tag:theconversation.com,2011:/ca/topics/electronics-2003/articles
Electronics – The Conversation
2024-03-21T12:24:46Z
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/225427
2024-03-21T12:24:46Z
2024-03-21T12:24:46Z
James Clavell’s ‘Shōgun’ is reimagined for a new generation of TV viewers
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582911/original/file-20240319-30-7y6fii.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=16%2C0%2C3754%2C2510&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Actress Anna Sawai, who plays Mariko in FX's 'Shōgun,' attends the Los Angeles premiere of the series on Feb. 13, 2024.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/anna-sawai-attends-the-los-angeles-premiere-of-fxs-shogun-news-photo/2009310007?adppopup=true">Matt Winkelmeyer/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In 1980, when James Clavell’s blockbuster historical novel “<a href="https://www.blackstonepublishing.com/sho-gun-bhdr.html#541=2907599">Shōgun</a>” was turned into <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0080274/">a TV miniseries</a>, some 33% of American households with a television <a href="https://www.japantimes.co.jp/culture/2024/03/09/tv-streaming/shogun-hiroyuki-sanada-last-samurai/">tuned in</a>. It quickly became one of the most viewed miniseries to date, second only to “<a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0075572/">Roots</a>.”</p>
<p><a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=M4O349MAAAAJ&hl=en">I’m a historian of Japan</a> who specializes in the history of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Tokugawa-period">the Tokugawa</a>, or early modern era – a period from 1603 to 1868, during which the bulk of the action in “Shōgun” takes place. As a first-year graduate student, I sat glued to the television for five nights in September 1980, enthralled that someone cared enough to create a series about the period in Japan’s past that had captured my imagination. </p>
<p>I wasn’t alone. In 1982, <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1982/04/25/education/adapting-shogun-for-the-classroom.html">historian Henry D. Smith estimated</a> that one-fifth to one-half of students enrolled in university courses about Japan at that time had read the novel and became interested in Japan because of it. </p>
<p>“‘Shōgun,’” he added, “probably conveyed more information about the daily life of Japan to more people than all the combined writings of scholars, journalists, and novelists since the Pacific War.” </p>
<p>Some even credit the series <a href="https://www.bbc.com/culture/article/20240305-shogun-tv-hit-fx-violent-japanese-history">for making sushi trendy in the U.S</a>.</p>
<p>That 1980 miniseries has now been remade as FX’s “Shōgun,” a 10-episode production that is garnering rave reviews – including a <a href="https://www.rottentomatoes.com/tv/shogun_2024/s01">near-100% rating from review-aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes</a>.</p>
<p>Both miniseries closely hew to Clavell’s 1975 novel, which is a fictionalized retelling of the story of the first Englishman, <a href="https://us.macmillan.com/books/9780374706234/samuraiwilliam">Will Adams</a> – the character John Blackthorne in the novel – to set foot in Japan.</p>
<p>And yet there are subtle differences in each series that reveal the zeitgeist of each era, along with America’s shifting attitudes toward Japan.</p>
<h2>The ‘Japanese miracle’</h2>
<p>The original 1980 series reflects both the confidence of postwar America and its fascination with its resurgent former enemy.</p>
<p>World War II had left Japan devastated economically and psychologically. But by the 1970s and 1980s, the country had come to dominate global markets for consumer electronic, semiconductors and the auto industry. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-12815-0_7">Its gross national product per capita rose spectacularly</a>: from less than US$200 in 1952 to $8,900 in 1980 – the year “Shōgun” appeared on television – to almost $20,000 in 1988, surpassing the United States, West Germany and France. </p>
<p>Many Americans wanted to know the secret to Japan’s head-spinning economic success – the so-called “<a href="https://hbr.org/1998/01/reinterpreting-the-japanese-economic-miracle">Japanese miracle</a>.” Could Japan’s history and culture offer clues?</p>
<p>During the 1970s and 1980s, scholars sought to understand the miracle by analyzing not just the Japanese economy but also the country’s various institutions: schools, social policy, corporate culture and policing. </p>
<p>In his 1979 book, “<a href="https://www.goodreads.com/en/book/show/771294">Japan as Number One: Lessons for America</a>,” sociologist Ezra Vogel argued that the U.S. could learn a lot from Japan, whether it was through the country’s long-term economic planning, collaboration between government and industry, investments in education, and quality control of goods and services.</p>
<h2>A window into Japan</h2>
<p>Clavell’s expansive 1,100-page novel was released in the middle of the Japanese miracle. It sold more than <a href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/arts/educational-magazines/shogun-novel-japan">7 million copies in five years</a>; then the series aired, which prompted the sale of another 2.5 million copies.</p>
<p>In it, Clavell tells the story of Blackthorne, who, shipwrecked off the coast of Japan in 1600, finds the country in a peaceful interlude after an era of civil war. But that peace is about to be shattered by competition among the five regents who have been appointed to ensure the succession of a young heir to their former lord’s position as top military leader.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Black and white photo of middle-aged man sitting at a typewriter by the ocean." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582898/original/file-20240319-26-80u5ik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582898/original/file-20240319-26-80u5ik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=389&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582898/original/file-20240319-26-80u5ik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=389&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582898/original/file-20240319-26-80u5ik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=389&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582898/original/file-20240319-26-80u5ik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=489&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582898/original/file-20240319-26-80u5ik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=489&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582898/original/file-20240319-26-80u5ik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=489&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">‘Shogun,’ which James Clavell published in 1975, has sold millions of copies.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/james-clavell-on-typewriter-by-the-ocean-1977-news-photo/135869841?adppopup=true">Michael Ochs Archives/Getty Images</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>In the meantime, local leaders don’t know whether to treat Blackthorne and his crew as dangerous pirates or harmless traders. His men end up being imprisoned, but Blackthorne’s knowledge of the world outside of Japan – not to mention his boatload of cannons, muskets and ammunition – save him.</p>
<p>He ends up offering advice and munitions to one of the regents, Lord Yoshi Toranaga, the fictional version of the real-life Tokugawa Ieyasu. With this edge, <a href="https://www.japan-experience.com/plan-your-trip/to-know/japanese-history/tokugawa-ieyasu">Toranaga rises to become shogun</a>, the country’s top military leader.</p>
<p>Viewers of the 1980 television series witness Blackthorne slowly learning Japanese and coming to appreciate the value of Japanese culture. For example, at first, he’s resistant to bathing. <a href="https://www.newyorker.com/culture/cultural-comment/the-long-history-of-japans-tidying-up">Since cleanliness is deeply rooted in Japanese culture</a>, his Japanese hosts find his refusal irrational. </p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Bearded man with shoulder length brown hair wearing a kimono and holding a samurai sword." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582905/original/file-20240319-18-q4d2z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582905/original/file-20240319-18-q4d2z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=750&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582905/original/file-20240319-18-q4d2z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=750&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582905/original/file-20240319-18-q4d2z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=750&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582905/original/file-20240319-18-q4d2z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=943&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582905/original/file-20240319-18-q4d2z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=943&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582905/original/file-20240319-18-q4d2z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=943&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Actor Richard Chamberlain as John Blackthorne in the 1980 NBC miniseries ‘Shōgun.’</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/richard-chamberlain-us-actor-wearing-a-kimono-and-holding-a-news-photo/120543334?adppopup=true">Silver Screen Collection/Getty Images</a></span>
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<p>Blackthorne’s, and the viewers’, gradual acclimatization to Japanese culture is complete when, late in the series, he is reunited with the crew of his Dutch ship who have been held in captivity. Blackthorne is thoroughly repulsed by their filth and demands a bath to cleanse himself from their contagion. </p>
<p>Blackthorne comes to see Japan as far more civilized than the West. Just like his real-life counterpart, Will Adams, he decides to remain in Japan even after being granted his freedom. He marries a Japanese woman, with whom he has two children, and ends his days on foreign soil.</p>
<h2>From fascination to fear</h2>
<p>However, the positive views of Japan that its economic miracle generated, and that “Shogun” reinforced, eroded <a href="https://www.census.gov/foreign-trade/balance/c5880.html#1989">as the U.S. trade deficit with Japan ballooned</a>: from $10 billion in 1981 to $50 billion in 1985. </p>
<p>“<a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1982/10/29/opinion/bashing-japan-isn-t-the-answer.html">Japan bashing</a>” spread in the U.S., and visceral anger exploded when <a href="https://sourcesforcourses.com/post/136624898100/american-auto-workers-smash-toyota-gm-in-protest">American autoworkers smashed Toyota cars in March 1983</a> and <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/business/1987/07/13/boycott-toshiba-computers-but-dont-let-congress-force-you/a6130b8a-7be4-4737-8150-adc74e53443b/">congressmen shattered a Toshiba boombox</a> with sledgehammers on the Capitol lawn in 1987. That same year, the magazine Foreign Affairs warned of “<a href="https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/asia/1987-12-01/coming-us-japan-crisis">The Coming U.S.-Japan Crisis</a>.”</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582909/original/file-20240319-20-kiek7w.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Newsweek magazine cover that reads 'Japan Invades Hollywood' and features a graphic of a woman in a kimono posing like the woman in the Columbia Pictures logo." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582909/original/file-20240319-20-kiek7w.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582909/original/file-20240319-20-kiek7w.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=805&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582909/original/file-20240319-20-kiek7w.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=805&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582909/original/file-20240319-20-kiek7w.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=805&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582909/original/file-20240319-20-kiek7w.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1011&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582909/original/file-20240319-20-kiek7w.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1011&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582909/original/file-20240319-20-kiek7w.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1011&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Newsweek’s Oct. 9, 1989, cover describes Sony’s purchase of Columbia Pictures as an invasion.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://images.wolfgangsvault.com/m/xlarge/OMS793331-MZ/newsweek-vintage-magazine-oct-9-1989.webp">Newsweek</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>This backlash against Japan in the U.S. was also fueled by almost a decade of acquisitions of iconic American companies, such as Firestone, Columbia Pictures and Universal Studios, along with high-profile real estate, such as the iconic <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/antoinegara/2017/07/18/ma-flashback-the-takeover-of-rockefeller-center-capped-a-1980s-frenzy-now-a-new-mania-is-afoot/?sh=8f095">Rockefeller Center</a>.</p>
<p>But the notion of Japan as a threat reached a peak in 1989, after which its economy stalled. The 1990s and early 2000s were dubbed Japan’s “<a href="https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,984426,00.html">lost decade</a>.”</p>
<p>Yet a curiosity and love for Japanese culture persists, thanks, in part, to manga and anime. More Japanese feature films and television series are also <a href="http://interacnetwork.com/best-japanese-dramas-to-watch">making their way to popular streaming services</a>, including the series “<a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt7256504/">Tokyo Girl</a>,” “<a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1882928/?ref_=nv_sr_srsg_0_tt_8_nm_0_q_midnight%2520diner">Midnight Diner</a>” and “<a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt16970638/?ref_=nv_sr_srsg_6_tt_8_nm_0_q_sanctuary">Sanctuary</a>.” In December 2023, The Hollywood Reporter announced that Japan was “<a href="https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/tv/tv-news/japan-content-boom-1235753598/">on the precipice of a content boom</a>.” </p>
<h2>Widening the lens</h2>
<p>As FX’s remake of “Shōgun” demonstrates, American viewers today apparently don’t need to be slowly introduced to Japanese culture by a European guide. </p>
<p>In the new series, Blackthorne is not even the sole protagonist.</p>
<p>Instead, he shares the spotlight with several Japanese characters, such as Lord Yoshi Toranaga, who no longer serves as a one-dimensional sidekick to Blackthorne, as he did in the original miniseries. </p>
<p>This change is facilitated by the fact that Japanese characters now communicate directly with the audience in Japanese, with English subtitles. In the 1980 miniseries, the Japanese dialogue went untranslated. There were English-speaking Japanese characters in the original, such as Blackthorne’s female translator, Mariko. But they spoke in a highly formalized, unrealistic English.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Japanese man wearing glasses and a suit." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583251/original/file-20240320-20-fql0t2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583251/original/file-20240320-20-fql0t2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=404&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583251/original/file-20240320-20-fql0t2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=404&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583251/original/file-20240320-20-fql0t2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=404&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583251/original/file-20240320-20-fql0t2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=508&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583251/original/file-20240320-20-fql0t2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=508&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583251/original/file-20240320-20-fql0t2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=508&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Actor Hiroyuki Sanada plays Lord Yoshi Toranaga in FX’s ‘Shōgun.’ Though Sanada’s character speaks in Japanese, there are English subtitles for viewers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/LAPremiereofShogun/b73143a975a7403bb99e91e837324d5d/photo?Query=Hiroyuki%20Sanada&mediaType=photo&sortBy=arrivaldatetime:desc&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=127&currentItemNo=6">AP Photo/Chris Pizzello</a></span>
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<p>Along with depicting authentic costumes, combat and gestures, the show’s Japanese characters speak using the native language of the early modern era instead of using the contemporary Japanese that made the 1980 series so unpopular among Japanese viewers. (Imagine a film on the American Revolution featuring George Washington speaking like Jimmy Kimmel.) </p>
<p>Of course, authenticity has its limits. The producers of both television series decided to adhere closely to the original novel. In doing so, they’re perhaps unwittingly reproducing certain stereotypes about Japan. </p>
<p>Most strikingly, there’s the fetishization of death, as several characters have a penchant for violence and sadism, while many others commit ritual suicide, <a href="https://theconversation.com/japans-most-famous-writer-committed-suicide-after-a-failed-coup-attempt-now-new-photos-add-more-layers-to-the-haunting-act-151903">or <em>seppuku</em></a>.</p>
<p>Part of this may have been simply a function of author Clavell being a self-professed “<a href="https://www.columbia.edu/%7Ehds2/learning/index.html">storyteller, not an historian</a>.” But this may have also reflected his experiences in World War II, when he spent three years in a Japanese prisoner of war camp. Still, <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1981/09/13/magazine/making-of-a-literary-shogun.html">as Clavell noted</a>, he came to deeply admire the Japanese. </p>
<p>His novel, as a whole, beautifully conveys this admiration. The two miniseries have, in my view, successfully followed suit, enthralling audiences in each of their times.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225427/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Constantine Nomikos Vaporis does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Compared to its 1980 predecessor, the new FX series presents a more authentic portrayal of early modern Japan.
