes.12095">One of the studies</a> demonstrated that average peer ability has no significant impact on individual performance. </p>
<p><a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1468-0297.2011.02463.x">The other</a> showed less variation in peer effects than what we uncovered. But their outcome is based on performance in tests at age 14, while we used a broader spectrum of academic outcomes. This includes test scores at age 16 and 17–18, and the likelihood of pursuing tertiary education.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/for-australian-students-academic-potential-still-outweighs-social-circumstances-82441">For Australian students, academic potential still outweighs social circumstances</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Sorting students more effectively can help weaker students</h2>
<p>Student achievement in school is determined by a <a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/145575">variety</a> of <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1468-0297.00097">factors</a>. These include parental socioeconomic background, individual ability, non-cognitive skills, and peer composition. </p>
<p>It’s important to carefully select an appropriate pupil mix, especially to support weaker students. But such an adjustment is unlikely to compensate for deficiencies in other areas, such as early-childhood investments at home and teacher quality at school.</p>
<p>Can we do better than randomly sorting students into classes? Yes. When placed with better-performing classmates, weaker students are likely to gain from the improved learning environment, and smarter students are unlikely to be negatively affected.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/94172/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>A coauthor of the research paper, Prof Ian Walker of Lancaster University, received support from the Economic and Social Research Council grant "The Long-Term Legacy of School Choice" and the Nuffield Trust grant "Secondary School Choice and Academic Achievement." Alfredo Paloyo does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Silvia Mendolia does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Weaker students – when placed together with better classmates – can gain from the improved learning environment, and smarter students are unlikely to be negatively affected.
Alfredo R. Paloyo, Senior Lecturer in Economics, University of Wollongong
Silvia Mendolia, Senior lecturer in Economics, University of Wollongong
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/89861
2018-02-07T01:36:01Z
2018-02-07T01:36:01Z
Classroom design should follow evidence, not architectural fads
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/205006/original/file-20180206-14078-mkvt55.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">There is limited evidence to support the idea that making physical changes to classrooms boosts learning outcomes.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Churchie</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The past decade has seen a boom in the construction of trendy buildings with visually appealing interiors in schools and universities. Proponents highlight the potential of these flexible and technology-rich spaces, referred to as innovative learning environments (ILEs), <a href="http://www.oecd.org/edu/ceri/innovativelearningenvironments.htm">to shape behaviours to enhance student learning</a>. </p>
<p>Economic and technological changes have caused a reconsideration of the nature of teaching and learning. This narrative has been used to underpin the call to re-imagine school learning environments.</p>
<p>Critiques highlight the constrained, static design of conventional classrooms, which favours more traditional teaching practices. It is suggested this is <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13602365.2014.882376">not conducive to those learning experiences favoured in current policy</a>. </p>
<p>However, this claimed relationship between space and teacher practice is flimsy. There is a <a href="https://dro.deakin.edu.au/eserv/DU:30036968/blackmore-researchinto-2011.pdf">lack of evidence to underpin it</a>.</p>
<h2>What evidence is there for this relationship?</h2>
<p>Systematic investment in new learning environments is a matter of policy in many countries. In Australia alone, more than <a href="http://apo.org.au/node/19434">A$16 billion funded the Rudd government’s Building the Education Revolution</a> program. Current <a href="http://advancingeducation.qld.gov.au/SiteCollectionDocuments/building-future-schools-fund.pdf">state government initiatives</a> will soon increase this public investment.</p>
<p>The need for innovative classroom spaces stems from questions about how efficient existing classrooms are. Analysis by the <a href="http://www.iletc.com.au">Innovative Learning Environments and Teacher Change</a> (ILETC) project suggests conventional or traditional classrooms account for <a href="http://www.iletc.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/TechnicalReport_Web.pdf">about 75% of all spaces in Australian and New Zealand schools</a>. It has been suggested most current classrooms are <a href="https://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2011/07/29/37nair.h30.html?print=1">obsolete and unfit for today’s learners</a>.</p>
<p>A systematic review conducted for the project identified empirical studies that evaluated the relationship between educational spaces and academic achievement. Of the 5,521 articles retrieved (since 1960), only 21 studies evaluated impacts of the physical environment of primary and secondary schools on measures of student learning outcomes. In particular, the review highlighted how little is understood about the long-term impact of different learning spaces.</p>
<p>The review highlighted that the large and interconnected spaces of the open-plan movement from the 1960s to 1970s <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/0260136830030104?journalCode=cslm19">had questionable effects on academic outcomes</a>. </p>
<p><a href="http://eprint.ncl.ac.uk/pub_details2.aspx?pub_id=12574">Similar reviews</a> highlighted the problems of <a>top-down implementation, lack of teacher consultation and support, poor acoustics and overt focus on design over use</a> that contributed to their varying impact. Radical spatial changes, like those in some Australian schools, were rarely evaluated and outpaced desired changes in teacher practices.</p>
<p>Key studies in the field often focused on the <a href="https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ810757.pdf">design</a> and <a href="http://usir.salford.ac.uk/32306/">physical performance of buildings</a>. A small number evaluated their <a href="http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/jnp/ct/2014/00000029/00000001/art00002">use in teacher practice and effects on student learning experiences</a>. </p>
<p>With <a href="https://www.acmartin.com/sites/default/files/LearningSpaceDesign-L_0.pdf">few reliable and robust methods and metrics available</a>, the current narrative for spatial change must be considered with caution.</p>
<h2>What works</h2>
<p>The review of literature suggests that, by themselves, new educational spaces are not a catalyst for direct improvement in learning. Typically, the beliefs, practice and technical expertise of the teacher mediated positive effects on measures of student learning. School culture and the contexts that affect learning influenced teachers’ abilities to use the elements of different classroom layouts, rather than these spaces dictating their practice. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/202241/original/file-20180117-53289-1rr7qi2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/202241/original/file-20180117-53289-1rr7qi2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202241/original/file-20180117-53289-1rr7qi2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202241/original/file-20180117-53289-1rr7qi2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202241/original/file-20180117-53289-1rr7qi2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202241/original/file-20180117-53289-1rr7qi2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202241/original/file-20180117-53289-1rr7qi2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Stonefields School.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Alex de Freitas</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="http://www.stonefields.school.nz/">Stonefields School in Auckland, New Zealand</a>, presents the archetype for the use of innovative classrooms to facilitate a collaborative learning culture. Its success is built on the creation of a co-operative space for teachers to engage in continuous professional learning. Collective teacher capacity ensures the elements of the space are used to enhance teacher practice.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/202380/original/file-20180118-114727-1i2g66r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/202380/original/file-20180118-114727-1i2g66r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=974&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202380/original/file-20180118-114727-1i2g66r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=974&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202380/original/file-20180118-114727-1i2g66r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=974&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202380/original/file-20180118-114727-1i2g66r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1223&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202380/original/file-20180118-114727-1i2g66r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1223&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202380/original/file-20180118-114727-1i2g66r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1223&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Gateway School.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Peter Lippman</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Evaluation at the <a href="http://173.254.28.45/%7Epehkaorg/?page_id=81">Gateway School in New York City</a> indicates innovative learning environments are neither open-plan nor a series of differentiated classrooms and breakout spaces. Rather, classrooms and breakout spaces must be understood and designed as interconnected and defined activity settings. These complementary spaces provide opportunities to reinvent the use of communal or
shared spaces outside the classroom.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/202367/original/file-20180117-53314-rtmfks.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/202367/original/file-20180117-53314-rtmfks.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202367/original/file-20180117-53314-rtmfks.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202367/original/file-20180117-53314-rtmfks.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202367/original/file-20180117-53314-rtmfks.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202367/original/file-20180117-53314-rtmfks.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202367/original/file-20180117-53314-rtmfks.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Glömsta School.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Peter Lippman</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The learning community at <a href="http://www.huddinge.se/glomstaskolan">Glömsta School in Huddinge, Sweden,</a> reinforces this concept of placemaking. Despite the design, which followed a top-down philosophy, the learning community identified a unique solution to a cluster of classrooms around a common space. Rather than the view of classrooms as primarily instructional spaces, they are used as a breakout setting to complement the activities that occur in the common areas.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/202232/original/file-20180117-53320-lvf4j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/202232/original/file-20180117-53320-lvf4j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=334&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202232/original/file-20180117-53320-lvf4j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=334&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202232/original/file-20180117-53320-lvf4j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=334&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202232/original/file-20180117-53320-lvf4j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202232/original/file-20180117-53320-lvf4j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202232/original/file-20180117-53320-lvf4j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Churchie Centenary Library.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Brand and Slater Architects</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://www.churchie.com.au/academic/new-generation-learning-spaces">Anglican Church Grammar School (Churchie) in Brisbane</a>, the <a href="http://research.unimelb.edu.au/learnetwork">Learning Environments Applied Research Network (LEaRN)</a> and <a href="http://www.brandandslater.com.au">Brand and Slater Architects</a> used evaluation as a fulcrum for strategic improvement. Longitudinal studies correlated different learning space designs to improvement in student perceptions and engagement that affected <a href="http://issuu.com/anglicanchurchgrammarschool/docs/churchie_s_new_generation_learning_?e=25566505/38531718">significant academic gain in English and mathematics</a>. </p>
<p>The process identified removing the front teaching position by a combination of visual technologies (whiteboards and screen), which allowed greater teacher movement to actively engage with students and moderate their behaviour and focus. An unexpected outcome was the development of collective teacher capacity in the optimal use of traditional classrooms and innovative learning spaces to enhance learning experiences. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/202234/original/file-20180117-53310-1xvccbq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/202234/original/file-20180117-53310-1xvccbq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202234/original/file-20180117-53310-1xvccbq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202234/original/file-20180117-53310-1xvccbq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202234/original/file-20180117-53310-1xvccbq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202234/original/file-20180117-53310-1xvccbq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202234/original/file-20180117-53310-1xvccbq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Hayward Midson Creative Precinct Studio Design.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Brand and Slater Architects</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>We need better evidence to inform classroom design</h2>
<p>There is limited evidence to support the idea that making physical changes to classrooms boosts learning outcomes. The reason for this is schools are complex places. </p>
<p>The case studies emphasise the mediating influence of context and school culture. So, designs can’t be imposed on the basis of current architectural trends or policy. Further evidence of how different physical layouts support best practice for teachers is required.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/89861/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Terry Byers receives funding from the Australian Research Council through the Linkage Project 'Innovative Learning Environments and Teacher Change'</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Peter C. Lippman received funding from the Gateway School of New York City, and sits on the board of Projects For Environmental Health, Knowledge, and Action in New Jersey. </span></em></p>
Despite a boom in the construction of trendy buildings and classrooms, the evidence for their link to boosting learning outcomes is limited.
