tag:theconversation.com,2011:/ca/topics/control-3917/articlesControl – The Conversation2023-08-23T12:26:04Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2118112023-08-23T12:26:04Z2023-08-23T12:26:04ZHow a hip-hop mindset can help teachers in a time of turmoil<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543937/original/file-20230822-19-fzf2o0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=30%2C20%2C6679%2C4426&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Confidence is a critical component of hip-hop culture.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/confident-black-woman-in-classroom-royalty-free-image/1298999131?phrase=high+school+teacher+black+woman&adppopup=true">Manu Vega via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>While hip-hop has created a lot of good memories, good music and good times, the culture has gifted society much more than just entertainment.</p>
<p>As a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=7BZ3GM8AAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">researcher who specializes in hip-hop culture</a>, I know that one of hip-hop’s greatest gifts is a <a href="https://www.tcpress.com/the-hip-hop-mindset-9780807768709#:">certain mindset that focuses on freedom of thought, flexibility and truth-telling</a>. It also includes <a href="https://doi.org/10.25148/CLJ.16.1.010605">creativity, authenticity, confidence, braggadocio, uninhibited voice and integrity</a> as those things relate to one’s community and culture.</p>
<p>In order for educators to overcome the challenges of what politicians are turning into an <a href="https://theconversation.com/politicians-seek-to-control-classroom-discussions-about-slavery-in-the-us-187057">increasingly restrictive teaching environment</a> – particularly with regard to <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-teachers-can-stay-true-to-history-without-breaking-new-laws-that-restrict-what-they-can-teach-about-racism-205452">matters of race and racism in American history</a> – I believe the hip-hop mindset has taken on a new sense of relevance in the educational arena.</p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/bans-on-critical-race-theory-could-have-a-chilling-effect-on-how-educators-teach-about-racism-163236">Many educators feel uncertainty</a> over what they can and can’t say in the classroom. They also want to stay true to themselves. Here, I offer five ways that educators can adopt the hip-hop mindset to confront the challenges they face:</p>
<h2>1. Claim your space</h2>
<p>When Run-DMC <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BcCaycrPIa0">took the stage in the 1980s</a>, they often began their show with Run – one half of the pioneering rap duo – walking on stage and saying to an eager crowd: “We had a whole lot of superstars on this stage here tonight, but I want y'all to know one thing: This is my house. And when I say ‘Who’s house?’ I want y'all to say ‘Run’s house.’”</p>
<p>Through this <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-25377-6_2">call-and-response</a> routine, the group claimed every arena in which they performed. Whether you call it posturing, braggadocio or swag, hip-hop culture has long rewarded those who confidently took control of the spaces where they work.</p>
<p>Hip-hop’s longevity is due in large part to this boldness – artists standing firm and <a href="https://wordpress.clarku.edu/musc210-hhp/hip-hop-culture-politics-exploring-the-narrative-and-power-of-rap-lyrics/fuck-tha-police-n-w-a/">fighting back</a> <a href="https://www.villagevoice.com/when-christian-america-and-the-cops-went-insane-over-n-w-a-rap-and-metal/">even when they were under attack</a>.</p>
<p>Strong confidence gives artists the guts to be nonconformists, to tell the truth and to try something new – practices that I believe will benefit teachers in the midst of political efforts to control what they say.</p>
<h2>2. Form a squad or a crew</h2>
<p>From the early days to now, hip-hop artists have always formed
<a href="https://www.seoultherapy.co.uk/post/a-guide-to-k-hip-hop-crews#">squads or crews</a> to perform as emcees or dancers, who often battle to show who has the best lyrics or dance moves.</p>
<p>Early examples include the Rock Steady Crew and New York City Breakers, who famously squared off against one another in an <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-Xu48tnr4qQ">iconic scene</a> from the 1984 hip-hop movie “Beat Street.”</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/-Xu48tnr4qQ?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Breakdancing battle scene from the movie “Beat Street.”</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Your squad isn’t just your personal friends – they are your colleagues and comrades in the struggle. They are your trusted village of truth tellers, possibility partners and strategic thinkers. Educators can lean on their squad to help strategize and stay sane. </p>
<p>A squad or crew need not be confined to just one school. Queen Latifah, Monie Love, A Tribe Called Quest and De La Soul – who were either solo acts or individual groups – were all part of an even larger artistic community called <a href="https://www.avclub.com/a-beginner-s-guide-to-hip-hop-collective-native-tongues-1798239179">Native Tongues</a>. </p>
<p>Just as hip-hop artists are often part of larger groups, educators can similarly build a larger community of support.</p>
<p>Partnering with local nonprofits and community organizations could prove important now more than ever. These organizations can host and facilitate learning experiences that might be prohibited in a classroom. Through these partnerships, students can get free, community-based programs that enable them to have freer discussions that might not be allowed within a public school in a state that restricts what educators can say.</p>
<h2>3. Remix</h2>
<p>One of the most popular strategies of creating hip-hop music is the remix – where a song’s producer will create a new version of a song, sometimes by borrowing or sampling beats from other songs, changing up the pace, or even introducing new lyrics that weren’t part of the original.</p>
<p>A classic example would be KRS-One’s 1988 song “Still #1.” Whereas the <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hw_UMdFSSlo">original version</a> was laid back, the <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5gZ6tLhUAHY&t=42s">“Numero Uno” remix</a> featured a sample of an upbeat Latin jazz song and even opened in Spanish.</p>
<p>Embracing the art of remixing might offer a viable way for educators to respond to efforts to censor what students can read in school or educators can teach in class.</p>
<p>For instance, in school districts or states where certain books or topics have been outlawed, educators can use <a href="https://www.cnet.com/culture/how-teenagers-can-borrow-banned-books-for-free-from-brooklyn-public-library/">Books Unbanned</a> – a program in which teens and young adults can access e-books using a national library card. Educators can create a free guide of resources for families that include information on similar programs.</p>
<p>A remix may also be helpful with school funding. Schools at all levels could <a href="https://www.yesmagazine.org/social-justice/2022/01/11/critical-race-theory-scholars-counter-funded-attacks">secure grant and foundational support</a>, which can provide the resources to fund community-based partnerships and the freedom to establish specialized initiatives.</p>
<h2>4. Go crate digging</h2>
<p><a href="https://medium.com/cuepoint/the-lost-art-of-cratedigging-4ed652643618">Crate digging</a> is a critical part of the remix. It is the process of sifting through old vinyl records, typically stored in old milk crates or cardboard boxes, to find a long-forgotten song to use in a remix.</p>
<p>Similarly, teachers can turn to the tactics and strategies employed by educators from different eras to see how they dealt with the educational exclusion and erasure of their day. After desegregation, for instance, a new struggle emerged in the 1960s and 1970s to make school lessons more <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307/2668212">culturally and racially inclusive</a>. </p>
<p>By examining the work of legendary educators like <a href="https://www.cnet.com/culture/how-teenagers-can-borrow-banned-books-for-free-from-brooklyn-public-library/">Septima Clark</a>, today’s teachers can uncover ideas and opportunities to re-imagine historical efforts like the <a href="https://snccdigital.org/people/septima-clark/">Citizenship Schools</a> initiative that Clark developed. These mobile schools – or <a href="https://snccdigital.org/people/septima-clark/">“rolling schools”</a> as they were called – took learning into community spaces. These schools paved the way for programs like the Freedom Schools that were later developed by the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, or SNCC, and are still in operation today by the <a href="https://www.childrensdefense.org/programs/cdf-freedom-schools/">Children’s Defense Fund</a>. Communities around the country partner with the Children’s Defense Fund to offer local Freedom Schools.</p>
<h2>5. Still keep it real</h2>
<p>As a teenage fan of hip-hop in the early 1990s, I remember the phrase “keep it real” – which is an expression of authenticity – as being <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2022/06/08/keeping-it-real-has-lost-its-true-meaning/">extremely popular</a>. At the time, it felt like intense pressure to keep it real and to represent your community. I now look back and appreciate that it actually wasn’t pressure, but rather permission to be authentic.</p>
<p>Educators don’t have to champion the new laws and policies that restrict what they can teach – they just have to follow them. But there’s no restriction against “keeping it real” and discussing the new laws and policies as a civics lesson.</p>
<p>So, when the lesson or class is about current events, students could examine various laws being enacted to restrict the teaching of Black history.</p>
<p>Educators may find themselves facing a growing number of challenges from state legislatures as they increasingly invade their classroom spaces and curtail the kind of content they can teach in class. I believe by adopting the hip-hop mindset, educators will be better prepared to do the kind of battle required to prevail on behalf of truth-telling, authenticity, creativity and all the other habits of mind that made hip-hop the defiant and resilient culture that it has become.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/211811/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Toby Jenkins does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The same boldness that enabled hip-hop to endure can benefit teachers in the classroom, a hip-hop scholar writes.Toby Jenkins, Professor of Higher Education, University of South CarolinaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2046242023-04-27T09:36:04Z2023-04-27T09:36:04ZGrattan on Friday: Albanese runs a highly controlled government using gossamer threads<p>Anthony Albanese’s first year as prime minister will, as it happens, be bookended by meetings of the Quad – the gathering of the leaders of the United States, Japan, India and Australia. </p>
<p>After the 2022 election, Albanese rushed to get himself sworn in so he could immediately fly off to the Quad, for what was a dream initiation into summit diplomacy. The timing could not have been more fortuitous. </p>
<p>The coming Quad on May 24 (three days after the election anniversary) has equally fallen Albanese’s way, because Australia, for the first time, is the host. </p>
<p>This week, Albanese announced the meeting will be held at the Sydney Opera House. </p>
<p>The choice of venue is a master stroke in political terms. What better setting to be welcoming US President Joe Biden, Japanese Prime Minister Fumio Kishida and Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi – to be showing off Australia to the region? And with greater symbolism, for Australians, than a more workaday backdrop. </p>
<p>As a leader, Albanese presents with a certain homespun quality, which is what makes him popular with ordinary people. Behind that, he demonstrates a shrewdness in exercising power, in communicating and in showcasing both his government and the country. </p>
<p>These skills can be observed ranging from how he manages his ministers (with a light rein but kept in line) to his messaging (he’s personally constantly engaged with the media but seldom tripped up by them). The attention given to the physical framing of the Quad meeting – which comes at a critical time with the uncertain strategic outlook and Australia’s defence policy reorientation – is just another example. </p>
<p>The Albanese government operates on the principle of maximum visibility, but that is accompanied by considerable secrecy. A bevy of ministers is sent out daily to blitz the news and talk cycles. But what we don’t know is as significant as what we get to see and hear. </p>
<p>If we go back to the Hawke government, for example, the cabinet process was much more transparent, the policy arguments among ministers more exposed. Some of this was due to leaks, but there was also a greater willingness to talk about the internal debates. </p>
<p>Mostly – albeit not entirely – Albanese has been able to keep behind closed doors what divisions there are. This holds despite the exposure of some battling around Treasurer Jim Chalmers and budgeting.</p>
<p>News conferences can be telling contests between a prime minister and journalists. Albanese has one interesting tactic for avoiding being thrown onto the back foot. </p>
<p>“You get one question” is his mantra. That stops a journalist following up an answer in which the PM has dodged. While sometimes fellow reporters will home in, often the “one question” approach allows for escape. </p>
<p>Scott Morrison was a control freak and the crassness of his style meant things often ran out of control. Albanese runs a highly controlled government, but uses gossamer threads, so the control becomes near invisible. </p>
<p>After almost a year, a debate is beginning about whether this is emerging as a do-little government or an engine for change. </p>
<p>Journalist Tim Colebatch has <a href="https://insidestory.org.au/albos-choice/">written in Inside Story</a> that “the Albanese government has fine-tuned many small things but embarked on no really big changes, and none are foreshadowed”.</p>
<p>The government gives the impression of hyperactivity, but does the impression reflect reality? </p>
<p>We have to insert the disclaimer that it’s early days. Beyond that, it’s a case of whether you want to see the glass as half empty or half full. </p>
<p>In around a week we’ve had three reviews released, into the Reserve Bank, defence policy, and the migration system. </p>
<p>The proposed reforms of the bank, embraced by the government, include having a specialist board set interest rates. This and other recommendations are in line with overseas practice. And worth doing. Whether they will make a material difference to Australia’s future performance on monetary policy is unforeseeable. </p>
<p>The defence strategic review, which elevates naval capability and missiles, and places a lot of faith in nuclear-powered submarines, contains an element of smoke and mirrors. One critic says it talks big but delivers small, at least in the short term.</p>
<p>The review rightly identifies a need for urgency in boosting our defence preparedness. But it doesn’t increase expenditure during the forward estimates, finding savings within the defence budget (notably by cutting back army capability) for new initiatives. Pushing the spending increase off into the medium term seems at odds with the review’s warnings.</p>
<p>The migration review has concluded the system is broken more or less all over. Home Affairs Minister Clare O'Neil says she is anxious to repair it as fast as possible and has announced early measures, especially to reduce the reliance on high numbers of “permanently temporary” migrants. </p>
<p>The government is keeping away from dangerous “big Australia” territory: O'Neil says her reforms would actually produce a smaller intake. It’s all about attracting the best people in a competitive international market for migrants. Judgment on the results will have to wait for the government’s second anniversary.</p>
<p>Within a shorter timeframe we’ll know if Albanese’s great social initiative, his referendum for the Voice to Parliament, will become a political triumph of his first term. (It will take a lot longer to find out whether the Voice, if it comes into being, proves to be a policy triumph.)</p>
<p>But the centrality Albanese puts on the Voice has served to highlight the Indigenous issue his government has not adequately confronted – the crisis in Indigenous communities in the Northern Territory. </p>
<p>Beyond his intervention to secure the reimposition of alcohol bans and provide some extra funding, Albanese has shied away from taking on the NT government. Yet more action is desperately needed. A win in the referendum will be diminished if the NT problems are not addressed now. </p>
<p>Climate change is a case study in how the government’s actions can be seen both ways. It has lifted the national effort on emissions reduction and the transition to cleaner energy, while at the same time resisting pressures from the Greens and others on the left to ban new fossil fuel projects. </p>
<p>Albanese’s presentational skills come to the fore in the way he invokes his government’s climate policy when he sells Australia abroad. This was a feature of his first appearance at the Quad and in his international meetings since. </p>
<p>There are multiple reasons, including the parlous state of the opposition, why Australians have maintained their strong support for the government despite their worsening personal circumstances over recent months. </p>
<p>Important among them has been Albanese’s ability (so far) to retain public trust in an era of mistrust. That will be in his mind as he drives some of the very final decisions for a budget to be delivered in hard times.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/204624/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michelle Grattan does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Beyond his homespun quality, Albanese demonstrates a shrewdness in exercising power.Michelle Grattan, Professorial Fellow, University of CanberraLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1973312023-01-27T13:27:49Z2023-01-27T13:27:49ZPower struggles in nature can be more subtle, nuanced and strategic than just dog-eat-dog<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/506703/original/file-20230126-12-olhdg8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=352%2C512%2C2517%2C1576&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The battle for power in the animal world isn't always about brute force.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/big-horn-sheep-fighting-royalty-free-image/144718207">photofellow/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Scientists used to think power in animals played out in a tidy and simple way. Nature is a dog-eat-dog place. Rams butt heads in a thunderous spectacle, and the winning male gets to mate with a female. Bigger, stronger, meaner animals beat up smaller, weaker, more timid ones, and then walk, fly or swim away with the prize.</p>
<p>All that’s certainly going on in the wild. But the natural world, it turns out, is so much more interesting than simply squaring off in brutish battles. As in tales of palace intrigue, the quest for power among animals is subtle, nuanced, strategic and, dare I say, beautiful.</p>