Constantine Nomikos Vaporis, Professor of History, University of Maryland, Baltimore County
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/222571
2024-03-05T14:00:28Z
2024-03-05T14:00:28Z
Lithium-ion batteries don’t work well in the cold − a battery researcher explains the chemistry at low temperatures
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579001/original/file-20240229-20-z7oy0y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C2120%2C1414&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Why do batteries lose charge more quickly when it's cold? </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/man-charging-electric-car-in-front-his-cabin-in-royalty-free-image/1977511649?phrase=battery+cold&adppopup=true">Halfpoint Images/Moment</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Rechargeable batteries are great for storing energy and powering electronics from smartphones to electric vehicles. In cold environments, however, they can be more difficult to charge and may even catch on fire. </p>
<p>I’m a mechanical engineering professor who’s been interested in batteries since college. I now lead a <a href="https://research.drexel.edu/mem/changlab">battery research group</a> at Drexel University. </p>
<p>In just this past decade, I have watched the <a href="https://about.bnef.com/blog/lithium-ion-battery-pack-prices-hit-record-low-of-139-kwh/">price of lithium-ion batteries drop</a> as the production market <a href="https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2023/trends-in-batteries">has grown much larger</a>. Future projections predict the market could reach <a href="https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/automotive-and-assembly/our-insights/battery-2030-resilient-sustainable-and-circular">thousands of GWh per year by 2030</a>, a significant increase. </p>
<p>But, lithium-ion batteries aren’t perfect – this rise comes with risks, such as their tendency to slow down during cold weather and even catch on fire.</p>
<h2>Behind the Li-ion battery</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/electrochemical-energy-storage">electrochemical energy storage</a> within batteries works by storing electricity <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/ion-physics">in the form of ions</a>. Ions are atoms that have a nonzero charge because they have either too many or not enough electrons. </p>
<p>When you plug in your electric car or phone, the electricity provided by the outlet <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4-1psMHSpKs&ab_channel=TheLimitingFactor">drives these ions</a> from the battery’s positive electrode into its negative electrode. The electrodes are solid materials in a battery that can store ions, and all batteries have both a positive and a negative electrode. </p>
<p>Electrons pass through the battery as electricity. With each electron that passes to one electrode, a lithium ion also passes into the same electrode. This ensures the balance of charges in the battery. As you drive your car, the stored ions in the negative electrode move back to the positive electrode, and the resulting flow of electricity powers the motor. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578759/original/file-20240228-8828-q6kh1t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A diagram showing three boxes, one labeled cathode, one labeled electrolyte, and one labeled anode. Small circles representing lithium ions move to the anode to charge and the cathode to discharge." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578759/original/file-20240228-8828-q6kh1t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578759/original/file-20240228-8828-q6kh1t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578759/original/file-20240228-8828-q6kh1t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578759/original/file-20240228-8828-q6kh1t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578759/original/file-20240228-8828-q6kh1t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=708&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578759/original/file-20240228-8828-q6kh1t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=708&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578759/original/file-20240228-8828-q6kh1t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=708&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">When a lithium-ion battery delivers energy to a device, lithium ions – atoms that carry an electrical charge – move from the negative electrode, the anode, to the positive electrode, the cathode. The ions move in reverse when recharging.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/argonne/5029455937">Argonne National Laboratory</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>While AA or AAA batteries can power small electronics, they can be used only once and cannot be charged. Rechargeable Li-ion batteries can operate for thousands of cycles of full charge and discharge. For each cycle, they can also store a much higher amount of charge than an AA or AAA battery.</p>
<p>Since lithium is the lightest metal, it has a high <a href="https://doi.org/10.1039/C3EE40795K">specific capacity</a>, meaning it can store a <a href="https://chang-lab.notion.site/How-To-Become-a-Battery-Expert-20a8edebe395403c9a158d7caca06ef4?pvs=4">huge amount of charge per weight</a>. This is why lithium-ion batteries are useful not just for portable electronics but for powering modes of transportation with limited weight or volume, such as electric cars. </p>
<h2>Battery fires</h2>
<p>However, lithium-ion batteries have risks that AA or AAA batteries don’t. For one, they’re more likely to catch on fire. For example, the number of <a href="https://gothamist.com/news/e-bike-battery-fires-keep-climbing-in-nyc">electric bike battery fires</a> reported in New York City has increased from 30 to nearly 300 in the past five years. </p>
<p>Lots of different issues can cause a battery fire. Poorly manufactured cells could contain defects, such as trace impurities or particles left behind from the manufacturing process, that increase the risk of an internal failure. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578754/original/file-20240228-30-b8mmfs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A car in a garage is on fire with the door cracked open, a firefighter carrying a hose runs towards it." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578754/original/file-20240228-30-b8mmfs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578754/original/file-20240228-30-b8mmfs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578754/original/file-20240228-30-b8mmfs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578754/original/file-20240228-30-b8mmfs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578754/original/file-20240228-30-b8mmfs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=497&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578754/original/file-20240228-30-b8mmfs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=497&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578754/original/file-20240228-30-b8mmfs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=497&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles have a higher risk of catching on fire when it’s cold out.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/ElectricCarsBatteryFires/0624a4c4cadb4ee0be42d58b8aab0161/photo?Query=ev%20battery%20fire&mediaType=photo&sortBy=&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=300&digitizationType=Digitized&currentItemNo=0&vs=true&vs=true">Orange County Sheriff’s Department/National Transportation Safety Board via AP</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Climate can also affect battery operation. <a href="https://about.bnef.com/electric-vehicle-outlook/">Electric vehicle sales</a> have increased across the U.S., particularly in cold regions such as the Northeast and Midwest, where the frigid temperatures can hinder battery performance. </p>
<p>Batteries contain fluids called electrolytes, and cold temperatures cause fluids to flow more slowly. So, the electrolytes in batteries slow and thicken in the cold, causing the lithium ions inside to move slower. This slowdown can prevent the lithium ions from properly inserting into the electrodes. Instead, they may deposit on the electrode surface and form <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xcrp.2020.100035">lithium metal</a>. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/G_TCFgEdEGc?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The molecules in fluids move slower at colder temperatures – the same thing happens inside batteries.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>If too much lithium deposits on the electrode’s surface during charging, it may cause an internal short circuit. This process can <a href="https://theconversation.com/lithium-ion-battery-fires-are-a-growing-public-safety-concern-heres-how-to-reduce-the-risk-209359">start a battery fire</a>.</p>
<h2>Making safer batteries</h2>
<p><a href="https://research.coe.drexel.edu/mem/changlab">My research group</a>, along with many others, is studying how to make batteries that operate more efficiently in the cold. </p>
<p>For example, researchers are exploring swapping out the usual battery electrolyte and replacing it with an alternative electrolyte that doesn’t thicken at cold temperatures. Another potential option is <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate-solutions/2024/01/19/electric-vehicle-battery-cold/">heating up the battery pack</a> before charging so that the charging process occurs at a warmer temperature. </p>
<p>My group is also investigating new types of batteries beyond lithium ion. These could be battery types that are more stable at wider temperature ranges, types that don’t even use liquid electrolytes at all, or batteries that use sodium instead of lithium. <a href="https://www.technologyreview.com/2023/05/11/1072865/how-sodium-could-change-the-game-for-batteries/">Sodium-ion batteries</a> could work well and cost less, as sodium is a very abundant resource.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-023-01208-9">Solid-state batteries</a> use solid electrolytes that aren’t flammable, which reduces the risk of fire. But these batteries don’t work quite as well as Li-ion batteries, so it’ll take more research to tell whether these are a good option.</p>
<p>Lithium-ion batteries power technologies that people across the country use every day, and research in these areas aims to find solutions that will make this technology even safer for the consumer.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222571/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Wesley Chang receives funding from Solid Energy Systems, Inc., Electric Power Research Institute, Drexel University. Wesley Chang consults for The Electrochemical Society. </span></em></p>
Electric vehicles are catching on across the US, but they’re also catching on fire in colder regions like the Northeast and Midwest.
Wesley Chang, Assistant Professor of Mechanical Engineering and Mechanics, Drexel University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/222670
2024-02-28T16:18:15Z
2024-02-28T16:18:15Z
‘Urban mines’: how to unlock our electronic junk’s potential
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573118/original/file-20230927-21-ul4bm0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=6%2C18%2C2038%2C1410&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Could this heap of junk prevent us from having to open a new mine?</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Hellebardius</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Instead of developing new mining infrastructures, what if we recovered the metal deposits contained in the electronic objects we no longer use, such as smartphones or computers? There are very good reasons for focusing on the potential of these <a href="https://theconversation.com/recycler-100-des-metaux-un-objectif-atteignable-192573">“urban mines”</a>, also known as secondary mines to distinguish them from the “primary” mines where resources in the ground are exploited directly.</p>
<h2>A strategic challenge for the European Union</h2>
<p>Not only would these alternative resources address a shortage of mining infrastructure, they could also help to slash <a href="https://theconversation.com/le-volume-de-dechets-electroniques-explose-et-leur-taux-de-recyclage-reste-ridicule-143701">electronic waste</a>, otherwise known as “e-waste”. The fastest-growing waste stream in the world, electronic junk wreaks havoc on ecosystems around the globe and poses a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0048969720332654">major threat to health</a> by leaching toxic substances into the land and water, especially in Asia.</p>
<p>Better recycling electronic items could also reduce mining’s high environmental impact. In fact, for some metals, recycling is more energy efficient than mining. Extracting aluminium through recycling, for example, requires <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11837-021-04802-y">10 to 15 times less energy</a> than primary production.</p>
<p>The issue is especially important as several of the recyclable metals are critical resources for the European Union’s twin transitions to a digital and net-zero economy. Deposits such as lithium, cobalt, nickel and rare earths are essential for the production of electronics, electric vehicles and renewable energy components such as solar panels. Yet they are barely exploited in the bloc and exposed to a high risk of supply tensions. To this end, since 2011, the European Union has assessed and released every three years a list of critical raw minerals that should constitute a priority for urban mining.</p>
<p>The fifth list, <a href="https://single-market-economy.ec.europa.eu/sectors/raw-materials/areas-specific-interest/critical-raw-materials_en">published in 2023</a>, identified 34 critical metals, including rare earth elements, lithium, copper, and nickel. Unfortunately, the gap between the European Union’s recommendations and urban mining practices is glaringly obvious.</p>
<h2>A life cycle riddled with obstacles to recycling</h2>
<p>An object’s recovery potential is limited at every stage of its life cycle by technical, organisational, regulatory, and economic obstacles. From its very design, certain practices limit its metals’ recyclability, such as the use of metals in particular alloys, since not <a href="https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/39534359/Design_for_Recycling_Evaluation_and_Effi20151029-964-yq8ltw-libre.pdf">all alloys can be recycled</a>, or hybridisation, since <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0255270111002029">composite materials are harder – not impossible – to recycle</a>. For instance, for liquid food packaging, most cartons are made from cardboard and PolyAl, a blend of aluminium and polyethylene (a type of plastic).</p>
<p>For many years, the cardboard from food cartons was recovered and recycled, but not the PolyAl, leading to incomplete recycling. In this specific case, the companies Tetra Pak and Recon Polymers ultimately developed a separation process, opening a <a href="https://www.usinenouvelle.com/article/un-nouveau-debouche-pour-le-polyal.N1217752">recycling plant specifically for PolyAl in 2021</a>. But many other products continue to be difficult to recycle, precisely because this aspect was not taken into account at the design stage.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.cairn-sciences.info/quel-futur-pour-les-metaux--9782759809011-page-287.htm"><em>Dispersive uses</em></a>, which involve using small quantities of metals in products to modify their properties, are another practice that evades recycling. Take silver nanoparticles: their industrial application ranges from the disinfection of medical equipment, water treatment, to odour prevention in textiles. Likewise, a few grams of dysprosium, a rare earth metal, may also be used to boost magnets’ pull. In sum, some metals boast so many applications that it is impossible to ensure their circularity.</p>
<h2>Electronic hibernation – abandoning our devices in the attic</h2>
<p>Once objects have been designed and used, there is a second obstacle, which stems from consumers, who tend to hold on to their electronic objects, whether they work or not, rather than dropping them at a specific recycling facility. This phenomenon is known as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0956053X16307607"><em>electronic hibernation</em></a>. As far back as 2009, a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0301479709001637">pioneering study</a> estimated that American households stored an average of 6.5 hibernating electronic items in their attics and basements. This figure has increased exponentially over the years.</p>
<p>In 2021, a <a href="https://www.gstatic.com/gumdrop/sustainability/electronics-hibernation.pdf">study conducted by Google</a> identified seven key barriers preventing consumers from recycling their electronic devices:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Low awareness of existing handoff options (recycling)</p></li>
<li><p>Expectations regarding financial or social compensation</p></li>
<li><p>Device nostalgia</p></li>
<li><p>Desire to keep spare products</p></li>
<li><p>Data retrieval factors</p></li>
<li><p>Desire to ensure data removal</p></li>
<li><p>Inconvenience of handoff options.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>A more recent study <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921800922003962">conducted in Switzerland</a> tempers these results slightly: 40% of respondents said they would be willing to part with their old cell phone for less than five dollars. However, it would be interesting to conduct the same survey in countries less wealthy than Switzerland.</p>
<p>Finally, the third stumbling block concerns collection systems and recycling infrastructures. In France, from where I write, most targeted waste channels (electronic waste, packaging, tires, etc.) are run by eco-organisations, private bodies that have either organisational or financial responsibility. These are regularly embroiled in controversy: analyses indicate that the <a href="https://www.cairn.info/revue-mouvements-2016-3-page-82.htm">material recovery of waste flows managed by eco-organisations is often suboptimal</a>, in particular because of their profitability objectives.</p>
<h2>Engaging engineers, designers, politicians, and consumers</h2>
<p>Despite these obstacles, a number of initiatives aim to support companies in their eco-design efforts, including the <a href="https://upcyclea.com/en/cradle-to-cradle/">cradle to cradle</a>, which encourages companies to maintain “the quality of raw materials throughout the multiple life cycles of the product and its components.”</p>
<p>Beyond such schemes, however, <a href="https://www.cairn.info/revue-flux-2017-2-page-51.htm">every participant</a> in the value chain needs to examine their responsibility in waste:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>For engineers and product designers, this means adopting a more sustainable approach to design, taking into account the entire product life cycle right from the beginning of the design stage: it is the purpose of eco-design and eco-conception.</p></li>
<li><p>Companies, meanwhile, need to take a longer-term approach rather than focusing exclusively on short-term profitability, particularly in a context of volatile metal prices.</p></li>
<li><p>For consumers, this means greater awareness of the need to sort waste for disposal in specific channels, particularly electronic waste.</p></li>
<li><p>And finally, governments and local authorities would do well to put in place regulations tailored to the sector’s complexity, potentially including ambitious targets for specific recycling rates by type of metal, as well as some form of territorial planning to better coordinate flows. Ensuring that <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0921344916300283">recycling facilities more accessible</a> is also a key factor in promoting good recycling behaviours.</p></li>
</ul>
<h2>The difficulty of moving toward a circular economy</h2>
<p>We have not yet ventured to report metal recycling rates. One of them, the end-of-life recycling rate (EOL-RR), refers to the percentage of discarded metal that is recycled. Another indicator, the recycled content (RC), considers the proportion of recycled metal in total metal production.</p>
<p>Not surprisingly, these two indicators give very different recycling rates. For instance, chromium (Cr), copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) have a life recycling rate of <a href="https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/8702/Recycling_Metals.pdf">over 50%</a>, which means that more than half of the quantities put into circulation are recycled. However, their recycled content is <a href="https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/8702/Recycling_Metals.pdf">between 10 and 25%</a>, as primary extraction of these metals is constantly increasing: the share of recycled metal in the total flows therefore remains low.</p>
<p>Consequently, even if we were able to achieve an optimal exploitation of urban mining deposits and high recycling rates for all metals (measured in EOL-RR), we would still be a long way from a circular economy, as demand for metals continues to rise exponentially. For instance, global production of copper (Cu) has almost doubled since 2000, rising from <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/254917/total-global-copper-production-since-2006/">14 to 25 million metric tons/year</a>.</p>
<p>The effective recycling of metals contained in urban mines is therefore a necessary, but not sufficient condition for a truly circular economy. We will need to see a significant decrease in the volume of mineral resources used in industry before urban mining can partially replace, rather than add to, the exploitation of primary deposits.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222670/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Fanny Verrax ne travaille pas, ne conseille pas, ne possède pas de parts, ne reçoit pas de fonds d'une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n'a déclaré aucune autre affiliation que son organisme de recherche.</span></em></p>
Mining precious metals is expensive and environmentally destructive. As an alternative, researchers are increasingly eyeing recycling old smartphones, computers and other electronics.
Fanny Verrax, Associate professor in Ecological Transition and Social Entrepreneurship, EM Lyon Business School
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/222667
2024-02-06T13:28:37Z
2024-02-06T13:28:37Z
Self-extinguishing batteries could reduce the risk of deadly and costly battery fires
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573199/original/file-20240203-17-od3sxj.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=7%2C3%2C1270%2C674&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Cutaway view of a Nissan Leaf electric vehicle showing part of its battery array (silver boxes).</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_vehicle_battery#/media/File:Nissan_Leaf_012.JPG">Tennen-gas/Wikipedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-024-01275-0">newly published study</a>, we describe our design for a self-extinguishing rechargeable battery. It replaces the most commonly used electrolyte, which is highly combustible – a medium composed of a lithium salt and an organic solvent – with materials found in a commercial fire extinguisher. </p>
<p>An electrolyte allows lithium ions that carry an electric charge to move across a separator between the positive and negative terminals of a lithium-ion battery. By modifying affordable commercial coolants to function as battery electrolytes, we were able to produce a battery that puts out its own fire.</p>
<p>Our electrolyte worked well across a wide temperature range, from about minus 100 to 175 degrees Fahrenheit (minus 75 to 80 degrees Celsius). Batteries that we produced in the lab with this electrolyte transferred heat away from the battery very well, and extinguished internal fires effectively. </p>
<p>We subjected these batteries to the nail penetration test, a common method for assessing lithium-ion battery safety. Driving a <a href="https://belltestchamber.com/why-do-we-need-to-do-the-nail-penetration-test.html">stainless steel nail through a charged battery</a> simulates an internal short circuit; if the battery catches fire, it fails the test. When we drove a nail through our charged batteries, they withstood the impact without catching fire.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549855/original/file-20230924-27-91vn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Infographic showing the parts of lithium-ion battery" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549855/original/file-20230924-27-91vn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549855/original/file-20230924-27-91vn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549855/original/file-20230924-27-91vn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549855/original/file-20230924-27-91vn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549855/original/file-20230924-27-91vn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=708&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549855/original/file-20230924-27-91vn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=708&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549855/original/file-20230924-27-91vn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=708&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">When a lithium-ion battery delivers energy to a device, lithium ions – atoms that carry an electrical charge – move from the anode to the cathode. The ions move in reverse when recharging.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/8Erh2x">Argonne National Laboratory/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p>By nature, a battery’s temperature changes as it charges and discharges, due to <a href="https://data.energizer.com/pdfs/batteryir.pdf">internal resistance</a> – opposition within the battery to the flow of lithium ions. <a href="https://www.latimes.com/business/story/2023-07-13/how-a-heat-wave-will-hurt-your-ev-battery">High outdoor temperatures</a> or uneven temperatures within a battery pack seriously threaten batteries’ safety and durability. </p>
<p>Energy-dense batteries, such as the lithium-ion versions that are widely used in electronics and electric vehicles, contain an electrolyte formulation dominated by organic molecules that are highly flammable. This worsens the risk of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/thermal-runaway">thermal runaway</a> – an uncontrollable process in which excess heat inside a battery speeds up unwanted chemical reactions that release more heat, triggering further reactions. Temperatures inside the battery can rise by hundreds of degrees in a second, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kHTlVmBbnPA&t=5s">causing a fire or explosion</a>.</p>
<p>Another safety concern arises when lithium-ion batteries are charged too quickly. This can cause chemical reactions that produce very sharp lithium needles called dendrites on the battery’s anode – the electrode with a negative charge. Eventually, the needles penetrate the separator and reach the other electrode, short-circuiting the battery internally and leading to overheating.</p>
<p>As scientists studying <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=jCXInTYAAAAJ&hl=en">energy generation</a>, <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=KsW8rMMAAAAJ&hl=en">storage and conversion</a>, we have a strong interest in developing energy-dense and safe batteries. Replacing flammable electrolytes with a flame-retardant electrolyte has the potential to make lithium-ion batteries safer, and can buy time for longer-term improvements that reduce inherent risks of overheating and thermal runaway. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/5oX4r6DUsjI?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Lithium-ion battery fires in vehicles have become a major concern for firefighters because the batteries burn at very high temperatures for long periods.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>How we did our work</h2>
<p>We wanted to develop an electrolyte that was nonflammable, would readily transfer heat away from the battery pack, could function over a wide temperature range, was very durable, and would be compatible with any battery chemistry. However, most known nonflammable organic solvents contain fluorine and phosphorus, which are expensive and can have <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/phosphorus-and-water">harmful effects</a> <a href="https://www.stormwater.com/home/article/21146477/examining-the-impact-of-fluorine-on-soil-and-plant-health">on the environment</a>.</p>
<p>Instead, we focused on adapting affordable commercial coolants that already were widely used in fire extinguishers, electronic testing and cleaning applications, so that they could function as battery electrolytes. </p>
<p>We focused on a mature, safe and affordable commercial fluid called <a href="https://www.3m.com/3M/en_US/p/d/b40044871/">Novec 7300</a>, which has low toxicity, is nonflammable and does not contribute to global warming. By combining this fluid with several other chemicals that added durability, we were able to produce an electrolyte that had the features we sought and would enable a battery to charge and discharge over a full year without losing significant capacity. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/_pcqC4PLbQg?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Standard lithium-ion batteries failing the nail penetration test.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What still isn’t known</h2>
<p>Because lithium – an alkali metal - is scarce in our Earth’s crust, it is important to investigate how well batteries that use other, more abundant alkali metal ions, such as potassium or sodium, fare in comparison. For this reason, our study focused predominantly on self-extinguishing potassium-ion batteries, although it also showed that our electrolyte works well for making self-extinguishing lithium-ion batteries. </p>
<p>It remains to be seen whether our electrolyte can work equally well for other types of batteries that are in development, such as <a href="https://www.pnnl.gov/news-media/new-sodium-aluminum-battery-aims-integrate-renewables-grid-resiliency">sodium-ion, aluminum-ion</a> and <a href="https://www.technologyreview.com/2023/09/06/1079123/zinc-batteries-boost-eos/">zinc-ion</a> batteries. Our goal is to develop practical, environmentally friendly, sustainable batteries regardless of their ion type. </p>
<p>For now, however, since our alternative electrolyte has similar physical properties to currently used electrolytes, it can be readily integrated with current battery production lines. If the industry embraces it, we expect that companies will be able to manufacture nonflammable batteries using their existing lithium-ion battery facilities.</p>
<p><em>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/research-brief-83231">Research Brief</a> is a short take on interesting academic work.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222667/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Apparao Rao receives funding from the R. A. Bowen Endowed Professorship funds at Clemson University.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bingan Lu does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Lithium-ion battery fires are becoming increasingly common as electric vehicles spread, and are hard to extinguish. A new approach uses an electrolyte based on a commercial fire extinguisher.