Terry Byers, Research fellow, The University of Melbourne
Peter C. Lippman, PhD Candidate, School of Arts, Sciences & Commerce, La Trobe University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/84352
2017-10-04T01:14:43Z
2017-10-04T01:14:43Z
The enduring power of print for learning in a digital world
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/188388/original/file-20171002-12115-5nz9dp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/printed-digital-234206545">PHOTO FUN</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Today’s students see themselves as <a href="http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/pdfplus/10.1108/10748120110424816">digital natives</a>, the first generation to grow up surrounded by technology like smartphones, tablets and e-readers.</p>
<p>Teachers, parents and policymakers certainly acknowledge the growing influence of technology and have responded in kind. We’ve seen <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2017/03/28/microsoft-google-and-facebook-see-billions-in-future-of-education.html">more investment in classroom technologies</a>, with students now equipped with school-issued iPads and access to e-textbooks. In <a href="http://www.leginfo.ca.gov/pub/09-10/bill/sen/sb_0001-0050/sb_48_bill_20090825_enrolled.html">2009</a>, California passed a law requiring that all college textbooks be available in electronic form by 2020; in <a href="http://www.flsenate.gov/Session/Bill/2011/2120/BillText/er/HTML">2011</a>, Florida lawmakers passed legislation requiring public schools to convert their textbooks to digital versions. </p>
<p>Given this trend, teachers, students, parents and policymakers might assume that students’ familiarity and preference for technology translates into better learning outcomes. But we’ve found that’s not necessarily true.</p>
<p>As researchers in learning and text comprehension, our recent work has focused on the differences between reading print and digital media. While new forms of classroom technology like digital textbooks are more accessible and portable, it would be wrong to assume that students will automatically be better served by digital reading simply because they prefer it. </p>
<h2>Speed – at a cost</h2>
<p>Our work has revealed a significant discrepancy. Students said they preferred and performed better when reading on screens. But their actual performance tended to suffer. </p>
<p>For example, from our <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.3102/0034654317722961">review of research done since 1992</a>, we found that students were able to better comprehend information in print for texts that were more than a page in length. This appears to be related to the <a href="http://www.co.twosides.info/download/To_Scroll_or_Not_to_Scroll_Scrolling_Working_Memory_Capacity_and_Comprehending_Complex_Texts.pdf">disruptive effect</a> that scrolling has on comprehension. We were also surprised to learn that few researchers tested different levels of comprehension or documented reading time in their studies of printed and digital texts.</p>
<p>To explore these patterns further, we conducted <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00220973.2016.1143794?journalCode=vjxe20">three studies</a> that explored college students’ ability to comprehend information on paper and from screens.</p>
<p>Students first rated their medium preferences. After reading two passages, one online and one in print, these students then completed three tasks: Describe the main idea of the texts, list key points covered in the readings and provide any other relevant content they could recall. When they were done, we asked them to judge their comprehension performance. </p>
<p>Across the studies, the texts differed in length, and we collected varying data (e.g., reading time). Nonetheless, some key findings emerged that shed new light on the differences between reading printed and digital content:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Students overwhelming preferred to read digitally.</p></li>
<li><p>Reading was significantly faster online than in print.</p></li>
<li><p>Students judged their comprehension as better online than in print. </p></li>
<li><p>Paradoxically, overall comprehension was better for print versus
digital reading.</p></li>
<li><p>The medium didn’t matter for general questions (like understanding the main idea of the text).</p></li>
<li><p>But when it came to specific questions, comprehension was significantly better when participants read printed texts. </p></li>
</ul>
<h2>Placing print in perspective</h2>
<p>From these findings, there are some lessons that can be conveyed to policymakers, teachers, parents and students about print’s place in an increasingly digital world. </p>
<p><strong>1. Consider the purpose</strong> </p>
<p>We all read for many reasons. Sometimes we’re looking for an answer to a very specific question. Other times, we want to browse a newspaper for today’s headlines.</p>
<p>As we’re about to pick up an article or text in a printed or digital format, we should keep in mind why we’re reading. There’s likely to be a difference in which medium works best for which purpose. </p>
<p>In other words, there’s no “one medium fits all” approach. </p>
<p><strong>2. Analyze the task</strong> </p>
<p>One of the most consistent findings from our research is that, for some tasks, medium doesn’t seem to matter. If all students are being asked to do is to understand and remember the big idea or gist of what they’re reading, there’s <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00220973.2016.1143794?journalCode=vjxe20">no benefit in selecting one medium over another</a>. </p>
<p>But when the reading assignment demands more engagement or deeper comprehension, students <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00220973.2016.1143794?journalCode=vjxe20">may be better off reading print</a>. Teachers could make students aware that their ability to comprehend the assignment may be influenced by the medium they choose. This awareness could lessen the discrepancy we witnessed in students’ judgments of their performance vis-à-vis how they actually performed.</p>
<p><strong>3. Slow it down</strong> </p>
<p>In our third experiment, we were able to create meaningful profiles of college students based on the way they read and comprehended from printed and digital texts. </p>
<p>Among those profiles, we found a select group of undergraduates who actually comprehended better when they moved from print to digital. What distinguished this atypical group was that they actually read slower when the text was on the computer than when it was in a book. In other words, they didn’t take the ease of engaging with the digital text for granted. Using this select group as a model, students could possibly be taught or directed to fight the tendency to glide through online texts. </p>
<p><strong>4. Something that can’t be measured</strong> </p>
<p>There may be <a href="http://community.aiim.org/blogs/dennis-kempner/2013/11/18/go-green-and-save-green-economic--ecologic-benefits-of-going-paperless">economic and environmental reasons</a> to go paperless. But there’s clearly something important that would be lost with print’s demise. </p>
<p>In our academic lives, we have books and articles that we regularly return to. The dog-eared pages of these treasured readings contain lines of text etched with questions or reflections. It’s difficult to imagine a similar level of engagement with a digital text. There should probably always be a place for print in students’ academic lives – no matter how technologically savvy they become. </p>
<p>Of course, we realize that the march toward online reading will continue unabated. And we don’t want to downplay the many conveniences of online texts, which include breadth and speed of access.</p>
<p>Rather, our goal is simply to remind today’s digital natives – and those who shape their educational experiences – that there are significant costs and consequences to discounting the printed word’s value for learning and academic development.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/84352/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Digital textbooks might be less cumbersome. But a new series of studies finds that reading from screens can hamper our ability to process and retain information.
Patricia A. Alexander, Professor of Psychology, University of Maryland
Lauren M. Singer Trakhman, Ph.D. Candidate in Educational Psychology, University of Maryland
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/83418
2017-10-01T23:44:33Z
2017-10-01T23:44:33Z
Decoration or distraction: the aesthetics of classrooms matter, but learning matters more
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/188279/original/file-20171001-8620-1qnwq8r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A primary function of school displays should be to allow children to see their own work around the classroom and school walls.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>On a recent holiday to Greece, my 30-year-old daughter took a trip down memory lane and visited her old primary school. She posted a photo to Instagram captioned:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>It might look like a jail but at least the view was good. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>The view from the classrooms across the bay to the mountains beyond is indeed mesmerising, but the building does look like a grim correctional facility.</p>
<p>We had moved to Greece, from Australia, when she was in Year 4. Her new primary school, with its bare walls and single desks bolted in rows to the cold marble floors, was a shock to both of us. </p>
<p>Where were the soft carpets, bright tote trays and clever tessellating tables? Where were the decorated walls, displays of children’s work and carefully constructed charts with reminders of class birthdays and times tables? </p>
<p>What an uninviting learning space, I thought.</p>
<h2>Do the aesthetics of our learning environments matter?</h2>
<p><a href="http://usir.salford.ac.uk/33995/">A comprehensive UK research study</a> attempted the complex task of identifying the effects of the built learning space on student learning in primary schools. </p>
<p>They found that natural light - but not direct sunlight - and good air quality were by far the most significant factors correlated with high student learning outcomes. </p>
<p>Next on the list were individualised classrooms. For example, having the right sized chairs and desks for the children in the class, and the flexibility to change the layout for different learning activities. </p>
<p>So far, so predictable. Perhaps more surprising is the finding that classrooms with too much colour and too many display items, have a negative effect on learning outcomes. They also found that classrooms with no colour and no display items correlated with low learning outcomes. </p>
<h2>Decoration or distraction</h2>
<p>I was one of those teachers who devoted my weekends and afternoons to transforming my classroom into an underwater wonderland, a castle, a spaceship. This usually involved a lot of fishing nets, cardboard boxes and visits to the “crazy cheap reject” shop. </p>
<p>Frankly, it was difficult for an adult to walk upright in my classroom. I’d even cover the windows with “atmospheric” coloured cellophane. So much for natural light.</p>
<p>It was fun. It was time-consuming. It was <a href="https://www.tes.com/news/school-news/breaking-news/exclusive-teachers-are-spending-hundreds-pounds-a-year-classroom?utm_content=bufferc19f3&utm_medium=social&utm_source=twitter.com&utm_campaign=buffer">a drain on my financial resources</a>. And with the benefit of hindsight and the research evidence, there wasn’t much educational benefit to my students. </p>
<p>Highly-decorated classrooms are <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28471220">more of a distraction than an aid to learning</a>. This has been found to be particularly so for children in the early primary years, and children with special learning needs. </p>
<p>The older the children, the less prone to distraction they are. So it is perhaps ironic that it is our early childhood classrooms that tend to be over stimulating, whilst our high school classroom walls usually offer no stimulation at all. We need a happy compromise.</p>
<h2>Window dressing</h2>
<p>Displays in schools send <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17457820701547450">a message about the school’s values</a> - sometimes overtly, and sometimes covertly.</p>
<p>As a very frequent visitor to schools, the displays in the public common spaces of the school do give me an initial “read” on the school. The child constructed messages of hope and diversity on the hall walls of one primary school made me feel I was with kindred spirits. </p>
<p>By contrast, the commercially-printed “welcome” stickers in a dozen languages on the front door of another school, where the Greek version was upside down, made me wonder how genuine their commitment to embracing diversity really was.</p>
<p>Schools should consider carefully the messages being sent by their public displays - not just their content but their intent. </p>
<h2>Celebrating students and their learning.</h2>
<p>The displays children actually notice and interact with most of all are those of their own work. It makes them feel proud, part of the school community and <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17457820701547450">a legitimate player in the school’s story</a>.
They are, however, <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03004277808558889?journalCode=rett20">not that interested in anyone else’s work</a>.</p>
<p>So a primary function of school displays should be to allow children to see their own work around the classroom and school walls. Don’t just choose the “best”, unless of course you are seeking to actively disengage some students from the school’s esprit de corps. </p>
<h2>Reinforcing student learning</h2>
<p>Many classroom displays incorporate commercial or teacher-made reminders of learning - reference lists of commonly used words, or “interesting” adjectives, times-tables, or classroom rules. </p>
<p>However, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28471220">recent observational studies</a> have found the students rarely turn their gaze to those kinds of displays. This reinforces findings from <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03004277808558889?journalCode=rett20">older studies</a>, which found most students did not refer to the displays on the walls when given a task to complete, even though the answers to that task were on the wall.</p>
<p>Displays designed to reinforce, remind or support learning should be co-constructed with the students, in the context of learning - not simply appear on the walls after yet another teacher’s weekend sacrificed to the laminating machine. It is the students’ input into the content being displayed that will bring their attention back to it when they need that content for their classroom work.</p>
<h2>Getting it right</h2>
<p>When work is on display, we do need to get it right. That doesn’t mean triple mounting children’s work on coloured cardboard, but it does mean respecting their work enough to hang it straight.</p>
<p>It doesn’t mean buying expensive laminated charts from the shiny catalogues on the staffroom table, but it does mean ensuring that your information - and your spelling - is correct. </p>
<p>A bright classroom that reflects school values, and celebrates children’s learning, is an important part of the teaching and learning puzzle. But a whisper of advice to beginning teachers from someone who has been there and done that - your time is precious. Prioritise lesson planning over classroom decoration.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/83418/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<h4 class="border">Disclosure</h4><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Misty Adoniou works for the University of Canberra. She has received funding from government and non-government organisations to research curriculum, standards and refugee education. She is on the Board of Directors of TESOL International, a voluntary organisation of teachers' associations around the globe. </span></em></p>
Schools should carefully consider the messages that are sent by how they have constructed the learning environment.