<p>I’m <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=gbGT5rIAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=sra">an animal behaviorist and evolutionary biologist</a> who has been studying complex social behavior in nonhumans for 30 years. As I describe in my book, “<a href="https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/P/bo127023354.html">Power in the Wild: The Subtle and Not-So-Subtle Ways Animals Strive for Control over Others</a>,” I have come to learn that many power struggles in animals look more like scenes from a Shakespearean drama than rounds in a boxing match. </p>
<p>To study the dynamics of power in nonhumans we need a definition. How do we gauge power in other species? <a href="https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/P/bo34250496.html">I think of power as the ability to</a> direct, control or influence the behavior of others in order to control access to resources. Using that definition, power pervades every aspect of the social lives of animals: what they eat, where they eat, where they live, who they mate with, how many offspring they produce, who they join forces with, who they work to depose and more.</p>
<h2>Spies in the water</h2>
<p>For years, my former Ph.D. student <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=uP6J9p0AAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">Ryan Earley</a> and I were obsessed with power and spying in groups of <a href="https://www.aquariumsource.com/swordtail-fish/">a tiny fish called the swordtail</a>. So much so that Ryan ended up building his Ph.D. dissertation around these fish whose brains can sit comfortably on the head of a pin.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/506707/original/file-20230126-21-5cm512.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="fish in an aquarium" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/506707/original/file-20230126-21-5cm512.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/506707/original/file-20230126-21-5cm512.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506707/original/file-20230126-21-5cm512.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506707/original/file-20230126-21-5cm512.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506707/original/file-20230126-21-5cm512.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506707/original/file-20230126-21-5cm512.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506707/original/file-20230126-21-5cm512.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Swordtails in an aquarium setting seem to keep tabs on who’s up and who’s down in the power rankings.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Type_of_fish_that_was_flown_on_STS-90.jpg">NASA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>When two males in a group of swordtails meet, they often engage in a series of chases, followed by displays in which they twist their bodies into an S shape. If it’s not clear at that point who is top swordtail, the fish ram into each other. And if even that doesn’t settle matters, they circle each other, lock jaws and mouth-wrestle, thrashing about until a clear victor emerges. </p>
<p>Earley watched these pairwise power struggles for hundreds of hours and began to suspect he wasn’t the only one watching – other male swordtails seemed to be as well. To test that hunch, Earley took a page from the script of a spy thriller, where an unsuspecting target is watched from behind a one-way mirror.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2002.1973">He designed an experiment</a> in which a pair of swordtails that were involved in aggressive interactions were on one side of an experimental tank and a spy fish swam freely on the other side. The spy and the combatants were separated by tinted glass that allowed the spy to see in but kept the pair of battling fish in the dark about being watched.</p>
<p>When spies were later paired up with the winner of the fight they’d watched, they stayed as far away as they could, which is just what a good spy should do when confronted with a potentially dangerous foe.</p>
<p>But what was even more interesting was how these 2-inch-long espionage agents processed what they had learned about the loser of the fight they’d watched. If a loser gave up quickly, spies later went after him. Alternatively, if the loser put up a good fight before capitulating, spies were much more cautious, dealing with that individual using the fish equivalent of kid gloves. </p>
<p>So, while there is a fierce physical component to power in swordtails, it’s subtle spying that adds nuance to the power dynamics in the group.</p>
<h2>Playing to the audience</h2>
<p>In their quest for power, animals don’t just spy on their rivals. They also change how they behave depending on who is watching.</p>
<p>Animal behaviorist <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=T-jAgrMAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">Thomas Bugnyar</a> has been studying this “audience effect” in one of the wiliest of birds, <a href="https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Common_Raven/overview">the raven</a>. At a field station in the Austrian Alps, Bugnyar and his colleagues have been <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2018.0375">filming raven power struggles</a>. These can be rather tame affairs, with one bird approaching and the other retreating. But on occasion they escalate into down-and-dirty fights, during which ravens resort to weaponry: their sharp beaks and claws. </p>
<p>From a raven’s perspective, Bugnyar and his team are spectators not worth paying any mind to. But audiences made up of other ravens are a different matter. If avian audience members are paying attention, they can potentially be manipulated to serve one’s interests.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/506704/original/file-20230126-16-5hynl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="one black birds observes two others fighting" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/506704/original/file-20230126-16-5hynl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/506704/original/file-20230126-16-5hynl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506704/original/file-20230126-16-5hynl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506704/original/file-20230126-16-5hynl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506704/original/file-20230126-16-5hynl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506704/original/file-20230126-16-5hynl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506704/original/file-20230126-16-5hynl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Who’s watching influences how ravens call out during a skirmish.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/common-raven-royalty-free-image/1187822645">mauribo/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Ravens on the losing end of a power struggle take advantage of that, modulating their defensive calls depending on exactly who is watching and listening. When the audience is made up of potential allies, including relatives and friends – meaning other birds the victim has strong ties to – ravens increase the rate at which they screech for help. Ravens nearby sometimes come to the aid of a victim who utters these calls. </p>
<p>Victims are not only paying attention to those who might help them, though, but also to audience members who might make their situation even worse by coming to the aid of the brute currently overpowering them. In order to draw as little attention to their unfortunate predicament as possible, victims reduce their call rates when an audience is composed primarily of birds who are likely to help their opponent.</p>
<p>The subtle undertone of this audience effect emphasizes the complex dynamics of power in nonhumans. There’s more to it than might makes right.</p>
<h2>It’s a Machiavellian world out there</h2>
<p>Ravens, swordtails and countless other species all over the planet demonstrate that human beings are not alone when it comes to employing every trick in the book to attain and maintain power. If you pay close attention and know what to look for, you can see and hear an animal kingdom replete with Machiavellian scenes of spies and actors, threats and bluffs – just as you watch our own species, on the news and in the office, connive, bluster and feint, all for the sake of power.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/197331/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lee Alan Dugatkin does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Life can be a struggle for power – not just for people but for nonhuman animals, too. An animal behaviorist explains how this quest can be more Shakespearean drama than boxing match.Lee Alan Dugatkin, Professor of Biology and Distinguished Arts and Science Scholar, University of LouisvilleLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1940362023-01-03T13:29:32Z2023-01-03T13:29:32ZAmericans are taking more control over their work lives – because they have to<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498023/original/file-20221129-16-jn8xtb.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=11%2C0%2C3782%2C2155&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Workers take on side hustles not just for the money, but also to compensate for limited control in their traditional jobs.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/florida-miami-beach-uber-ridesharing-service-driver-with-news-photo/1263005033?adppopup=true">Jeff Greenberg via Universal Images Group/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>One thing that’s become clear in the past few tumultuous – and for many, traumatic – years is that it’s easy to feel like there is no control in our lives. Control is a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1995.tb00501.x">basic psychological need</a> that helps people feel like they have agency, from how they live to where they work. One area where people have tried to wrestle back control is around work. </p>
<p>As a Rice University business school professor and <a href="https://www.scottsonenshein.com/">author</a>, I’ve examined through <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=YhjQHhAAAAAJ&hl=en">my research</a>, teaching and readership the complex relationships between employees and their employers for nearly two decades. The aftermath of the pandemic is the latest iteration of a timeless negotiation between labor and management over control that took on added significance these past few years.</p>
<p>The pandemic accelerated a development that began years ago when workers realized they needed to take on more responsibility for directing their careers. This major shift reflects a potentially exciting but also unnerving reality for millions of workers.</p>
<h2>From lifer to independent worker</h2>
<p>For decades, employers had the upper hand in negotiating terms with employees. People exchanged unconditional loyalty to an employer for lifetime employment and a secure retirement. That model <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3324911">started to erode</a> with an increase in <a href="https://www.bls.gov/osmr/research-papers/2000/pdf/ec000050.pdf">corporate restructuring in the 1980s and 1990s</a>. With the prospects of a secure job and comfortable retirement more elusive, employees switched jobs to regain some control. They sought the promise of a higher salary and a better work life. In the past decade, the <a href="https://www.bls.gov/news.release/tenure.t01.htm">average tenure at an employer dropped nearly 10%</a>.</p>
<p>During the pandemic, a tight labor market allowed employees <a href="https://theconversation.com/bad-managers-burnout-and-health-fears-why-record-numbers-of-hospitality-workers-are-quitting-the-industry-for-good-174588">to use job mobility</a> to feel <a href="https://www.npr.org/2021/06/24/1007914455/as-the-pandemic-recedes-millions-of-workers-are-saying-i-quit">greater control over their lives</a>. Additionally, the freedoms afforded by remote work offset some of the losses of control caused by the pandemic. But the reality is that while changing jobs leads to a <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/buy/2005-10696-005">short-term boost in job satisfaction, that feeling is usually only temporary</a>.</p>
<p>In a post-pandemic world, a new model is emerging that reflects concerns of a slowing economy and more uncertain future. Employees are increasingly rejecting the belief that a single job can s<a href="https://www.deloitte.com/content/dam/assets-shared/docs/deloitte-2022-genz-millennial-survey.pdf">atisfy all of their financial and psychological needs</a>. Instead, people are turning to building a portfolio of simultaneous roles to create their career. </p>
<p>With <a href="https://hbr.org/2021/10/why-you-should-build-a-career-portfolio-not-a-career-path">“career portfolioing,”</a> employees become free agents, relying increasingly on themselves to carve out a meaningful and rewarding professional life. They put together a mosaic of positions to collectively fulfill their aspirations around income, advancement, skill development and enjoyment. They are no longer subject to a longstanding relationship with a single, lifetime employer, or dependent on a strong job market.</p>
<p>One sign of the rise of career portfolioing is the increase in side hustles. In 2021, 34% of Americans reported having a side hustle, and over <a href="https://zapier.com/blog/side-hustle-report/">60 million people planned to start one</a>. As inflation rose, side hustles provided extra income in the face of soaring prices. But people also turned to side hustles for new learning opportunities (28%) and to find more enjoyable work (38%).</p>
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<p>In research I’ve been conducting on side hustles in the sharing economy, I am finding that many people take these gigs to compensate for limited control in their “traditional” jobs. Although gig work comes with its own set of challenges – lack of benefits is a key one – people feel liberated by greater control over where, when and how they work. Switching on an app shifts allegiance from one company to another. Turning off an app ends the workday in an instant. People rely on side hustles to earn additional income but also because of the freedom that comes from being an independent worker.</p>
<p>Another benefit of portfolioing is hedging risk. Sudden layoffs, such as those recently <a href="https://www.npr.org/2022/11/14/1136659617/tech-layoffs-amazon-meta-twitter">affecting the tech industry</a>, leave people feeling exposed to financial hardship and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/0277-9536(93)90316-V">identity loss from being involuntarily sent to the exit</a>. When facing difficult times at one job, people can turn to other parts of their career portfolio for security and stability.</p>
<h2>Taking action on values</h2>
<p>During the pandemic, people’s sense of mortality increased as the threat of serious illness or even death spread. Such times often prompt a deep reflection on values, including the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000983">purpose of work</a>. When people took stock of their jobs, many did not like what they saw and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000983">quit at record numbers</a>. Or, if they stayed, they increasingly pushed employers to align better with their values. </p>
<p>Historically, business organizations stayed quiet about controversial social issues, such as LGBTQ rights, racial justice and abortion – unless there was a <a href="https://www.wnycstudios.org/podcasts/takeaway/segments/corporations-stay-silent-abortion">very direct profit motive</a>. That’s changed dramatically as employees increasingly <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2022/07/01/most-workers-want-their-employer-to-share-their-values.html">demand clarity on company values</a> – and actions to back them up. Sixty percent of workers approve of <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2021/04/30/workers-eager-to-see-corporate-bosses-speak-out-on-politics.html">business leaders speaking out on social and political issues</a>, and one quarter of respondents to a recent survey reported turning down a job opportunity <a href="https://profilemagazine.com/2022/workers-want-companies-to-speak-out-about-social-issues/">because of a company’s position on social issues</a>. </p>
<p>Employees, too, appear to be more comfortable expressing their views. At the beginning of the century, I conducted <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2007-00845-004">one of my first research studies</a> on understanding how employees convince their workplaces to take a stance on divisive social issues. I found that employees concealed their values by framing them as economic opportunities. For example, sustainability initiatives around energy efficiency were cast as good for the bottom line.</p>
<p>When I recently <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/buy/2019-02020-001">ran a similar study</a>, the dynamics had shifted. Employees were much more willing to talk about moral values and less willing to translate social issues into business issues. Such a dramatic reversal reflects employees’ growing sense of empowerment to make work more aligned with their needs. It’s hard to feel in control of your life if you need to suppress or even contradict deeply held values at a place where you spend most of your waking day.</p>
<h2>A better future for work</h2>
<p>Career portfolioing reflects a future in which uncertainty is too high to rely on a single institution to fulfill basic needs, and a failure of modern work organizations to deliver what employees truly value. </p>
<p>For employees, career portfolioing means more latitude over how their career unfolds. Instead of rising to the next rung of an often pre-defined and inflexible corporate ladder, they might instead think about the next addition to their portfolio, whether starting a new part-time job, taking a new class or pursuing a business idea. Elements of a career portfolio not only get added to produce income or personal growth, but also to support a person’s values. </p>
<p>No doubt, there are potential obstacles. Taking responsibility for a career portfolio requires additional effort. In our book “<a href="https://www.littlebrown.com/titles/marie-kondo/joy-at-work/9781549122552/">Joy at Work</a>,” co-author Marie Kondo and I find that it’s all too easy to take on too many tasks and subsequently burn out. People get trapped into thinking the more they do, the better they’ll feel. Avoiding burnout starts with anchoring a career portfolio based on values and an ideal work life.</p>
<p>For employers, career portfolioing means competing for the full attention of their own workforce. I believe it should prompt a deeper reflection about how to better meet the needs of employees – or else they may leave or <a href="https://www.gallup.com/workplace/398306/quiet-quitting-real.aspx">quiet quit</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/194036/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Scott Sonenshein does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>‘Career portfolioing’ is a trend where people assemble different sources of income, such as side gigs, to give them a measure of independence from employers who provide little job security.Scott Sonenshein, Professor of Management, Rice UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1767282022-02-17T14:23:56Z2022-02-17T14:23:56ZPassionate about your job? Here’s why that might not be good for you<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/447026/original/file-20220217-15-1w51a7f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=148%2C69%2C6452%2C3641&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/euphoric-young-indian-girl-student-winner-1606120003">Shutterstock/fizkes</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>You might wish you were more passionate about your job. Or that you had the kind of job you could at least imagine being passionate about. Something that made you jump out of bed in the morning, excited about a new day filled with fist pumps and joy.</p>