Apparao Rao, Professor of Physics, Clemson University
Bingan Lu, Associate Professor of Physics and Electronics, Hunan University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/209359
2023-09-26T12:24:07Z
2023-09-26T12:24:07Z
Lithium-ion battery fires are a growing public safety concern − here’s how to reduce the risk
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549853/original/file-20230924-31-w9syu7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=17%2C35%2C5973%2C3952&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">In June 2023, a fire started at this e-bike shop in New York City and spread to upper floors of the building.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/EBikeBatteriesFires/832138180d9d4e699f17a2629753f9fd/photo">AP Photo/Bebeto Matthews</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In today’s electronic age, rechargeable lithium-ion batteries are ubiquitous. Compared with the lead-acid versions that have dominated the battery market for decades, lithium-ion batteries can charge faster and store more energy for the same amount of weight.</p>
<p>These devices make our electronic gadgets and electric cars lighter and longer-lasting – but they also have disadvantages. They contain a lot of energy, and if they catch fire, they burn until all of that stored energy is released. A sudden release of huge amounts of energy can lead to explosions that threaten lives and property.</p>
<p>As scientists who study <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=jCXInTYAAAAJ&hl=en">energy generation</a>, <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=KsW8rMMAAAAJ&hl=en">storage</a> and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=z7C3_h8AAAAJ&hl=en">conversion</a>, and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=4WwXknoAAAAJ&hl=en">automotive engineering</a>, we have a strong interest in the development of batteries that are energy-dense and safe. And we see encouraging signs that battery manufacturers are making progress toward solving this significant technical problem.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/yRPW8zN_c0E?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Avoiding overcharging is one way to reduce the risk of lithium-ion battery fires.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A new fire hazard</h2>
<p>Urban transportation is undergoing a transformative shift toward electrification. As concerns grow in cities around the world about climate change and air quality, <a href="https://theconversation.com/boosting-ev-market-share-to-67-of-us-car-sales-is-a-huge-leap-but-automakers-can-meet-epas-tough-new-standards-203663">electric vehicles</a> have taken center stage. </p>
<p>At the same time, e-bikes and electric scooters are transforming urban transit by providing convenient, low-carbon ways to navigate crowded streets and reduce traffic congestion. From 2010 through 2022, shared e-bikes and e-scooters – those owned by rental networks – accounted for <a href="https://nacto.org/2022/12/01/half-a-billion-rides-on-shared-bikes-and-scooters/">more than half a billion trips</a> in U.S. cities. Privately owned e-bikes add to that total: In 2021, <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/electric-bike-sustainable-transportation">more than 880,000 e-bikes were sold in the U.S.</a>, compared with 608,000 electric cars and trucks. </p>
<p>Battery-powered vehicles account for <a href="https://www.vox.com/the-highlight/2023/1/17/23470878/tesla-fires-evs-florida-hurricane-batteries-lithium-ion">a small share</a> of car fires, but <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/lithium-ion-battery-fires-electric-cars-bikes-scooters-firefighters/">controlling EV fires is difficult</a>. Typically, an EV fire burns at roughly 5,000 degrees Fahrenheit (2,760 Celsius), while a gasoline-powered vehicle on fire burns at 1,500 F (815 C). It takes about 2,000 gallons of water to extinguish a burning gasoline-powered vehicle; putting out an EV fire can take <a href="https://www.bostonglobe.com/2023/01/20/metro/tesla-fire-takes-over-two-hours-20000-gallons-water-extinguish-after-wakefield-crash-police-say/">10 times more</a>.</p>
<p>This is a major concern in large cities where electric vehicles are popular. Fire departments in New York City and San Francisco report handling <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/lithium-ion-battery-fires-electric-cars-bikes-scooters-firefighters/">more than 660 fires</a> involving lithium-ion batteries since 2019. In New York City, these fires caused <a href="https://www.nyc.gov/office-of-the-mayor/news/195-23/mayor-adams-plan-combat-lithium-ion-battery-fires-promote-safe-electric-micromobility#/0">12 deaths and more than 260 injuries</a> from 2021 through early 2023. Clearly, there is a need for safer handling and charging practices, as well as technical improvements to batteries.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549854/original/file-20230924-27-qr7gss.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An e-bike with an Uber Eats bag hanging from the handlebars leans against a building." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549854/original/file-20230924-27-qr7gss.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549854/original/file-20230924-27-qr7gss.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549854/original/file-20230924-27-qr7gss.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549854/original/file-20230924-27-qr7gss.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549854/original/file-20230924-27-qr7gss.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549854/original/file-20230924-27-qr7gss.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549854/original/file-20230924-27-qr7gss.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">E-bikes are popular for urban delivery services, which means that many users rely on them for income.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/uber-eats-electric-bike-parked-on-sidewalk-manhattan-new-news-photo/1428511600">Lindsey Nicholson/UCG/Universal Images Group via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Many batteries in an EV</h2>
<p>To understand lithium-ion battery fires, it’s important to know some basics. A battery holds chemicals that contain energy, with a separator between its positive and negative electrodes. It works by <a href="https://engineering.mit.edu/engage/ask-an-engineer/how-does-a-battery-work/">converting this energy into electricity</a>.</p>
<p>The two electrodes in a battery are surrounded by an electrolyte – a substance that allows an electrical charge to flow between the two terminals. In a lithium-ion battery, for example, lithium ions carry the electric charge. When a device is connected to a battery, chemical reactions take place on the electrodes and create a flow of electrons in the external circuit that powers the device.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549855/original/file-20230924-27-91vn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Infographic showing the parts of lithium-ion battery" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549855/original/file-20230924-27-91vn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549855/original/file-20230924-27-91vn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549855/original/file-20230924-27-91vn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549855/original/file-20230924-27-91vn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549855/original/file-20230924-27-91vn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=708&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549855/original/file-20230924-27-91vn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=708&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549855/original/file-20230924-27-91vn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=708&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">When a lithium-ion battery delivers energy to a device, lithium ions – atoms that carry an electrical charge – move from the anode to the cathode. The ions move in reverse when recharging.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/8Erh2x">Argonne National Laboratory/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Cellphones and digital cameras can operate on a single battery, but an electric car needs much more energy and power. Depending on its design, an EV may contain <a href="https://www.samsungsdi.com/column/all/detail/54344.html">dozens to thousands of single batteries</a>, which are known as cells. Cells are clustered together in sets called modules, which in turn are assembled together in packs. A standard EV will contain one large battery pack with many cells inside it.</p>
<h2>What causes battery fires</h2>
<p>Typically, a battery fire <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41557-023-01254-6">starts in a single cell</a> inside a larger battery pack. There are three main reasons for a battery to ignite: mechanical harm, such as crushing or penetration when vehicles collide; electrical harm from an external or internal <a href="https://www.thespruce.com/what-causes-short-circuits-4118973">short circuit</a>; or overheating. </p>
<p>Battery short circuits may be caused by faulty external handling or unwanted chemical reactions within the battery cell. When lithium-ion batteries are charged too quickly, chemical reactions can produce very sharp lithium needles called dendrites on the battery’s anode – the electrode with a negative charge. Eventually, they penetrate the separator and reach the other electrode, short-circuiting the battery internally. </p>
<p>Such short circuits heat the battery cell to over 212 F (100 C). The battery’s temperature rises slowly at first and then all at once, spiking to its peak temperature in about one second. </p>
<p>Another factor that makes lithium-ion battery fires challenging to handle is oxygen generation. When the metal oxides in a battery’s cathode, or positively charged electrode, are heated, they <a href="https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/1526722">decompose and release oxygen gas</a>. Fires need oxygen to burn, so a battery that can create oxygen can sustain a fire. </p>
<p>Because of the electrolyte’s nature, a 20% increase in a lithium-ion battery’s temperature causes some unwanted chemical reactions to occur much faster, which releases excessive heat. This excess heat increases the battery temperature, which in turn speeds up the reactions. The increased battery temperature increases the reaction rate, creating a process called <a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/first-xray-views-into-overheating-lithiumion-batteries">thermal runaway</a>. When this happens, the temperature in a battery can rise from 212 F (100 C) to 1,800 F (1000 C) in a second. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/kHTlVmBbnPA?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">In thermal runaway, a lithium-ion battery enters an uncontrollable, self-heating state that can lead to fire or explosion.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Managing the thermal runaway problem</h2>
<p>Methods to ensure battery safety can focus on conditions outside or inside of the battery. External protection typically involves using electronic devices, like temperature sensors and pressure valves, to ensure that the battery isn’t subjected to heat or force that could cause an accident.</p>
<p>However, these mechanisms make the battery larger and heavier, which can reduce the performance of the device it powers. And they may not be reliable under extreme temperatures or pressures, such as those produced in a car crash.</p>
<p>Internal protection strategies focus on using intrinsically safe materials for battery components. This approach offers an opportunity to address potential hazards at their source.</p>
<p>Making a thermal runaway in a battery pack less intense requires a mix of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ensm.2017.05.013">software and hardware improvements</a>. Scientists are working to develop cathodes that release less oxygen when they break down; nonflammable electrolytes; <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-023-01178-3">solid-state electrolytes</a>, which do not catch fire and also may help alleviate dendrite growth; and separators that can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202302280">withstand high temperatures without melting</a>. </p>
<p>Another solution is already in use: <a href="https://www.synopsys.com/glossary/what-is-a-battery-management-system.html">battery management systems</a>. These are hardware and software packages built into battery packs that can monitor vital battery parameters, such as the state of charge, internal pressure and the temperature of the cells in the battery pack. </p>
<p>Just as a physician uses a patient’s symptoms to diagnose and treat their illness, battery management systems can diagnose conditions within the battery pack and make autonomous decisions to shut off batteries with hot spots, or to alter the load distribution so that any individual battery does not get too hot. </p>
<p>Battery chemistries are evolving rapidly, so new designs will require new battery management systems. Many battery producers are <a href="https://www.graphene-info.com/nanotech-energy-soteria-battery-innovation-group-and-voltaplex-energy-join">forming partnerships</a> that bring together manufacturers with complementary battery expertise to tackle this challenge. </p>
<p>Users can also take steps to <a href="https://www.usfa.fema.gov/prevention/vehicle-fires/electric-vehicles/">maximize safety</a>. Use manufacturer-recommended charging equipment and outlets, and avoid overcharging or leaving an EV plugged in overnight. Inspect the battery regularly for signs of damage or overheating. Park the vehicle <a href="https://www.latimes.com/business/story/2023-07-13/how-a-heat-wave-will-hurt-your-ev-battery">away from extremely hot or cold surroundings</a> – for example, park in shade during heat waves – to prevent thermal stress on the battery. </p>
<p>Finally, in the event of a collision or accident involving an EV, follow the manufacturer’s safety protocols and disconnect the battery if possible to minimize the risk of fire or electrocution.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/209359/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Lithium-ion batteries power many electric cars, bikes and scooters. When they are damaged or overheated, they can ignite or explode. Four engineers explain how to handle these devices safely.
Apparao Rao, Professor of Physics, Clemson University
Bingan Lu, Associate Professor of Physics and Electronics, Hunan University
Mihir Parekh, Postdoctoral Fellow in Physics and Astronomy, Clemson University
Morteza Sabet, Research Assistant Professor of Automotive Engineering, Clemson University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/209156
2023-07-07T14:44:47Z
2023-07-07T14:44:47Z
China’s gallium and germanium controls: what they mean and what could happen next
<p>From August, China is to <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-66093114">restrict exports</a> of gallium and germanium, two critical elements for making semiconductor chips. With China dominating the supply of both elements, exporters will now need special licences to get them out of the country. The move has the potential to harm a range of western tech manufacturers that use these elements to make their products. </p>
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<p>The move is <a href="https://edition.cnn.com/2023/03/08/tech/dutch-china-chips-ban-hnk-intl/index.html">reportedly in response</a> to western restrictions of equipment vital for making semiconductor devices (and <a href="https://theconversation.com/clampdown-on-chip-exports-is-the-most-consequential-us-move-against-china-yet-192738">was forewarned</a> in an previous article in The Conversation). Above all, the <a href="https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/public-sector/our-insights/the-chips-and-science-act-heres-whats-in-it">US CHIPS and Science Act</a> of 2022 curtailed exports of high-end microchips and technology to China, potentially affecting Beijing’s capacity for high-performance computing in areas such as defence. <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-66093114">Other nations</a> such as Japan and the Netherlands have also imposed restrictions. </p>
<p>So how important are the new Chinese restrictions and what are the implications likely to be?</p>
<h2>The importance of gallium and germanium</h2>
<p>Silicon is the most widely used material in semiconductors, and is very abundant. But germanium and gallium have specific properties that are hard to replicate and lend themselves to <a href="https://foreignpolicy.com/2023/07/06/china-tech-us-metal-export-yellen-gallium-germanium/">certain niche applications</a>. These get incorporated into countless devices such as smartphones, laptops, solar panels and medical equipment, as well as defence applications. </p>
<p>Both elements are also crucial to technological advancement over the next few years. Germanium is particularly useful in space technologies such as solar cells because it is <a href="https://www.umicore.com/en/newsroom/powering-up-space-stations-with-germanium/#:%7E:text=Since%20germanium%20is%20more%20resistant,from%2015%20to%2020%20years.">more resistant</a> to cosmic radiation than silicon. With the physical limits of silicon being approached in some technologies, increased use of germanium <a href="https://theconversation.com/with-silicon-pushed-to-its-limits-what-will-power-the-next-electronics-revolution-46287">is mooted</a> as a way of overcoming these limits. <a href="https://theconversation.com/with-silicon-pushed-to-its-limits-what-will-power-the-next-electronics-revolution-46287">It is already used</a> in small quantities in some semiconductors to improve things like electron flow and thermal conductivity. </p>
<p>As for gallium, 95% of it is used in a material called gallium arsenide, which is used in semiconductors with higher performance and lower power-consumption applications than silicon. These are <a href="https://think.ing.com/articles/china-strikes-back-in-the-tech-war-restricting-exports-of-gallium-and-germanium/#:%7E:text=About%2095%25%20of%20all%20gallium,pressure%20sensors%20for%20touch%20switches.">used in things</a> like blue and violet LEDs and microwave devices.</p>
<p>Meanwhile, gallium nitride is used in semiconductors in components for things like electric vehicles, sensors, high-end radio communications, LEDs and Blu-Ray players. Its use <a href="https://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/gan-gallium-nitride-semiconductor-devices-market">is expected</a> to grow significantly.</p>
<p>Both gallium and germanium are on the <a href="https://single-market-economy.ec.europa.eu/sectors/raw-materials/areas-specific-interest/critical-raw-materials_en">European Union</a> and <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/news/national-news-release/us-geological-survey-releases-2022-list-critical-minerals">US lists</a> of critical elements. The <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/uk-critical-mineral-strategy/resilience-for-the-future-the-uks-critical-minerals-strategy">UK considers</a> gallium to be critical to its manufacturing interests, though <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1097298/resilience_for_the_future_the_uks_critical_minerals_strategy.pdf">sees germanium</a> as less important. </p>
<h2>Where they come from</h2>
<p>China controls about <a href="https://www.reuters.com/markets/commodities/where-are-strategic-materials-germanium-gallium-produced-2023-07-04/">60% of</a> all germanium supplies. The element is derived in two main ways, as a by-product of zinc production and from coal. These respectively account for <a href="https://www.crmalliance.eu/germanium">about 75%</a> and <a href="https://www.crmalliance.eu/germanium">25% of</a> the total supply. China dominates germanium that comes from zinc production. The US is one of the alternative suppliers, with deposits in Alaska and Tennessee and additional refining capacity in Canada. But as it stands, the US is still <a href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2023/mcs2023-germanium.pdf">over 50% reliant</a> on imported germanium. </p>
<p>Germanium from coal has several drawbacks. Two of the main producers are Russia and Ukraine, and the war <a href="https://americanaffairsjournal.org/2022/08/russia-ukraine-and-the-critical-materials-energy-nexus/">has affected</a> supplies to the west from both countries. In the years 2017-20, <a href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2022/mcs2022-germanium.pdf">Russia was supplying 9%</a> of the US germanium requirement, for instance, but this is now likely to have stopped. In response to the Chinese restrictions, Russia plans to <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/russia-metals/update-1-russias-rostec-says-ready-to-boost-germanium-output-for-domestic-market-idINL1N38R15L">increase germanium production</a> for its domestic market. This may at least alleviate global demand, even if it won’t help the west directly. </p>
<p>Germanium from coal is also <a href="https://www.waferworld.com/post/modern-sources-of-germanium">at the mercy</a> of the power industry, since <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1383586621006912?casa_token=t-zP7ZH26V8AAAAA:4RGyCuDjClhRHikBL7S-ytHbfTAXik_QBXc-LYXItLrCdSSsJ-9WqVlj_CD3T4OGY3pnojnWY_8">certain coals</a> rich in the element are burned as an energy source. In addition, germanium from coal will become more difficult as much of the world seeks to <a href="https://theconversation.com/winds-of-change-britain-now-generates-twice-as-much-electricity-from-wind-as-coal-89598">phase out coal power</a>, which again could tighten supplies. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536314/original/file-20230707-15-c9ygua.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An open coal pit" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536314/original/file-20230707-15-c9ygua.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536314/original/file-20230707-15-c9ygua.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536314/original/file-20230707-15-c9ygua.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536314/original/file-20230707-15-c9ygua.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536314/original/file-20230707-15-c9ygua.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536314/original/file-20230707-15-c9ygua.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536314/original/file-20230707-15-c9ygua.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Germanium from coal has an uncertain future.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/coal-mining-open-pit-637050169">Mark Agnor</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>With gallium, China accounts for around <a href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2021/mcs2021-gallium.pdf">80% of</a> the world supply, deriving it mainly from aluminium production. There’s actually no shortage of gallium, but even before the new controls, the supply was restricted by a lack of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301420715001233?casa_token=7Rbj3TAQXzUAAAAA:DdHBJgDqiIbNqTy4TpfkQsJWaUAhmqbJm6mPcpDpX2IhVGJ-K-sYZXCztaPxetQ-BmmiBwaIxaU">production capacity</a>.</p>
<p>Gallium is also obtained by recycling <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781118755341.ch7">semiconductor wafers</a>, which are thin slices of semiconductor used in electronic circuits. But once the circuits are integrated into products, the quantities of gallium in each one are so small that it becomes challenging to recycle. A <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-021-27829-w">Nature Communications paper in 2022</a> noted that gallium is “almost never functionally recycled” once it reaches final products.</p>
<h2>The implications</h2>
<p>The full impact of China’s new export regime depend on a number of factors, including the severity of the controls in practice, and the response of western governments and companies. As it stands, the controls look likely to lead to higher prices for gallium and germanium, as well as longer delivery times. </p>
<p>This could make it more expensive and difficult for western companies to produce electronic devices, which could in turn lead to higher prices for consumers. It could also make it more difficult for western companies to compete with Chinese companies. In an echo of how the global microchip shortage during the COVID pandemic considerably <a href="https://theconversation.com/yes-the-global-microchip-shortage-is-covids-fault-no-it-wont-end-any-time-soon-161903">affected tech manufacturing</a>, this points to a significant impact on the global economy. </p>
<p>The long-term effects of the controls are difficult to predict because so many factors are involved. Stockpiles of the elements should help to some extent: the <a href="https://www.jpost.com/international/article-749129">US has said</a> it holds inventory of germanium, though not gallium. </p>
<p>Western manufacturers may be forced to diversify their supply chains by obtaining components containing the elements from countries to which China is willing to export. This could lead to increased costs and complexity. </p>
<p>Another avenue is to increase production from alternative sources. In the past, germanium has been derived from minerals mined in <a href="https://www.waferworld.com/post/modern-sources-of-germanium">Germany, Latin America and Africa</a>, so these options may come back on the table. There is also the potential to invest in researching devices that are less reliant on these critical materials, but that would take time to bear fruit.</p>
<p>Clearly, the move is a significant escalation in the tech war between China and the west. The concern is that it could go further: China dominates the <a href="https://finance.yahoo.com/news/eu-pushing-china-narrow-scope-171751697.html?guccounter=2">supply of</a> a whole range of vital materials known as <a href="https://theconversation.com/boris-johnson-promises-a-uk-offshore-wind-revolution-but-china-holds-the-monopoly-on-vital-rare-earth-metals-147645">rare earth metals</a>, as well as other materials which <a href="https://www.visualcapitalist.com/chinas-dominance-in-clean-energy-metals/">are required</a> for the clean energy transition. Even before the escalation in hostilities over the past couple of years, <a href="https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/cases_e/ds431_e.htm">China had used</a> its dominance over certain materials as leverage in trade disputes. </p>
<p>So this latest development is concerning to say the least. At a time when the <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-are-so-many-climate-records-breaking-all-at-once-209214">international challenges</a> faced by humanity are greater than ever, the emergence of a new resource nationalism is the last thing anyone needed.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/209156/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gavin Harper receives funding from the UKRI Interdisciplinary Circular Economy Centre for Technology Metals (Met4Tech) Grant EP/V011855/1, The Faraday Institution ReLIB Project Grant FIRG0027 and EPSRC: Thermal Recovery of Functional Coatings (TReFCo) Grant EP/W019167/1. </span></em></p>
Welcome to the new age of resource nationalism.