Misty Adoniou, Associate Professor in Language, Literacy and TESL, University of Canberra
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/83222
2017-09-07T20:08:36Z
2017-09-07T20:08:36Z
For long-term improvements, schools need to slow down
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/184615/original/file-20170905-9762-1au266h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5226%2C3481&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">"Slow" movements promote concepts of mindfulness and a consideration of process as well as outcomes.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock/Jaromir Chalabala</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Australian schools, like those in other developed countries, are caught up in what has been called the “<a href="https://www.amazon.co.uk/Praise-Slow-Worldwide-Movement-Challenging/dp/0752864149">cult of speed</a>”. This is largely driven by reporting of the national assessment program, NAPLAN, which is focused on whether there are improvements in test results from one year to the next. Meanwhile, little attention is paid to the fact that, over the past decade, there has been <a href="https://theconversation.com/naplan-is-ten-years-old-so-how-is-the-nation-faring-81565">limited progress</a> in overall results, and students from disadvantaged backgrounds continue to lag behind.</p>
<p>The emphasis on rapid improvement is intensified when education departments require evidence of improved results in as little as eight weeks. In these contexts, it is hardly surprising that schools are tempted to use strategies that accelerate test results for some students but don’t focus on long-term equitable improvement. We argue that “slow schooling” is needed to support learning for all. </p>
<h2>Slow movements</h2>
<p>Over the past three decades, “slow living” movements have extended beyond <a href="https://theconversation.com/forget-fast-food-slow-down-for-better-well-being-11750">slow food</a>, to the realms of <a href="https://theconversation.com/more-than-speed-strength-and-winning-the-pleasures-of-slow-sport-cultures-15240">sport</a>, sex, travel, research and schools. In reaction to the privileging of immediacy and commercialism in Western societies, slow living movements promote concepts of mindfulness and a consideration of process as well as outcomes.</p>
<p>The “slow education” movement, was <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/003172170208400404">founded by Maurice Holt</a> in the UK, who advocated that schools should provide students with time to engage in deep learning, curiosity and reflection. This led advocates of this approach to oppose the use of high-stakes testing and rapid improvement in favour of more time spent developing collaborative and supportive classroom relationships for learning. </p>
<h2>Slow schooling</h2>
<p>Our idea of slow schooling is not focused on teachers spending more time on particular teaching strategies. Instead, it focuses on the need to provide space for practitioners to work together and engage in the complex thinking needed to find more effective ways of educating hard-to-reach learners. </p>
<p>In his book <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/books/2015/jul/18/daniel-kahneman-books-interview"><em>Thinking Fast and Slow</em></a>, Nobel prize winning psychologist Daniel Kahneman describes two systems of thinking. System 1 thinking refers to subconscious and automatic processes, as well as emotional responses and those that rely on biases or intuition. System 2 thinking is defined as “slow”, more concerted and conscious thinking. It is the type of thinking that requires your attention, like solving complex mathematical equations, or considering a range of possible implications or responses to your actions. </p>
<p>Drawing on these ideas, we recognise the need for teachers and school leaders to make time for deep consideration of complex matters, such as how to support the learning of every student within a school. Pressure for quick responses tends to lead to thinking that relies on what is already known. Put simply, we need to reduce the pressure on schools to allow people to engage in deeper, more creative thinking about these issues. </p>
<h2>Addressing wicked problems</h2>
<p>The <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01459740.2013.858335?journalCode=gmea20">slow research movement</a> recognises that all knowledge is produced and has effects in a context. It proposes that the best solutions to seemingly “wicked” problems - for example, supporting the participation and learning of 30 students in a classroom - need to take the local context into account and contemplate the range of effects that any changes might have. </p>
<p>Finding solutions to such problems requires teachers to consider carefully the individual interests and aspirations of students in order to understand how they can be best supported. School leaders also need to have the time to develop longer-term plans for creating the conditions for this type of professional learning.</p>
<h2>Reasons for optimism</h2>
<p>In our new book, <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Promoting-Equity-in-Schools-Collaboration-Inquiry-and-Ethical-Leadership/Harris-Carrington-Ainscow/p/book/9781138095526"><em>Promoting equity in schools</em></a>, we report how principals from schools in Queensland spoke of the dilemmas they faced within the current policy context. This involves balancing their professional commitment to ensure the progress of all students with pressures to demonstrate rapid improvement, as measured by national accountability measures including NAPLAN results. With these pressures in mind, each of the schools developed their own tactical responses. For example, actively working to recruit more high-performing students. </p>
<p>Our research offers some reasons for optimism. In particular, we concluded that even where worrying policies are in place, with leadership driven by a commitment to equity and a belief in collaborative inquiry, schools can still find spaces to develop more equitable ways of working. We also saw how, despite the dangers involved, critical engagement with accountability data can sometimes help to kick-start improvement processes.</p>
<h2>Time to slow down</h2>
<p>The intense pressures for short-term improvements, which requires school leaders and teachers to make important decisions quickly, discourages deeper consideration of how those decisions could affect students long-term. The need for fast change is at odds with the collaboration, reflection and evidence-based practice that is needed in order to promote equity in our schools. It is time to slow down.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/83222/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mel Ainscow receives funding from Australian Research Council</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Suzanne Carrington receives funding from the Australian government for conducting research.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jess Harris and Nerida Spina do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Pressure on schools to make rapid improvements discourages deeper thinking about long-term solutions. Education can learn a lot from “slow” movements.
Jess Harris, Senior Lecturer in Education, University of Newcastle
Mel Ainscow, Emeritus Professor of Education , University of Manchester
Nerida Spina, Lecturer in Education, Queensland University of Technology
Suzanne Carrington, Professor in Inclusive Education, Queensland University of Technology
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/81949
2017-08-03T00:13:12Z
2017-08-03T00:13:12Z
To empower students with effective writing skills, handwriting matters
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/180659/original/file-20170802-11403-18r6fhd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The ability to write quickly and effortlessly allows children to focus on translating ideas into writing.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Writing is virtually part of everything we do. It is one of the most powerful tools used to communicate our knowledge, emotions and beliefs, across distance and time. Writing is also a fundamental part of the school curriculum as an outcome and as a means to demonstrate learning across subjects and grades.</p>
<p>However, the writing performance of school-age children is a matter of considerable concern. Educators and researchers from around the world have <a href="https://www.guilford.com/books/Handbook-of-Writing-Research/MacArthur-Graham-Fitzgerald/9781462529315">highlighted the challenges</a> students face to master writing. </p>
<p>In Australia, <a href="http://www.nap.edu.au/_resources/2015_NAPLAN_national_report.pdf">NAPLAN results</a> show a decline since 2011 in the writing scores of secondary school students (Grades 7 and 9). Recently released <a href="https://theconversation.com/naplan-is-ten-years-old-so-how-is-the-nation-faring-81565?utm_source=twitter&utm_medium=twitterbutton">NAPLAN summary results</a> show a decline in the writing scores of Grade 7 students at a national level. It also showed the lowest scores across the four domains assessed – reading, writing, language conventions and numeracy – in Grade 9.</p>
<p>These findings about the quality of writing in high schools are concerning. They stress the importance of understanding what may be hindering students’ writing development and performance.</p>
<p>Research suggests this may be related to the difficulties students exhibit in writing in the primary school years.</p>
<h2>How much do we know about what predicts effective writing?</h2>
<p>Historically, writing has received less attention than reading in empirical research.</p>
<p>But, in the last ten years, a solid body of research has shown that effective writing depends on the development of lower-order skills, such as handwriting and spelling, and of higher-order skills, such as planning and revising. </p>
<p>And there is a strong relationship between handwriting automaticity (often called fluency) and written composition. The ability to write quickly and effortlessly allows children to focus on translating ideas into writing, thinking about what they want to say about the topic at hand.</p>
<p>Poor handwriting may conceal the writing potential of primary school children. And teaching handwriting <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01443410500042076">improves</a> both automaticity and the writing quality of texts produced by students in primary and secondary schools.</p>
<p>However, little is known about the handwriting automaticity of pre-primary children, when formal writing instruction typically begins.</p>
<h2>What is happening in classrooms?</h2>
<p>We have an incomplete picture of what is going on in classrooms to teach writing across the world.</p>
<p>Most research on the teaching of writing has been <a href="http://bridgestolearning2009.pbworks.com/f/graham%26perin07.pdf">developed in the US</a>. Several national surveys there have examined the practices of primary and secondary school teachers. These surveys showed little time is devoted to writing instruction.</p>
<p>Research developed <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09500782.2013.763819">in the US and the UK</a> also indicates that explicit handwriting instruction is not a daily practice, and that teachers may lack knowledge of evidence-based practices to teach handwriting.</p>
<p>Our research <a href="http://rdcu.be/thnn">examined 177 children</a> on their level of handwriting automaticity at the end of their pre-primary year; these children were enrolled in 23 classrooms from seven primary schools in Western Australia. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1559600">The ABC task</a> was used to measure students’ ability to access, retrieve and write letter forms automatically and accurately. </p>
<p>We also assessed teachers’ practices for writing instruction and the time allocated to teach specific writing skills.</p>
<p>Results indicate that 20% of the difference in children’s level of handwriting automaticity could be attributed to teaching practices, even when accounting for children’s gender and reading skills. </p>
<p>Our study findings also indicate the time devoted to teaching writing is highly variable, ranging from 20 minutes to five hours per week. This is worrisome. It suggests children may be spending less than the recommended 30-45 minutes of daily writing practice in pre-primary schools.</p>
<h2>What’s next?</h2>
<p>The large variability in writing instruction across classrooms in this Australian study highlights the need to develop more research to understand specific factors that predict writing development.</p>
<p>Unquestionably, understanding the multidimensional nature of writing is a challenge. </p>
<p>But it is one that needs to be pursued if we want to learn more about how to teach writing to substantiate teacher training programs and government policies to foster students’ effective writing development.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/81949/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anabela Malpique is affiliated with the School of Education, Murdoch University, Australia & the CICPSI, Faculty of Psychology of the University of Lisbon, Portugal.
</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Deborah Pino-Pasternak receives funding from The Australian Research Council through the Discovery Early Career Research Award (DECRA - DE150100731)</span></em></p>
Writing is a fundamental outcome indicator of learning across subjects and grades. The latest NAPLAN results tell us we need to do more to empower children with these skills.
Anabela Malpique, Research Associate, School of Education, Murdoch University
Deborah Pino Pasternak, Lecturer and ARC DECRA Fellow, School of Education, Murdoch University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/74175
2017-03-15T16:04:34Z
2017-03-15T16:04:34Z
Accessible, engaging textbooks could improve children’s learning
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/160512/original/image-20170313-9408-bb6pp1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">It's not enough for textbooks just to be present in a classroom. They must support learning.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Global Partnership for Education/Flickr</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Textbooks are a crucial part of any child’s learning. A large body of research has proved this many times and in many very different contexts. Textbooks are a physical representation of the curriculum in a classroom setting. They are powerful in shaping the minds of children and young people. </p>
<p>UNESCO has recognised this power and <a href="http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/002433/243321E.pdf">called</a> for every child to have a textbook for every subject. The organisation <a href="http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/002433/243321E.pdf">argues</a> that </p>
<blockquote>
<p>next to an engaged and prepared teacher, well-designed textbooks in sufficient quantities are the most effective way to improve instruction and learning.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>But there’s an elephant in the room when it comes to textbooks in African countries’ classrooms: language.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0738059316301390">Rwanda</a> is one of many African countries that’s adopted a language instruction policy which sees children learning in local or mother tongue languages for the first three years of primary school. They then transition in upper primary and secondary school into a dominant, so-called “international” language. This might be French or Portuguese. In Rwanda, it has been <a href="http://www.academia.edu/4412081/Language_Policy_in_Rwanda">English</a> <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/oct/14/rwanda-france">since 2008</a>.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.hsrc.ac.za/en/research-data/view/4927">Evidence</a> from across the continent suggests that at this transition point, many learners have not developed basic literacy and numeracy skills. And, significantly, they have not acquired <a href="http://www.hsrc.ac.za/en/research-data/view/4927">anywhere near enough</a> of the language they are about to learn in to be able to engage in learning effectively.</p>
<p>I do not wish to advocate for English medium instruction, and the arguments for mother-tongue based education <a href="https://theconversation.com/lessons-from-africa-prove-the-incredible-value-of-mother-tongue-learning-73307">are compelling</a>. But it’s important to consider strategies for supporting learners within existing policy priorities. Using appropriate learning and teaching materials – such as textbooks – could be one such strategy. </p>
<h2>A different approach</h2>
<p>It’s not enough to just hand out textbooks in every classroom. The books need to tick two boxes: learners must be able to read them and teachers must feel enabled to teach with them. </p>
<p>Existing textbooks tend not to take these concerns into consideration. The language is too difficult and the sentence structures too complex. The paragraphs too long and there are no glossaries to define unfamiliar words. And while textbooks are widely available to those in the basic education system, they are rarely used systematically. Teachers <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0738059316301390">cite</a> the books’ inaccessibility as one of the main reasons for not using them.</p>
<p>A <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03050068.2016.1185258?journalCode=cced20">recent initiative</a> in Rwanda has sought to address this through the development of “language supportive” textbooks for primary 4 learners who are around 11 years old. These were specifically designed in collaboration with local publishers, editors and writers. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/XUqS_WSwEv0?wmode=transparent&start=126" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Language supportive textbooks have been shown to make a difference in some Rwandan classrooms.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There are two key elements to a “language supportive” textbook. </p>
<p>Firstly, they are written at a language level which is appropriate for the learner. As can be seen in Figure 1, the new concept is introduced in as simple English as possible. The sentence structure and paragraph length are also shortened and made as simple as possible. The key word (here, “soil”) is also repeated numerous times so that the learner becomes accustomed to this word.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/160500/original/image-20170313-19259-13arebx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/160500/original/image-20170313-19259-13arebx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/160500/original/image-20170313-19259-13arebx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=487&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/160500/original/image-20170313-19259-13arebx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=487&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/160500/original/image-20170313-19259-13arebx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=487&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/160500/original/image-20170313-19259-13arebx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=611&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/160500/original/image-20170313-19259-13arebx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=611&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/160500/original/image-20170313-19259-13arebx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=611&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">University of Bristol and the British Council</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Secondly, they include features – activities, visuals, clear signposting and vocabulary support – that enable learners to practice and develop their language proficiency while learning the key elements of the curriculum. </p>
<p>The books are full of relevant activities that encourage learners to regularly practice their listening, speaking, reading and writing of English in every lesson. This enables language development. </p>
<p>Crucially, all of these activities are made accessible to learners – and teachers – by offering support in the learners’ first language. In this case, the language used was Kinyarwanda, which is the first language for the vast majority of Rwandan people. However, it’s important to note that initially many teachers were hesitant about incorporating Kinyarwanda into their classroom practice because of the government’s English-only policy. </p>
<h2>Improved test scores</h2>
<p>The initiative was introduced with 1075 students at eight schools across four Rwandan districts. The <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03050068.2016.1185258?journalCode=cced20">evidence</a> from our initiative suggests that learners in classrooms where these books were systematically used learnt more across the curriculum. </p>
<p>When these learners sat tests before using the books, they scored similar results to those in other comparable schools. After using the materials for four months, their test scores were <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03050068.2016.1185258?journalCode=cced20">significantly higher</a>. Crucially, both learners and teachers pointed out how important it was that the books sanctioned the use of Kinyarwanda. The classrooms became bilingual spaces and this increased teachers’ and learners’ confidence and competence.</p>
<p>All of this supports the importance of textbooks as effective learning and teaching materials in the classroom and shows that they can help all learners. But authorities mustn’t assume that textbooks are being used or that the existing books are empowering teachers and learners. </p>
<p>Textbooks can matter – but it’s only when consideration is made for the ways they can help all learners that we can say that they can contribute to quality education for all.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/74175/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lizzi O. Milligan was part of a team that received funding from The Department of International Development to undertake the research discussed in this article. </span></em></p>
Textbooks in sufficient quantities are effective in improving the quality of education but in Africa language poses a problem to how pupils interact with the material they are taught.