<p>But psychologists differentiate between two types of work-related passion – and they may not both appeal, even if you’re more than a little fed up with your current role. </p>
<p>“Harmonious” work passion refers to situations in which a person not only enjoys their job, but also has control over their relationship with it. People with harmonious work passion have often chosen their career because it is something which interests them, and they gain great pleasure from how they earn a living. Crucially, the work does not profoundly interfere with other important elements of their life.</p>
<p>But a person with “obsessive” work passion has little control over their relationship with their job. They consider their occupation, and related factors such as promotions and pay rises, to be central to their lives. </p>
<p>The obsessively passionate rarely disengage completely from their jobs, and even though they might be very successful at what they do, this often comes without a sense of satisfaction. Such an approach can take over lives, and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2009.00616.x">lead to burnout</a>, when you are <a href="https://mentalhealth-uk.org/burnout/">physically and emotionally exhausted</a>, and feel helpless and trapped. </p>
<p>So how do you make sure you end up filled with the right kind of passion? If you have obsessive work passion, is it you or the job? <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs12144-022-02717-8">Our research suggests</a> it’s probably both. </p>
<p>To study the relationship between personality traits, work, and the type of passion people develop, we analysed data from <a href="https://theconversation.com/there-really-is-a-link-between-your-facebook-posts-and-your-personality-68186">a psychology project</a> which collected data and test results from over 800 participants.</p>
<p>We measured some of their personality traits, referred to in psychology as the “<a href="https://www.verywellmind.com/the-big-five-personality-dimensions-2795422">big five</a>”: openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. </p>
<p>We also assessed their attitudes to work, using the degree with which they agreed or disagreed with a series of statements such as “My work is in harmony with other activities in my life”, or “I have difficulties controlling my urge to work”.</p>
<p>Finally, we categorised their jobs, using a <a href="https://www.careerkey.org/fit/personality/holland-code-assessment-riasec">system</a> which scores various types of work according to six descriptions: realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising and conventional. (You can use this <a href="https://openpsychometrics.org/tests/RIASEC/">online test</a> to get an idea of what kind of work you might be looking for.) </p>
<h2>Passion killer</h2>
<p>Our findings suggest that personality traits (especially neuroticism) interact with the work environment in a complex way, and trigger different types of passion. In particular, people prone to neuroticism (mood swings, anxiety and irritability) are much more likely to develop obsessive work passion if they work in a job in the “enterprising” category. In general, these are careers which rely heavily on the power of persuasion and place a great deal of emphasis on reputation, power and status.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Businesswoman standing at fork in a road." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/447009/original/file-20220217-9608-17e02ar.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/447009/original/file-20220217-9608-17e02ar.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447009/original/file-20220217-9608-17e02ar.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447009/original/file-20220217-9608-17e02ar.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447009/original/file-20220217-9608-17e02ar.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447009/original/file-20220217-9608-17e02ar.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447009/original/file-20220217-9608-17e02ar.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Time for a change?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/back-view-businesswoman-standing-on-crossroads-294081374">Shutterstock/Sergey Nivens</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For example, a person who agrees with statements such as “I get upset easily” or “I worry about different things at the same time” is much more vulnerable to burnout if they work as a lawyer, a fundraiser, or a broker. But that same person is less likely to become obsessed with their job if they work as a dentist, engineer, nurse, surgeon or social worker.</p>
<p>It’s important then, to work out what kind of passion you have for your job. Do you feel in control, do you enjoy your successes? If the answer is no, or there are other hints that your work passion is of the obsessive kind, then you might want to consider a change in direction to avoid being at risk of burnout. </p>
<p>In the example above, that might mean trying to find a role which has less of an enterprising element; something more artistic or social, perhaps. For while we might not be able to change our personalities, a job change might lead to a greater sense of satisfaction and control – and potentially more time to find our passion in the world outside of work.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/176728/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Taha Yasseri receives funding from EPSRC.</span></em></p>Devotion to work can lead to burnout.Taha Yasseri, Associate Professor, School of Sociology; Geary Fellow, Geary Institute for Public Policy, University College DublinLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1664872021-08-22T20:06:35Z2021-08-22T20:06:35ZWhen life gives you lemons … 4 Stoic tips for getting through lockdown from Epictetus<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/417132/original/file-20210820-27-1ypvweu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=47%2C28%2C6210%2C4451&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/MvCde9kgov8">Unsplash/Cristina Anne Costello</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Born into slavery, then crippled by his master and exiled by the Emperor Domitian, <a href="https://dailystoic.com/epictetus/">Epictetus</a> (c.60-135 CE) has become arguably the central figure in today’s <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/magazine/the-2300-year-old-philosophy-stoicism-has-enjoyed-a-revival-of-late-including-in-silicon-valley/2020/01/02/d2f6e648-1b64-11ea-87f7-f2e91143c60d_story.html">global revival of Stoicism</a>. </p>
<p>A straight-talking advocate of the idea philosophy should help people flourish even in hard times, Epictetus has much to offer as we wrestle with pandemic lockdowns and uncertainty. Here are four tips from perhaps the most stoic of the Stoics: </p>
<h2>1. Don’t worry about things we can’t control</h2>
<p>The start of Epictetus’ <a href="https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/19058180-epictetus-enchiridion">Enchiridion</a> handbook lays out his famous “dichotomy of control”:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Of things some are depend upon us, and others do not. In our power are opinion, impulse, desire, aversion. Not in our power are the body, property, reputation, offices, and in a word, whatever are not our own acts.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>It’s an idea that echoes today in the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/11/us/11prayer.html">Serenity Prayer</a> of 12-step recovery programs. </p>
<p>If we worry about things we can’t change, Epictetus continues, we are wasting our energies. If we imagine that we can control the past or future — or even pandemics — we are setting ourselves up for disappointment.</p>
<p>But we can think and act, and do our best to respond to situations with courage, justice, and moderation. </p>
<p>Today’s citizens in lockdown can’t control whether (or when) restrictions are lifted. We can all however wear masks, social distance, get vaccinated as soon as possible, and continue working, exercising and educating our kids as best we can.</p>
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<h2>2. Prepare for the worst, hope for the best</h2>
<p>Like other Stoics, Epictetus observes people are most prone to being disturbed by events which take them by surprise. By premeditating the worst case scenario, and imaginatively working through how we could respond in advance, we can lessen our vulnerability.</p>
<p>If this “premeditation of evils” sounds too frightening, “begin from little things”, Epictetus advises:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Is the oil spilled? Is a little wine stolen? Say on the occasion, at such price is sold freedom from being upset; at such price is sold tranquillity, but nothing is got for nothing.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>While the preparation can be confronting, Epictetus suggests that being grieved or angered by things we have no say over, like a sudden lockdown extension, is far worse. “Premeditated is prepared”, he tells us. If things go better than we prepare for, all the better.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/417130/original/file-20210820-21-agwpuw.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="sketch of man at desk" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/417130/original/file-20210820-21-agwpuw.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/417130/original/file-20210820-21-agwpuw.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=462&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417130/original/file-20210820-21-agwpuw.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=462&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417130/original/file-20210820-21-agwpuw.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=462&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417130/original/file-20210820-21-agwpuw.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=580&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417130/original/file-20210820-21-agwpuw.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=580&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417130/original/file-20210820-21-agwpuw.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=580&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Detail from an engraving for Edward Ivie’s Latin translation of Epictetus’ Enchiridon, printed in Oxford in 1715.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Epicteti_Enchiridion_Latinis_versibus_adumbratum_(Oxford_1715)_frontispiece.jpg">Wikimedia Commons</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>3. Contextualise and ‘other-ise’</h2>
<p>When we’re under duress, Epictetus observes, we often feel as if what we are experiencing is unprecedented. No one else can understand. But it helps to remember that few experiences, even during a pandemic, are unprecedented.</p>
<p>We are in the second year of COVID. But the world wars lasted four and six years. This is a pandemic, yet other generations have experienced plagues (or the Spanish flu) in which grievous losses were also sustained. Those who survived were able to rebuild. So will we.</p>
<p>It can also help, Epictetus suggests, to “step back” and assess our experience as if it was happening to somebody else:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>For example, when a friend’s child breaks a cup it is easy for us to say, ‘That is in the nature of cups and of children.’ [But] when you realise that situation is true of you, it is easy for you to say that same thing to yourself when a child breaks your cup …</p>
</blockquote>
<p>So, when we are inclined to despair in difficulties “we ought to remember how we feel when we hear of the same misfortune befalling others”. By looking at ourselves as if we were an other, we can apply the same support and encouragement to ourselves.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-philosophers-say-solitude-can-be-helpful-even-if-you-didnt-choose-it-147440">Why philosophers say solitude can be helpful (even if you didn't choose it)</a>
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<h2>4. Slow down, make sure</h2>
<p>Epictetus, <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Epictetus,_the_Discourses_as_reported_by_Arrian,_the_Manual,_and_Fragments/Book_3/Chapter_12">echoing Socrates</a>, says that any unexamined idea is not worth having. In life, we can easily leap between ideas in ways which lead us to false beliefs. Epictetus writes:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>These reasons do not cohere: I am richer than you, therefore I am better than you; I am more eloquent than you, therefore I am better than you. On the contrary these reasons cohere: I am richer than you, therefore my possessions are greater than yours: I am more eloquent than you, therefore my speech is superior to yours.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/guide-to-the-classics-how-marcus-aurelius-meditations-can-help-us-in-a-time-of-pandemic-142659">Guide to the Classics: how Marcus Aurelius' Meditations can help us in a time of pandemic</a>
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<p>It’s easy to add a lot of avoidable, habitual, evaluative judgements to what we know and experience. Often, these add-ons introduce assumptions which aren’t based on adequate information. These lead us to react excessively or poorly.</p>
<p>Epictetus recommends we slow our roll and our “judginess” down, especially when it comes to condemning others:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Somebody is hasty about bathing; don’t say that he bathes badly, but that he is hasty about bathing. […] For until you have decided what judgement prompts him, how do you know that what he is doing is bad?</p>
</blockquote>
<p>In the age of swarming internet conspiracies on social media, this fourth piece of old Epictetan advice is new again. </p>
<p>When presented with allegations of nefarious or appalling conduct by fellow citizens, Epictetus recommends we ask: do I know that that is true? Do I have enough information to be sure? </p>
<p>Such self-examination stops us from becoming enraged on the basis of fictions — let alone spreading misinformation which provokes or enrages others. If enough people do that, we could collectively avoid many future difficulties.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/166487/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Matthew Sharpe has received ARC funding to research philosophy as a way of life, and teaches at Deakin University. He is also teaching courses on practical Stoicism in the second half of 2021 with Think Inc.</span></em></p>Stoic philosopher Epictetus tells us not to worry about things we can’t control, prepare for the unexpected and slow down on the judginess. This is great lockdown advice over 2,000 years later.Matthew Sharpe, Associate Professor in Philosophy, Deakin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1496052020-11-06T14:34:46Z2020-11-06T14:34:46ZKeep calm and carry on – but how? A psychologist offers 10 tips to manage uncertainty and stress around the midterm elections<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/367960/original/file-20201106-23-1tctq5b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=617%2C605%2C7316%2C4881&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Doomscrolling is not going to help.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/young-woman-laying-in-bed-and-using-smart-phone-royalty-free-image/1173571335">ArtistGNDphotography/E+ via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Well-meaning advice for people stressing out about current events often includes encouragement to be patient, stay calm and keep the faith – but how on Earth are you supposed to do that when the onslaught of troubling news seems never to stop?</p>
<p>As a practicing clinical psychologist and professor who studies how to <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=zYSMPmcAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">manage anxiety and tolerate uncertainty</a>, I offer 10 suggestions to make it through this highly stressful period.</p>
<h2>1. Put the phone down!</h2>
<p>While it is tempting to stay glued to your devices, never-ending doomscrolling and screen-refreshing can become overwhelming and keep you in a state of tension and constant vigilance. Excessive consumption of news and social media <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2017.12.006">predicts poorer long-term mental health</a> during times of crisis.</p>
<p>Plan some breaks where you can engage in activities that take your mind off politics and the uncertainties we face, and allow things to feel a little more normal for a while.</p>
<h2>2. Uncertainty doesn’t equal catastrophe</h2>
<p>It’s hard not to know things – outcomes of elections, for instance. But not knowing doesn’t mean you should assume the worst-case scenario has occurred. When anxious – as many in the U.S. are right now – people tend to assign <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2007.01.009">threatening meanings to ambiguous situations</a>. But this tendency is neither reliably accurate nor helpful. Jumping to catastrophic conclusions is like setting off a series of false alarms that keep you on edge and exaggerate your sense of threat.</p>
<h2>3. Don’t retreat into bed</h2>
<p>The feeling of deep disappointment about election results you don’t like, or apprehension about reducing greenhouse gas emissions, can trigger a desire to withdraw and hole up. While that response is natural, it tends to be counterproductive. Staying engaged in activities that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2850.2009.01178.x">give you a sense of accomplishment, pleasure or meaning</a> can make managing this time far less painful.</p>
<h2>4. Remember, it won’t always feel this intense</h2>
<p>It’s normal and understandable to feel overwhelmed by current events. Focus on what will help you manage this day without punishing yourself for being upset or feeling depleted. Attending to what’s happening in the moment while also recognizing it’s not permanent can help you stay both present and hopeful. While in many ways it is true that we’re living in a unique and unprecedented era, it’s also the case that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2018.05.008">human beings tend to be remarkably resilient</a>, even in the face of tremendous stress and trauma.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/367962/original/file-20201106-23-1tpvdz1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="woman smiling on phone while cooking in kitchen" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/367962/original/file-20201106-23-1tpvdz1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/367962/original/file-20201106-23-1tpvdz1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/367962/original/file-20201106-23-1tpvdz1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/367962/original/file-20201106-23-1tpvdz1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/367962/original/file-20201106-23-1tpvdz1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/367962/original/file-20201106-23-1tpvdz1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/367962/original/file-20201106-23-1tpvdz1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Even video chatting can be a way to connect over a shared activity.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/smiling-woman-using-phone-while-cooking-in-kitchen-royalty-free-image/960879178">Cavan Images/Cavan via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>5. Don’t go through this time alone</h2>