Gavin D. J. Harper, Research Fellow, Birmingham Centre for Strategic Elements & Critical Materials, University of Birmingham
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/205820
2023-06-27T12:23:57Z
2023-06-27T12:23:57Z
The digital future may rely on ultrafast optical electronics and computers
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532461/original/file-20230616-23761-r0m0kq.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=38%2C15%2C1683%2C1239&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The author's lab's ultrafast optical switch in action.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Mohammed Hassan, University of Arizona</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>If you’ve ever wished you had a faster phone, computer or internet connection, you’ve encountered the personal experience of hitting a limit of technology. But there might be help on the way.</p>
<p>Over the past several decades, scientists and engineers <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=JA0qsY0AAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">like me</a> have worked to develop faster transistors, the electronic components underlying modern electronic and digital communications technologies. These efforts have been based on a category of materials called semiconductors that have special electrical properties. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/483S43a">Silicon</a> is perhaps the best known example of this type of material. </p>
<p>But about a decade ago, scientific efforts hit the speed limit of semiconductor-based transistors. Researchers simply can’t make electrons move faster through these materials. One way engineers are trying to address the speed limits inherent in moving a current through silicon is to design shorter physical circuits – essentially giving electrons less distance to travel. Increasing the computing power of a chip comes down to increasing the number of transistors. However, even if researchers are able to get transistors to be very small, they won’t be fast enough for the faster processing and data transfer speeds people and businesses will need.</p>
<p>My <a href="https://hassan.lab.arizona.edu">research group’s work</a> aims to develop faster ways to move data, using ultrafast laser pulses in free space and optical fiber. The laser light travels through optical fiber with almost no loss and with a very low level of noise.</p>
<p>In our most recent study, published in February 2023 in Science Advances, we took a step toward that, demonstrating that it’s possible to use <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adf1015">laser-based systems</a> equipped with optical transistors, which depend on photons rather than voltage to move electrons, and to transfer information much more quickly than current systems – and do so more effectively than <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03866-9">previously reported optical switches</a>.</p>
<h2>Ultrafast optical transistors</h2>
<p>At their most fundamental level, digital transmissions involve a signal switching on and off to represent ones and zeros. Electronic transistors use voltage to send this signal: When the voltage induces the electrons to flow through the system, they signal a 1; when there are no electrons flowing, that signals a 0. This requires a source to emit the electrons and a receiver to detect them. </p>
<p>Our system of ultrafast optical data transmission is based on light rather than voltage. Our research group is one of many working with optical communication at the transistor level – the building blocks of modern processors – to get around the current limitations with silicon. </p>
<p>Our system controls reflected light to transmit information. When light shines on a piece of glass, most of it passes through, though a little bit might reflect. That is what you experience as glare when driving toward sunlight or looking through a window.</p>
<p>We use two laser beams transmitted from two sources passing through the same piece of glass. One beam is constant, but its transmission through the glass is controlled by the second beam. By using the second beam to shift the properties of the glass from transparent to reflective, we can start and stop the transmission of the constant beam, switching the optical signal from on to off and back again very quickly. </p>
<p>With this method, we can switch the glass properties much more quickly than current systems can send electrons. So we can send many more on and off signals – zeros and ones – in less time.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534180/original/file-20230626-1803-19w9pt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="a hand holds a bundle of optical fibers between thumb and first finger" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534180/original/file-20230626-1803-19w9pt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534180/original/file-20230626-1803-19w9pt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=441&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534180/original/file-20230626-1803-19w9pt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=441&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534180/original/file-20230626-1803-19w9pt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=441&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534180/original/file-20230626-1803-19w9pt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=554&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534180/original/file-20230626-1803-19w9pt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=554&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534180/original/file-20230626-1803-19w9pt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=554&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The author’s research group has developed a way to switch light beams on and off, like those passing through these optical fibers, 1 million billion times a second.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/bundle-of-light-wave-cables-fibre-optic-news-photo/976186008">Mediacolors/Construction Photography/Avalon via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>How fast are we talking?</h2>
<p>Our study took the first step to transmitting data 1 million times faster than if we had used the typical electronics. With electrons, the maximum speed for transmitting data is a <a href="https://www.wolframalpha.com/input?i=nanosecond">nanosecond</a>, one-billionth of a second, which is very fast. But the optical switch we constructed was able to transmit data a million times faster, which took just a few hundred <a href="https://www.wolframalpha.com/input?i=attosecond">attoseconds</a>.</p>
<p>We were also able to transmit those signals securely so that an attacker who tried to intercept or modify the messages would fail or be detected. </p>
<p>Using a laser beam to carry a signal, and adjusting its signal intensity with glass controlled by another laser beam, means the information can travel not only more quickly but also much greater distances. </p>
<p>For instance, the James Webb Space Telescope recently transmitted <a href="https://theconversation.com/james-webb-space-telescope-an-astronomer-explains-the-stunning-newly-released-first-images-186800">stunning images from far out in space</a>. These pictures were transferred as data from the telescope to the base station on Earth at a rate of one “on” or “off” <a href="https://webbtelescope.org/quick-facts">every 35 nanosconds</a> using optical communications.</p>
<p>A laser system like the one we’re developing could speed up the transfer rate a billionfold, allowing faster and clearer exploration of deep space, more quickly revealing the universe’s secrets. And someday computers themselves might run on light.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/205820/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mohammed Hassan receives funding from the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation and the Air Force Office of Scientific Research.</span></em></p>
A researcher explains developments in using light rather than electrons to transmit information securely and quickly, even over long distances.
Mohammed Hassan, Associate Professor of Physics and Optical Sciences, University of Arizona
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/202308
2023-03-24T12:36:27Z
2023-03-24T12:36:27Z
How do superconductors work? A physicist explains what it means to have resistance-free electricity
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517284/original/file-20230323-14-cz0c5g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=62%2C98%2C5928%2C3574&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Magnetic levitation is just one of the interesting attributes that make superconductors so interesting.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/illustration/magnet-floating-above-a-superconductor-royalty-free-illustration/1301762762?phrase=superconductor&adppopup=true">Mark Garlick/Science Photo Library vie Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The modern world runs on electricity, and wires are what carry that electricity to every light, television, heating system, cellphone and computer on the planet. Unfortunately, on average, about <a href="https://www.nrdc.org/bio/jennifer-chen/lost-transmission-worlds-biggest-machine-needs-update">5%</a> of the power generated at a coal or solar power plant is lost as the electricity is transmitted from the plant to its final destination. This amounts to a <a href="https://www.nrdc.org/bio/jennifer-chen/lost-transmission-worlds-biggest-machine-needs-update">US$6 billion loss annually</a> in the U.S. alone. </p>
<p>For decades, scientists have been <a href="https://www.energy.gov/science/doe-explainssuperconductivity">developing materials called superconductors</a> that transmit electricity with nearly 100% efficiency. <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=5gCcMuMAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=sra">I am a physicist</a> who investigates how superconductors work at the atomic level, how current flows at very low temperatures, and how applications such as levitation can be realized. Recently, researchers have made significant progress toward developing superconductors that can function at <a href="https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-648X/ac2864">relatively normal temperatures and pressures</a>.</p>
<p>To see why these recent advances are so exciting and what impact they may have on the world, it’s important to understand how superconducting materials work.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517258/original/file-20230323-1492-h3oux6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two lightbulbs next to each other with one showing a glowing filament." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517258/original/file-20230323-1492-h3oux6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517258/original/file-20230323-1492-h3oux6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=517&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517258/original/file-20230323-1492-h3oux6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=517&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517258/original/file-20230323-1492-h3oux6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=517&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517258/original/file-20230323-1492-h3oux6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=650&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517258/original/file-20230323-1492-h3oux6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=650&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517258/original/file-20230323-1492-h3oux6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=650&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Most materials offer resistance when electricity runs through them and heat up. Resistance is how filaments in an incandescent lightbulb produce light.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Carbonfilament.jpg#/media/File:Carbonfilament.jpg">Ulfbastel/Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A resistance-free material</h2>
<p>A superconductor is any material that conducts electricity without offering any resistance to the flow of the electric current. </p>
<p>This resistance-free attribute of superconductors contrasts dramatically with <a href="https://sciencenotes.org/examples-of-conductors-and-insulators/">standard conductors</a> of electricity – like copper or aluminum – which heat up when current passes through them. This is similar to quickly sliding your hand across a smooth, slick surface compared to sliding your hand over a rough rug. The rug generates more friction and, therefore, more heat, too. Electric toasters and older-style incandescent lightbulbs use resistance to produce heat and light, but resistance can pose <a href="https://resources.pcb.cadence.com/blog/2022-the-influence-of-the-joule-heating-effect-on-pcbs-and-ics">problems for electronics</a>. Semiconductors have resistance below that of conductors, but still higher than that of superconductors. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/sJLSL61sLZ0?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Superconductive materials repel magnetic fields, making it possible to levitate a magnet above a superconductor.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Another characteristic of superconductors is that they repel magnetic fields. You may have seen videos of the fascinating result of this effect: It is possible to levitate magnets above a superconductor. </p>
<h2>How do superconductors work?</h2>
<p>All superconductors are made of materials that are electrically neutral – that is, their atoms contain negatively charged electrons that surround a nucleus with an equal number of positively charged protons. </p>
<p>If you attach one end of a wire to something that is positively charged, and the other end to something that is negatively charged, the system will want to reach equilibrium by moving electrons around. This causes the electrons in the wire to try to move through the material. </p>
<p>At normal temperatures, electrons move in somewhat erratic paths. They can generally succeed in moving through a wire freely, but every once in a while they collide with the nuclei of the material. These collisions are what obstruct the flow of electrons, cause resistance and heat up the material.</p>
<p>The nuclei of all atoms are constantly vibrating. In a superconducting material, instead of flitting around randomly, the moving electrons get passed along from atom to atom in such a way that they keep <a href="https://www.energy.gov/science/bes/articles/electrons-line-dance-superconductor#:%7E:text=Superconductors%20are%20materials%20that%20can,called%20a%20pair%20density%20wave.">in sync</a> with the vibrating nuclei. This coordinated movement produces no collisions and, therefore, no resistance and no heat.</p>
<p>The colder a material gets, the more organized the movement of electrons and nuclei becomes. This is why existing superconductors only work at extremely <a href="https://journals.aps.org/pr/abstract/10.1103/PhysRev.108.1175">low temperatures</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517262/original/file-20230323-14-bajdav.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A close-up view of a computer chip." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517262/original/file-20230323-14-bajdav.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517262/original/file-20230323-14-bajdav.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517262/original/file-20230323-14-bajdav.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517262/original/file-20230323-14-bajdav.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517262/original/file-20230323-14-bajdav.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=527&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517262/original/file-20230323-14-bajdav.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=527&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517262/original/file-20230323-14-bajdav.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=527&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Superconducting materials would allow engineers to fit many more circuits onto a single computer chip.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Siliconchip_by_shapeshifter.png#/media/File:Siliconchip_by_shapeshifter.png">David Carron/Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Benefits to electronics</h2>
<p>If scientists can develop a room-temperature superconducting material, wires and circuitry in electronics would be <a href="https://www.psfc.mit.edu/events/2017/high-temperature-superconductors-advantages-and-key-challenges-in-their-deployment-for">much more efficient</a> and produce far less heat. The benefits of this would be widespread.</p>
<p>If the wires used to transmit electricity were replaced with superconducting materials, these new lines would be able to carry up to <a href="https://phys.org/news/2014-05-longest-superconducting-cable-worldwide.html">five times as much electricity</a> more efficiently than current cables. </p>
<p>The speed of computers is mostly limited by how many wires can be packed into a single electric circuit on a chip. The density of wires is often <a href="https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-0-387-09766-4_499">limited by waste heat</a>. If engineers could use superconducting wires, they could fit many more wires in a circuit, leading to faster and cheaper electronics.</p>
<p>Finally, with room-temperature superconductors, magnetic levitation could be used for <a href="https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/16183">all sorts of applications</a>, from trains to energy-storage devices.</p>
<p>With <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/03/08/science/room-temperature-superconductor-ranga-dias.html">recent advances providing exciting news</a>, both researchers looking at the fundamental physics of high-temperature superconductivity as well as technologists waiting for new applications are paying attention.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/202308/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mishkat Bhattacharya receives funding from the Office of Naval Research. </span></em></p>
Superconductors are materials that can transmit electricity without any resistance. Researchers are getting closer to creating superconducting materials that can function in everyday life.