Lizzi O. Milligan, Lecturer in International Education, University of Bath
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/72240
2017-03-03T13:20:56Z
2017-03-03T13:20:56Z
Active lessons can boost children’s learning and health
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/156413/original/image-20170210-23354-dkd71a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A physically active lesson in action in a Leicestershire primary school.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The natural order of the classroom has always been for pupils to sit. Whether this involves, talking, discussing, working in groups, or listening to the teacher, most of the time this is all done from the comfort of a chair.</p>
<p>Most primary school children spend on average, <a href="https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-jspui/bitstream/2134/19729/3/Clemes%20et%20al%20%20Standing%20Desk%20paper%20-%20accepted.pdf">70% of their classroom time sitting down</a>. Outside the classroom, the number of children walking to school has <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/476635/travel-to-school.pdf">decreased</a> and, at the same time, many more children are spending longer staring <a href="https://ijbnpa.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12966-016-0419-1">at screens</a>. Children aged five to 16 now spend an average of <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-32067158">six and a half hours a day in front of a screen</a> compared with around three hours in 1995.</p>
<p>In light of these changes to children’s habits outside school, how children spend their time in school is becoming increasingly more important. And the UK government’s recent <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/childhood-obesity-a-plan-for-action">childhood obesity strategy</a> recommends “active lessons” as one way schools can work towards providing children with at least 30 minutes of physical activity during the school day.</p>
<h2>The benefits of an active classroom</h2>
<p>It is becoming increasingly clear that in adults a lifetime of sitting can <a href="http://annals.org/aim/article/2091327/sedentary-time-its-association-risk-disease-incidence-mortality-hospitalization-adults">lead to a higher risk</a> of early death, type two diabetes, and heart disease. And while the evidence is still limited when it comes to children’s health, there is certainly an argument that, as <a href="http://www.nhs.uk/Livewell/fitness/Pages/sitting-and-sedentary-behaviour-are-bad-for-your-health.aspx">sedentary behaviour habits</a> are formed early in life, targeting children is a logical step. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/159213/original/image-20170302-14699-ufzj00.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/159213/original/image-20170302-14699-ufzj00.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159213/original/image-20170302-14699-ufzj00.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159213/original/image-20170302-14699-ufzj00.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159213/original/image-20170302-14699-ufzj00.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159213/original/image-20170302-14699-ufzj00.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159213/original/image-20170302-14699-ufzj00.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Get children moving in the classroom from a young age.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Perhaps more important for schools is the growing evidence that points to a link between increased physical activity in the classroom and educational benefits. This includes improved <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27235602">attention to tasks</a>, as well an an increase in pupil’s <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0742051X17300094">enjoyment of lessons</a> and <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1612197X.2012.682368">motivation to learn</a>. And for some pupils in certain subjects <a href="http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/early/2016/02/22/peds.2015-2743">academic achievement</a> has also been shown to improve. </p>
<h2>Walk like an Egyptian</h2>
<p>Of course, many teachers already lead an active classroom, and many more may only need to tweak their teaching practice a little to make them more active. A range of <a href="http://www.jsams.org/article/S1440-2440(14)00175-3/abstract">initiatives to introduce physical activity</a> into the classroom <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1746-1561.2011.00614.x/abstract">have been trialled</a> in some countries such as the US and Australia. Typically these studies have implemented either physically “active breaks”, or physically “active lessons”. </p>
<p>An active break is a short interjection of a few minutes to perform some simple physical activity. And this could include children moving around the classroom pretending to be a certain animal, or even someone from a certain period of history. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/159143/original/image-20170302-14717-1l8jtiv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/159143/original/image-20170302-14717-1l8jtiv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159143/original/image-20170302-14717-1l8jtiv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159143/original/image-20170302-14717-1l8jtiv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159143/original/image-20170302-14717-1l8jtiv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159143/original/image-20170302-14717-1l8jtiv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/159143/original/image-20170302-14717-1l8jtiv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Teachers can adopt classroom physical activity into their routine teaching practice.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In some cases curriculum content can be also integrated into these breaks, for example by jumping or squatting a number of times to indicate the answer to a mathematical question. </p>
<p>Physically active lessons go further than this and actually “teach through movement” for a portion of, or even the whole of a lesson. As an example imagine younger primary children physically embodying punctuation marks as a classmate reads aloud a passage from a book. </p>
<h2>Physically active learning</h2>
<p>This is why at Loughborough University we are leading a project called <a href="https://vimeo.com/182069184">Class Pal</a> to help get children in the classroom moving. As part of the project, we have worked collaboratively with teachers to develop a one-day training workshop. This gives educators the chance to develop and share ideas – along with methods on how to better implement “active” teaching. </p>
<p>As well as the workshop, we’ve also set up a <a href="http://classpal.org.uk/">website</a> with online examples of active breaks and lessons. Over the 2016-17 academic year we are evaluating how <a href="https://vimeo.com/206548946">teachers use this training</a> to create a more active classroom. </p>
<figure>
<iframe src="https://player.vimeo.com/video/182069184" width="500" height="281" frameborder="0" webkitallowfullscreen="" mozallowfullscreen="" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>This evaluation includes investigating what processes and structures within the school support active classrooms – and what the challenges are to delivery. This is all in an effort to better evolve the support for teachers in this emerging area. </p>
<h2>Jump around</h2>
<p>Given that schools have the reach to target children from all backgrounds, there is clearly an opportunity to try to help alter this culture of sitting by offering physically active learning in classrooms.</p>
<p>Schools are often set up to be the panacea to cure societal ills – and their staff’s responsibilities and workloads only ever seem to grow. </p>
<p>But we believe that by supporting teachers to make small changes to their routine practice, a more active, fun, and engaging classroom environment can be created for both pupils and teachers alike.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/72240/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Why we need more physical activity in the classroom.
Ash Routen, Research Associate in Physical Activity and Public Health, Loughborough University
Lauren Sherar, Senior Lecturer in Physical Activity and Public Health, Loughborough University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/65710
2016-09-27T09:56:51Z
2016-09-27T09:56:51Z
Group work gets kids more engaged in STEM
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/139342/original/image-20160926-31875-1ludi3d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">What can be done to get more kids interested in STEM?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-397583227/stock-photo-close-up-of-little-girl-having-fun-focus-is-on-girl-hands.html?src=PCBl5f9Ak13kVf_HPtmzgg-1-1">Child image via www.shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Shortage of science, technology, engineering and math (STEM) professionals has been an important <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/blog/2016/03/01/supporting-our-youngest-innovators-stem-starts-early">concern in the United States</a>. It is estimated that over the next 10 years, the nation could face a <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/microsites/ostp/fact_sheet_final.pdf">shortage of one million STEM workers</a>. </p>
<p>So, what can we do to get more students interested in STEM?</p>
<h2>STEM starts early</h2>
<p>Research shows that <a href="http://edr.sagepub.com/content/45/1/18.short">science achievement gaps begin very early</a>. Between fourth and eighth grade, the number of children reporting positive attitudes about <a href="http://timss.bc.edu/timss2007/PDF/T07_M_IR_Chapter4.pdf">math</a> and <a href="http://timss.bc.edu/timss2007/PDF/T07_S_IR_Chapter4.pdf">science</a> drops from about 71 percent to about 48 percent.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/139333/original/image-20160926-31856-101nlt5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/139333/original/image-20160926-31856-101nlt5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139333/original/image-20160926-31856-101nlt5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139333/original/image-20160926-31856-101nlt5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139333/original/image-20160926-31856-101nlt5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139333/original/image-20160926-31856-101nlt5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139333/original/image-20160926-31856-101nlt5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Early math activities such as counting can build STEM skills.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-56610562/stock-photo-little-kid-playing-with-abacus.html?src=6u3PnwRXLCZRjV-UsM1ymA-1-4">Abacus image via www.shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Early math skills are the <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/dev/43/6/1428/">strongest predictor</a> of later school success. Simple activities like <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022096513002439">counting</a> and <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3289766/">playing with puzzles</a> can <a href="http://groups.psych.northwestern.edu/uttal/vittae/documents/ContentServer.pdf">build children’s STEM skills</a>. </p>
<p>Studies show that preschool children who participated in a 26-week math curriculum had math test scores that <a href="http://aer.sagepub.com/content/45/2/443">improved twice as much</a> as children in a control group with a standard preschool curriculum. Even <a href="http://earlymath.org/earlymath/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Math-Matters-Report_2ndEd1.pdf">talking more about math</a> and <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2008.00714.x/full">playing board games</a> can boost preschool children’s STEM abilities. </p>
<p>However, these educational activities are also competing with lots of other things for children’s attention. Less than <a href="http://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2016-06-15/op-ed-integrating-stem-learning-in-early-childhood-education">five percent</a> of classroom time in preschool focuses on STEM-related activities. </p>
<p>I am part of a research team at the University of Washington’s <a href="http://staff.washington.edu/almaster/cv.html">Institute for Learning and Brain Sciences</a>. With my colleagues Sapna Cheryan and Andrew Meltzoff, I have been looking for ways to make STEM more engaging for children.</p>
<p>We found an answer: Make it social.</p>
<h2>Here’s what we did</h2>
<p>We <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/2016-42715-001/">ran an experiment</a> to see whether making STEM social would affect children’s motivation. We brought 141 four-year-old children into our lab. They did two activities, a math game and a puzzle game.</p>
<p>For one of these activities, children were made to believe that they were part of a group. Children were required to do the other game all by themselves. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/138352/original/image-20160919-11103-j0wv7r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/138352/original/image-20160919-11103-j0wv7r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=447&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/138352/original/image-20160919-11103-j0wv7r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=447&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/138352/original/image-20160919-11103-j0wv7r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=447&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/138352/original/image-20160919-11103-j0wv7r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=562&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/138352/original/image-20160919-11103-j0wv7r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=562&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/138352/original/image-20160919-11103-j0wv7r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=562&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A child about to work on a STEM task in the ‘green’ group.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Allison Master</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Each group had a special color. For example, children in the green group put on a green t-shirt. Then they sat at a green table with a green flag, and took the group’s activity out of a green box. In reality, all children actually completed both activities alone. All that they saw was a poster that showed pictures of other children in the group, all wearing a green t-shirt. </p>
<p>For the other nongroup task, children were also provided with t-shirts of a certain color. There was a poster on the wall with pictures of other children. However, that poster showed children wearing different colored shirts that did not match theirs. For example, if children wore a yellow shirt for the nongroup task, then none of the children on the poster would have a yellow t-shirt. This helped emphasize their solo status. We also reminded them that none of the children on the poster did the same activity as them.</p>
<p>We made the group imaginary because children’s groups in real life can be complicated. With imaginary groups, we could make the experience exactly the same for all children and test how the idea of being part of a group is motivating.</p>
<h2>Impact on motivation</h2>
<p>Our reason for having children believe they were part of a group was based on a simple idea: You are then part of something bigger than yourself. Other people are <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/behavioral-and-brain-sciences/article/understanding-and-sharing-intentions-the-origins-of-cultural-cognition/F9C40BF73A68B30B8EB713F2F947F7E2">working toward the same goal as you</a>. <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0152001">Even young children</a> understand that working together unites people in meaningful ways. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/139331/original/image-20160926-31853-1cj51cs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/139331/original/image-20160926-31853-1cj51cs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139331/original/image-20160926-31853-1cj51cs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139331/original/image-20160926-31853-1cj51cs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139331/original/image-20160926-31853-1cj51cs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139331/original/image-20160926-31853-1cj51cs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139331/original/image-20160926-31853-1cj51cs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Children feel more motivated when they are part of a group.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-342072323/stock-photo-group-of-pre-school-children-answering-question-in-classroom.html?src=od4j7oDck9_EOzOlCsTcyw-1-0">Children image via www.shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Even with an imaginary group, children showed greater motivation for the group task compared to the individual task. Children worked for more time before choosing to quit the group task, and correctly placed more pieces for that task. </p>