<p>Feeling isolated, whether physically or emotionally, can make a hard time feel worse. When people experience acute stress, they cope much better <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01832.x">if they have social support</a>.</p>
<p>So reach out and stay connected – whether that means texting about the latest vote count with a friend or purposefully taking a break from ruminating on current events. It’s a great time to deeply discuss what you think about Taylor Swift’s new album.</p>
<h2>6. Stay regular</h2>
<p>No, I am not referring to your bowels – maintain regular and healthy eating, sleep and exercise patterns. While self-care may seem unimportant, attending to those basic bodily needs can go a long way toward keeping your internal resources sufficiently replenished so you can meet the high demands of this time. There is increasing evidence that <a href="https://doi.org/10.5665/sleep.2810">poor sleep is closely connected</a> to many mental and emotional health difficulties.</p>
<p>So stop refreshing your feed in the wee hours and try to sleep.</p>
<h2>7. Help others</h2>
<p>It may feel odd to be asked to support others when you feel so depleted yourself, but <a href="https://doi.org/10.1097/01.PSY.0000079378.39062.D4">helping others is linked to benefits in your own mental health</a>. </p>
<p>Moreover, it provides a sense of control. There’s so much during this time that you cannot control – there is no magic wand that speeds up vote counting in critical contested races or makes climate resolutions between countries come sooner. But taking action to improve things now for the people around you both helps others and reminds you that you can make a difference in meaningful ways.</p>
<p>So, bake cookies to drop off on the doorstep of the friend who caught the flu. Offer to take an item off a work colleague’s overwhelming to-do list. If you’re in a position to help, make a donation to a cause you care about. It’s a win-win.</p>
<h2>8. Add to your toolbox</h2>
<p>Each person is different in what helps them to relax or feel more centered. Focusing on and slowing down your breathing, for instance, can help keep you grounded in the present moment and reduce the spiral of upsetting thoughts about what might come next. Others find it helpful to more directly practice taking a different perspective and reevaluating their anxious thoughts.</p>
<p>For many people, online mindfulness or cognitive therapy exercises can make a big difference. Check out <a href="https://onemindpsyberguide.org/">online mental health programs that have been reviewed by experts</a> and pick the resource that’s right for you.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/367963/original/file-20201106-19-13uxzvl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="woman lying on couch with dog" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/367963/original/file-20201106-19-13uxzvl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/367963/original/file-20201106-19-13uxzvl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/367963/original/file-20201106-19-13uxzvl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/367963/original/file-20201106-19-13uxzvl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/367963/original/file-20201106-19-13uxzvl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/367963/original/file-20201106-19-13uxzvl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/367963/original/file-20201106-19-13uxzvl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cut some slack for yourself and others – this is a time when good enough is good enough.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/girl-sleeping-on-couch-with-her-golden-retriever-royalty-free-image/1022892336">Klaus Vedfelt/DigitalVision via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>9. Offer compassion to yourself</h2>
<p>The combination of pandemic stresses, economic worries, social injustices, climate breakdown and more means few of us will be at our best right now as we try to just make it through the day.</p>
<p>There’s a lot of room between performing at 100% of your usual capacity and climbing into bed and hiding under the covers for days on end. Personally, I’m trying to average 80%. People managing greater challenges at this time than I am may shoot for a lower percentage.</p>
<p>No one is making it through this time unscathed, so kindness to ourselves and others is desperately needed.</p>
<h2>10. Reach out if you need additional help</h2>
<p>If recommendations 1-9 aren’t cutting it, there are lots of resources to help people through this difficult period:</p>
<ul>
<li>National Suicide Prevention Lifeline: 988</li>
<li>Crisis Text Line: Text HOME to 741741</li>
<li><a href="https://www.abct.org/Help/?m=mFindHelp&fa=dFindHelp">Find a therapist</a> </li>
<li><a href="https://www.nami.org/Your-Journey/Identity-and-Cultural-Dimensions">Find culturally competent mental health care</a></li>
<li>Use my research team’s free intervention to reduce anxious thinking: <a href="https://mindtrails.virginia.edu/">MindTrails</a> (part of an online study)</li>
</ul>
<p>Be patient, stay calm and keep the faith is a tall order. I’ll be happy if I can get most of the way there.</p>
<p><em>This is an updated version of an article originally published on Nov. 6, 2020.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/149605/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bethany Teachman receives funding from the National Institute of Mental Health. She is the Director of the MindTrails site.</span></em></p>As uncertainty abounds and anxiety skyrockets, you’ve probably heard advice to be patient, stay calm and keep the faith. Here are 10 concrete tips to help you actually manage the stress.Bethany Teachman, Professor of Psychology, University of VirginiaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1424952020-07-15T20:03:09Z2020-07-15T20:03:09ZEradication, elimination, suppression: let’s understand what they mean before debating Australia’s course<p>The current surge in community transmission of COVID-19 <a href="https://www.dhhs.vic.gov.au/coronavirus-update-victoria-14-july-2020">in Victoria</a> has brought renewed discussion of whether Australia should maintain its current “suppression” strategy, or pursue an “elimination” strategy instead. </p>
<p>But what do these terms actually mean, and what are the differences between the two?</p>
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<em>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/as-restrictions-ease-here-are-5-crucial-ways-for-australia-to-stay-safely-on-top-of-covid-19-138000">As restrictions ease, here are 5 crucial ways for Australia to stay safely on top of COVID-19</a>
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<h2>In theory</h2>
<p>Disease eradication means a <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/su48a7.htm">global absence</a> of the pathogen (except in laboratories). We achieved this for <a href="https://www.who.int/csr/disease/smallpox/en/">smallpox</a> in 1980. Diseases suitable for eradication are usually those where humans are the only host, and where there’s an effective vaccine or other prevention strategy. </p>
<p>Disease elimination relates to <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/su48a7.htm">a country or a region</a>, and is usually defined as the absence of ongoing community (endemic) transmission. </p>
<p>Elimination generally sits in the context of a <a href="https://www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/84/2/editorial10206html/en/">global eradication goal</a>. The World Health Organisation sets a goal for eradication, and countries play their part by first achieving country-wide elimination. </p>
<p>Cases and small outbreaks may still occur once a disease is eliminated — imported through travel — but these don’t lead to sustained community transmission. </p>
<p>Finally, disease <a href="https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/260633/PMC2305684.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y">control</a> refers to deliberate efforts to reduce the number of cases to a locally acceptable level, but community transmission may still occur. Australia’s current suppression strategy, though seeking to quash community transmission, can be classified as disease control.</p>
<h2>In practice</h2>
<p>Elimination and suppression strategies employ the same control measures. For COVID-19, these <a href="https://theconversation.com/as-restrictions-ease-here-are-5-crucial-ways-for-australia-to-stay-safely-on-top-of-covid-19-138000">include</a>:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>rapid identification and isolation of cases</p></li>
<li><p>timely and comprehensive contact tracing</p></li>
<li><p>testing and quarantining of contacts</p></li>
<li><p>varying degrees of social distancing (lockdown, banning mass gatherings, keeping 1.5m distance from others)</p></li>
<li><p>border controls: restricting entry through <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jtm/article/doi/10.1093/jtm/taaa081/5842100">travel bans</a>, and quarantine of returning international travellers</p></li>
<li><p>face masks to <a href="https://theconversation.com/victorians-and-anyone-else-at-risk-should-now-be-wearing-face-masks-heres-how-to-make-one-141980">reduce transmission</a>. </p></li>
</ul>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/grattan-on-friday-does-victorias-second-wave-suggest-we-should-debate-an-elimination-strategy-142374">Grattan on Friday: Does Victoria's second wave suggest we should debate an elimination strategy?</a>
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<p>The differences between a suppression strategy and an elimination strategy are the strictness, timing, and duration with which these measures are applied, especially travel restrictions. </p>
<p>For example, under a suppression strategy, physical distancing requirements might be lifted while there’s still a low level of community transmission. But under an elimination strategy, these measures would remain in place until there’s no detectable community transmission.</p>
<h2>What’s realistic for COVID-19?</h2>
<p>First, the prospect of eradicating COVID-19 is likely <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/laninf/article/PIIS1473-3099(20)30129-8/fulltext">no longer feasible</a>, even with a vaccine. </p>
<p>People without symptoms may be able to spread COVID-19, which makes it difficult to identify every infectious case (SARS, for example, was only spread by people with symptoms). And if the virus has <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-01449-8">an animal host</a>, animal reservoirs would also need to be eradicated.</p>
<p>So what about elimination?</p>
<p>For measles, <a href="https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/207664">elimination is defined</a> as the absence of endemic measles transmission for more than 12 months. Countries <a href="https://www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/87/1/07-046375.pdf">must demonstrate</a> low incidence, high quality surveillance and high population immunity. </p>
<p>Imported cases in unvaccinated returning travellers and occasional small outbreaks continue to occur, but a country will lose its elimination status if community spread lasts longer than one year. </p>
<p>The majority of the Australian population are <a href="https://www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/87/1/07-046375.pdf">immune to measles</a>, which lowers the probability of sustained outbreaks. But most Australians remain susceptible to COVID-19.</p>
<p>So future sustained outbreaks, like the current Victorian outbreak, will remain possible until we can vaccinate the population — even under an elimination strategy.</p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/lockdown-relax-repeat-how-cities-across-the-globe-are-going-back-to-coronavirus-restrictions-142425">Lockdown, relax, repeat: how cities across the globe are going back to coronavirus restrictions</a>
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<p>Like we have with measles, for COVID-19, we need a definition of elimination with specific criteria that can be measured.</p>
<p>Declaring COVID-19 “eliminated” after the absence of community transmission for a few weeks means little during a pandemic, and may lead to complacency in the community. This period should be more like a few months.</p>
<h2>Effective suppression can lead to elimination</h2>
<p>While the federal government continues to advocate for <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2020/jul/15/scott-morrison-says-we-cant-shut-down-australia-to-contain-second-wave-of-covid-19">its suppression strategy</a>, some states have demonstrated absence of community transmission.</p>
<p>International arrivals to these states (and to New Zealand) are <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Latestproducts/3401.0Main%20Features3May%202020?opendocument&tabname=Summary&prodno=3401.0&issue=May%202020&num=&view=">comparatively small</a>, and the virus was always going to be more difficult to contain in cities with substantial international arrivals and high population densities, such as Sydney and Melbourne.</p>
<p>To achieve and sustain national elimination of any infectious disease during a pandemic is ambitious. It requires an epidemiologic definition with measurable criteria, significant resources and almost complete closure of international borders.</p>
<p>But maintaining the right for Australian citizens and residents to return to Australia means the borders are never fully closed, whether under a suppression strategy or elimination strategy.</p>
<p>So ultimately, both strategies are susceptible to outbreaks of COVID-19 in the community as long as the pandemic endures.</p>
<h2>It will always ebb and flow</h2>
<p>An elimination strategy would not necessarily have prevented the current outbreak in Victoria, particularly if social distancing restrictions had already been lifted. </p>
<p>Whether Australia continues with its suppression strategy or opts to switch to a defined elimination strategy, either approach will require continued vigilance. This could include intermittent reinstating of restrictions or targeted containment around hotspots as transmission ebbs and flows.</p>
<p>And whatever name we give to Australia’s approach, neither Victoria or New South Wales have accepted any level of community transmission. Both have gone hard to stop community outbreaks that have arisen, and that’s a good thing. </p>
<p>But long-term maintenance of periods of elimination are unlikely to be possible until we have a vaccine.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/which-face-mask-should-i-wear-142373">Which face mask should I wear?</a>
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</em>
</p>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/142495/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anita Heywood has received funding from the ARC and NHMRC. In the past five years, she has received funding from GSK for investigator-driven grant funding related to immunisation for international travel. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>C Raina MacIntyre receives funding from NHMRC (Centre for Research Excellence and Principal Research Fellowship) and Medical Research Futures Fund. She has received funding from Seqirus and Sanofi for influenza research in the past five years.</span></em></p>Experts are currently debating whether Australia should pursue its current suppression strategy, or switch to an elimination strategy instead. But how different are the two?Anita Heywood, Associate Professor, UNSW SydneyC Raina MacIntyre, Professor of Global Biosecurity, NHMRC Principal Research Fellow, Head, Biosecurity Program, Kirby Institute, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1139002019-05-01T10:42:28Z2019-05-01T10:42:28ZA ‘coup des gens’ is underway – and we’re increasingly living under the regime of the algorithm<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/271011/original/file-20190425-121254-3sb4il.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">It's almost impossible for users to detect which information is being collected, who's collecting it and what they do with it.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/blue-sphere-science-digital-technology-background-1153345006?src=cw_P0npGooto2fCGOVkhLQ-3-44">Sarawut sriphakdee/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>I recently attended a large meeting of faculty to discuss graduate students’ evaluation, recruitment and retention. </p>
<p>“Let the data drive your goals,” one of the speakers repeated, mantra-like – with genuine enthusiasm and conviction – and I couldn’t help but wince. </p>
<p>The slogan struck me as symptomatic of what social psychologist Shoshana Zuboff <a href="https://cryptome.org/2015/07/big-other.pdf">has dubbed</a> a “coup des gens.”</p>
<p>If a coup d’état denotes the illegal replacement of one political system by another, a coup des gens – “gens” meaning “people” in French – is characterized by the forced replacement of human beings by abstract information systems. </p>
<p>In my recent book, “<a href="https://www.routledge.com/The-Terminal-Self-Everyday-Life-in-Hypermodern-Times/Gottschalk/p/book/9781472437082">The Terminal Self</a>,” I show how we are increasingly coerced to interact with computer technology in all aspects of our daily lives. Among many other effects, this coerced interaction forces us to sync our cognitive functions to the logic of the computer and feed it endless streams of data, rendering us ripe for constant surveillance and exploitation. </p>
<h2>Managing the flows of ‘the new oil’</h2>
<p>Data is now used by companies to help them evaluate, rank, select or dismiss potential customers. It can be used to measure medical risk, credit-worthiness, psychological health, job performance, spending habits, food preferences, moods, dating preferences and political views.</p>
<p>As European Consumer Commissioner Meglena Kuneva <a href="https://www.amazon.fr/Digital-Vertigo-Revolution-Diminishing-Disorienting/dp/B01MRK4MHX/ref=sr_1_3?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1551039661&sr=1-3&keywords=digital+vertigo">put it</a>, “personal data is the new oil of the internet and the new currency of the digital world.”</p>
<p>The high value placed on data has ushered in <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09697259908572036">what French sociologist Paul Virilio calls</a> an “informational fundamentalism” – an ideology that exalts digital information as the ultimate good and supreme power to which all must surrender their will, time and common sense. </p>
<p>In order to function efficiently, most institutions must intelligently manage these swelling flows of data. However, the technological capacity to manage vast quantities of data doesn’t necessarily lead to intelligent analysis. </p>