Mishkat Bhattacharya, Professor of Physics and Astronomy, Rochester Institute of Technology
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/193192
2022-10-25T20:22:51Z
2022-10-25T20:22:51Z
Development of vision in early childhood: No screens before age two
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491691/original/file-20221025-22-wx4aqi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=14%2C7%2C979%2C655&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Electronic devices are not, in and of themselves, a source of visual problems. Using these devices inappropriately can interfere with the natural development of the eye, as well as reading and learning skills. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Things are busy on a rainy Saturday afternoon when I make a trip to the mall to finalize some back-to-school shopping. I pass by a lot of people, including several parents with young children under two years old, in strollers, and am struck by the fact that all of the children have a tablet or phone in their hands. Has technology become the ultimate tool for keeping children calm?</p>
<p>As an optometrist and eye health expert, this observation saddens me every time I see it, since I know all the harmful effects such exposure to electronic tools can have on children.</p>
<p>These effects are all the more critical during the first years of life, both on the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34625399/">visual level</a> and on the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36190219/">cognitive and social development of children</a>.</p>
<h2>Visual development of children</h2>
<p>The human eye develops <a href="https://www.nationwidechildrens.org/family-resources-education/health-wellness-and-safety-resources/helping-hands/infant-vision-birth-to-one-year">through stimulation</a>. The quality of the optical stimulus influences the growth of the eyeball via a complex and balanced mechanism. At birth, the eye is hyperopic, that is to say, its power is not perfectly adjusted to its size. A child sees at short distances and is barely able to distinguish a shadow when grandpa comes to the bedroom door.</p>
<p>In the first few weeks, the eye grows, the retina matures and a balance is established between the growth of the eyeball and the power of the inner lens. At six months of age, each of the toddler’s two eyes has the vision of an adult eye. From this moment on, the eyes will develop their coordination, in order to generate vision in three dimensions. It’s also starting at the age of six months that the communication between the eyes develops in the visual brain as well.</p>
<p>Billions of neurological connections will have to be made during the <a href="https://opto.umontreal.ca/clinique/pdf/EFFETS%20DES%20ECRANS%20SUR%20LE%20D%C3%89VELOPPEMENT%20VISUEL%20DES%20ENFANTS.pdf">first eight years of life</a>. This maturation time is long, but necessary, considering that <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0149763413001917">more than a third of the brain’s neurons are dedicated to vision</a>.</p>
<h2>A question of distance</h2>
<p>Electronic devices are not, in themselves, a source of visual problems. Rather, the inappropriate use of these devices can interfere with the natural development of the eye, as well as reading and learning skills.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/489407/original/file-20221012-17-g43eu3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two small children with glasses sitting on white chairs : a boy with a tablet computer, a girl with a cell phone" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/489407/original/file-20221012-17-g43eu3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/489407/original/file-20221012-17-g43eu3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489407/original/file-20221012-17-g43eu3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489407/original/file-20221012-17-g43eu3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489407/original/file-20221012-17-g43eu3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489407/original/file-20221012-17-g43eu3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489407/original/file-20221012-17-g43eu3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">For normal visual development, it is recommended that exposure to electronic devices be avoided between the ages of zero and two years.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The first thing to consider is viewing distance. The eye is designed to look at a near distance that is about equal to the length of the forearm (distance from the elbow to the fingertips of the hand). That means about <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0042698913000795">30 cm for a young child, and 40 cm for an adult</a>. However, tablets and phones are held on average 20-30 cm from the eye, and this distance <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/cxo.12453">becomes shorter with prolonged exposure</a>. The visual effort required to maintain a clear image at this distance is therefore doubled.</p>
<p>A distance that is too short influences the quality of the retinal image (and therefore visual development) and causes <a href="https://books.google.ca/books?hl=fr&lr=&id=jGGROHBFYt8C">excessive eye fatigue</a>. It is also important to understand that when eyes must accommodate short distances, they automatically converge towards the nose in order to focus at the normal reading distance. Too much effort spent accommodating the short distance is therefore accompanied by a greater than normal convergence. As the eye cannot maintain this prolonged effort over a long period of time, it will relax its effort and the perceived image will become blurred for a while, a sensory penalty that we want to avoid. After a period of rest, the eye will resume its effort, and this alternation between the clearness and the blur will continue as long as attention to the close image is required. So, ideally, the tablet or phone should always be kept at the distance of the forearm.</p>
<h2>Constant stimulation is not recommended</h2>
<p>The use of electronic tools, with games or videos, requires a constant attention span, without breaks. This is the second factor to consider. When a child draws in a notebook or reads a paper book, he or she will instinctively stop at some point, look elsewhere, far away, and become interested in something else around them. These pauses and breaks are beneficial <a href="https://www.aoa.org/healthy-eyes/eye-and-vision-conditions/computer-vision-syndrome?sso=y">for the visual system to recover from its effort</a>. Focusing on targets at a distance is also beneficial to the child’s visual development. With electronic tablets, it is not uncommon to see children doing sessions of more than two to three hours continuously, without looking up from the screen.</p>
<p>The visual apparatus of children from zero to two years old is simply not sufficiently developed and robust to undergo such stress from constant stimulation in front of the screen. In particular, the structural elements of the sclera (the deep layer of the eye), which give the eye rigidity and determine its size, develop between zero and two years of age and then stabilize. The visual stimulus at these ages can interfere and therefore <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/335108098_Scleral_structure_and_biomechanics">influence the development of visual defects and pathology in later life</a>.</p>
<p>It is also important to note that the screen can emit blue light. Children’s eyes do not filter these rays like those of an adult. This means that children are exposed to more blue light, which may stimulate nearsightedness and disrupt the secretion of melatonin, <a href="https://www.myopiainstitute.com/eye-care/how-blue-light-affects-your-vision-and-overall-health/">which regulates our biological clock</a>. This can disrupt the naps necessary for children of this age, as well as sleep during the night. Sleep loss can also lead to myopia.</p>
<h2>Let’s learn about electronics</h2>
<p>For normal visual development, it is therefore recommended to <a href="https://publications.aap.org/pediatrics/article/128/5/1040/30928/Media-Use-by-Children-Younger-Than-2-Years?_ga=2.208746386.1459529850.1665228699-655911314.1665228699?autologincheck=redirected?nfToken=00000000-0000-0000-0000-000000000000">avoid all exposure to electronic devices between the ages of zero and two</a>. The exception would be occasional video conversations, under the supervision of a parent, to say hello to a grandparent who lives far away, for a few minutes.</p>
<p>From the age of two years on, an hour of exposure per day can be considered, especially to consult educational sites, always accompanied by a parent or an educator.</p>
<p>When the visual system is mature, around the age of six to eight, exposure can be increased gradually, without exceeding two to three hours per day, with 10-minute breaks every hour. Electronic device use should be avoided during meals, family activities, and at least one hour before sleep.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/489410/original/file-20221012-24-ip7l62.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Young mother holding her cute, crying baby daughter, looking at a tablet during a virtual video call business or family meeting at a distance" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/489410/original/file-20221012-24-ip7l62.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/489410/original/file-20221012-24-ip7l62.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489410/original/file-20221012-24-ip7l62.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489410/original/file-20221012-24-ip7l62.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489410/original/file-20221012-24-ip7l62.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489410/original/file-20221012-24-ip7l62.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489410/original/file-20221012-24-ip7l62.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Rare video conversations, with parental supervision, to wave to a grandparent from a distance, for a few minutes, can be considered.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Let’s play outside!</h2>
<p>The best advice for successful visual development is to encourage exposure to outdoor light for <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6678505/#:%7E:text=Each%20additional%20hour%20of%20daily,by%2013%25%20%5B23%5D.">at least one hour per day, ideally two hours</a>. We are talking about playing, walking, and activities that are done outside. The amount of light is then much greater than indoors, which would stimulate the production of dopamine, a chemical mediator essential to regulating the growth of the eye. This is the most effective way to prevent the onset of myopia in children.</p>
<p>It is also important to make sure that a child’s visual system is normal and developing naturally. Therefore, the first examination by an optometrist should be done at six months of age (to validate that the eye has normal optics and that there are no congenital defects), and then at three years of age to evaluate eye coordination. If everything is normal, the next examination will take place at five years of age, and annually thereafter, <a href="http://nada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/BK-ChildrenAndTheirVision-2018-EN.pdf">considering that vision can change rapidly</a>.</p>
<p>In the case of an abnormality, the earlier we intervene in the process, the easier it is to restore normal oculo-visual function, either by exercise or by optical means.</p>
<p>By following these recommendations for visual hygiene, we will protect children’s visual system and ensure their normal development.</p>
<p>And let’s not forget that the most beautiful screen in the world is nature! We should offer it to our children more often.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/193192/count.gif" alt="La Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Langis Michaud ne travaille pas, ne conseille pas, ne possède pas de parts, ne reçoit pas de fonds d'une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n'a déclaré aucune autre affiliation que son organisme de recherche.</span></em></p>
The impact of using electronic devices is critical during the first years of life, both visually and on the cognitive and social development of the child.
Langis Michaud, Professeur Titulaire. École d'optométrie. Expertise en santé oculaire et usage des lentilles cornéennes spécialisées, Université de Montréal
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/188585
2022-09-20T04:19:41Z
2022-09-20T04:19:41Z
Here’s the real reason to turn on aeroplane mode when you fly
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/484174/original/file-20220913-2241-id16e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=74%2C216%2C5466%2C3456&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/p9vr45T2scg">Blake Guidry/Unsplash</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>We all know the routine by heart: “Please ensure your seats are in the upright position, tray tables stowed, window shades are up, laptops are stored in the overhead bins and electronic devices are set to flight mode”.</p>
<p>Now, the first four are reasonable, right? Window shades need to be up so we can see if there’s an emergency, such as fire. Tray tables need to be stowed and seats upright so we can get out of the row quickly. Laptops can become projectiles in an emergency, as the seat back pockets are not strong enough to contain them.</p>
<p>And mobile phones need to be set to flight mode so they can’t <em>cause</em> an emergency for the aeroplane, right? Well, it depends whom you ask.</p>
<h2>Technology has advanced a great deal</h2>
<p>Aviation navigation and communication relies on radio services, which have been coordinated to minimise interference <a href="https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20050232846/downloads/20050232846.pdf">since the 1920s</a>.</p>
<p>The digital technology currently in use is much more advanced than some of the older analogue technologies we used even 60 years ago. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352146521008851">Research has shown</a> personal electronic devices can emit a signal within the same frequency band as the aircraft’s communications and navigation systems, creating what is known as electromagnetic interference.</p>
<p>But in 1992, <a href="https://www.livescience.com/5947-real-reason-cell-phone-banned-airlines.html">the US Federal Aviation Authority</a> and Boeing, <a href="https://www.boeing.com/commercial/aeromagazine/aero_10/interfere_textonly.html">in an independent study</a>, investigated the use of electronic devices on aircraft interference and found no issues with computers or other personal electronic devices during non-critical phases of flight. (Take-offs and landings are considered the critical phases.) </p>
<p>The US Federal Communications Commission also began to create <a href="https://www.livescience.com/5947-real-reason-cell-phone-banned-airlines.html">reserved frequency bandwidths</a> for different uses – such as mobile phones and aircraft navigation and communications – so they do not interfere with one another. Governments around the globe developed the same <a href="https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20050232846/downloads/20050232846.pdf">strategies and policies to prevent interference</a> problems with aviation. In the EU, electronic devices have been <a href="https://www.easa.europa.eu/en/newsroom-and-events/news/easa-allows-electronic-devices-remain-and-connected-throughout-flight">allowed to stay on since 2014</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/using-your-phone-on-a-plane-is-safe-but-for-now-you-still-cant-make-calls-98136">Using your phone on a plane is safe – but for now you still can't make calls</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>2.2 billion passengers</h2>
<p>Why then, with these global standards in place, has the aviation industry continued to ban the use of mobile phones? One of the problems lies with something you may not expect – <em>ground</em> interference.</p>
<p>Wireless networks are connected by <a href="https://www.livescience.com/5947-real-reason-cell-phone-banned-airlines.html">a series of towers</a>; the networks could become overloaded if passengers flying over these ground networks are all using their phones. <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/564717/airline-industry-passenger-traffic-globally/">The number of passengers that flew in 2021</a> was over 2.2 billion, and that’s half of what the 2019 passenger numbers were. The wireless companies might have a point here. </p>
<p>Of course, when it comes to mobile networks, the biggest change in recent years is the move to a new standard. Current 5G wireless networks – desirable for their higher speed data transfer – have caused concern for many within the aviation industry.</p>
<p>Radio frequency bandwidth is limited, yet we are still trying to add more new devices to it. The aviation industry points out that the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352146521008851">5G wireless network bandwidth spectrum</a> is remarkably close to the reserved aviation bandwidth spectrum, which may cause <a href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/2304975-will-5g-mobile-networks-in-the-us-really-interfere-with-aircraft/">interference with navigation systems near airports</a> that assist with landing the aircraft.</p>
<p>Airport operators <a href="https://www.itnews.com.au/news/australian-airports-fret-over-5g-interference-582222">in Australia</a> and <a href="https://www.faa.gov/5g">the US</a> have voiced aviation safety concerns linked to 5G rollout, however it appears to have rolled out without such problems <a href="https://edition.cnn.com/2022/01/19/business/5g-aviation-safety-europe/index.html">in the European Union</a>. Either way, it is prudent to limit mobile phone use on planes while issues around 5G are sorted out.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/could-5g-really-ground-planes-why-the-us-has-delayed-rolling-out-the-mobile-internet-technology-around-airports-175215">Could 5G really ground planes? Why the US has delayed rolling out the mobile internet technology around airports</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Ultimately, we can’t forget air rage</h2>
<p>Most airlines now provide customers with Wi-Fi services that are either pay-as-you-go or free. With new Wi-Fi technologies, passengers could theoretically use their mobile phones to <a href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/8010762">make video calls with friends</a> or clients in-flight. </p>
<p>On a recent flight, I spoke with a cabin attendant and asked her opinion on phone use during flights. It would be an inconvenience for cabin crew to wait for passengers to finish their call to ask them if they would like any drinks or something to eat, she stated. On an airliner with 200+ passengers, in-flight service would take longer to complete if everyone was making phone calls. </p>
<p>For me, the problem with in-flight use of phones is more about the social experience of having 200+ people on a plane, and all potentially talking at once. In a time when disruptive passenger behaviour, including “air rage”, <a href="http://www.jairm.org/index.php/jairm/article/view/156">is increasingly frequent</a>, phone use in flight might be another trigger that changes the whole flight experience. </p>
<p>Disruptive behaviours take on various forms, from noncompliance to safety requirements such as not wearing seat belts, verbal altercations with fellow passengers and cabin crew, to physical altercations with passengers and cabin crews – typically identified as air rage. </p>
<p>In conclusion – in-flight use of phones does not currently impair the aircraft’s ability to operate. But cabin crews may prefer not to be delayed in providing in-flight service to all of the passengers – it’s a lot of people to serve. </p>
<p>However, 5G technology is encroaching on the radio bandwidth of aircraft navigation systems; we’ll need more research <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-5g-puts-airplanes-at-risk-an-electrical-engineer-explains-175306">to answer the 5G question</a> regarding interference with aircraft navigation during landings. Remember that when we are discussing the two most critical phases of flight, take-offs are optional – but landings are mandatory.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/reducing-air-travel-by-small-amounts-each-year-could-level-off-the-climate-impact-171184">Reducing air travel by small amounts each year could level off the climate impact</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/188585/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Doug Drury does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Is it true our phones are dangerous for aircraft navigation? An expert explains.