<p>Afterwards, we asked children to rate how fun each task was, and how good they were at each one. On average, children rated the group task as more fun and said that they felt like they were better at it. When we asked children to pick which task they liked better, about half the children chose the group task, about one third chose the individual task, and a few had no preference.</p>
<h2>Similar findings from other studies</h2>
<p>Could this effect be due to <a href="http://pps.sagepub.com/content/10/6/886.full">something like random chance</a>? We are confident that this is a real effect for a couple of reasons.</p>
<p>First, in our study, all the children did two different tasks, one in a “group” and the other as an individual. Some children did the math task as their group task and others did it as their individual task. Same for the puzzle task: Some children did it as their group task and others did it as their individual task. </p>
<p>We found children showed greater motivation for whichever task they did as part of a group. On average, they showed greater motivation for the group task about 40 percent of the time, equal motivation on both tasks about 32 percent of the time and greater motivation for the individual task about 28 percent of the time. </p>
<p>So, it’s not something about the particular group task or the children who were put in a group. The exact same children were more motivated, on average, by being in a group than by working as an individual.</p>
<p>Second, <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01867.x/abstract">several studies</a> that I conducted with <a href="http://gregorywalton-stanford.weebly.com">Professor Greg Walton</a> at Stanford University came up with similar findings. Those studies also looked at children’s motivation and learning when they were part of a group. In those studies, we found that children persisted longer on a puzzle when they were part of a puzzle group, and learned more new words when they were part of a word-learning group. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/139335/original/image-20160926-31847-s75zlx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/139335/original/image-20160926-31847-s75zlx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139335/original/image-20160926-31847-s75zlx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139335/original/image-20160926-31847-s75zlx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139335/original/image-20160926-31847-s75zlx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=516&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139335/original/image-20160926-31847-s75zlx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=516&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139335/original/image-20160926-31847-s75zlx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=516&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Children persist longer on a puzzle when they are part of a group.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/criminalintent/14401901954/in/photolist-nWDvGo-e5TdEF-eF6fEB-bv8gWK-fdi1sv-bnt93F-ebAUvZ-aXBWJk-6pypBR-bJphaX-dm5Q3x-bm3W7W-adMQGX-bntgHk-9qRLWE-bKkNkp-e3a8Dj-aZS77e-a2MUY8-acMU5H-ebEMbb-b8LFGe-kHuhep-9uYa1k-bDcCjx-9TukK9-aZXo2x-r41AvX-eavyD4-b5enCv-qLJrmi-9zC2sW-6PRmcJ-iMSTfV-dRRK7S-ef2XJp-a2XcC1-6pyiwZ-f9ei57-fiDzAv-e9DBgK-6pypTD-dS3o9y-6pCy21-9UeF3e-7jU2EN-f4Hfgq-qJ5V65-eeJTag-qYnCby">Lars Plougmann</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>And if we combine our results with those studies into a meta-analysis – a study that analyses multiple previous studies – the effect is even stronger, even with imaginary groups and minimal information about the group.</p>
<h2>What parents, teachers can do</h2>
<p>Children spend a large portion of classroom time working independently. For example, one study found that American eighth graders worked individually <a href="http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2003/2003013.pdf">80 percent of the time</a> in math class. </p>
<p>So what does this mean for teachers trying to get students excited about math? For parents trying to get children passionate about puzzles? We have a couple of ideas about how parents and teachers can use these findings to talk about STEM. We haven’t tested these yet, but they send the message that STEM is social.</p>
<p>For example, parents and teachers can use social language such as, “Let’s figure this puzzle out together.” Teachers can also create classroom-wide groups to make sure everyone feels included: “Our whole class does math together.”</p>
<p>Children need to be engaged in STEM before they start <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/2015-37516-001/">to lose interest</a>. The <a href="http://mindsetscholarsnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Reduce-Gender-Gaps-in-pSTEM.pdf">image of STEM</a> as <a href="http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00049/full">solitary and isolating</a> is strong in our culture. If we make STEM social, we can help inspire more students to discover their interest in STEM.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/65710/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Allison Master has received funding from the National Science Foundation and the Bezos Family Foundation.</span></em></p>
A study with pre-school children found that their motivation and interest improved when they believed they were part of a group.
Allison Master, Research Scientist, University of Washington
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/64500
2016-08-30T13:18:12Z
2016-08-30T13:18:12Z
Five things you need to know on your first day of school – as a teacher
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/135644/original/image-20160826-17865-8pq8pq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The first day in the classroom can be a scary prospect.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Areipa.lt/Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>As the new school year approaches, many newly qualified teachers will be eagerly preparing for their first proper teaching post – with nerves and lesson planning aplenty. But despite those first day butterflies and the new-term excitement, my <a href="http://www.wiserd.ac.uk/files/5314/3530/8346/Abstract_Booklet_.pdf">research</a> has found that many teachers actually find their first teaching job to be much more difficult than they expected.</p>
<p>Government <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/533618/SFR21_2016_MainText.pdf">statistics show</a> that in 2015, over 10% of teachers left the state sector. At a time when the routes into teaching are <a href="https://theconversation.com/counting-the-costs-of-moving-teacher-training-out-of-universities-23157">changing</a>, more than 107,000 teachers who completed their training last year never actually taught in a school. This is worrying considering that many teacher vacancies <a href="http://schoolsweek.co.uk/schools-left-with-10-per-cent-of-posts-unfilled/">remain unfilled</a>.</p>
<p>As part of my <a href="http://www.wiserd.ac.uk/files/5314/3530/8346/Abstract_Booklet_.pdf">research</a>, I’ve identified some of the things that cause stress for new teachers and looked into the support that is available to help them cope. I’ve discovered that the greatest challenges were caused by a high work load, disruptive pupils, teaching pupils with different abilities in the same class and the worry of having their lessons observed. </p>
<p>When it comes to difficult experiences in school, my research showed that for some teachers the workload of their first job is simply too great, with marking a particular problem. One new secondary teacher told me:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>You’ve taught another class … and you have 30 books to mark, do I mark effectively or do I teach my lessons effectively? … every weekend I have to mark, every evening I mark.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Other teachers felt that the job was tough but manageable. One teacher told me that helping pupils learn, and the “buzz” when children understand, is incredibly rewarding: “Teaching is the best part, just actually getting up and teaching.”</p>
<p>It is clear that while some teachers can adjust to the new job and learn the role quickly, others struggle – until they eventually leave the profession. And I found that this is often down to the support offered by the school – along with how teachers make use of this support. New teachers told me that they valued having the help of mentors and found it useful to observe colleagues teaching, try out new ideas and receive feedback on their performance. Other <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13540602.2013.848570">research suggests</a> that the best new teachers are keen to ask for help and collaborate with other teachers, but that unfortunately many are reluctant to do this.</p>
<p>New teachers therefore need to be proactive and their actions during the first term are crucial in helping them to adjust. By talking to a number of teachers, I have identified the following five tips to help new teachers survive their first term: </p>
<h2>1. Watch your colleagues</h2>
<p>When you are busy, it is easy to work in isolation and not have enough time to talk to colleagues about your work. Yet, the most successful new teachers observe lessons and watch how other teachers engage pupils, keep control and promote learning. </p>
<p>Make time every week to observe part of an excellent lesson and reflect on how you can bring some of the skills used in this lesson to your teaching.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/135645/original/image-20160826-17876-1c86i6u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/135645/original/image-20160826-17876-1c86i6u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/135645/original/image-20160826-17876-1c86i6u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/135645/original/image-20160826-17876-1c86i6u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/135645/original/image-20160826-17876-1c86i6u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=478&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/135645/original/image-20160826-17876-1c86i6u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=478&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/135645/original/image-20160826-17876-1c86i6u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=478&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Watch and learn.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Syda Productions/Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>2. Don’t be afraid to try out new ideas</h2>
<p>The reason you have been taught new methods of teaching at university is because the research says they are effective. Incorporate them into your lessons and show that you can be innovative. Not everything will work but you will get credit for trying. </p>
<p>One teacher told me: “I’m not very confident trying new things but as my mentor says, if you don’t try you will never know and if you make a mistake you won’t make it again.”</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/135646/original/image-20160826-17851-1x7gdm5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/135646/original/image-20160826-17851-1x7gdm5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/135646/original/image-20160826-17851-1x7gdm5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/135646/original/image-20160826-17851-1x7gdm5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/135646/original/image-20160826-17851-1x7gdm5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/135646/original/image-20160826-17851-1x7gdm5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/135646/original/image-20160826-17851-1x7gdm5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">‘Who wants to go outside?’</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>3. Ask questions</h2>
<p>You’ve learnt how to teach but being successful in a job is also about understanding how an organisation works – and schools are no different. You need to know what the school’s formal policies are and also the informal ones – the norms of behaviour that aren’t written down but everyone follows. </p>
<p>Use your mentor or identify helpful colleagues and ask them how they would act in specific situations. It is much easier to ask questions when you are new and it will show that you are interested.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/135647/original/image-20160826-17872-xrz5ic.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/135647/original/image-20160826-17872-xrz5ic.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/135647/original/image-20160826-17872-xrz5ic.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/135647/original/image-20160826-17872-xrz5ic.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/135647/original/image-20160826-17872-xrz5ic.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/135647/original/image-20160826-17872-xrz5ic.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/135647/original/image-20160826-17872-xrz5ic.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">It’s important to know when to ask for help.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">DGLimages/Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>4. Develop your networks</h2>
<p>Schools can be quite insular organisations and sometimes you need to know what is happening elsewhere. Keep in contact with friends and lecturers from university and make a point of talking to teachers at meetings and training sessions so you can exchange ideas. </p>
<p>It is often helpful to know that everyone is in the same boat and you are not the only one with difficulties.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/135648/original/image-20160826-17845-eu2oii.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/135648/original/image-20160826-17845-eu2oii.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/135648/original/image-20160826-17845-eu2oii.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/135648/original/image-20160826-17845-eu2oii.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/135648/original/image-20160826-17845-eu2oii.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/135648/original/image-20160826-17845-eu2oii.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/135648/original/image-20160826-17845-eu2oii.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Stay in touch with the other teachers you trained with, they can be a good support network.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>5. Accept feedback</h2>
<p>You will be observed many times so view all feedback positively. Nobody expects new teachers to be perfect so ask for advice and act on it. If you are having difficulty with a class, ask to be observed and be open to suggestions and try them out. You might not always think an idea will work, but it’s worth having a go. Feed back your progress to your observer and together find further solutions. This is how excellent teachers develop.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/135649/original/image-20160826-17851-igsd7o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/135649/original/image-20160826-17851-igsd7o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/135649/original/image-20160826-17851-igsd7o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/135649/original/image-20160826-17851-igsd7o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/135649/original/image-20160826-17851-igsd7o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/135649/original/image-20160826-17851-igsd7o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/135649/original/image-20160826-17851-igsd7o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Ask for feedback whenever you can.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Ultimately, it’s worth remembering that the first year of teaching is always going to be tough. The workload will be high and you will have to learn strategies to cope with behaviour issues and different abilities in the same class. But it does get easier. </p>
<p>One teacher summed it up when she said: “I’ve had a brilliant time, being in the classroom, planning lessons; the workload is phenomenal, a very big adjustment but I’ve enjoyed everything.”</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/64500/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rachel Williams does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Listen up new teachers, here’s what you need to know before you hit the classroom.