<p>On the contrary, <a href="https://books.google.com/books/about/Infoglut.html?id=b1MXhS71t40C">notes media studies scholar Mark Andrejevic</a>, “We have become intelligence analysts sorting through more data than we can absorb.” Individuals simply don’t have the brainpower to sift through the constantly growing flows of information they need to process and mine to make intelligent decisions. </p>
<p>An increasing part of our day-to-day lives requires not just processing the “<a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09697259908572036">information bombs</a>” – the emails, messages, breaking news and announcements – that randomly detonate in our daily lives. It also demands that we constantly input information into the system.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/271019/original/file-20190425-121216-iztyy3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/271019/original/file-20190425-121216-iztyy3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/271019/original/file-20190425-121216-iztyy3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/271019/original/file-20190425-121216-iztyy3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/271019/original/file-20190425-121216-iztyy3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/271019/original/file-20190425-121216-iztyy3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/271019/original/file-20190425-121216-iztyy3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Feed the beast.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/download/confirm/67724029?src=Cl0UtikZKVKz6atifHW93A-1-32&size=huge_jpg">adriano77/Shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Think of the growing number of knowledge workers and professionals in different sectors of the economy who essentially have become data entry assistants. Their jobs primarily consist of feeding always more information to an ever-hungrier digital organism, for reasons that seem obvious but are rarely questioned. </p>
<p>We see it in the granular-level data many public school teachers are now expected to enter about every aspect of their students’ learning. We see it in the endless, and often flawed, surveys professionals of all stripes are asked to complete about their daily tasks, progress and “satisfaction.” </p>
<p>This mind-numbing data entry work deskills knowledge workers, alienates them and betrays a tragic mismanagement of human capital.</p>
<h2>The digital Trojan horse</h2>
<p>If the duty to enter information is openly enforced at work, it’s covertly induced at home. Whenever we’re leisurely browsing the internet, consulting websites, clicking on links or sharing our pictures, politics and preferences, we’re also – unwillingly and unwittingly – producing gigantic volumes of information. <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/25/technology/facebook-regulation-ftc-fine.html">Invisible others</a> then greedily harvest, store, organize and sell this data for the purposes of social control, persuasion and behavior modification.</p>
<p>“On Google, you are what you click. On Facebook, you are what you share,” <a href="https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/10596103-the-filter-bubble">writes Upworthy CEO Eli Pariser</a>. </p>
<p>This extraction of digital information can influence real human lives. In his extensive analysis of corporate surveillance in everyday life, digital culture scholar <a href="https://crackedlabs.org/en/corporate-surveillance">Wolfe Christl warns</a> that data-mining companies are wielding personal data to automatically make decisions about people that may worsen existing inequalities. </p>
<p>For example, Christl shows how health analytics companies like GNS Healthcare gather massive amounts of data from genomics, medical records, lab data and mobile health devices to provide information about users to health insurance companies. These companies can then significantly manipulate the costs of health insurance for different categories of applicants.</p>
<p>Similarly, he points out that data collected about someone’s emotional stability, happiness and likelihood of having a baby can influence whether they’re hired, retained or promoted. </p>
<p>With algorithms increasingly displacing humans in this kind of decision making, citizens’ fates are increasingly determined by information systems. <a href="https://cryptome.org/2015/07/big-other.pdf">As Zuboff explains</a>, it’s a trend that reduces people to sources of data extraction and targets for exploitation.</p>
<p>The most baffling aspect of this situation is not the surveillance capacities themselves, as daunting as they are. It’s our tacit submission to a regime of constant and remote surveillance that – except in spy movies or paranoid delusions – would have been considered preposterous a few decades ago. </p>
<p>More worrisome, in a 2017 interview on “60 Minutes,” former Google marketing manager Tristan Harris <a href="http://www.cbsnews.com/news/what-is-brain-hacking-tech-insiders-on-why-you-should-care/">explained the insidious motives of data harvesting</a>: Tech companies aren’t just trying to find information about users to sell it to companies that want to push merchandise. They’re competing to create the best “brain-hacking” programs that collect the most accurate information about what makes users tick emotionally and what seizes their attention. </p>
<p>The objective is to manipulate users’ emotional reactions – remotely and at the neural level. In the wrong hands, this sort of manipulation can be used not just to sell people stuff, but to also influence their political decisions. According to political scientist Collin Bennett, <a href="https://ojs.library.queensu.ca/index.php/surveillance-and-society/article/view/voter_surv/voters">this project is well underway</a>.</p>
<h2>Access denied</h2>
<p>To add insult to injury, it’s almost impossible for users to detect which information about them is being collected, who’s collecting it and what they do with it. </p>
<p>Every swipe on a smartphone screen and every message that’s typed <a href="https://crackedlabs.org/en/corporate-surveillance">is recorded</a> as “signals” that help gain insight into a user’s personality, interests, mood and financial health. The credit scores of a user’s Facebook friends <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/21/opinion/computational-inference.html?rref=collection%2Fcolumn%2Fzeynep-tufekci&action=click&contentCollection=opinion&region=stream&module=stream_unit&version=latest&contentPlacement=1&pgtype=collection">can even be used to calculate</a> their own credit-worthiness. Because of the complete anonymity of the agencies that collect and use this data, it’s unrealistic to hope that one could correct – and avert the consequences of – the errors that inevitably emerge in someone’s “profile.”</p>
<p>It’s distressing to feel unilaterally monitored, powerless and uninformed. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/13691180802270386">According to one study</a>, those who realize that their privacy has been exposed without their consent experience “emotional, psychoanalytic and corporeal responses which are sometimes stultifyingly profound.” </p>
<p>But this surveillance is also a form of exploitation.</p>
<p>After all, we’re the ones producing this information. We’re the ones increasingly sacrificing our time to read website guidelines, watch instructional videos, fill out digital forms, forward information, sustain digital social networks and generate valuable information about ourselves <a href="https://kansaspress.ku.edu/978-0-7006-1686-2.html">for others to use</a>.</p>
<p>Shouldn’t those who generate this value have more control over the conditions of its production, sale, dissemination and use? And if this right cannot be granted due to inextricable technological difficulties, shouldn’t the same level of transparency be imposed on those who collect, sell and use it? </p>
<h2>The regime of the algorithm</h2>
<p>The growing dependence on information, the normalization of surveillance and the increasing use of information systems to make important decisions about citizens’ lives amounts to a “coup des gens.” </p>
<p>However, democracy requires privacy, and freedom entails protection from invasion, whether it’s physical or digital. In his famous treatise on the Fourth Amendment, <a href="https://www.brandeis.edu/legacyfund/bio.html">Supreme Court Justice Brandeis argued</a> that “the right to be let alone” is “the right most valued by civilized men” and is “fundamental to a free and civil society.”</p>
<p>Adult citizens of a democratic society should have the right to decide which sort of information is being gathered about them, who can use that information and how they can use it. They should have the right to verify that this information is accurate and, when it isn’t, to correct it. They should have the right – and the responsibility – to question this bulimic addiction for data and its ultimate purpose. </p>
<p>As Dave Eggers writes in his novel “<a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sbxWAAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+circle+dave+eggers&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjx__bRg-7hAhUK11kKHf_RDOsQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=the%20circle%20dave%20eggers&f=false">The Circle</a>,” “The ceaseless pursuit of data to quantify the value of any endeavor is catastrophic to true understanding.”</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/113900/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Simon Gottschalk is affiliated with the Democratic Party</span></em></p>How did we become so submissive to a condition of constant surveillance that – except in spy movies or paranoid delusions – would have been considered preposterous a few decades ago?Simon Gottschalk, Professor of Sociology, University of Nevada, Las VegasLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/912622018-02-08T11:49:38Z2018-02-08T11:49:38ZHow OCD impairs memory and learning in children and adolescents – and what to do about it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/205519/original/file-20180208-180844-15o5526.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">OCD can make it hard to concentrate.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Syda Productions/Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Imagine feeling like you’re covered in germs that could kill you every time you come home from being in a public space. Before showering, you’d have to get inside without letting anything that’s touched the outside world come into contact with your house. The reality of living with obsessive compulsive disorder can be debilitating, and quite different from what people usually mean when they refer to themselves as being “a bit OCD”.</p>
<p>It is particularly heartbreaking to see children and adolescents suffering from OCD, which is often chronic and tends to continue into adulthood. We have now discovered that OCD in young people actually significantly alters both memory and learning ability.</p>
<p>OCD, which affects <a href="http://www.anxietycare.org.uk/docs/ocdchild.asp">2-3% of people</a> at some point during their life, involves ritualistic behaviour such as constantly checking on things, placing objects in a certain order or washing hands repeatedly. This helps relieve intrusive thoughts in the short term, such as an obsession with things being “just right” or an intense fear of dirt or contamination. The condition can leave some sufferers unable to eat, leave the house or in other ways go about their daily lives, often becoming isolated and depressed as a result.</p>
<p>It is easy to see how disruptive and embarrassing OCD symptoms can be when a child starts attending school. Habitual repetitive checking can significantly delay the amount of time it takes to complete work in school or at home. Even things that should be fun, such as playing with friends, may become stressful if you’re constantly worried about getting messy or you’re scared of touching public play equipment. </p>
<p>Almost 90% of children and adolescents with OCD <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12880501">have problems</a> at school, home or socially – with difficulties doing homework and concentrating being the two most common problems. </p>
<h2>Memory and learning</h2>
<p>In our recent study, <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/psychological-medicine/article/impaired-cognitive-plasticity-and-goaldirected-control-in-adolescent-obsessivecompulsive-disorder/16CE956454FC3C761A424B0200382E26/share/51813f1dcbd9bb0ec2e357056f6ecd4411b9c0a2">published in Psychological Medicine</a>, we asked 36 adolescents with OCD and 36 healthy adolescent controls to complete two memory tasks to measure learning and cognitive flexibility. Adolescent OCD patients showed significant impairments in both learning and memory.</p>
<p>The participants were also asked to complete a task to assess “goal-directed control”, an ability which helps us be flexible in our thinking and in our solutions to problems. Habits allow us to automatically perform behaviours that do not require planning or organisation, such as changing gears while driving. However, when there is new important information or rapid changes in the environment, we rely on goal-directed control instead. Again, the adolescents with OCD showed significant impairments in such control.</p>
<p>This is supported by functional neuroimaging of patients with OCD demonstrating increased activity in something called the “<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cortico-basal_ganglia-thalamo-cortical_loop">cortico-striato-thalamo-cortical</a> circuits” in the brain, which are thought to be involved in control.</p>
<p>Sadly, the problems we identified may lead to stress and anxiety in a child, which is already known to promote the habitual behaviour that is so common in OCD – creating a downward spiral. Stress is also known to impair memory. And we know that stress hormone levels increase when children enrol in school.</p>
<p>What’s more, having learning and memory problems in childhood could lower confidence and affect self-esteem, which in turn are <a href="https://ac.els-cdn.com/S0005796707001647/1-s2.0-S0005796707001647-main.pdf?_tid=e6d49828-0b4d-11e8-8105-00000aacb360&acdnat=1517929165_76053c3b5977c69dba1c335f9dab3398">associated with OCD symptoms</a>, especially checking. </p>
<p>While OCD in adults is slightly different from that in children and adolecents, we have found that adults with OCD do have <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00213-010-1963-z?no-access=true">problems with attention</a>.</p>
<h2>Treatment options</h2>
<p>We know that memory problems can affect the efficacy of psychological treatment including <a href="https://www.ocduk.org/cognitive-behavioural-therapy">cognitive behavioural therapy</a>, which is currently the best way to treat OCD. This involves changing the way you think and behave in small steps. However, if this does not sufficiently alleviate symptoms, a kind of antidepressant (SSRIs) can help.</p>
<p>Actually tackling the learning and memory problems can also help to improve performance in school, as well as self-confidence. We have recently shown that cognitive training using a <a href="http://www.peak.net">game on an iPad</a> <a href="http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/370/1677/20140214">can improve memory problems in schizophrenia</a>. However, future studies are needed to determine the exact relationship between the memory problems in OCD and the symptoms.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/204860/original/file-20180205-19944-csiqlk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/204860/original/file-20180205-19944-csiqlk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=483&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/204860/original/file-20180205-19944-csiqlk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=483&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/204860/original/file-20180205-19944-csiqlk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=483&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/204860/original/file-20180205-19944-csiqlk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=607&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/204860/original/file-20180205-19944-csiqlk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=607&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/204860/original/file-20180205-19944-csiqlk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=607&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">OCD can lead to repeated hand washing.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/child-washing-hands-sink-977251?src=m11zh7P8VG2FtKcv9BvzPg-1-3">Anita Patterson Peppers/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>But what can schools do practically to help students with OCD? <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/people/anna-conway-morris">Anna Conway Morris</a>, a consultant psychiatrist in Cambridgeshire and coauthor of the study, has recently been working with schools to support adolescents with OCD. She found that children with OCD often write very slowly or cross things out (to get it “just right”). Their handwriting speed should therefore be measured and, if necessary, they should be given additional time for exams or school work. OCD is also associated with lower processing speed – meaning children should be given more time to answer questions orally. They often get “stuck” on tasks and may need a prompt to move to the next task. </p>
<p>It is important to stress that children with OCD can be high achievers if they are given support to overcome their OCD symptoms. Treatment an early stage is really important. OCD often gets better in adulthood and even those who did not do too well at school often do well at university if they are given the right support. </p>
<p>That means that if we can make teachers aware of these learning and memory problems, they can help OCD students realise their full learning potential. Sadly, at present, it takes on average 11 years to diagnose OCD, and treatment starts after that. Who would find that acceptable for a physical disorder such as a heart problem or cancer? As a society we need to consider good mental health as every bit as important as good physical health.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/91262/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Barbara Sahakian consults for Cambridge Cognition and PEAK. </span></em></p>Children and adolescents with obsessive compulsive disorder should be offered extra support at school.Barbara Jacquelyn Sahakian, Professor of Clinical Neuropsychology, University of CambridgeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/874602018-01-02T12:06:05Z2018-01-02T12:06:05ZKiller robots, free will and the illusion of control<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/199938/original/file-20171219-4968-14w7mbd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/robot-stuck-traffic-jam-autonomous-transport-404716201?src=Mi2QYG0-z5RqOmuLqE7p7g-1-0">Shutterstock/Mopic</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Control. We all like to think we have it, but is it all just an illusion? It might seem like a very existential question but it plays an important part in our acceptance of new technologies, especially when it comes to robots.</p>
<p>Even if we personally aren’t in control of something, we often like to comfort ourselves that someone else is. Humans have free will and empathy and we trust that we will make the “right” choice should something bad happen.</p>