Doug Drury, Professor/Head of Aviation, CQUniversity Australia
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/188337
2022-08-10T12:18:00Z
2022-08-10T12:18:00Z
What is a semiconductor? An electrical engineer explains how these critical electronic components work and how they are made
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478126/original/file-20220808-4922-kdvkjb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=100%2C38%2C5026%2C3474&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A silicon disc, or 'wafer,' yields dozens of semiconductor chips.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:A_Wafer_of_the_Latest_D-Wave_Quantum_Computers_(39188583425).jpg#/media/File:A_Wafer_of_the_Latest_D-Wave_Quantum_Computers_(39188583425).jpg">Steve Jurvetson/Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>Semiconductors are a critical part of almost every modern electronic device, and the vast majority of semiconductors are made in Tawain. Increasing concerns over the reliance on Taiwan for semiconductors – especially given the tenuous relationship between Taiwan and China – led the U.S. Congress to pass the CHIPS and Science act in late July 2022. The act provides more than US$50 billion in subsidies to boost U.S. semiconductor production and has been widely covered in the news. <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=kZEP5kcAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">Trevor Thornton</a>, an electrical engineer who studies semiconductors, explains what these devices are and how they are made.</em></p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478129/original/file-20220808-17-lmrac1.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two shiny black discs." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478129/original/file-20220808-17-lmrac1.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478129/original/file-20220808-17-lmrac1.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=333&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478129/original/file-20220808-17-lmrac1.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=333&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478129/original/file-20220808-17-lmrac1.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=333&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478129/original/file-20220808-17-lmrac1.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478129/original/file-20220808-17-lmrac1.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478129/original/file-20220808-17-lmrac1.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Thin, round slices of silicon crystals, called wafers, are the starting point for most semiconductor chips.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Siliziumwafer.JPG#/media/File:Siliziumwafer.JPG">Hebbe/Wikimedia Commons</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>1. What is a semiconductor?</h2>
<p>Generally speaking, the term semiconductor refers to a material – like silicon – that can conduct electricity much better than an insulator such as glass, but not as well as metals like copper or aluminum. But when people are <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/07/14/briefing/semiconductor-bill-congress-biden.html">talking about semiconductors today</a>, they are usually referring to semiconductor chips.</p>
<p>These chips are typically made from thin slices of silicon with complex components laid out on them in specific patterns. These patterns control the flow of current using electrical switches – called transistors – in much the same way you control the electrical current in your home by flipping a switch to turn on a light. </p>
<p>The difference between your house and a semiconductor chip is that semiconductor switches are entirely electrical – no mechanical components to flip – and the chips contain <a href="https://futurism.com/ibm-created-a-chip-the-size-of-a-fingernail-that-holds-30-billion-transistors">tens of billions of switches</a> in an area not much larger than the size of a fingernail.</p>
<h2>2. What do semiconductors do?</h2>
<p>Semiconductors are how electronic devices process, store and receive information. For instance, memory chips store data and software as binary code, digital chips manipulate the data based on the software instructions, and wireless chips receive data from high-frequency radio transmitters and convert them into electrical signals. These different chips work together under the control of software. Different software applications perform very different tasks, but they all work by switching the transistors that control the current.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478130/original/file-20220808-18-gedffp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A diagram showing more than a dozen layers of material." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478130/original/file-20220808-18-gedffp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478130/original/file-20220808-18-gedffp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=884&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478130/original/file-20220808-18-gedffp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=884&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478130/original/file-20220808-18-gedffp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=884&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478130/original/file-20220808-18-gedffp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1110&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478130/original/file-20220808-18-gedffp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1110&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478130/original/file-20220808-18-gedffp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1110&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This schematic of a semiconductor chip shows many different materials in different colors and the complicated layering involved in producing a modern chip.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cmos-chip_structure_in_2000s_(en).svg#/media/File:Cmos-chip_structure_in_2000s_(en).svg">Cepheiden/Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>3. How do you build a semiconductor chip?</h2>
<p>The starting point for the vast majority of semiconductors is a thin slice of silicon called a wafer. Today’s wafers are the size of dinner plates and are cut from <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/materials-science/silicon-wafer">single silicon crystals</a>. Manufacturers <a href="https://semiengineering.com/knowledge_centers/manufacturing/process/ion-implants/">add elements like phosphorus and boron</a> in a thin layer at the surface of the silicon to increase the chip’s conductivity. It is in this surface layer where the transistor switches are made. </p>
<p>The transistors are built by adding thin layers of conductive metals, insulators and more silicon to the entire wafer, sketching out patterns on these layers using a complicated process <a href="https://semiengineering.com/knowledge_centers/manufacturing/lithography/">called lithography</a> and then selectively removing these layers using computer-controlled plasmas of highly reactive gases to leave specific patterns and structures. Because the transistors are so small, it is much easier to add materials in layers and then carefully remove unwanted material than it is to place microscopically thin lines of metal or insulators directly onto the chip. By depositing, patterning and etching layers of different materials dozens of times, semiconductor manufacturers can create chips with tens of billions of transistors per square inch.</p>
<h2>4. How are chips today different from the early chips?</h2>
<p>There are many differences, but the most important is probably the increase in the number of transistors per chip.</p>
<p>Among the earliest commercial applications for semiconductor chips were <a href="https://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/object-groups/handheld-electronic-calculators">pocket calculators</a>, which became widely available in the 1970s. These early chips contained a few thousand transistors. In 1989 Intel introduced the <a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/25-microchips-that-shook-the-world">the first semiconductors to exceed a million transistors on a single chip</a>. Today, the largest chips contain more than 50 billion transistors. This trend is described by what is known as <a href="https://theconversation.com/with-silicon-pushed-to-its-limits-what-will-power-the-next-electronics-revolution-46287">Moore’s law</a>, which says that the number of transistors on a chip will double approximately every 18 months.</p>
<p><iframe id="Gk2KX" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/Gk2KX/2/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>Moore’s law has held up for five decades. But in recent years, the semiconductor industry has <a href="https://theconversation.com/with-silicon-pushed-to-its-limits-what-will-power-the-next-electronics-revolution-46287">had to overcome major challenges</a> – mainly, how to continue shrinking the size of transistors – to continue this pace of advancement.</p>
<p>One solution was to switch from flat, two-dimensional layers to three-dimensional layering with <a href="https://www.hindawi.com/journals/aelc/2014/365689/">fin-shaped ridges of silicon</a> projecting up above the surface. These 3D chips significantly increased the number of transistors on a chip and are now in <a href="https://www.globenewswire.com/news-release/2021/03/18/2195023/0/en/FinFet-Technology-Market-is-Anticipated-to-Touch-USD-268-66-Million-by-2025-Growing-at-40-3-CAGR-Market-Research-Future-MRFR.html">widespread use</a>, but they’re also much more difficult to manfacture.</p>
<h2>5. Do more complicated chips require more sophisticated factories?</h2>
<p>Simply put, yes, the more complicated the chip, the more complicated – and more costly – the factory. </p>
<p>There was a time when almost every U.S. semiconductor company built and maintained its own factories. But today, a new foundry can <a href="https://www.azcentral.com/story/news/local/phoenix/2022/06/03/see-taiwan-semiconductors-north-phoenix-office/7498673001/">cost more than $10 billion to build</a>. Only the largest companies can afford that kind of investment. Instead, the majority of semiconductor companies send their designs to independent foundries for manufacturing. Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Co. and GlobalFoundries, headquartered in New York, are two examples of multinational foundries that build chips for other companies. They have the expertise and economies of scale to invest in the hugely expensive technology required to produce next-generation semiconductors. </p>
<p>Ironically, while the transistor and semiconductor chip were invented in the U.S., no state-of-the-art semiconductor foundries are currently on American soil. The U.S. has been here before in the 1980s when there were concerns that <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1982/02/28/business/japan-s-big-lead-in-memory-chips.html">Japan would dominate the global memory business</a>. But with the newly passed CHIPS act, Congress has provided the incentives and opportunities for next-generation semiconductors to be manufactured in the U.S. </p>
<p>Perhaps the chips in your next iPhone will be “designed by Apple in California, built in the USA.”</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/188337/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Trevor Thornton does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Semiconductor chips are electronic devices that store and process information. Today they can contain billions of microscopic switches on a chip smaller than a fingernail.
Trevor Thornton, Professor of Electrical Engineering, Arizona State University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/173048
2021-12-21T14:55:12Z
2021-12-21T14:55:12Z
Nickel oxide is a material that can ‘learn’ like animals and could help further artificial intelligence research
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/436979/original/file-20211210-136652-1mgxcfu.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C530%2C3953%2C3095&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Nickel oxide, the gray-and-black-striped material, demonstrates unique properties when exposed to hydrogen.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Purdue University/Kayla Wiles</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/research-brief-83231">Research Brief</a> is a short take about interesting academic work.</em></p>
<h2>The big idea</h2>
<p>A unique material, nickel oxide demonstrates the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2017239118">ability to learn things about its environment</a> in a way that emulates the most basic learning abilities of animals, as my colleagues and I describe in a new paper.</p>
<p>For over half a century, neuroscientists have studied sea slugs to understand basic animal learning. Two fundamental concepts of learning are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nlm.2008.09.012">habituation</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.11560">sensitization</a>. Habituation occurs when an organism’s response to a repeated stimulus continuously decreases. When researchers first touch a sea slug, its gills retract. But the more they touch the slug, the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.167.3926.1745">less it retracts its gills</a>. Sensitization is an organism’s extreme reaction to a harmful or unexpected stimulus. If researchers then shock a sea slug, it will <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.11560">retract its gills much more dramatically</a> than when it was merely touched. This is sensitization. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/436815/original/file-20211209-27-12uc827.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A small square of material inside a test chamber of metal with tubes." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/436815/original/file-20211209-27-12uc827.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/436815/original/file-20211209-27-12uc827.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436815/original/file-20211209-27-12uc827.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436815/original/file-20211209-27-12uc827.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436815/original/file-20211209-27-12uc827.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436815/original/file-20211209-27-12uc827.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436815/original/file-20211209-27-12uc827.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">When nickel oxide is alternately bathed in hydrogen gas and air, its behavior changes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Purdue University/Kayla Wiles</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Nickel oxide has features that are strikingly similar to this learning behavior. Instead of gills retracting, we measured the change in electrical conductivity of the material. The stimulus, instead of a finger poke, was repeatedly alternating the environment of the nickel oxide between normal air and hydrogen gas.</p>
<p>Nickel oxide is interesting because when you expose it to hydrogen gas, its crystalline structure subtly changes and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/pssa.200778914">more electrons become available to generate an electrical current</a>. In our experiment, we kept switching between the hydrogen-only and regular air environments. You would expect the electrical conductivity to oscillate up and down directly in relation to the exposure to hydrogen or air. But just as with the sea slugs, the change in conductivity of the nickel oxide slowly went down the more we stimulated it. It got habituated to the hydrogen.</p>
<p>When we exposed the material to bright light or ozone, though, it rapidly changed its conductivity – the same way a slug will always respond dramatically to a small shock.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/436813/original/file-20211209-140267-qt8jx9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A small piece of material underneath a large piece of scientific equipment." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/436813/original/file-20211209-140267-qt8jx9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/436813/original/file-20211209-140267-qt8jx9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436813/original/file-20211209-140267-qt8jx9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436813/original/file-20211209-140267-qt8jx9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436813/original/file-20211209-140267-qt8jx9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436813/original/file-20211209-140267-qt8jx9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436813/original/file-20211209-140267-qt8jx9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The conductivity of nickel oxide stores information similarly to the way slugs learn.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Purdue University/Kayla Wiles</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p>The ability to learn, remember or forget information as needed is a powerful skill for any animal or machine. So far, the vast majority of research in the field of artificial intelligence has <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaa8415">focused on software-based approaches to machine learning</a>, with far less effort dedicated to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5113574">studying the learning abilities of materials</a>.</p>
<p>At the center of these two related areas of research lies the field of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1677-2">brain-inspired computers</a>. For intelligence to be encoded into hardware, scientists need semiconductors that can learn from past experience and adapt to dynamic environments in a physical way similar to that of neurons in animal brains. Our new research showing how nickel oxide demonstrates features of learning hints at how this or similar materials could serve as building blocks for computers of the future. </p>
<h2>What still isn’t known</h2>
<p>Before such materials can be incorporated into computer chips there are some knowledge gaps that need to be addressed. For instance, it is not yet clear at what <a href="https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-neuro-090919-022842">time scales a material needs to learn</a> for it to be useful in electrical systems. How quickly does something need to learn or forget to be useful? Another unknown is how or whether it is possible to change the structure of nickel oxide to produce different learning behaviors.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/436812/original/file-20211209-141979-3zqxkp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A small square of gray material with stripes." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/436812/original/file-20211209-141979-3zqxkp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/436812/original/file-20211209-141979-3zqxkp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436812/original/file-20211209-141979-3zqxkp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436812/original/file-20211209-141979-3zqxkp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436812/original/file-20211209-141979-3zqxkp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436812/original/file-20211209-141979-3zqxkp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/436812/original/file-20211209-141979-3zqxkp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">It is unclear whether nickel oxide itself can be used for computing, but the concepts at play could inspire further innovation.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Purdue University/Erin Easterling</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What’s next</h2>
<p>In addition to further experiments on the material itself, there are theoretical lessons to explore. Observations of collective behavior of animals in nature – such as bird flocks and schools of fish – have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/0-387-27705-6_6">inspired researchers to develop fields of AI like swarm intelligence</a>. In a similar fashion, the interesting collective motion of atoms and electrons in materials could inspire AI and hardware design in the future. </p>
<p>As new materials that can accommodate mobile atoms are discovered, I am optimistic we will see further breakthroughs that can bring researchers one step closer to designing computers that emulate animal brains.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/173048/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>S. Ramanathan receives funding from the National Science Foundation, Department of Defense agencies for basic research in physical sciences and engineering.</span></em></p>
The ability to store information is central to learning and the field of artificial intelligence. Researchers have shown how a unique material shows basic learning properties similar to that of slugs.
Shriram Ramanathan, Professor of Materials Engineering, Purdue University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/167478
2021-09-17T09:28:34Z
2021-09-17T09:28:34Z
We created holograms you can touch – you could soon shake a virtual colleague’s hand
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421184/original/file-20210914-17-1qeprio.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=722%2C398%2C6283%2C3632&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Holograms with a sense of touch are being created at Glasgow University.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Design_cells/Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The TV show Star Trek: The Next Generation introduced millions of people to the idea of a holodeck: an immersive, realistic 3D holographic projection of a complete environment that you could interact with and even touch.</p>
<p>In the 21st century, holograms are <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature25176?sf180567500=1">already being used</a> in a <a href="https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/1179133.1179154">variety of ways</a> such as medical systems, education, art, security and defence. Scientists are still <a href="https://interestingengineering.com/10-best-real-world-applications-of-hologram-technology">developing ways</a> to use lasers, modern digital processors, and motion-sensing technologies to create several <a href="https://interestingengineering.com/10-best-real-world-applications-of-hologram-technology">different types of holograms</a> which could change the way we interact.</p>
<p>My colleagues and I working in the University of Glasgow’s bendable electronics and sensing technologies research group have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/aisy.202100090">now developed</a> a system of holograms of people using “aerohaptics”, creating feelings of touch with jets of air. Those jets of air deliver a sensation of touch on people’s fingers, hands and wrists.</p>
<p>In time, this could be developed to allow you to meet a virtual avatar of a colleague on the other side of the world and really feel their handshake. It could even be the first steps towards building something like a holodeck.</p>
<p>To create this feeling of touch we use affordable, commercially available parts to pair computer-generated graphics with carefully directed and controlled jets of air. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/five-surprising-ways-holograms-are-revolutionising-the-world-77886">Five surprising ways holograms are revolutionising the world</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>In some ways, it’s a step beyond the current generation of virtual reality, which usually requires a headset to deliver 3D graphics and smart gloves or handheld controllers to provide haptic feedback, a stimulation that feels like touch. Most of the wearable gadgets-based approaches are limited to controlling <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/aisy.202000126">the virtual object</a> that is being displayed. </p>
<p>Controlling a virtual object doesn’t give the feeling that you would experience when two people touch. The addition of an artificial touch sensation can deliver the additional dimension without having to wear gloves to feel objects, and so feels much more natural.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Creating the idea of touch with a hologram" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421186/original/file-20210914-13-1dwc41w.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421186/original/file-20210914-13-1dwc41w.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=463&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421186/original/file-20210914-13-1dwc41w.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=463&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421186/original/file-20210914-13-1dwc41w.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=463&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421186/original/file-20210914-13-1dwc41w.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=581&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421186/original/file-20210914-13-1dwc41w.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=581&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421186/original/file-20210914-13-1dwc41w.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=581&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Pushing a button allows the user to feel pressure which feels like touch.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">University of Glasgow</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Using glass and mirrors</h2>
<p>Our research uses graphics that provide the illusion of a 3D virtual image. It’s a modern variation on a 19th-century illusion technique known as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pepper%27s_ghost">Pepper’s Ghost</a>, which thrilled Victorian theatregoers with visions of the supernatural onstage.</p>
<p>The systems uses glass and mirrors to make a two-dimensional image appear to hover in space without the need for any additional equipment. And our haptic feedback is created with nothing but air.</p>
<p>The mirrors making up our system are arranged in a pyramid shape with one open side. Users put their hands through the open side and interact with computer-generated objects which appear to be floating in free space inside the pyramid. The objects are graphics created and controlled by a software programme called Unity Game Engine, which is often used to create 3D objects and worlds in videogames.</p>
<p>Located just below the pyramid is a sensor that tracks the movements of users’ hands and fingers, and a single air nozzle, which directs jets of air towards them to create complex sensations of touch. The overall system is directed by electronic hardware programmed to control nozzle movements. We developed an algorithm which allowed the air nozzle to respond to the movements of users’ hands with appropriate combinations of direction and force.</p>
<p>One of the ways we’ve demonstrated the capabilities of the “aerohaptic” system is with an interactive projection of a basketball, which can be convincingly touched, rolled and bounced. The touch feedback from air jets from the system is also modulated based on the virtual surface of the basketball, allowing users to feel the rounded shape of the ball as it rolls from their fingertips when they bounce it and the slap in their palm when it returns. </p>
<p>Users can even push the virtual ball with varying force and sense the resulting difference in how a hard bounce or a soft bounce feels in their palm. Even something as apparently simple as bouncing a basketball required us to work hard to model the physics of the action and how we could replicate that familiar sensation with jets of air.</p>
<h2>Smells of the future</h2>
<p>While we don’t expect to be delivering a full Star Trek holodeck experience in the near future, we’re already boldly going in new directions to add additional functions to the system. Soon, we expect to be able to modify the temperature of the airflow to allow users to feel hot or cold surfaces. We’re also exploring the possibility of adding scents to the airflow, deepening the illusion of virtual objects by allowing users to smell as well as touch them.</p>
<p>As the system expands and develops, we expect that it may find uses in a wide range of sectors. Delivering more absorbing video game experiences without having to wear cumbersome equipment is an obvious one, but it could also allow more convincing teleconferencing too. You could even take turns to add components to a virtual circuit board as you collaborate on a project.</p>
<p>It could also help clinicians to collaborate on <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7694722/">treatments for patients</a>, and make patients feel more involved and informed in the process. Doctors could view, feel and discuss the features of tumour cells, and show patients plans for a medical procedure.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/167478/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ravinder Dahiya receives funding from Engineering and Physical Science Research Council (EP/R029644/1 and EP/R511705/1). </span></em></p>
It could be the first steps towards a Star Trek-style holodeck.