Rachel Williams, Lecturer and part of the Employment Research Unit, Cardiff University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/49083
2015-10-14T16:31:20Z
2015-10-14T16:31:20Z
Why disciplining kids can be so tricky for parents and teachers
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/98298/original/image-20151013-31119-dxvzgx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">When does disciplining kids work?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/modenadude/5384988017/in/photolist-9cRtjZ-cNWYaL-4C7no1-aUaDMF-jjhH5-48S5CY-4zsZqV-hJoGE-dYkLef-8TMGay-7Mo3Ez-dYkLSq-6X1rwV-9GSk8L-boSgDK-8TMG35-6bPtvZ-cyu9nE-5c847w-boSgbD-bNpPYR-5sS2Z4-zSbu8-96GHS2-xSeguE-6emZ5Y-8M3ziJ-6mi1Hz-rFrJsx-otiEUP-38Bp1A-4kby2a-7WTauH-8qv14b-89YXVM-cL2Ng7-fbK2y-2Ygx3M-h8muEj-atRxbW-d9ZcB5-xUxPhi-7fcNh1-5DPUzA-fbJXt-9iNLTs-5zXMRk-f92Jb-nkPxsw-7CaUj5">Asim Bharwani</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Disciplining works if it is not over the top and children understand the point of it.</p>
<p>Highlights magazine’s annual <a href="https://store.highlights.com/sotk15">State of Kids survey</a> found that a majority of children appreciated being disciplined and believed that it helped them behave better. </p>
<p>What children disagreed with were the strategies that were used by their parents – the most common ones being time-outs and taking away electronics. The report suggests that disciplining strategies work better when they open up communication and strengthen relationships among friends or siblings or between kids and adults.</p>
<p>However, my own work as an education professor and researcher who works with schools and families shows that <a href="https://stateimpact.npr.org/ohio/2012/08/06/locked-away-students-say-seclusion-doesnt-help/">disciplining is becoming a major issue at schools too</a>, taking up more and more of the school day. So, why are schools imposing severe disciplinary measures?</p>
<h2>What’s going on in schools?</h2>
<p>Let’s first look at what disciplining looks like in schools.</p>
<p>Many schools now have lines on the floor that students must walk on to get anywhere. Some schools even have tape on the ground to show where students should walk in the classroom. Hallways have stop signs at each corner and schools enforce zero noise zones. </p>
<p>Children are told to hold air in cheeks like a bubble when walking in the hallways or when they are supposed to be listening to instructions or storytime. They are told to walk straight, not touch anyone, keep their hands to themselves, sit on an X mark on the floor, raise a hand before speaking, keep eyes on the teacher, use only one piece of paper, follow directions and be quiet. </p>
<p>Over the past 10 years, strange discipline measures such as red, yellow and green lights, where green means well-done and red means bad behavior, have become commonplace. Children can get their <a href="http://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2013/10/nixing-recess-the-silly-alarmingly-popular-way-to-punish-kids/280631/">recess</a> taken away or be put into an isolation room. Or, increasingly, even the <a href="https://www.aclu.org/fact-sheet/what-school-prison-pipeline?redirect=racial-justice/what-school-prison-pipeline">police</a> can be called.</p>
<p>Discipline is not only constant but also public. Just last week, I was in a class where a child’s name was on the board. Children at my table pointed it out to me and explained that the kid gets in trouble a lot. They told me that the teacher writes his name on the board and then when he is good, he gets one letter erased. When they are all erased, he can have free time.</p>
<p>So why are there such heavy amounts of discipline at school?</p>
<p>The unfortunate fact is that there is an extraordinary amount of <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10901027.2012.732665">content</a> that teachers are supposed to cover during a school year. Usually, school districts give teachers eight-week plans that tell them what to cover and when. </p>
<p>This means that children, whether they like it or not, need to learn with the speed, level and topic choices determined by adults who don’t know them. Children have to <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/answer-sheet/wp/2014/12/03/a-therapist-goes-to-middle-school-and-tries-to-sit-still-and-focus-she-cant-neither-can-the-kids/">sit still</a> and focus for extraordinary lengths of time. </p>
<p>Given the <a href="http://neatoday.org/2014/11/02/nea-survey-nearly-half-of-teachers-consider-leaving-profession-due-to-standardized-testing-2/">pressure on teachers</a>, discipline becomes a larger and larger part of the school day, just to get kids to get through what is required by the state or Common Core guidelines.</p>
<p>So, instead of encouraging children to engage with content, lessons or materials, teachers find themselves having to discipline them into it.</p>
<p>Perhaps the most troubling part of discipline at schools is how unfairly it is given out.</p>
<h2>Who gets the most disciplined?</h2>
<p>This emphasis on obedience over learning is <a href="http://www.migrationpolicy.org/research/impact-discrimination-early-schooling-experiences-children-immigrant-families">more likely</a> to be found in classrooms with a majority of children from marginalized communities. </p>
<p>Not only is heavy discipline starting younger and younger, it is also <a href="http://edr.sagepub.com/content/39/1/59.short">worse</a> for children of color.</p>
<p>In fact, suspensions now begin in <a href="http://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2014/03/21/292456211/black-preschoolers-far-more-likely-to-be-suspended">prekindergarten</a> And almost <a href="http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/docs/crdc-early-learning-snapshot.pdf">50%</a> of those suspended are African-American kids. </p>
<p>As educational psychologist <a href="http://www.edb.utexas.edu/education/departments/edp/about/faculty/cokley/">Kevin Cokley</a> has pointed out, “<a href="http://www.dallasnews.com/opinion/latest-columns/20150914-kevin-cokley-lets-end-racial-disparity-in-school-discipline.ece">There is a conspiracy against black children in our schools</a>.” Curiously, girls of color are suspended <a href="http://www.naacpldf.org/files/publications/Unlocking%20Opportunity%20for%20African%20American%20Girls_0.pdf">six times</a> more often than white girls. They are even disciplined <a href="https://www.academia.edu/7871609/The_SCHOOL-TO-_PRISON_PIPELINE_EXPANDING_OUR_DISCUSSION_TO_INCLUDE_BLACK_GIRLS">more</a> than white boys starting in the early grades. </p>
<p>This is not because children of color, in particular African-American children, are somehow more disobedient or rebellious than white children. It is because often, even when teachers don’t mean to, children’s behavior is <a href="http://news.stanford.edu/news/2015/april/discipline-black-students-041515.html">interpreted differently</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/98413/original/image-20151014-15131-1e3rbk9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/98413/original/image-20151014-15131-1e3rbk9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=380&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98413/original/image-20151014-15131-1e3rbk9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=380&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98413/original/image-20151014-15131-1e3rbk9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=380&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98413/original/image-20151014-15131-1e3rbk9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=477&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98413/original/image-20151014-15131-1e3rbk9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=477&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98413/original/image-20151014-15131-1e3rbk9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=477&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Prioritizing learning over disciplining can lead to better results.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/hocolibrary/8622419560/in/photolist-e8W9Wd-e8W9AG-e8QvJg-e8W7Ty-e8Qszi-e8Qwwv-e8QsHe-e8Qsue-e8QrAT-e8Qtrk-e8QtnB-e8W6KA-e8W76o-e8QvyH-e8W721-e8QuCg-e8QugD-e8QwbR-e8QvCF-e8W84A-e8QvmV-e8W9YW-e8QwhX-e8QvWX-e8WcLo-e8WbN1-e8WaAG-e8W9bd-e8W8Bq-e8QuqZ-e8WakG-e8Qwe8-e8W8a9-e8QrXr-e8WcB1-e8Wcuh-e8QwFX-e8W8Qy-e8W95y-e8WcxC-e8WaC1-e8QwK2-e8Wb7J-e8Qwni-e8Qwfg-e8Qxh6-e8Qx68-e8W7qU-e8Wcmd-e8Wcfs">Howard County Library System</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>White teachers notice black children first and often adopt society’s portrayals of communities of color as problematic or out of control. Over <a href="https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2013/2013314.pdf">80%</a> of teachers are white in public schools. </p>
<p>And there is <a href="http://www.researchgate.net/publication/263249994_Trouble_on_my_mind_toward_a_framework_of_humanizing_critical_sociocultural_knowledge_for_teaching_and_teacher_education">little preparation</a> for teachers to be positive, culturally engaged and anti-racist in classrooms. </p>
<h2>How discipline gets in the way of learning</h2>
<p>If most of what children hear are teachers trying to get everyone to sit still, be quiet and listen to directions, what does this teach them about learning and being a learner?</p>
<p>In my work on how young children use their agency (the ability to make decisions at school), I find that most children describe learning as following directions. As one child explained, “Learning is quiet.” </p>
<p>Children often see obedience as the point of school. In fact, teachers and students both tell me that they can tell children are learning when their “eyes are on the teacher.”</p>
<p>Of course, just because a child is obedient doesn’t mean they are learning.</p>
<p>If a classroom has a ton of rules and a narrow range of acceptable behavior (kids cannot get materials for themselves, help out classmates without permission, etc) then there are only a few behaviors that will not get someone in trouble. In such a scenario, there is much more likelihood for disobedience and more discipline. </p>
<p>The creation of such narrow spaces make it <a href="http://www.migrationpolicy.org/research/impact-discrimination-early-schooling-experiences-children-immigrant-families">difficult</a> for children to show a variety of skills, demonstrate capabilities or use a variety of coping skills when they are frustrated. </p>
<p>Just as the State of Kids survey pointed out, conversation is critical to discipline. Some schools are trading suspensions for dialogue. And it has resulted in much <a href="http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/new-approach-discipline-school/">success</a>.
Instead of jumping to discipline, these administrators and teachers are encouraging their students to problem solve and participate in making the situation better as part of the school community. </p>
<h2>What parents, teachers can do</h2>
<p>Classrooms need to be spaces where children can participate in fixing issues and taking <a href="http://hepg.org/her-home/issues/harvard-educational-review-volume-84-number-2/herarticle/agency-and-expanding-capabilities-in-early-grade-c">initiative</a>. Children need not be punished and taken away from the classroom. </p>
<p>Similar lessons can be applied at home. Parents can stress on discipline that focuses on hard work and not taking a break. Engaging kids through conversations, projects and helping out will emphasize learning more than discipline. </p>
<p>And the results will be well worth it.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/49083/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jennifer Keys Adair does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
What happens when kids are put through harsh disciplinary measures?