<p>The problem is, humans are unpredictable. There are <a href="http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/blog/2017/06/world-population-projected-to-reach-9-8-billion-in-2050-and-11-2-billion-in-2100-says-un/">7.6 billion</a> people on the planet. Each person has their own moral and ethical code, a lifetime of different experiences that shape their actions and each one has a unique psychological make up which will direct how they react to a stressful event.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/bOpf6KcWYyw?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
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<p>When you take your driving theory test, you aren’t asked about <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/head-quarters/2016/dec/12/the-trolley-problem-would-you-kill-one-person-to-save-many-others">the Trolley problem</a>. This is a famous thought experiment which can be adapted as follows: you’re driving a car and a child runs out in front of you, too close to stop before you hit them. If you swerve left to avoid them, you’ll hit pedestrians and if you swerve right, you’ll hit oncoming traffic killing yourself and the driver of the other car. What do you do?</p>
<p>The first step is to brake as hard as you can. You then have to make a choice about which of the three options you take. There is no correct answer but you will make a decision subconsciously about which one to take. You might take into account a whole host of conditions to justify your decision. Of course it’s unlikely you’ll ever fully acknowledge which factors you took into account. Everyone will agree that you were put in an impossible position.</p>
<h2>Impossible decisions and accountability</h2>
<p>But now change the scenario slightly. You’re in an <a href="https://theconversation.com/of-cats-and-cliffs-the-ethical-dilemmas-of-the-driverless-car-49778">autonomous car</a> and the same incident occurs. The car brakes as hard as it can, but who has decided which of the three options it will take? Unlike you, that decision and the sensory inputs used to make it can be traced back. There could be a much higher level of accountability. These types of scenarios could be simulated thousands of times and the outcomes predicted and verified. A human will have programmed the outcomes into it. But it won’t be one person who does this – a consensus across the scientific, political and social spectrum will have been built.</p>
<p>History has shown that when human control is replaced with automated control, safety increases and the number of <a href="http://bgr.com/2017/01/19/tesla-autopilot-crash-safety-statistics-report-nhtsa/">accidents decrease</a> – whether that’s <a href="https://www.npr.org/2015/07/31/427990392/remembering-when-driverless-elevators-drew-skepticism">elevators in the early 20th century</a> or aircraft in late 20th century. Automated transportation is likely to have the same benefits.</p>
<h2>Killer robots</h2>
<p>But there is one area where fear of ceding control could have profound effects, serious enough that the <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-27343076">UN has started to debate the topic</a> – killer robots. While automation in almost every other walk of life <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2017/aug/08/humans-v-robots-defending-jobs">has had its detractors</a>, in the end reasoned discussion has been had in public forums to highlight the potential benefits. But not since the <a href="http://www.history.com/news/ask-history/who-were-the-luddites">Luddites</a> of the industrial revolution has a topic engendered such <a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/automaton/robotics/military-robots/lethal-microdrones-dystopian-futures-and-the-autonomous-weapons-debate">emotion and sensationalism</a>. </p>
<p>Some even argue that by restricting AI research in this field, we can prevent a dystopian future, like that predicted in the sensationalist video “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9CO6M2HsoIA">Slaughterbots</a>”. War and violence are emotive topics, but it is naive to think that humankind will ever be rid of them. <a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/automaton/robotics/artificial-intelligence/we-should-not-ban-killer-robots">The arguments</a> on both sides <a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/automaton/robotics/artificial-intelligence/why-we-really-should-ban-autonomous-weapons">are very complex</a> when it comes to the use of robots in war but ultimately it all comes down to control. </p>
<p>The biggest fear about autonomous weaponry is that anyone could do it. All you would need is a low cost robot (perhaps even a toy drone), a camera and some code from the internet and you have an autonomous killing robot. It doesn’t even have to have a weapon attached to it – <a href="https://www.amazon.co.uk/Remote-Controlled-Helicopters-Quadcopters/b?ie=UTF8&node=364225031">a quadcopter</a> with a rock strapped to it, dropping out of the sky onto your head will kill you just as easily as an explosive. Strap a metal bar to one and fly it into an aircraft engine and you could bring a plane down.</p>
<p>A killer robot will need image processing, facial recognition and geo-location capabilities. These are already embedded in almost every aspect of our lives. You can use facial recognition to <a href="https://www.windowscentral.com/how-set-windows-hello-facial-recognition-windows-10">unlock your laptop</a> and everyone has sat-nav on their phones, so stopping research on it is simply not feasible. Mobile robot use is becoming more prevalent in everyday life so it’s unlikely their advance will be stopped. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/199941/original/file-20171219-4968-yf7gpj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/199941/original/file-20171219-4968-yf7gpj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/199941/original/file-20171219-4968-yf7gpj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/199941/original/file-20171219-4968-yf7gpj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/199941/original/file-20171219-4968-yf7gpj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/199941/original/file-20171219-4968-yf7gpj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/199941/original/file-20171219-4968-yf7gpj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A ‘killer’ drone concept image.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/drones-battle-over-city-night-time-387556747?src=LpdTX4-E5-tBVcUFNBMJow-1-4">Shutterstock/leolintang</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Some people even fear these robots will eventually decide who to kill themselves. But society is a very long way from that reality. Yes, it might make killing someone easier than <a href="https://theconversation.com/should-we-fear-the-rise-of-drone-assassins-two-experts-debate-87699">hiring a professional assassin</a> but you <a href="https://theconversation.com/never-mind-killer-robots-even-the-good-ones-are-scarily-unpredictable-82963">don’t need advanced technology</a> to kill someone. Nobody has called for a ban on cars following their use <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-and-why-vehicle-ramming-became-the-attack-of-choice-for-terrorists-75236">as weapons of terror</a> over the last year because the benefits far outweigh the risks. </p>
<p>So as you walk down the street, ask yourself, are you really in control of your life? Haven’t we already relinquished control? Don’t we do it every time we get in a taxi or a plane or a bus? The illusion of control is in every aspect the world. But if another human appears to be in control, people seem happy to give them the benefit of the doubt.</p>
<p>The reality is that machines and are much more reliable and accountable than humans. Maybe it’s time for society to see through the illusion and make the practical decision – relinquish control and let the machines and the robots do what they’re designed to do.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/87460/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Simon Watson receives funding from EPSRC and Innovate UK. He is affiliated with the IEEE and the IET. </span></em></p>We give over control of our lives every day and trust other humans to make ethical decisions. But soon robots will make these decisions for us. Will they be ethical or is it just a numbers game?Simon Watson, Lecturer in Robotic Systems, University of ManchesterLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/885292017-12-06T23:43:59Z2017-12-06T23:43:59ZStudent grades: How confidence can hinder success<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198038/original/file-20171206-31542-6xa03k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">It's exam time. Research suggests that while some students will be pleasantly surprised by how they did on exams, a larger group will falsely believe they did much better on their exams than they did. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>At this time of year, university students across the country are preparing for exams. Some will happily get higher-than-expected marks. But a larger group instead will be surprised by lower scores.</p>
<p>Negative surprises are common partly because we humans tend to be overly optimistic. Look at how people <a href="https://theconversation.com/jackpot-why-longer-odds-will-never-put-us-off-the-national-lottery-49032">buy lottery tickets</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/should-regulation-be-aimed-at-saving-the-payday-borrower-from-themselves-56611">borrow money</a> or <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-merger-optimism-feeds-investors-a-comforting-tale-of-bumper-earnings-44935">invest in stocks</a>.</p>
<p>Students also tend to be unduly optimistic about their learning and forthcoming grades. Less skilled students are especially likely to over-estimate. This may lead them to make poor choices. If they mistakenly believe they’re already doing well, they may not study enough.</p>
<p>I often see this problem among my undergraduate students. So, I’ve experimented by giving them extra feedback about their grades and then surveying their reactions. A <a href="https://brocku.ca/pedagogical-innovation/research/chancellors-chairs/">Chancellor’s Chair for Teaching Excellence</a> award from Brock University funded this research.</p>
<h2>Excessive student optimism</h2>
<p><a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/dsji.12003/full">My initial study</a> gave students a chance to forecast their final grades while the course was still under way. First, I used statistical analysis of previous years’ grades to create a forecasting formula. </p>
<p>I put that formula into a spreadsheet and gave it to my students, who could then type in their own quiz and assignment marks. The spreadsheet estimated their final grade, along with the probabilities of getting an “A,” “B,” and so on. </p>
<p>In total, 144 students voluntarily tried this forecasting exercise. Interestingly, “A” students were seven times more likely than “D” students to participate. That’s ironic, as the “D” students could have benefited more from it.</p>
<p>The study revealed excessive student optimism. Twenty-nine per cent of participants said their forecast grades were lower than expected. Only six per cent said they were higher. </p>
<h2>The key to hard work</h2>
<p>One third of participants in this study said the forecasting experience made them feel more confident. Another third said it made them feel more worried. Despite that, most of them (74 per cent) agreed that grade forecasting was worth doing in future courses. Only six per cent recommended against it.</p>
<p>Importantly, nearly half of students said they were studying more than planned after the experiment. (As their teacher, I was happy to see that!) Just three per cent said they were studying less.</p>
<p>Students tended to study more if the forecast worried them. They also studied more if the forecast grade was low, even if it matched their expectation.</p>
<p>Surprisingly, students didn’t study more if the forecast was lower than expected. The gap between the forecast and their expectation didn’t seem to matter.</p>
<h2>Comparing grades and goals</h2>
<p>To investigate further, I collaborated with marketing professor <a href="https://brocku.ca/goodman/faculty-research/faculty-directory/h-f-herb-mackenzie/">Herb MacKenzie</a> on a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2017.01.003">second study</a>. This time, before the grade forecasts, we asked students what grade they expected to get in the course. </p>
<p>We asked them twice: Near the beginning of the semester, and again near the end. This revealed how their goals evolved over time.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198022/original/file-20171206-31552-k3sdp1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198022/original/file-20171206-31552-k3sdp1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198022/original/file-20171206-31552-k3sdp1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198022/original/file-20171206-31552-k3sdp1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198022/original/file-20171206-31552-k3sdp1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198022/original/file-20171206-31552-k3sdp1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/198022/original/file-20171206-31552-k3sdp1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Students with forecasts of low grades tend to study harder.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>They also completed questionnaires measuring their sense of “personal control.” Students scoring high on the questionnaire feel in control of their own lives. They believe success mostly depends on their own actions. (“I got a low mark because I didn’t study enough.”)</p>
<p>Students scoring low believe they have little influence on their own outcomes. (“I got a low mark because of bad luck.”)</p>
<p>Some of our results were expected. Students again tended to be overly optimistic. Their actual grades ended up lower than their initial grade goals. They were also lower than their updated goals later.</p>
<h2>Confidence as a hindrance</h2>
<p>However, the grade gaps were smaller later in the course. This was partly because students studied more when their grades fell below their goals. But surprisingly, the gaps narrowed mostly because students lowered their goals. Many learning theories predict the former, but few discuss the latter.</p>
<p>At both points in time, the gaps between grades and goals were wider among students with weaker ability. It seems they didn’t know what they didn’t know.</p>
<p>Another surprise was that the gaps were wider among students with high personal control scores. They confidently set higher goals, but did not achieve them. In most contexts, a sense of control is helpful. But here it was a hindrance.</p>
<p>This may have been partly because our experiment involved first-year students. They were still adapting to differences between high school and university.</p>
<p>Students feeling in control may have believed that their high school study habits would still work in university. But what worked before may no longer have been good enough.</p>
<p>Finally, we again found that students didn’t study more in response to gaps between their expectations and their forecast grades. The gap between their goals and their current grade seemed more relevant.</p>
<h2>Better learning, greater awareness?</h2>
<p>These experiments gave students some unconventional feedback in addition to traditional grades. The immediate goal was to help students better understand their course progress and how much studying they needed to do. </p>
<p>The experience may also have helped them become better at self-assessment in general. That skill could help them make better decisions in future courses too.</p>
<p>This research is part of a larger program to help our students make better decisions about their studies. We want them to learn more, earn higher marks and <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-well-do-students-perform-when-retaking-courses-82559">avoid having to retake courses</a>. </p>
<p>By helping students this way, our results should also benefit universities and their government funders.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/88529/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael's research on student grades and reactions was funded by a Chancellor's Chair for Teaching Excellence award from Brock University.</span></em></p>Research shows that many students are excessively optimistic about course grades. Those with a stronger sense of personal control are also less likely to receive the grades they expect.Michael J. Armstrong, Associate professor of operations research, Brock UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/859562017-10-24T00:13:40Z2017-10-24T00:13:40ZThe psychology of the clutch athlete<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/191427/original/file-20171023-1748-1wtcmdw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Who will emerge as this year's David Freese?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/World-Series-Rangers-Cardinals-Baseball/13d5aed4c5cc4b6da70ca0aed797e47c/52/0">Eric Gay/AP Photo</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>“I don’t know. It’s unbelievable. It’s amazing,” <a href="http://m.mlb.com/news/article/259108988/dodgers-rout-cubs-win-nlcs-make-world-series/?game_pk=526508">said</a> Dodgers outfielder Enrique “Kiké” Hernandez after game 5 of the National League Championship Series, when he became the first Dodger in the team’s 134-year history to hit three home runs in a postseason game.</p>
<p>This should automatically vault Hernandez to a status as one of the greatest Dodgers of all time, right? Up there with Roy Campanella, Duke Snider and Jackie Robinson? </p>
<p>Well, actually, <a href="https://www.baseball-reference.com/players/h/hernaen02.shtml">Hernandez has a lifetime .236 batting average</a>. In the 2017 regular season he hit just .217, and in 297 at-bats managed just 11 home runs. On Oct. 19, he hit three in four at-bats.</p>
<p>It seems like during every playoffs, an unsung hero emerges. For every <a href="https://www.si.com/mlb/2014/10/30/madison-bumgarner-giants-world-series-mathewson-burdette-gibson">Madison Bumgarner</a>, there’s an actual bum – a player whose name will never come up in a Hall of Fame debate – who rises to the moment, and delivers on the game’s biggest stage.</p>
<p>What state of mind does an athlete need to be in to pull off a clutch performance? Are some players more likely than others to be clutch, or could anyone do it? In my <a href="https://csunsportpsychlab.wordpress.com">sport psychology lab</a> at California State University, Northridge, my students and I have tested these questions in an experimental setting.</p>
<h2>It’s all in the head</h2>
<p>We define a clutch performance as any better-than-usual performance that occurs under pressure, and <a href="http://www.humankinetics.com/acucustom/sitename/Documents/DocumentItem/17427.pdf">our research suggests</a> that anyone can be clutch – provided they’re in the right mental state. </p>
<p>For example, feeling like you’re in control of the situation – in sports or anything else – can help a lot. In our lab, we tested hundreds of basketball free-throw shooters, both novices and experts. After they warmed up, we asked them to take 15 shots while we videotaped them (to simulate pressure). Afterward, we gave them a questionnaire; those who indicated that they had felt in control were the most likely to succeed under pressure.</p>