Ravinder Dahiya, Professor of Electronics and Nanoengineering, University of Glasgow
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/164631
2021-07-19T20:09:04Z
2021-07-19T20:09:04Z
The world might run out of a crucial ingredient of touch screens. But don’t worry, we’ve invented an alternative
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/411829/original/file-20210719-25-mthupb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C220%2C7360%2C4682&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Timothy Muza/Unsplash</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Have you ever imagined your smart phone or tablet without a touch screen? This could soon be the case if we run out of indium, one of the rarest minerals on Earth.</p>
<p>Indium is used in many high-tech devices such as touch screens, smart phones, solar panels and smart windows, in the form of indium tin oxide. This compound is optically transparent and electrically conductive — the two crucial features required for touch screens to work. </p>
<p>But there’s a problem: we have no guaranteed long-term supply of indium. It is naturally found only in tiny traces, and is therefore impractical to mine directly. Almost all of the world’s indium comes as a byproduct of zinc mining.</p>
<p>Fortunately, we have a potential solution: my colleagues and I have developed a new way to make optically transparent and electrically conductive coatings without indium.</p>
<h2>A worsening problem</h2>
<p>Because the world’s indium supply is tied to zinc mining, its availability and price will depend on the demand for zinc.</p>
<p>Possible declines in zinc demand — already evident in the <a href="https://www.metalbulletin.com/Article/3342337/MB-ZINC-CONF-Amount-of-zinc-used-per-car-to-decline-ArcelorMittal-says.html">car manufacturing industry</a> — along with the ever-increasing usage of smart phones and touch panels — are set to exacerbate the potential shortage of indium in the future.</p>
<p>One option is to try and recycle indium. But recovering it from used devices is expensive because of the tiny amounts involved. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/touch-screens-why-a-new-transparent-conducting-material-is-sorely-needed-34703">Touch screens: why a new transparent conducting material is sorely needed</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>When a crucial material is in short supply, we should look for alternatives. And that’s exactly what my colleagues and I have found.</p>
<h2>How does it work?</h2>
<p>Our new coating, details of which are <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0927024821003111?via%3Dihub">published in the journal Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells</a>, involves plasma technology. </p>
<p>Plasma is like a soup of charged particles in which electrons have been ripped away from their atoms, and is often described as the fourth state of matter, after solid, liquid and gas. It might sound like an exotic substance, but in fact it comprises <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/1999/ast07sep99_1">more than 99% of the visible objects in the universe</a>. Our Sun, like most stars, is essentially a giant ball of glowing plasma. </p>
<p>Closer to home, fluorescent lightbulbs and neon signs also contain plasma. Our new touchscreen films don’t contain plasma, but their manufacture uses plasma as a way to create new materials that would otherwise be impossible to make.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/411828/original/file-20210719-21-8um59w.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Plasma apparatus" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/411828/original/file-20210719-21-8um59w.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/411828/original/file-20210719-21-8um59w.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=542&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411828/original/file-20210719-21-8um59w.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=542&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411828/original/file-20210719-21-8um59w.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=542&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411828/original/file-20210719-21-8um59w.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=681&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411828/original/file-20210719-21-8um59w.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=681&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411828/original/file-20210719-21-8um59w.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=681&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The new material is created using a process called plasma sputtering.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Behnam Akhavan</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Our coating is made of an ultra-thin layer of silver, sandwiched between two layers of tungsten oxide. This structure is less than 100 nanometres thick — roughly one-thousandth of the width of a human hair.</p>
<p>These ultra-thin sandwich layers are created and coated onto glass using a process called “<a href="https://www.alcatechnology.com/en/blog/magnetron-sputtering/">plasma sputtering</a>”. This involves subjecting a mixture of argon and oxygen gases to a strong electric field, until this mixture transforms into the plasma state. The plasma is used to bombard a tungsten solid target, detaching atoms from it and depositing them as a super-thin layer onto the glass surface.</p>
<p>We then repeat this process using silver, and then a final third time tungsten oxide embedded with silver nanoparticles. The entire process takes only a few minutes, produces minimal waste, is cheaper than using indium, and can be used for any glass surface such as a phone screen or window.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/411844/original/file-20210719-19-1dw3v4w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Diagram of the structure" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/411844/original/file-20210719-19-1dw3v4w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/411844/original/file-20210719-19-1dw3v4w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=454&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411844/original/file-20210719-19-1dw3v4w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=454&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411844/original/file-20210719-19-1dw3v4w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=454&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411844/original/file-20210719-19-1dw3v4w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=571&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411844/original/file-20210719-19-1dw3v4w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=571&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411844/original/file-20210719-19-1dw3v4w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=571&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The finished result is a sandwich of tungsten oxide and silver, coated onto glass.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Behnam Akhavan</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The finished plasma coating also has another intriguing feature: it is <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrochromism">electrochromic</a>, meaning it can become more or less opaque, or change colour, if an electrical voltage is applied. </p>
<p>This means it could be used to create super-thin “printable displays” that can become dimmer or brighter, or change colour as desired. They would be flexible and use little power, meaning they could be used for a <a href="https://www.ynvisible.com/news-inspiration/what-is-an-electrochromic-display">range of purposes</a> including smart labels or smart windows.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/411845/original/file-20210719-19-e4ydob.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Different optical performances of the same material" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/411845/original/file-20210719-19-e4ydob.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/411845/original/file-20210719-19-e4ydob.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=670&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411845/original/file-20210719-19-e4ydob.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=670&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411845/original/file-20210719-19-e4ydob.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=670&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411845/original/file-20210719-19-e4ydob.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=842&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411845/original/file-20210719-19-e4ydob.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=842&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411845/original/file-20210719-19-e4ydob.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=842&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The material’s opacity can be changed by varying the voltage.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Behnam Akhavan</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Smart windows coated with our new films could be used to block the flow of light and thus heat as required. Our plasma film can be applied to any glass surface, which can then be set to adjust its transparency depending on the weather outside. Unlike existing “photochromic” spectacle lenses, which respond to ambient light levels, our material responds to electrical signals, meaning it can be manipulated at will.</p>
<p>Our new indium-free technology holds great potential to manufacture the next-generation touch-screen devices such as smart phones or electronic papers, as well as smart windows and solar cells for environmental sustainability. This technology is ready to be scaled up for creating coatings on commercial glass, and we are now doing further research and development to adapt them for future wearable electronic devices.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/from-cobalt-to-tungsten-how-electric-cars-and-smartphones-are-sparking-a-new-kind-of-gold-rush-100838">From cobalt to tungsten: how electric cars and smartphones are sparking a new kind of gold rush</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/164631/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Behnam Akhavan receives funding from the Australian Research Council (ARC). </span></em></p>
The touch screen in your phone relies on a very scarce element called indium. But now researchers have used plasma technology to do the same job without the risk that the world will run out.
Behnam Akhavan, Senior Lecturer, ARC DECRA Fellow, School of Biomedical Engineering and School of Physics, Sydney Nano Institute, University of Sydney
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/161903
2021-06-02T03:20:02Z
2021-06-02T03:20:02Z
Yes, the global microchip shortage is COVID’s fault. No, it won’t end any time soon
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/403919/original/file-20210602-21-qvc35t.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=20%2C372%2C6689%2C3360&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Extron_DMP_128_-_board_-_Microchip_24LC512-9701.jpg">Raimond Spekking/Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The manufacturing world is facing one of its greatest challenges in years — a global shortage of semiconductors — and there doesn’t appear to be an end in sight any time soon. </p>
<p>According to Acer, one of the world’s largest laptop manufacturers, companies will still be affected by this shortage <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2021/jun/01/acer-says-global-chip-shortage-to-slow-laptop-production-until-at-least-next-year">until at least the first half of 2022</a>. </p>
<p>Semiconductors are an essential component of electronic devices, found in everything from cars and factory machinery to dishwashers and mobile phones. They harness the conducting properties of semiconductor materials (such as silicon), through the use of electric or magnetic fields, light, heat or mechanical deformation, to control the electric current flowing into a device. </p>
<p>Like many current global challenges, this shortage initially began as a result of the COVID pandemic. Staff at semiconductor foundries in China and around the world were unable to go to work, plants were closed and production halted, which led to a <a href="https://theconversation.com/high-tech-shortages-loom-as-coronavirus-shutdowns-hit-manufacturers-131646">lack of supply</a>. The movement of that supply was also slowed down by tighter restrictions at ports and international borders. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/high-tech-shortages-loom-as-coronavirus-shutdowns-hit-manufacturers-131646">High-tech shortages loom as coronavirus shutdowns hit manufacturers</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>At the same time, employees started working from home, children and students started studying from home, and many of us were confined to our homes for long periods. New equipment was needed to support these changes, establish makeshift offices and classrooms in our homes, and upgrade our existing home entertainment options. This prompted a sudden increase in demand for many of the devices that rely on semiconductors. </p>
<p>However, the industries that make these devices also had to stop production for a time, and during that period they stopped ordering semiconductors. This meant there was a sudden increase in demand for goods, but the companies that manufacture these products weren’t making as many as they normally do, or ordering enough components to enable them to meet a rise in demand later. </p>
<p>This is a classic example of the “<a href="https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/abs/10.1287/mnsc.43.4.546">bullwhip effect</a>”, in which inventory levels suddenly fluctuate in response to unexpected changes in customer demand further along the supply chain.</p>
<p>This didn’t just happen in the electronics sector; it has affected every industry that uses semiconductors in their products, from health care and cosmetics to construction and defence. According to analysis by investment bank Goldman Sachs, this shortage has already impacted <a href="https://au.finance.yahoo.com/news/these-industries-are-hit-hardest-by-the-global-chip-shortage-122854251.html">at least 169 different industries</a> to some extent.</p>
<h2>No time to panic</h2>
<p>Unfortunately, panic-buying isn’t restricted just to the <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-are-people-stockpiling-toilet-paper-we-asked-four-experts-132975">toilet paper aisle</a> in Coles and Woolworths. Once rumours of a shortage began to emerge, companies that use semiconductors started panic-buying and stockpiling them. This behaviour adds to the overall impact of the shortage, reduces what little supply is available, and <a href="https://www.reuters.com/business/autos-transportation/why-is-there-global-chip-shortage-why-should-you-care-2021-03-31/">drives up costs</a>. </p>
<p>The automotive industry has been hit particularly hard, illustrating perfectly the scale and complexity of modern supply chains. A car is made of <a href="https://www.toyota.co.jp/en/kids/faq/d/01/04/">about 30,000 components</a>, sourced from thousands of suppliers around the world. If even one of these components isn’t available at the time of assembly, the system grinds to a halt and new cars can’t be finished or shipped. </p>
<p>General Motors had to stop production at some of its manufacturing facilities as a result of the chip shortage earlier this year, costing the company <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-gm-results-idUSKBN2AA0E4">at least US$2 billion</a>. </p>
<h2>What happens next?</h2>
<p>The impact of the microchip shortage is already being felt by consumers all over the world, including Australia. Customers hoping to buy a new car or replacement parts can expect to wait <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-05-21/tax-writeoff-extended-as-car-shortages-see-long-wait-times/100149068">up to six months</a>. </p>
<p>Computer manufacturers Dell, HP and Lenovo have <a href="https://www.techradar.com/au/news/dell-hp-warn-pc-prices-could-rise-due-to-global-chip-shortage">warned</a> their prices are likely to rise, and retailers such as JB Hi-Fi have <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/science/2021-03-26/computer-chips-what-the-global-shortage-means-for-you/100027500">told shoppers</a> to expect shortages of televisions and other electronic goods “for the foreseeable future”. </p>
<p>Even before this crisis, the demand for semiconductors was growing steadily, as products become more sophisticated and technologies such as 5G and the “internet of things” become ever more integrated into our world. The only realistic solution is to increase the supply of semiconductors, and chip maker Intel has already announced plans to scale up its manufacturing of semiconductors, with <a href="https://www.reuters.com/technology/white-house-zero-chip-shortage-meeting-with-company-officials-2021-04-12/">new factories opening in the United States and Europe</a>.</p>
<p>However, this will take time, so consumers will likely still be feeling the impact of this shortage well beyond Christmas 2021.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/high-tech-consumerism-a-global-catastrophe-happening-on-our-watch-43476">High-tech consumerism, a global catastrophe happening on our watch</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/161903/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>John L Hopkins does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Shutdowns at microchip factories, panic-buying by electronics manufacturers, and legions of workers and home-schoolers needing new devices, have put a global squeeze on the electronics market.
John L Hopkins, Innovation Fellow, Swinburne University of Technology
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/157465
2021-04-06T12:28:47Z
2021-04-06T12:28:47Z
The US is worried about its critical minerals supply chains – essential for electric vehicles, wind power and the nation’s defense
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/393342/original/file-20210404-13-12hqo30.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=166%2C0%2C1461%2C939&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Wind turbines and fighter jets both rely on imported critical minerals.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.af.mil/About-Us/Fact-Sheets/Display/Article/478441/f-35a-lightning-ii/">U.S. Air Force; Dennis Schroeder/NREL</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When U.S. companies build military weapons systems, electric vehicle batteries, satellites and wind turbines, they rely heavily on a few dozen “critical minerals” – many of which are mined and refined <a href="https://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/mcs2021">almost entirely by other countries</a>. Building a single F-35A fighter jet, for example, requires at least <a href="https://www.airforcemag.com/article/rare-earth-uncertainty/">920 pounds</a> of rare earth elements that come primarily from China. </p>
<p>That level of dependence on imports <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/presidential-actions/2021/02/24/executive-order-on-americas-supply-chains/">worries the U.S. government</a>.</p>
<p>Natural disasters, civil unrest, trade disputes and company failures can all disrupt a mineral supply chain and the many products that depend on it – making many critical minerals a national security priority. </p>
<p>The U.S. has increased its strategic planning and investment in reliable supply chains in recent years, particularly as China has moved to <a href="https://www.china-briefing.com/news/china-tightens-control-over-management-of-rare-earths/">increase control over critical mineral exports</a>, but the U.S.’s own mining and recycling of these minerals is still small. This is due in part to how environmentally destructive and polluting many mining and processing operations can be, but also because policy measures are only recently being explored and funded. The U.S. now has a <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/presidential-actions/2021/02/24/executive-order-on-americas-supply-chains/">review underway</a> of critical mineral supply chains, and the Department of Energy recently <a href="https://www.energy.gov/articles/doe-announces-30-million-research-secure-domestic-supply-chain-critical-elements-and">pledged up to US$30 million</a>, on top of funding included in the December pandemic aid package and a <a href="https://www.energy.gov/articles/department-energy-announces-122-million-regional-initiative-produce-rare-earth-elements-and">2020 support package for mining</a>.</p>
<p>The question <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=KttlJdQAAAAJ&hl=en">policy</a> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=DAwwVkwAAAAJ&hl=en">experts</a> like ourselves are exploring is how best to provide sustainable and secure critical mineral supply chains in a way that limits environmental damage and promotes good governance. </p>
<h2>The list: 35 critical minerals</h2>
<p>Critical minerals earn their name from their vital role in products Americans rely on every day.</p>
<p>Over the last 60 years, the U.S. has doubled the number of these minerals it is 100% reliant on other countries to provide. Of the 35 critical minerals identified by the U.S. in 2018, 28 are <a href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2021/mcs2021.pdf">at least 50% imported</a>.</p>
<p>The U.S. <a href="https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2018/05/18/2018-10667/final-list-of-critical-minerals-2018">critical minerals list</a> has changed since it was first created by the U.S. Geological Survey in 1973. Many of the same minerals are there, including <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-are-rare-earths-crucial-elements-in-modern-technology-4-questions-answered-101364">rare earth elements</a> and lithium, but their relative importance in 1973 was for petroleum refining and making glass, among other goods.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Photo of bauxite with a pink hue" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/392922/original/file-20210331-25-sju2jn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/392922/original/file-20210331-25-sju2jn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/392922/original/file-20210331-25-sju2jn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/392922/original/file-20210331-25-sju2jn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/392922/original/file-20210331-25-sju2jn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/392922/original/file-20210331-25-sju2jn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/392922/original/file-20210331-25-sju2jn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Bauxite is a source of aluminum and gallium, which is used in LEDs.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.usgs.gov/centers/nmic/bauxite-and-alumina-statistics-and-information?qt-science_support_page_related_con=0#qt-science_support_page_related_con">Scott Haworth/USGS</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The list today reflects the essential role that renewable energy, electric vehicles and advanced defense technologies have in the U.S. economy – and the specialized alloys, magnets and catalysts that enable them. These include batteries and electric motors, but also missile guidance systems, communications and <a href="https://www.airforcemag.com/article/rare-elements-of-security/">even satellites</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Piles of rare earth elements, clockwise from top center: praseodymium, cerium, lanthanum, neodymium, samarium and gadolinium" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/391003/original/file-20210322-23-1y0389.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=1%2C8%2C1176%2C756&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/391003/original/file-20210322-23-1y0389.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391003/original/file-20210322-23-1y0389.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391003/original/file-20210322-23-1y0389.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391003/original/file-20210322-23-1y0389.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=490&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391003/original/file-20210322-23-1y0389.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=490&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/391003/original/file-20210322-23-1y0389.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=490&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Examples of rare earth elements, which are used in batteries.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/rare-earth-oxides">Peggy Greb/USDA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Because of this, the Department of Defense has been one of the strongest supporters for more resilient supply chains. In the last few years it has been proactive about <a href="https://www.defense.gov/Newsroom/Releases/Release/Article/2488672/dod-announces-rare-earth-element-award-to-strengthen-domestic-industrial-base/">strengthening domestic production</a>, especially for rare earth elements. That includes <a href="https://www.defense.gov/Newsroom/Releases/Release/Article/2418542/dod-announces-rare-earth-element-awards-to-strengthen-domestic-industrial-base/">new contracts</a> with rare earth mining and production operations in <a href="https://www.defense.gov/Newsroom/Releases/Release/Article/2418542/dod-announces-rare-earth-element-awards-to-strengthen-domestic-industrial-base/">California, Nebraska</a> and <a href="https://www.defense.gov/Newsroom/Releases/Release/Article/2488672/dod-announces-rare-earth-element-award-to-strengthen-domestic-industrial-base/">Texas</a>. The <a href="https://www.dla.mil/HQ/Acquisition/StrategicMaterials/About/OurOffices/">Defense Logistics Agency</a> also has emergency stockpiles of 42 commodities with a market value of US$1.1 billion at six different locations across the U.S.</p>
<p>Now, with President Joe Biden’s <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2021/03/31/fact-sheet-the-american-jobs-plan/">infrastructure plan</a> promising an expansion of electric vehicles and renewable energy, “green” legislation becoming more likely and <a href="https://www.npr.org/2021/02/02/963014373/how-fast-will-biden-need-to-move-on-climate-really-really-fast">climate change becoming a priority</a>, critical mineral supply chains are again in the spotlight.</p>
<p><iframe id="caYW9" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/caYW9/6/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<h2>Getting serious about supply chains</h2>
<p>The amounts of lithium, cobalt, graphene, indium and other critical minerals needed for low-carbon technologies alone are expected to increase anywhere from <a href="https://science.sciencemag.org/content/367/6473/30">100% to 1,000% by 2050</a>.</p>
<p>These estimates are concerning on their own, but when combined with military needs, industrial needs and the decline of U.S. mining, it paints a troubling picture for U.S. supply shortages.</p>
<p>Countries like the Democratic Republic of Congo, which made headlines in the past due to mineral sales that <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-responsible-sourcing-of-drc-minerals-has-major-weak-spots-115245">financed armed conflict</a>, are not particularly appealing partners for U.S. companies. The DRC is responsible for producing <a href="https://www.cfr.org/blog/why-cobalt-mining-drc-needs-urgent-attention">more than 70%</a> of the world’s cobalt, used in almost all rechargeable lithium ion batteries that power everything from cellphones and laptops to electric vehicles, and China has invested heavily in the region.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/392919/original/file-20210331-17-tqr4qs.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Map of countries with bar charts showing percentage of minerals supplied in 2017." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/392919/original/file-20210331-17-tqr4qs.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/392919/original/file-20210331-17-tqr4qs.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=380&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/392919/original/file-20210331-17-tqr4qs.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=380&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/392919/original/file-20210331-17-tqr4qs.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=380&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/392919/original/file-20210331-17-tqr4qs.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=478&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/392919/original/file-20210331-17-tqr4qs.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=478&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/392919/original/file-20210331-17-tqr4qs.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=478&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The largest sources of critical minerals used in the United States.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/R45810.html">Congressional Research Service</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The ability of the United States to drive demand – but hesitation to get involved with “risky” nations or commit to domestic production – means the U.S. is reliant on countries that are more willing to accept those risks. China <a href="https://about.bnef.com/blog/china-dominates-the-lithium-ion-battery-supply-chain-but-europe-is-on-the-rise/">now controls</a> 80% of the world’s lithium-ion battery material refining, 77% of the world’s battery cell capacity and 60% of the world’s battery component manufacturing.</p>
<h2>How to strengthen critical supply chains</h2>
<p>The U.S. can take several steps to avoid being left behind by shortages and to ensure a successful energy transition.</p>
<p>During the Trump administration, the U.S. launched a <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/news/trump-administration-announces-strategy-strengthen-americas-economy-defense#:%7E:text=In%202017%2C%20President%20Donald%20Trump,to%20critical%20mineral%20supply%20disruptions.">federal strategy to ensure reliable supplies of critical minerals</a>, but that strategy was based in part on scaling back reviews of the projects’ environmental impact, and it didn’t have many actionable steps. The administration also started the Energy Resource Governance Initiative, focused on working with partner countries on improving the governance of mineral supply chains. </p>
<p>[<em>Deep knowledge, daily.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=deepknowledge">Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter</a>.]</p>
<p>The U.S. has lots of room to improve its support for critical mineral markets and trade agreements. Biden’s <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2021/02/24/fact-sheet-securing-americas-critical-supply-chains/">100-day review</a> of the critical mineral supply chains is a good start.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.minesnewsroom.com/news/sustainable-supply-minerals-and-metals-key-low-carbon-energy-future">Expanding recycling and reuse</a> of critical minerals can also increase sustainability and make minerals more available for U.S. use. One way to encourage recycling programs is to shift responsibility from waste managers to major producers like Apple and Samsung.</p>
<p>International agreements can also be written in ways that <a href="http://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaz6003">require responsible mining</a>. U.S. companies, similarly, can do more to ensure that they aren’t purchasing from unsustainable sources or supporting practices that encourage the abuse and exploitation of developing economies.</p>
<p>The U.S. can also expand its exploration for critical minerals. Rio Tinto recently announced plans for a new plant to <a href="https://riotintokennecott.com/coppercurrents/rio-tinto-to-build-new-tellurium-plant-at-kennecott-mine/">recover tellurium</a>, a critical mineral used in solar panels, from its copper refining operations in Utah. <a href="https://qz.com/1975325/electric-cars-are-fueling-the-uss-lithium-mining-boom/#:%7E:text=But%20the%20US%20has%2010,public%20land%20in%20California%20alone.">Lithium mining</a> in the California desert has also started to attract investors, as have rare earth projects in <a href="https://www.mining.com/rare-earths-processing-facility-opens-in-colorado/">Colorado</a> and Nevada. </p>
<p>Discussions of clean energy technologies should also include industrial policy, such as how mines are permitted, funding for processing plants and advanced manufacturing research. How the U.S. shapes the path for critical minerals will have important consequences for everything from the environment to national security.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/157465/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Right now, the nation is almost entirely dependent on other countries for minerals that are used in everything from wind turbines to strike fighters and satellites.