Jennifer Keys Adair, Assistant Professor of Early Childhood Education, The University of Texas at Austin
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/44495
2015-07-17T10:17:28Z
2015-07-17T10:17:28Z
Let children move around, stand or walk in the classroom. You’ll see the difference
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/88408/original/image-20150714-21728-1h1hmq5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Why not let children stand and study?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/youbelonginlongmont/6955979583/in/photolist-bAFdot-bnLmrq-bnLhQW-qPZ9sD-qPZ9yv-qMGdu3-pTd5JZ-qPZ9xt-5b1NrV-tzbZYW-7QrxNC-5dsFUh-pXDMMV-61JGsc-dKTqiH-cDnEHW-oe5trh-pSZ7QE-qPZ9CD-qPUMjm-qPZ9Dv-qPZ9Gg-yQMEo-4J66tt-uw4cA1-qhJqVh-PgUqD-4QxVoG-at1Xmm-9ddrSa-89FwtD-br86US-6r39hb-92Rfvg-amMNGj-a5oF29-auPEkS-cwKZdo-bpZvVo-7qvHBL-7x2qL3-atB2VY-b73L1g-asH8ZA-5iPrjZ-tgVtg-52gJdC-9ueG3v-8Z4p83-hfh4wG">You Belong In Longmont</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The question of <a href="http://www.forbes.com/sites/davidsturt/2015/01/13/is-sitting-the-new-smoking/">“is sitting the next smoking”</a> has been raised by many health experts in the past few months. <a href="http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/release23/en/">Many ailments</a>, including diabetes and heart disease, are known to be connected to an inactive lifestyle.</p>
<p>However, most of this attention has been focused on adult office workers and the negative health impact of sitting at work all day. </p>
<p>But, if our waistlines and even our longevity are connected to how active we are each day, is it not important to teach our children how to be more active, from an early age?</p>
<p>During the past few years, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09613218.2015.1058093">many</a> <a href="http://www.researchgate.net/publication/278732994_Reducing_children's_classroom_sitting_time_using_sit-to-stand_desks_findings_from_pilot_studies_in_UK_and_Australian_primary_schools">researchers</a> <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23103223">around</a> the world have been <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21421945">evaluating</a> the <a href="http://www.academia.edu/13751659/Choice_and_Voice_Teacher_and_Student_Perspectives_of_the_Use_of_Standing_Desks_in_a_Secondary_Classroom">use</a> of <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15288906">standing</a> height desks instead of the <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22836531">more traditional</a> seated desks in school classrooms. </p>
<p>As director of the Ergonomics Center at the Texas A&M Health Science Center, I am constantly in corporate offices, K–12 classrooms and graduate classrooms where I teach. I also research better methods of classroom management and academic performance via health interventions. Ten years ago, while focusing primarily on adult office workers and the loss of non-exercise, physical movement in a work day, I wrote a book on the topic, <a href="https://thebackschool.net/store/products/suggested-reading/could-you-stand-to-lose-second-edition/">Could You Stand to Lose</a>?</p>
<h2>Standing in classrooms</h2>
<p>The idea came as we explored younger office workers’ health and noticed a lack of important postural habits, poor core strength and larger waistlines than what the older generations displayed when they entered the workforce. </p>
<p>It was at that time that we realized if we were going to affect the health of office workers, we would need to start much younger. Standing became a simple proxy for what we really need – more low-intensity, whole-body movement! </p>
<p>We asked, could we perform the same work while standing at a desk rather than always sitting at it? And we realized this type of change was possible. </p>
<p>We then turned our attention to adolescent health in classroom settings. </p>
<p>My team’s research in schools began in 2008, when we first looked at classroom movement as a way to deal with the <a href="http://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/obesity/facts.htm">growing number</a> of obese children. In the past 30 years, obesity has more than doubled in children and quadrupled in adolescents.</p>
<p>So, in 2008 we began installing and testing stand-biased desks for K–4 students to allow upright movement during instruction and self-work. </p>
<p>We started this work in College Station, Texas with elementary students to avoid the difficulty of measuring the Body Mass Index (BMI) in children experiencing puberty. During those years, the BMI fluctuates so rapidly that it is tough to follow an intervention. </p>
<h2>Encouraging movement</h2>
<p>From a few classrooms in one school to dozens of classrooms spread over many schools, we continuously upgraded our sample size and research methods. Over the past seven years, we have placed several thousand students at standing desks for our studies in both elementary and high school. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/88690/original/image-20150716-5108-nbuaiq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/88690/original/image-20150716-5108-nbuaiq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/88690/original/image-20150716-5108-nbuaiq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/88690/original/image-20150716-5108-nbuaiq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/88690/original/image-20150716-5108-nbuaiq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/88690/original/image-20150716-5108-nbuaiq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/88690/original/image-20150716-5108-nbuaiq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Standing desks encourage movement.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/traffas/5619585646/in/photolist-9yzR2G-96PdKX-28jFN6-9hHpjg-egnPHK-5BmVWa-5BmqW8-eHxpq-9YQAyw-9YMGon-5BmW2X-9Wydai-65jcRz-qELRuT-91GpNY-8k1Ts1-eb3gXy-i6ycVY-9D3AFF-b2KyeM-fDKqKu-833tVt-69Y1V1-c2Z2mq-4s3WXA-9YQBAC-9YQBNW-a6Rv9-8xNBB5-4tNyE-9YMFoZ-9YMEVD-9YMFjD-9YQz1C-7aJgCx-7BLEJA-6vfV8p-4wuANX-ddyTuo-ddyS9Z-ddyTCU-ddyS7t-ddyTr7-5PV4Ny-7JJoKs-5VNaUZ-6jund9-7b29pF-dG573-bov2cY">aarontraffas</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Stand-biased desks allow students to sit (on a stool) or stand at will.</p>
<p>However, these products were a nonexistent category for mainstream school furniture vendors. So, we had to create our own designs based on teacher and student feedback. The market is now beginning to evolve worldwide as others weigh in with creative approaches such as standing tables for multiple students.</p>
<p>Classrooms with stand-biased desks are part of what we began to call an <a href="http://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/11/9/9361">Activity Permissive Learning Environment (APLE)</a>, which means that teachers don’t tell children to “sit down,” “sit still,” or “don’t move around” during class.</p>
<p>Instead, they encourage movement such as standing, rocking, fidgeting and walking. Most traditional classrooms are lecture-style, with an instructor up front and students dealing with poorly fitting, hard plastic chairs for 80%–90% of their day.</p>
<h2>Impact of a standing desk</h2>
<p><a href="http://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/11/9/9361">Research</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00889">shows</a> that our bodies are so connected to our minds that our ability to focus on difficult cognitive tasks is directly linked to adequate physical activity.</p>
<p>In short, an active mind requires an active body.</p>
<p>Children become more restless and distracted with prolonged sitting. Active workstations <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22836531">reduce</a> disruptive behavior problems and increase students’ attention by providing them with a different method for completing academic tasks and breaking up the monotony of seated work. Students were less distracted while working at a standing desk. </p>
<p>This was not all: the activity also led to more burned calories. After two years of exposure to activity-permissive learning environments, students showed decreases in <a href="http://www.cdc.gov/healthyweight/assessing/bmi/childrens_bmi/about_childrens_bmi.html#percentile">Body Mass Index percentiles</a>.</p>
<p>Our <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22836531">own research</a> shows that students K–12 given a stand-biased desk burned 15%–25% more calories than their peers in traditional seated desks.</p>
<p>As a result of these encouraging health numbers, we turned our attention to student comfort and posture. Again, we <a href="http://www.scirp.org/journal/PaperInformation.aspx?PaperID=35796#.VahC3RNVikp">observed improvements</a>
on both measures over traditional seated furniture. </p>
<p>In addition to increasing energy expenditure, we now see that activity-permissive learning environments help to reduce disruptive behavior and increase students’ academic potential. Based on the number of parents contacting us for help with students doing homework, it appears the process can work as well at home as in school. </p>
<h2>Future of classroom design</h2>
<p>The success of stand-biased desks is nothing new. </p>
<p>Benjamin Franklin had a patent on a standing school desk over 200 years ago, and Thomas Jefferson worked at one that he designed himself. Charles Dickens, Ernest Hemingway, Napoleon Bonaparte and even Donald Rumsfeld <a href="http://www.artofmanliness.com/2011/07/05/become-a-stand-up-guy-the-history-benefits-and-use-of-standing-desks/">have all worked</a> at standing desks to create some of their most memorable work. </p>
<p>Although <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=16PSBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA379&lpg=PA379&dq=us+worker+sedentary+time&source=bl&ots=FIkuZKAi9m&sig=HtBkqLIBuSajrNamYLvSctq7GcU&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CF0Q6AEwB2oVChMI0dPc55nexgIVAy6ICh2BUgE2#v=onepage&q=us%20worker%20sedentary%20time&f=false">research and history</a> have shown that stand-biased desks have many favorable effects, most Western workers and students are still engaged in seated desk work for the majority of their day. </p>
<p>Our work in schools with thousands of K–12 students has included looking at stand-biased desks, exercise balls, several types of wobble stools and even swinging footrests and treadmills. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.researchgate.net/publication/278732994_Reducing_children's_classroom_sitting_time_using_sit-to-stand_desks_findings_from_pilot_studies_in_UK_and_Australian_primary_schools">Many</a> <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09613218.2015.1058093?journalCode=rbri20">other</a> <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23103223">researchers</a> around the world have also been examining the use of classroom design to alter physical activity patterns, with leadership coming from Australia, New Zealand and England. </p>
<p>Teachers around the globe want better classroom management, better student engagement and, ultimately, improved learning.</p>
<p>New approaches for addressing physical inactivity that are in harmony with children’s natural habits, tendencies and engagement could be the way to go.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/44495/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mark Benden consults for several furniture related corporations and owns shares in the faculty led startup company, PositiveMotion LLC, He has multiple US Patents for furniture items and thru his job at Texas A&M has licensed several inventions to furniture companies. He received research funding from the CDC and the NIH for research mentioned in the article.</span></em></p>
Aren’t there huge health benefits to staying physically active, for adults? Why should it be any different for children?
Mark Benden, Associate Professor & Director of the Ergonomics Center, Texas A&M University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/43100
2015-06-26T14:27:24Z
2015-06-26T14:27:24Z
Can millennials pay attention to classwork while texting, tweeting and being on Facebook?
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/86000/original/image-20150622-17743-1lsjya2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Should mobile devices be encouraged in class?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/trinityunimelb/8615745262/in/photolist-e8kWU7-FvhU8-cfq3bs-9Xw2Lv-cTmFuq-oJEP4q-cTmCRQ-fGK5hz-cTmEDC-em5vS2-7aeocB-7bd3g8-7PhWD6-bHLu96-g9eZ2N-fzwZ9m-c3in6o-fCX9WF-6ZH2W1-6ZD2ye-6ZGQNN-6ZGXAy-6ZGpo3-6ZH1hG-6ZD3St-6ZCpui-6ZD11P-6ZGpxQ-6ZCX9H-6ZGQhC-6ZCoy8-6ZH2i9-6ZD3dk-6ZH4zQ-6ZCPtr-6ZGqV5-6ZCnYa-6ZD2tF-6ZGtxU-6ZD5vg-6ZH31q-6ZCpHK-6ZGqmU-6ZCpU4-6ZCXkc-6ZGQC9-6ZGpW7-6ZH1XW-6ZCXfP-6ZGpdE">Trinity College</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s hard not to notice the connection of today’s youth to technology. </p>
<p>Fused to their smartphones around the clock, they prefer screens to paper and text message to speech; they consider leaving voicemail an act of interpersonal aggression. </p>
<p>They seem to focus differently too: skimming and sampling their way through multiple streams of data, they look like they’re taking it in all at once.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.nnstoy.org/download/technology/Digital%20Natives%20-%20Digital%20Immigrants.pdf">Some educators</a> call them “digital natives,” reflecting the idea that tech is at the core of who they are and how they function. </p>
<p>If living with technology really has rewired this generation for multitasking, what implications does this have for how we educate them? Should we tolerate – or maybe even encourage – mobile devices in class? And should we worry when we see students keeping an eye on social media or other diversions while doing homework?</p>
<h2>Why attention matters for learning</h2>
<p>As a professor who specializes in course design, I deal with these questions frequently as I help fellow faculty devise better strategies. In this work, I draw on my research background in cognitive psychology, a specialization focusing on mental processes such as reasoning, memory and attention.</p>
<p>Of those processes, attention is one that I tell teachers to be particularly attuned to. Research shows that memory – especially working memory, which holds information we’re using in the present moment – is <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3379570/">deeply intertwined</a> with attention. </p>
<p>Without sustained focus, we retain surprisingly little, and that window of focus is much narrower than we may realize.</p>
<p>So, are the minds of digital natives – or any heavy tech users – better or worse when it comes to attention? It’s a complicated question, partly because attention works in some paradoxical ways.</p>
<p>The function of attention is to prioritize where we put our limited cognitive resources at any given moment. One thing <a href="http://eds.b.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=5d41c06e-8bca-456f-b6d4-88450b57afde%40sessionmgr113&vid=25&hid=127">attention does</a> is keep irrelevant information at bay. Like a bouncer at an exclusive nightclub, its job is to ensure that only the most important and relevant elements pass through into conscious awareness.</p>
<p>But at the same time, a well-functioning attention system has to stay open to information that’s in the background and could be potentially useful. That mental bouncer has to constantly scan the crowd for anyone who might turn out to be a great addition to the party, pick them out and usher them inside.</p>
<h2>What technology does to the ability to pay attention</h2>
<p>Technology seems to have a bigger impact on that second side of attention.</p>