<p>In Hernandez’s case, perhaps he expected Cubs pitcher Jose Quintana to throw a low fastball before he hit his first home run. He had read the scouting report, and he knew what to look for. If so, he would have felt like he had a better handle on the situation. He was more in control. </p>
<p>Confidence also helps. In our study, before it began, we asked the basketball players about their free-throw shooting abilities. Those who expressed the most confidence – whether they were a novice or an expert – also tended to be more clutch.</p>
<p>Once that first home run flew over the fence, Hernandez probably realized that he could hit a home run off the Cubs, and not only that, he could do it under the pressure of a postseason game. That .217 regular season average? Irrelevant. By the time his second home run soared into the stands, he was probably brimming with the confidence of <a href="https://www.baseball-reference.com/postseason/1952_WS.shtml">Duke Snider in the 1952 World Series</a>.</p>
<p>So while experience and expertise are helpful, feelings of confidence and control – which come and go – also play a big role. The pressure of the playoffs can change everything, with some players, regardless of ability, responding differently than others.</p>
<h2>David Ortiz and… David Freese?</h2>
<p>Let’s take a look at some of baseball’s recent postseason hitting stars. Most fans probably remember Red Sox slugger David Ortiz’s <a href="https://www.baseball-reference.com/players/o/ortizda01.shtml#all_batting_postseason">post-season heroics</a>. </p>
<p>But then there are lesser-known post-season stars like Cody Ross and Edgar Renteria (2010 Giants). In 2011 for the Cardinals, it was David Freese; in 2016, the Cubs’ Ben Zobrist nabbed the World Series MVP award. For fans of these teams, these guys will always be remembered. For anyone else, their names might not ring a bell.</p>
<p>Why does it seem like our offensive heroes sometimes seem to come out of nowhere?</p>
<p>A few years ago, grad student <a href="http://prdlab.gatech.edu/personnel/barrett/">Matthew Barrett</a> and I <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1469029213000265">scanned 109 years of baseball statistics</a> to try to answer this question. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/191441/original/file-20171023-32494-1bbz8wl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/191441/original/file-20171023-32494-1bbz8wl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/191441/original/file-20171023-32494-1bbz8wl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/191441/original/file-20171023-32494-1bbz8wl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/191441/original/file-20171023-32494-1bbz8wl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/191441/original/file-20171023-32494-1bbz8wl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/191441/original/file-20171023-32494-1bbz8wl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">San Francisco Giants outfielder Cody Ross celebrates after hitting a home run during the 2010 National League Championship Series against the Philadelphia Phillies.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/APTOPIX-NLCS-Giants-Phillies-Baseball/e65da4b04fa247d8b375f433d99e3779/41/0">Rob Carr/AP Photo</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>To eliminate small samples from biasing our results too much, we set a minimum of 20 postseason at-bats for a player to qualify. For pitchers, we set the minimum at 10 playoff innings pitched in a single postseason. This left us with 1,731 hitters and 835 pitchers to study from across history.</p>
<p>What did we find? If someone had a good regular season at the plate, he was more likely to perform well in the post-season (measured by batting average; correlation: .17). If a pitcher threw well during the season, it was also more likely that he would have a solid postseason performance. The relationship for pitchers, however, was slightly stronger (measured by <a href="https://www.baseball-reference.com/bullpen/Earned_run_average">ERA</a>; correlation: .28). </p>
<p>The difference between these correlations didn’t blow us away. But the take-home message was clear: it’s likely that a good pitcher will be the same player during the postseason. For hitters, it’s less predictable.</p>
<p>There’s a <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/019188699390113H">sport psychology theory</a> to back this up. Hitting a baseball, <a href="https://sites.psu.edu/siowfa16/2016/10/18/is-hitting-a-baseball-the-hardest-thing-to-do-in-sports/">it’s been argued</a>, is one of the hardest things to do in all of sports. Pitching – while by no means easy – is a bit less reliant on finely timed hand-eye coordination. <a href="http://www.humankinetics.com/acucustom/sitename/Documents/DocumentItem/17427.pdf">In our research</a> on pressure-induced athletic performance, motor skills like hitting were found to be more susceptible to fluctuations, good or bad.</p>
<p>During the 2017 Fall Classic, who will be the next Enrique Hernandez? It probably depends on who’s feeling the most confident and in control. It’s also more likely to be a hitter.</p>
<p>A star like Astros second baseman José Altuve might continue to build off of his successful postseason run. But a lesser-known player – say, <a href="http://m.mlb.com/player/523253/logan-forsythe">Logan Forsythe</a> or <a href="http://m.mlb.com/player/594828/evan-gattis">Evan Gattis</a> – could be just as likely to break out, and cement himself in post-season lore.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/85956/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mark Otten does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>What makes someone more likely to succeed when the lights shine brightest?Mark Otten, Associate Professor of Psychology, California State University, NorthridgeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/739672017-03-24T09:43:01Z2017-03-24T09:43:01ZDangers of the witch hunt in Washington<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/162312/original/image-20170324-4938-idddo4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">FBI Director James Comey and National Security Agency Director Michael Rogers at hearing on allegations of Russian interference in the 2016 U.S. presidential election.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">AP Photo/Manuel Balce Ceneta</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>As an anthropologist, I know that all groups of people use informal <a href="http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/anthropology/social-and-cultural-anthropology/witchcraft-sorcery-rumors-and-gossip">practices of social control</a> in day-to-day interactions. Controlling disruptive behavior is necessary for maintaining social order, but the forms of control vary.</p>
<p>How will President Donald Trump control behavior he finds disruptive? </p>
<p>The question came to me when Trump called the investigation of Russian interference in the election “<a href="http://talkingpointsmemo.com/livewire/trump-russia-focus-political-witch-hunt">a total witch hunt</a>.” More on that later. </p>
<h2>Ridicule and shunning</h2>
<p>A common form of social control is ridicule. The disruptive person is ridiculed for his or her behavior, and ridicule is often enough to make the disruptive behavior stop. </p>
<p>Another common form of social control is shunning, or segregating a disruptive individual from society. With the individual pushed out of social interactions – by sitting in a timeout, for example – his or her behavior can no longer cause trouble.</p>
<p>Ridicule, shunning and other informal practices of social control usually work well to control disruptive behavior, and we see examples every day in the office, on the playground and even in the White House. </p>
<h2>Controlling the critics</h2>
<p>Donald Trump routinely uses ridicule and shunning to control what he sees as disruptive behavior. The most obvious examples are aimed at the press. For example, he refers to The New York Times as “<a href="http://www.politico.com/blogs/on-media/2017/02/new-york-times-ceo-takes-on-trumps-false-failing-claims-234541">failing</a>” as a way of demeaning its employees. He infamously <a href="http://www.people.com/politics/trump-denies-mocking-journalist-disability-watch-video/">mocked a disabled reporter</a> who critiqued him. </p>
<p>On the other side, the press has also used ridicule, calling the president <a href="http://www.dailykos.com/story/2017/2/8/1631304/-The-world-has-taken-Donald-Trump-s-measure-toxic-incompetent-and-weak">incompetent</a>, <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/02/17/opinion/is-it-time-to-call-trump-mentally-ill.html">mentally ill</a> and even making fun of the <a href="http://www.esquire.com/news-politics/news/a47296/donald-trump-hand-size-chart/">size of his hands.</a> </p>
<p>Trump has shunned the press as well, <a href="http://money.cnn.com/2016/06/14/media/donald-trump-media-blacklist/">pulling press credentials</a> from news agencies that critique him. Press Secretary Sean Spicer used shunning against a group of reporters critical of the administration by <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/02/24/us/politics/white-house-sean-spicer-briefing.html">blocking them from attending</a> his daily briefing. And Secretary of State Rex Tillerson shook off the State Department press corps and headed off to Asia with <a href="http://www.politico.com/story/2017/03/rex-tillerson-reporters-asia-state-236109">just one reporter invited along</a>. </p>
<p>Again, the practice cuts both ways. The media has also started asking themselves if they should shun Trump’s surrogates – such as Kellyanne Connway – <a href="http://www.gq.com/story/heres-an-idea-stop-putting-kellyanne-conway-on-tv">in interviews</a> or <a href="http://pressthink.org/2017/01/send-the-interns/">refuse to send staff reporters</a> to the White House briefing room.</p>
<h2>Accusations of witchcraft</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/161639/original/image-20170320-9114-1hbuhky.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/161639/original/image-20170320-9114-1hbuhky.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=431&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161639/original/image-20170320-9114-1hbuhky.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=431&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161639/original/image-20170320-9114-1hbuhky.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=431&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161639/original/image-20170320-9114-1hbuhky.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=542&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161639/original/image-20170320-9114-1hbuhky.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=542&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161639/original/image-20170320-9114-1hbuhky.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=542&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Witches persecuted in Colonial era.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.loc.gov/item/2003677981/">Library of Congress</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But what happens when informal means of control don’t work?</p>
<p>Societies with weak or nonexistent judicial systems may control persistent disruptive behavior by accusing the disruptive person of being a witch.</p>
<p>In an anthropological sense, <a href="https://global.oup.com/ushe/product/witchcraft-oracles-and-magic-among-the-azande-9780198740292?cc=us&lang=en&">witches</a> are people who cannot control their evil behavior – it is a part of their being. A witch’s very thoughts compel supernatural powers to cause social disruption. If a witch gets angry, jealous or envious, the supernatural may take action, whether the witch wants it to or not. In other words: Witches are disruptive by their very presence.</p>
<p>When people are threatened with an accusation of witchcraft, they will generally <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Navaho-Witchcraft-Clyde-Kluckhohn/dp/0807046973">heed the warning</a> to curb their behavior. Those who don’t are often those who are already marginalized. Their behavior – perhaps caused by mental disease or injury – is something they cannot easily control. By failing to prove they aren’t a “witch” – something that’s not easy to do – they give society a legitimate reason to get rid of them. </p>
<p>When communities and their leaders turn to accusation of witchcraft as a means of social control, it usually leads to executions. From the 15th to the 17th century, as many as 100,000 accused witches were put to death <a href="http://www.routledgetextbooks.com/textbooks/9781138808102/">in Europe</a>. And in Salem, Massachusetts, 20 people were executed during the notorious <a href="http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/a-brief-history-of-the-salem-witch-trials-175162489/">witch trials</a> of 1692 and 1693.</p>
<h2>Modern societies aren’t immune</h2>
<p>While few people today believe in witches that doesn’t mean that modern societies have given up the idea that there are people who are inherently disruptive or even dangerous to society. We might not always use the word “witch,” but the idea of purifying society of uncontrollable evil is still with us. </p>
<p>In the <a href="http://americanhistory.si.edu/brown/history/1-segregated/jim-crow.html">Jim Crow South</a> blacks were seen as inherently disruptive to white society and formally segregated. In some cases, they were lynched. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005143">Holocaust</a> followed the pattern of a modern witch hunt. The Nazis saw Jews as inherently dangerous and disruptive to social order. At first they humiliated and ridiculed them, then they segregated them in ghettos and finally they executed them. </p>
<p>One could argue that Americans are already accusing immigrants and Muslims of being the witches of our time. Both groups are seen by some in power as disruptive to social order by their very presence. Some even see them as inherently <a href="http://www.nationalreview.com/article/442565/muslim-immigration-ohio-state-stabbing-shows-dangers-lets-be-honest">dangerous</a>. Indeed, there are ongoing efforts to separate them from the United States, both by deportation and blocking their entry into the country.</p>
<p>Still, the U.S. has a strong judicial system, so why worry that Americans might turn to accusations of witchcraft – albeit by another name – to control behavior? </p>
<p>The worry is that the Trump administration has shown itself to be highly effective in exploiting informal means of social control to shape public discourse, and has <a href="http://www.politico.com/story/2017/02/trump-judge-attack-backfire-234649">repeatedly berated</a> the judicial system as ineffective or corrupt. </p>
<p>If the judicial system continues to block the administration’s efforts to control Muslims and immigrants, what will the administration do next?</p>
<p>We need to be mindful of the consequences of identifying people as inherently disruptive to social order, as unable to control an innate evilness, or as being, in anthropological terms, witches. When we start to see witches among us, the end game is death.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/73967/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Peter Neal Peregrine does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A ‘witch hunt’ is what Trump called investigations into his campaign and Russian interference in the 2016 election. An anthropologist explains the connection between witch hunts and social control.Peter Neal Peregrine, Professor of Anthropology and Museum Studies, Lawrence UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/631192016-11-09T01:02:42Z2016-11-09T01:02:42ZSelf control, the harms of pot, and fat genes: how the 44-year-old Dunedin study keeps on giving<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/142089/original/image-20161018-12454-ysu7yb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">IQ decline is highest among those who started using during adolescence and among the most persistent (daily) users.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-324769067/stock-photo-man-smoking-in-nature.html?src=_palgg2XalOmel-L1u3EVA-1-23">FreeBirdPhotos/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>After almost four-and-a half decades and from modest beginnings, the <a href="http://dunedinstudy.otago.ac.nz/">Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study</a> has evolved into one of the most significant long-term tracking studies (known as longitudinal cohort studies) in the world. </p>
<p>It started with just over 1,000 participants, born from April 1972 to March 1973. This cohort completed their first medical assessment at age three. Since then, follow-up assessments have taken place every two years until age 15, and then at wider intervals through adulthood (18, 21, 26, 32, and 38 years). </p>
<p>The 13th round of data collection is due in 2017, with a comprehensive medical, behavioural, and psychological assessment of participants at age 45 years. </p>
<p>Participants are considered representative of the population of New Zealand’s South Island in this age group. This includes ethnicity, as 7.5% of the participants identify as Māori.</p>
<p>So what has the study taught us so far about health and behaviour?</p>
<h2>1. Self control in early life is linked to success in adulthood</h2>
<p>One stream of research from the study has explored <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21262822">the role of self-control</a> in childhood on outcomes in adulthood. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21300864">Self-control</a> includes personality traits such as responsibility and orderliness, and the way we regulate our behaviour and emotions to achieve long-term goals.</p>
<p>When participants were age three and five years, the researchers <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21262822">assessed the children’s self-control</a>, based on observer ratings. When participants were aged five, seven, nine and 11 years, the researchers collected parent, teacher, and self-reports of impulsive aggression, hyperactivity, lack of persistence, inattention, and impulsivity. These were combined to a single standard measure.</p>
<p>Less self-control at age three years was a clear predictor of poorer physical health, increased substance dependence, poorer personal finances, and criminal offending outcomes at age 32 years. </p>
<p>The researchers also identified a dose response: the higher the degree of self-control evident in the child, the better the outcomes in the adult. </p>
<p>It’s important not to automatically infer a causal relationship, since other factors such as competent parenting may explain both child and adult characteristics. </p>
<p>However, <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2174918">intervention studies</a> that provided strategies for improved self-control have supported these observational findings. They found children who received the intervention significantly outperformed children who didn’t in executive functions and academic achievement. </p>
<p>This adds to the case that strategies to help children improve their self-control should be included in early childhood education. </p>
<h2>2. Early cannabis users have higher levels of cognitive decline</h2>
<p>The impact of cannabis use in adulthood, including the timing of its initiation, remains a controversial area. </p>
<p>In the Dunedin study, researchers asked participants about their cannabis use from age 18 to 38 years. </p>
<p>They then compared participants’ results on neuropsychological tests (measuring executive function, memory, processing speed, perceptual reasoning, and verbal comprehension) at 13 years (prior to initiation of cannabis use) with those at age 38 years. </p>
<p>They found IQ decline was highest among those who started using cannabis during adolescence and among the most persistent (daily) users. But the <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23599952">evidence was less clear</a> for the less regular users. </p>
<p>Their findings suggested a heightened sensitivity of the adolescent brain to the neurotoxic effect of cannabis. It seems the effect of persistent cannabis use during adolescence on the brain function is irreversible, but stopping may prevent further deterioration of cognitive functions.</p>
<h2>3. Obesity genes generate weight gain in early life</h2>
<p>The Dunedin study also includes a genome-wide association study (GWAS), where the entire genome is examined for genetic variants to see if one or more of these is associated with an outcome. </p>
<p>The Dunedin study’s GWAS found gene variants detected in obese adults were not related to their birthweight. Rather, they were linked to rapid growth rates from birth to age three. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22665028">This increased their risk</a> of becoming obese as an adult. </p>
<p>This highlights the importance of weight trajectories at key stages in life and therefore provides an opportunity for targeted interventions. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25835958">Other genetics research work</a> has reinvigorated the nature-nurture debate and highlighted the crucial role genes play and how they interact with environmental risks or exposures in the development of some conditions. </p>
<p>Genetically predisposed people who use cannabis in adolescence, for instance, are more likely to develop psychosis in adulthood.</p>
<h2>What’s next?</h2>
<p>The Dunedin study is not without limitations. In retrospect, it would have benefited greatly from a larger sample size and data collections in the critical years between birth and three years. </p>
<p>These shortcomings, however, should not overshadow some remarkable achievements. The study has generated more than 1,200 papers and reports. It’s impossible to provide a comprehensive list of all the findings and their importance. But the examples above provide a taste of what we’re learning from long term cohort studies that are simply not possible from one-off surveys.</p>
<p>As the participants in the Dunedin study approach their mid-life stage and show the first signs of many common chronic conditions such as diabetes and cardiovascular disease, we will be eagerly watching the trends and translating the knowledge into health policy and clinical practice.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/63119/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gita Mishra does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>After almost four-and-a half decades and from modest beginnings, the Dunedin study has evolved into one of the most significant long-term tracking studies in the world.Gita Mishra, Professor of Life Course Epidemiology, Faculty of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/619402016-07-05T15:47:25Z2016-07-05T15:47:25ZEver noticed time seems to move faster when you’re in control of things? Science can explain why<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/129429/original/image-20160705-795-1dtivvz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>We’ve all been there: waiting for a boring meeting to finish or for a bus to arrive and time just seems to drag on far more slowly than usual. Yet our most enjoyable moments seem to whizz by at lightning speed. It seems obvious that more boring events appear to take longer than the ones that stimulate us. But there’s another reason we sometimes experience time differently.</p>
<p>If we understand what causes an event or we cause it ourselves, the time between the cause and its effects seems to be shorter than an event we have no control over. This phenomenon, known as temporal binding, can help us uncover some important truths about the relationship between cause and effect and whether or not we are really responsible for different actions.</p>
<p>Temporal binding works in a curious way. The cause of an event seems to be shifted later in time towards its effect, which in turn is shifted backwards in time towards the cause. From our perspective, the two events are drawn in towards each other, essentially bound to one another in time.</p>
<p>Patrick Haggard and his colleagues at UCL <a href="http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v5/n4/full/nn827.html">were the first</a> to come across this phenomenon. They asked volunteers to press a button that produced a sound after a short delay. The volunteers found the action of pressing the button and the consequence of the sound seemed to happen closer together in time than when they weren’t responsible for pushing the button.</p>
<h2>Intentional binding</h2>
<p>The same effect didn’t occur when the tone came after an involuntary muscle twitch (caused by stimulation to the brain), or after another tone following the same delay. So the researchers referred to the phenomenon as “intentional binding” as they believed that it was the person’s voluntary involvement (and so their intention to act) that bound the action and consequence together in time. Because of this, the phenomenon was <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1053810011000389">quickly seen</a> as a new way of assessing how much people feel in control in certain situations without having to actually ask them.</p>
<p>Recently, researchers have even applied temporal binding to the famous Milgram electric shock experiment to see if people feel responsible for actions they have been coerced into doing. Milgram’s <a href="http://hisser.net/OL/2120/Obedience.pdf">original experiment</a> involved instructing participants to administer electric shocks to each other in order to see if people would obey an order that caused harm.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/129433/original/image-20160705-814-1myyj5b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/129433/original/image-20160705-814-1myyj5b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/129433/original/image-20160705-814-1myyj5b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/129433/original/image-20160705-814-1myyj5b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/129433/original/image-20160705-814-1myyj5b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/129433/original/image-20160705-814-1myyj5b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/129433/original/image-20160705-814-1myyj5b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In control of time.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Haggard used a similar setup but also asked participants to estimate the time between when they pressed the button that caused the shock and the time when the shock was administered. The <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S096098221600052X">researchers found</a> that when the participant was coerced into giving an electric shock they experienced the time between their action and the outcome as longer than when they choose to act voluntarily.</p>
<p>Based on this, the researchers concluded that when someone is coerced into doing something they feel less in control or less responsible for their own actions than when they carry out actions voluntarily. This has fascinating implications for situations such as war crimes trials, where defendants often claim they were <a href="http://ejil.org/pdfs/10/1/571.pdf">simply obeying orders</a> and so aren’t responsible for their actions.</p>
<p>Temporal binding has also been used to study medical conditions and produced some interesting results there too. Researchers <a href="http://bit.ly/29hy1VQ">have found</a> that people with schizophrenia experience greater temporal binding than those without the condition. This suggests sufferers feel an exaggerated sense of control over the outcome of their actions, which may help explain why they delusionally believe they have control over things that they could not be plausibly responsible for.</p>
<h2>Cause not control</h2>
<p>Although temporal binding has been quickly adopted as a way of measuring feelings of control and responsibility, Marc Buehner at Cardiff University has shown that this effect is more likely to be about causal relationships. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Marc_Buehner2/publication/232721138_Understanding_the_Past_Predicting_the_Future_Causation_Not_Intentional_Action_Is_the_Root_of_Temporal_Binding/links/55420c700cf21b21437591bc.pdf">Buehner found</a> that we experience binding when we simply observe one thing causing another, even when we aren’t directly responsible for it. For example, when a mechanical lever presses a button that then produces a sound.</p>
<p>This essentially shows that our experience of time can be influenced and shaped by our beliefs about cause and effect. Binding is still greater when there is human action involved, but this is likely due to human action and consequence simply being a <a href="http://bit.ly/29gBhBq">special type of cause and effect</a>.</p>
<p>An interesting suggestion is that binding occurs as a way for us to learn about the world. Perhaps we parcel up events that are related to one another to help us more clearly understand how the world works, how things relate to one another and how our actions impact the world around us. To test this theory, researchers at Queen’s University, Belfast and Cardiff University are in the process of looking at how children experience binding. Perhaps children experience greater binding as a way of efficiently learning about a world that they have less understanding of than adults.</p>
<p>On the other hand, children may experience binding to a lesser extent than adults because they may simply be less able to select and use information from their environment. Alternatively, binding may be steady throughout our lives and reflect an inbuilt and unchanging way of experiencing and learning about the world. Whatever the outcome, this research could provide us with invaluable information about how we learn about the world.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/61940/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sara Lorimer receives funding from The Leverhulme Trust. </span></em></p>Understanding why time seems to speed up under certain conditions could reveal when we really feel responsible for our actions.Sara Lorimer, Doctoral Candidate, Psychology, Queen's University BelfastLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/543002016-02-18T10:46:52Z2016-02-18T10:46:52ZCurbing cravings: can kitchen chaos influence cookie consumption?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/111828/original/image-20160217-19241-17qtx8q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">If you're prone to snack when stressed, a pile of dirty dishes might put you over the edge.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-110923976/stock-photo-kitchen-utensils-need-a-wash.html?src=2NwRQeg3Om-q7myU2IE0lA-2-91">'Dirty Dishes' via www.shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Anyone who has ever tried to cut back on sweets has probably heard that all it takes is “mind over matter.”</p>
<p>But <a href="http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2711870">new research</a> by Lenny Vartanian of UNSW Australia and Kristin Kernan and Brian Wansink of Cornell University is shedding light on the way your mindset interacts with your environment to influence eating behavior – specifically, unhealthy snacking. </p>
<p>In other words, it’s not just your mindset that can shape your eating habits. Your environment plays a role, too. And in the case of your kitchen, a pile of dirty dishes just might influence you in ways you don’t realize.</p>
<h2>Want some leftovers?</h2>
<p>The work of Vartanian and his colleagues builds on a <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/1994-32685-001">body of evidence</a> suggesting that stressful experiences <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/hea/11/2/97/">can impact health-related behaviors</a>, from <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0271531705002836">eating</a> to exercise. </p>
<p>It also loops in the idea that your state of mind influences your behavior at any given moment. For example, <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1348/014466605X90793/full">a 2011 study</a> published in the <em>British Journal of Social Psychology</em> showed how thinking about your friends and family can reduce aggressive behavior after you’ve been rejected by romantic partner or fired from a job. And <a href="https://ed.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/annurev-psych-psychology_of_change_final_e2.pdf">self-affirmations</a>, which involve writing about your most important values, can mitigate the negative effects of threatening or stressful situations. </p>
<p>Combining two distinct theories of behavior, Vartanian and his colleagues then reveal the unique ways in which one’s individual mindset interacts with the world to help or hinder healthy eating.</p>
<p>In their study, the researchers asked 100 female students to taste and rate cookies, crackers and carrots, which is what participants thought the real experiment was about: taste ratings. However, the real experiment started when experimenters then invited the participants to help themselves to leftovers.</p>
<p>The events leading up to this snack session varied widely. Participants were either exposed to a chaotic kitchen – filled with papers, pots and pans, along with noisy disruptions – or a clean, calm and orderly kitchen. </p>
<p>In these varied kitchen environments, participants were also primed to have one of three mindsets. Some were told to write about a time when they felt particularly overwhelmed. Others described an instance when they felt composed. Finally, the control group simply wrote about the last lecture they attended. </p>
<p>So, who ate the most? Perhaps not surprisingly, women who were primed to feel out of control – and who were in the chaotic kitchen – ate significantly more cookies than the other subjects. </p>
<p>However, in all the other conditions, the results didn’t differ in any significant way. For example, in the orderly kitchen, women who wrote about feeling out of control didn’t eat significantly more cookies than those who were primed to feel in control. </p>
<h2>Environment and willpower</h2>
<p>These results suggest an interesting and unique interaction – it was only the combination of feeling out of control and being in the chaotic environment that led to higher cookie consumption. While further studies are needed to confirm these findings, these results suggest that feeling in control could buffer against the effects of a chaotic environment, while having an orderly environment could buffer against the effects of feeling out of control. </p>
<p>It’s also noteworthy that neither the kitchen condition nor the mindset priming had any effect on consumption of crackers or carrots. This suggests that perhaps it’s only our unhealthy cravings that are susceptible to the combined influence of mindset and environment.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/111840/original/image-20160217-19269-9y6o9b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/111840/original/image-20160217-19269-9y6o9b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/111840/original/image-20160217-19269-9y6o9b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/111840/original/image-20160217-19269-9y6o9b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/111840/original/image-20160217-19269-9y6o9b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=540&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/111840/original/image-20160217-19269-9y6o9b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=540&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/111840/original/image-20160217-19269-9y6o9b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=540&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Okay, I’ll have just one…</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-260987378/stock-photo-bitten-into-chocolate-chip-cookie-with-crumbs-on-white.html?src=pp-same_artist-376995925-Vi88puam6e-QY5imu403eg-4">'Cookie' via www.shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Other health behaviors might also be susceptible to the dual forces of mindset and environment. For example, when we come home from work exhausted and intend to go running, but really don’t feel like it, a sunny afternoon might motivate us to put on our sneakers and go anyway, while less optimal weather conditions might give us the excuse we need to stay on the couch. </p>
<p>The results of this study are certainly compelling. But as someone who studies mindsets, I thought there were some areas for further inquiry.</p>
<p>The authors use a <a href="http://search.proquest.com/docview/848853389?pq-origsite=gscholar">self-regulation model of willpower</a> to explain their results. This model says that willpower is a limited resource, and that stress drains our limited willpower, leaving us with less willpower to use in other areas of our lives. However, <a href="http://gregorywalton-stanford.weebly.com/uploads/4/9/4/4/49448111/jobwaltonberneckerdweck_2013.pdf">other research suggests</a> that, in reality, it is our beliefs about whether or not willpower is a limited resource that determines whether it is, in fact, prone to being depleted. Those who believe that willpower is abundant exhibit higher levels of self-control – even when stressed out. </p>
<p>The authors also indicate that a limitation of this study was the lack of a specific measure to confirm mindset after priming. Without such an assessment, we cannot be certain that this experiment truly induced in-control or out-of-control mindsets, although past research on priming would suggest that Vartanian and his colleagues’ study design should have been effective in at least priming feelings of being in control or being out of control. </p>
<p>However, compared to feelings, mindsets are generally viewed as <a href="https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=fdjqz0TPL2wC&oi=fnd&pg=PA83&dq=mindset&ots=Bi620JzGND&sig=IVlPeq3Qz8AM0UOyGwcFYFi9auA#v=onepage&q=mindset&f=false">more persistent over time</a>. It’s unclear whether this study truly induced a new mindset, or simply primed participants into a particular – but fleeting – frame of reference, one that could disappear quickly after the conclusion of the experiment. </p>
<p>So while past research suggests that chaotic environments might be a risk factor for making unhealthy choices, the findings of Vartanian and his colleagues add to this work by showing how mindsets can act as a buffer or enabler. </p>
<p>What does this mean for those of us trying to eat fewer cookies and less ice cream? When we feel the urge to satisfy our sweet tooth, it might be in our best interest to think back to times we felt particularly in control. And it also wouldn’t hurt to take care of that pile of dirty dishes in the sink.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/54300/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kari Leibowitz is affiliated with Stanford University Social Psychology.</span></em></p>A new study highlights how the condition of your kitchen may affect unhealthy snacking.Kari Leibowitz, Ph.D. candidate in Psychology, Stanford UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.