<p>Certain kinds of tech use – habitually consuming lots of <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22528869">online media</a> at once, or playing <a href="http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v423/n6939/full/nature01647.html">certain kinds</a> of <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0193397394900086">video games</a> – appear to boost the ability to efficiently pick up on peripheral information while keeping up with a main task.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/86409/original/image-20150625-13002-13un77l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/86409/original/image-20150625-13002-13un77l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=383&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/86409/original/image-20150625-13002-13un77l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=383&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/86409/original/image-20150625-13002-13un77l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=383&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/86409/original/image-20150625-13002-13un77l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=481&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/86409/original/image-20150625-13002-13un77l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=481&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/86409/original/image-20150625-13002-13un77l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=481&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Technology in class remains a distraction.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/usaidasia/12130900566/in/photolist-jtY373-9xi9Un-damBfo-97SXRN-rBkpEN-e8t6ny-q85ryt-adV37u-gufsWW-dNM367-bmzTZC-dN6BD4-oJG4tt-rwdnPm-hssxb7">USAID Asia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>And although long-term studies are lacking, <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273229714000525">there is a growing body of research</a> on how tech-saturated environments shape the minds and brains of kids. </p>
<p>It’s <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273229714000483">unlikely</a> that video games or online media damage kids’ ability to pay attention. But <a href="http://greenfieldlab.psych.ucla.edu/Welcome.html">comparative research</a> across high-tech and low-tech societies suggests that information processing is different in kids who grow up working with digital rather than physical tools. Neither group is better or worse across the board, but this research suggests that high-tech kids may be less inclined to learn by watching for extended periods of time. </p>
<p>That said, we should be cautious about concluding that today’s students have developed the ability to juggle as much technology as they want. Technology has not reshaped the basic ways in which our brains process information.</p>
<p>As <a href="http://www.danielwillingham.com/">cognitive psychologist Daniel Willingham</a> <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2015/01/21/opinion/smartphones-dont-make-us-dumb.html?_r=0">points out</a>, the impact of things like video games is relatively subtle. All they can do is tinker around the edges of our mental systems, rather than altering them at the core. </p>
<p>As Willingham says, something as fundamental as attention couldn’t be deeply reshaped without a major overhaul of the brain – something that would be a function of evolution, not life experiences.</p>
<p>All of this means that college teachers should be skeptical of claims that their game- and tech-obsessed students process information completely differently. Compared to earlier generations, today’s students are probably no more able to learn while simultaneously engrossed in Twitter, Facebook and texting. </p>
<h2>College students and technology</h2>
<p>There are other pitfalls to consider. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.cjlt.ca/index.php/cjlt/article/view/550/298">Research</a> with young adults in college suggests that they are neither as enthusiastic about technology nor as adept at using it as we may assume. Sometimes, they intentionally opt for lower-tech approaches; in <a href="http://www.igi-global.com/article/learning-from-paper-learning-from-screens/102454">one study</a> of California college students, most said that they preferred paper over a browser for their own studying.</p>
<p>This is something my faculty colleagues commonly observe as well – that although their students may use technology like social media casually throughout the day, it doesn’t translate to other tech-based tasks, such as navigating a course’s online homework system.</p>
<p>Students also get into trouble if they assume – because of the “digital nativism” idea, or simple lack of self-awareness – that they can master demanding coursework while engaged in digital distractions. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03634523.2015.1038727">Evidence suggests</a> that multitasking – such as tweeting in class - reduces learning, or at the very least makes it <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/acp.2919/abstract">take longer</a>.</p>
<p>Even <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360131512002254">sitting next to</a> a classmate surfing the web on his or her own laptop hampers learning. </p>
<p>In sum, despite that appearance of being fused to their devices, today’s students aren’t immune to the distraction those devices cause. And they don’t necessarily want technology in every corner of their educational lives.</p>
<h2>How college teachers can help</h2>
<p>College teachers need to include lots of tech support for online assignments and other kinds of educational technologies, because even students who have grown up with computers still get stuck when using them in new contexts. </p>
<p>Teachers must also avoid the trap of adding tech to a class just because they assume digital native students want it. Educational technology <a href="http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674368248">can be highly effective</a>, but only when it is tightly coupled to the teacher’s goals. </p>
<p>Even better, teachers can help students understand for themselves how attention works – knowledge that everyone ought to have in today’s distracting era. Without vilifying technology, teachers can work to <a href="https://www.insidehighered.com/views/2014/12/02/essay-calls-professors-start-teaching-students-about-distraction-and-attention">raise students’ awareness</a> about how attention impacts learning more than we may realize, no matter what our age.</p>
<p>The effects of technology on cognition are intriguing, but they don’t justify teaching millennials as if they were a new species. Teachers need to think twice about tolerating devices in class, except as part of structured activities that link to the lesson at hand.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/43100/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michelle Denise Miller is a partner in Rhizome Learn LLC and consults for Minds-Online.com.</span></em></p>
From the look of it, the millennials appear to be very comfortable with technology. But are they as immune to the effects of digital distraction as some might assume – especially in the classroom?
Michelle Denise Miller, Director, First Year Learning Initiative at University College and Professor of Psychological Sciences, Northern Arizona University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/39556
2015-05-20T10:07:42Z
2015-05-20T10:07:42Z
Students cheat for good grades. Why not make the classroom about learning and not testing?
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/81928/original/image-20150515-25444-17xya76.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Students' academic goals play an important role in cheating.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/downloading_tips.mhtml?code=&id=81455890&size=huge&image_format=jpg&method=download&super_url=http%3A%2F%2Fdownload.shutterstock.com%2Fgatekeeper%2FW3siZSI6MTQzMTc1MTc4MCwiYyI6Il9waG90b19zZXNzaW9uX2lkIiwiZGMiOiJpZGxfODE0NTU4OTAiLCJwIjoidjF8MTkzNjIzNTl8ODE0NTU4OTAiLCJrIjoicGhvdG8vODE0NTU4OTAvaHVnZS5qcGciLCJtIjoiMSIsImQiOiJzaHV0dGVyc3RvY2stbWVkaWEifSwibDltVTlxWk1uMjc3WkNPd2VLRFpIaGdWQmxVIl0%2Fshutterstock_81455890.jpg&racksite_id=ny&chosen_subscription=1&license=standard&src=tbPt2ayQMHf6OR7zqYPtsg-1-32&el_order_id=">Girl Image via www.shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>We have been hearing stories about academic cheating: from students caught cheating on homework assignments as well as college entrance exams to teachers being caught in cheating scandals, such as the ones in <a href="http://www.huffingtonpost.com/news/atlanta-teachers-cheating/">Atlanta</a>, Georgia, and <a href="http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702303277704579349202004452142">Columbus</a>, Ohio. </p>
<p>Today, <a href="http://www.glass-castle.com/clients/www-nocheating-org/adcouncil/research/cheatingfactsheet.html">between 75% and 98%</a> of college students surveyed each year report having cheated in high school. So, if cheating is happening at that large a scale, is it just inevitable? And can we even blame our students? </p>
<p>In order to figure out how to answer these questions, it’s important to consider why students cheat in the first place. Although the obvious reason seems to be the desire of students to get ahead (eg, to get a good grade, or to avoid a punishment), the real reason is actually a bit more complicated. </p>
<h2>Academic goals matter</h2>
<p>When students do their schoolwork (which includes everything from daily homework assignments to major examinations), they usually have certain goals in mind. These goals vary from one academic task to another. </p>
<p>In other words, if you were to ask a student, “What is your goal in taking next week’s chemistry test?”, the student should be able to tell you what she wants to get out of the experience.</p>
<p>My colleagues and I have been <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0361476X04000232">studying</a> the <a href="http://store.elsevier.com/Psychology-of-Academic-Cheating/isbn-9780123725417/">psychology</a> behind academic cheating for the past two decades, and we have found that students’ goals in their academic tasks are related in very predictable ways to their likelihood of cheating. <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00220970903224636">Research</a> also indicates that teachers and parents can influence those goals, and thus potentially deter cheating.</p>
<p>If the <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1207/s15326985ep4103_1#.VVDk2OsuhxAhttp://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1207/s15326985ep4103_1">sole reason</a> for engaging in an academic task is to get a good grade, then it’s probably easy for a student to justify the act of cheating. </p>
<p>As my colleagues and I <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0361476X04000232">found</a>, some students might have short-term reasons. For instance, for some students, it might be as simple a motivation as the desire to go to a friend’s party on Saturday night. If they think that their parents will not let them go if they fail the test, they might take the easier option to cheat, to be able to go to the party.</p>
<p>For some others, it might be a longer-term reason: They might want a good salary and other luxuries in their adult life and believe that the only path to those things would be a good college. And they might be willing to cheat on their tests to be able to get ahead in their future. </p>
<h2>Students have different goals</h2>
<p>Whereas these reasons may seem selfish and shortsighted to some adults, to many adolescents, who are still unable to consider the consequences of their actions, these goals may seem perfectly reasonable. </p>
<p>We refer to these goals as “extrinsic” goals. Research indicates that students who experience classrooms in which extrinsic goals are common are <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/1998-00166-007">more likely to cheat.</a> </p>
<p>Clearly, not all students have these goals. Some students are motivated by their desire to learn. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/81929/original/image-20150515-25422-14pcstc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/81929/original/image-20150515-25422-14pcstc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/81929/original/image-20150515-25422-14pcstc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/81929/original/image-20150515-25422-14pcstc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/81929/original/image-20150515-25422-14pcstc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/81929/original/image-20150515-25422-14pcstc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/81929/original/image-20150515-25422-14pcstc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Teachers can create a learning environment that does not motivate students only toward getting good grades.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/cat.mhtml?lang=en&language=en&ref_site=photo&search_source=search_form&version=llv1&anyorall=all&safesearch=1&use_local_boost=1&search_tracking_id=WIzeqySZl9X9C5TdT7-hgA&searchterm=classroom%20teacher&show_color_wheel=1&orient=&commercial_ok=&media_type=images&search_cat=&searchtermx=&photographer_name=&people_gender=&people_age=&people_ethnicity=&people_number=&color=&page=1&inline=144218422">Teacher image via www.shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>So, for some students, the goal might be to truly understand and master the material that is being studied. In other words, whereas some students might have a goal of getting a good grade on a chemistry test in order to get something (eg, to go to a party), others might have the goal of truly learning chemistry: “I want to understand chemistry because I want to develop drugs to help fight cancer; I know that understanding chemistry is essential for me to be successful in this career.” </p>
<p>We refer to these goals as “mastery” goals. Research indicates that students who experience classrooms in which mastery goals are valued and encouraged <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0361476X04000232">are less likely to cheat</a>. </p>
<p>If one thinks about this, it starts to make sense. When students are learning in classrooms where the teacher truly values mastery of the academic content (as opposed to getting a good grade on an assessment), then “cheating” really doesn’t offer any benefits to the students. </p>
<h2>Teachers can help</h2>
<p>The ways in which assessments of student learning are administered are particularly relevant in discussions of academic cheating. If results of assessments ultimately come down to a grade on a test or an assignment (eg, an “A” or an “F”), then students often will come to value the grade more than what they are actually learning. </p>
<p>However, if, in contrast, the assessment truly focuses on a demonstration of mastery of content, then students will focus on mastering that content and not just on getting an “A.” </p>
<p>When students have to demonstrate mastery of material, cheating doesn’t serve much of a purpose – if you truly have to show the teacher that you understand and can apply the information that you learned, then cheating won’t buy you any shortcuts.</p>
<p>Fortunately, there are <a href="http://www.pearsonhighered.com/educator/product/Classroom-Motivation/9780133017885.page">strategies</a> that educators can use to facilitate students’ adoption of mastery goals instead of extrinsic goals. </p>
<p>Here are a few suggestions, based on our <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1207/s15326985ep4103_1">research</a>:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Make sure that assignments and exams require students to demonstrate mastery of content, as opposed to just requiring the regurgitation of memorized facts.</p></li>
<li><p>When students do not demonstrate mastery on an assignment or a test, allow them to redo the assignment. Educators sometimes don’t think that this recommendation is fair – after all, if one student gets all of the answers right the first time, why should someone else get a second chance? But, if the goal is really to learn or “master” the content, then does it really matter if the student gets a second chance?</p></li>
<li><p>Avoid high-stakes, one-time assessments.</p></li>
<li><p>Always provide students’ grades privately – don’t share results publicly or display distributions of scores; students often will cheat in order to avoid looking “dumb.”</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Ultimately, some students will inevitably cheat. But, by considering why students are doing various academic tasks in the first place and helping them set their “mastery” goals, educators can make a significant dent in the <a href="http://www.glass-castle.com/clients/www-nocheating-org/adcouncil/research/cheatingfactsheet.html">epidemic </a> of academic cheating.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/39556/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Eric Anderman received funding from National Institutes of Health.</span></em></p>
Is academic cheating inevitable? Not in classrooms where teachers emphasize mastery of content.
Eric M. Anderman, Professor, Educational Psychology, The Ohio State University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.