Jordan Lee Calderon, Payne Institute Program Manager, Colorado School of Mines
Morgan Bazilian, Professor of Public Policy and Director, Payne Institute, Colorado School of Mines
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/156700
2021-03-09T13:33:02Z
2021-03-09T13:33:02Z
A global semiconductor shortage highlights a troubling trend: A small and shrinking number of the world’s computer chips are made in the US
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/388366/original/file-20210308-21-y03rbh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C6000%2C3376&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The U.S. is still a leader in designing and selling computer chips, but the vast majority of the world's chips are fabricated in Taiwan and South Korea.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/silicon-wafer-negative-color-in-machine-in-royalty-free-image/1221139522?adppopup=true">Macro Photo/iStock via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/388363/original/file-20210308-17-13p5drf.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/388363/original/file-20210308-17-13p5drf.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=255&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/388363/original/file-20210308-17-13p5drf.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=255&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/388363/original/file-20210308-17-13p5drf.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=255&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/388363/original/file-20210308-17-13p5drf.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=321&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/388363/original/file-20210308-17-13p5drf.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=321&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/388363/original/file-20210308-17-13p5drf.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=321&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>President Joe Biden’s executive order calling for a <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/presidential-actions/2021/02/24/executive-order-on-americas-supply-chains/">review of supply chains</a> for critical products put a spotlight on the decades-long decline in U.S. semiconductor manufacturing capacity. Semiconductors are the logic and memory chips used in computers, phones, vehicles and appliances. The U.S. share of global semiconductor fabrication is <a href="https://www.semiconductors.org/turning-the-tide-for-semiconductor-manufacturing-in-the-u-s/">only 12%, down from 37% in 1990</a>, according to the Semiconductor Industry Association.</p>
<p>It might not seem important that 88% of the semiconductor chips used by U.S. industries, including the automotive and defense industries, are fabricated outside the U.S. However, three issues make where they are made critical to the U.S. as the global leader in electronics: lower capability, high global demand and limited investment.</p>
<h2>Lower capability</h2>
<p>The increasing reliance by U.S. chip companies on international partners to fabricate the chips they design reflects the United States’ diminished capability. U.S. semiconductor companies have 47% of the global chip sales market, but only 12% are manufactured in the U.S. Meeting expectations for ever faster and smarter electronics requires chip design innovation, which, in turn, is dependent on the most advanced fabrication technologies available. </p>
<p>Advances in semiconductor fabrication are based on the number of transistors, the smallest of a chip’s electronic components, per square millimeter. The most advanced semiconductor fabrication technologies and facilities, known as fabs, are labeled as 5 nanometers, or millionths of a millimeter. The number refers to the process rather than any particular chip feature. Generally, the smaller the nanometer rating, the more transistors per square millimeter, though it’s a <a href="https://www.techcenturion.com/7nm-10nm-14nm-fabrication">complicated picture with many variables</a>. The highest transistor densities are about 100 million per square millimeter.</p>
<p>Taiwan and Samsung in South Korea are developing 3 nanometer fabs while the U.S. does not yet have a 7 nanometer fab. Intel has announced that its 7 nanometer fab <a href="https://www.pcmag.com/news/intel-sorry-but-our-7nm-chips-will-be-delayed-to-2022-2023">won’t be ready for production</a> until late 2022 or early 2023. This leaves the U.S. without the means to make the most advanced chips.</p>
<h2>High global demand</h2>
<p>With the pandemic, demand for cell phones, laptops and other work-at-home devices and increased use of the internet have put pressure on fabs to increase the number of chips they are delivering for these products. The global automotive industry predicted that demand for cars would fall during the pandemic, so it reduced its orders for semiconductors chips used in vehicle safety, control, emissions and driver information systems. The auto industry has restarted production but is now <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2021/03/01/semiconductor-shortage-halts-auto-factories/">faced with a shortage of semiconductor chips</a>. </p>
<p>Recently, eight state governors asked Biden to redouble efforts “to urge wafer and semiconductor companies to expand production capacity and/or temporarily reallocate a modest portion of their current production to auto-grade wafer production.” This “modest” reallocation cannot be done without causing shortages elsewhere. And it cannot be done quickly. For example, Taiwanese semiconductor giant TSMC has reported a six month lead time from placing an order to delivery, and producing a chip is estimated to take up to three months.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/388374/original/file-20210308-18-rtg9tv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="a worker wearing a facemask and finger gloves holds a semiconductor chip" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/388374/original/file-20210308-18-rtg9tv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/388374/original/file-20210308-18-rtg9tv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/388374/original/file-20210308-18-rtg9tv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/388374/original/file-20210308-18-rtg9tv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/388374/original/file-20210308-18-rtg9tv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/388374/original/file-20210308-18-rtg9tv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/388374/original/file-20210308-18-rtg9tv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A worker in a Chinese research laboratory holds a chip used in automobile radar systems.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/resercher-presents-a-newly-developed-77ghz-millimeter-wave-news-photo/1303955123">Liu Yucai/Visual China Group via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Limited federal investment</h2>
<p>The governments of Taiwan, South Korea, Singapore and China each invest tens of billions of dollars each year in their semiconductor industries and it shows. These investments include not just the facilities themselves but also the R&D and tool development necessary to move to the next generation of fabs. Such incentives in the U.S. remain minimal.</p>
<p>[<em>Over 100,000 readers rely on The Conversation’s newsletter to understand the world.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=100Ksignup">Sign up today</a>.]</p>
<p>TSMC plans to invest US$25-28 billion this year in fabs alone and has promised to invest $12 billion for a fab in Arizona. To put this in perspective, the Arizona TSMC fab is expected to start processing 20,000 wafers a month, compared with the 1,000,000 wafers in existing TSMC facilities in Taiwan and China. </p>
<p>Biden’s executive order about supply chains is an important step in determining the investments needed to improve the prospects for the U.S. semiconductor industry.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/156700/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Through Purdue grants and contracts, Carol Handwerker receives funding from the Department of Defense, the Department of Energy Critical Materials Institute, USPAE (a non-profit research consortium), Intel, MacDermidAlpha, Juniper Networks, Lam Research, Foresite Technologies, ASML/Cymer, and the National Science Foundation. </span></em></p>
The high cost and long lead times for building computer chip factories makes it difficult for the U.S. to reverse the steady decline of its domestic semiconductor manufacturing capacity.
Carol Handwerker, Professor of Materials Engineering, Purdue University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/147972
2021-01-11T13:14:46Z
2021-01-11T13:14:46Z
Consumer electronics have changed a lot in 20 years – systems for managing e-waste aren’t keeping up
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/376831/original/file-20201231-49872-1uzkolc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=17%2C11%2C3864%2C2572&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Most of the world's electronics are not recycled, posing health and environmental risks. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/abandoned-and-rusted-laptop-lying-on-riverbed-royalty-free-image/108162816">catscandotcom/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s hard to imagine navigating modern life without a <a href="https://blogs.worldbank.org/opendata/are-cell-phones-becoming-more-popular-toilets">mobile phone</a> in hand. Computers, tablets and smartphones have transformed how we communicate, work, learn, share news and entertain ourselves. They became even more essential when the COVID-19 pandemic moved classes, meetings and social connections online. </p>
<p>But few people realize that our reliance on electronics comes with steep environmental costs, from mining minerals to disposing of used devices. Consumers can’t resist faster products with more storage and better cameras, but constant upgrades have created a <a href="https://time.com/5594380/world-electronic-waste-problem/">growing global waste challenge</a>. In 2019 alone, people discarded <a href="https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Environment/Documents/Toolbox/GEM_2020_def.pdf">53 million metric tons of electronic waste</a>.</p>
<p>In our work as <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=oZyg9b4AAAAJ&hl=en">sustainability researchers</a>, we study how consumer behavior and technological innovations influence the products that people buy, how long they keep them and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=z6q5FZMAAAAJ&hl=en">how these items are reused or recycled</a>. </p>
<p>Our research shows that while e-waste is rising globally, it’s <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/jiec.13074">declining in the U.S.</a> But some innovations that are slimming down the e-waste stream are also making products harder to repair and recycle.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/376843/original/file-20201231-15-1o0ofkb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/376843/original/file-20201231-15-1o0ofkb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/376843/original/file-20201231-15-1o0ofkb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376843/original/file-20201231-15-1o0ofkb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376843/original/file-20201231-15-1o0ofkb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376843/original/file-20201231-15-1o0ofkb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376843/original/file-20201231-15-1o0ofkb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376843/original/file-20201231-15-1o0ofkb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sending electronics to junkyards or landfills wastes an opportunity to recycle valuable materials inside them.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/junkyard-with-old-computer-and-electronic-parts-ca-news-photo/144074229">Joe Sohm/Visions of America /Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Recycling used electronics</h2>
<p>Thirty years of data show why the volume of e-waste in the U.S. is decreasing. New products are <a href="https://apnews.com/article/bb5ff45b98f64123b3d408dd4a336b59">lighter and more compact than past offerings</a>. Smartphones and laptops have edged out desktop computers. Televisions with thin, flat screens have displaced bulkier <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathode-ray_tube">cathode-ray tubes</a>, and streaming services are doing the job that once required standalone MP3, DVD and Blu-ray players. U.S. households now produce about <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/jiec.13074">10% less electronic waste by weight</a> than they did at their peak in 2015.</p>
<p>The bad news is that <a href="https://www.epa.gov/facts-and-figures-about-materials-waste-and-recycling">only about 35% of U.S. e-waste is recycled</a>. Consumers often don’t know where to recycle discarded products. If electronic devices decompose in landfills, hazardous compounds can leach into groundwater, including <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10962247.2019.1640807">lead</a> used in older circuit boards, mercury found in early LCD screens and <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/9/30/toxins-in-plastics-blamed-for-health-environment-hazards">flame retardants</a> in plastics. This process poses health risks to people and wildlife. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"809910797182914560"}"></div></p>
<p>There’s a clear need to recycle e-waste, both to protect public health and to recover valuable metals. Electronics contain rare minerals and precious metals mined in socially and ecologically <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/business/batteries/congo-cobalt-mining-for-lithium-ion-battery/">vulnerable parts of the world</a>. Reuse and recycling can reduce demand for “<a href="https://www.newsecuritybeat.org/2020/09/companies-struggle-comply-conflict-mineral-reporting-rules/">conflict minerals</a>” and <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2019/01/how-a-circular-approach-can-turn-e-waste-into-a-golden-opportunity/">create new jobs and revenue streams</a>. </p>
<p>But it’s not a simple process. Disassembling electronics for repair or material recovery is expensive and labor-intensive. </p>
<p>Some recycling companies have illegally <a href="https://resource-recycling.com/e-scrap/2020/12/03/former-president-of-crt-processor-sentenced-to-prison/">stockpiled</a> or <a href="https://resource-recycling.com/e-scrap/2013/08/23/abandoned-warehouses-full-crts-found-several-states/">abandoned</a> e-waste. One Denver warehouse was called “<a href="https://resource-recycling.com/e-scrap/2013/08/23/abandoned-warehouses-full-crts-found-several-states/">an environmental disaster</a>” when 8,000 tons of lead-filled tubes from old TVs were discovered there in 2013. </p>
<p>The U.S. <a href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/science/america-e-waste-gps-tracker-tells-all-earthfix">exports up to 40% of its e-waste</a>. Some goes to regions such as Southeast Asia that have <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/08/world/asia/e-waste-thailand-southeast-asia.html">little environmental oversight and few measures to protect workers</a> who repair or recycle electronics. </p>
<h2>Disassembling products and assembling data</h2>
<p>Health and environmental risks have prompted 25 U.S. states and the District of Columbia to <a href="https://www.ecycleclearinghouse.org/maps.aspx">enact e-waste recycling laws</a>. Some of these measures ban landfilling electronics, while others require manufacturers to support recycling efforts. All of them target large products, like old cathode-ray tube TVs, which contain up to 4 pounds of lead.</p>
<p>We wanted to know whether these laws, adopted from 2003 to 2011, can keep up with the current generation of electronic products. To find out, we needed a better estimate of how much e-waste the U.S. now produces.</p>
<p>We mapped sales of electronic products from the <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2014/04/a-terminal-condition/361313/">1950s</a> to the present, using data from industry reports, government sources and consumer surveys. Then we <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41597-020-0573-9">disassembled almost 100 devices</a>, from obsolete VCRs to today’s smartphones and fitness trackers, to weigh and measure the materials they contained.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374938/original/file-20201214-18-e30oa9.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374938/original/file-20201214-18-e30oa9.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374938/original/file-20201214-18-e30oa9.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=197&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374938/original/file-20201214-18-e30oa9.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=197&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374938/original/file-20201214-18-e30oa9.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=197&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374938/original/file-20201214-18-e30oa9.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=248&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374938/original/file-20201214-18-e30oa9.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=248&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374938/original/file-20201214-18-e30oa9.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=248&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A researcher takes apart a smartphone to find out what materials are inside.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shahana Althaf</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374942/original/file-20201214-21-1eto45i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374942/original/file-20201214-21-1eto45i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374942/original/file-20201214-21-1eto45i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374942/original/file-20201214-21-1eto45i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374942/original/file-20201214-21-1eto45i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374942/original/file-20201214-21-1eto45i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374942/original/file-20201214-21-1eto45i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374942/original/file-20201214-21-1eto45i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This dissected tablet shows the components inside, each of which were logged, weighed and measured by researchers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Callie Babbitt</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We created a <a href="https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3986969">computer model to analyze the data</a>, producing one of the most detailed accounts of U.S. electronic product consumption and discards currently available.</p>
<h2>E-waste is leaner, but not necessarily greener</h2>
<p>The big surprise from our research was that U.S. households are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/jiec.13074">producing less e-waste</a>, thanks to compact product designs and digital innovation. For example, a smartphone serves as an all-in-one phone, camera, MP3 player and portable navigation system. Flat-panel TVs are about 50% lighter than <a href="https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/gwire/2009/06/15/15greenwire-some-see-e-waste-crisis-trailing-switch-to-dig-81110.html">large-tube TVs</a> and don’t contain any lead. </p>
<p>But not all innovations have been beneficial. To make lightweight products, manufacturers miniaturized components and glued parts together, making it harder to repair devices and more expensive to recycle them. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10098-020-01890-3">Lithium-ion batteries</a> pose another problem: They are hard to detect and remove, and they can spark <a href="https://www.theverge.com/2020/2/28/21156477/recycling-plants-fire-batteries-rechargeable-smartphone-lithium-ion">disastrous fires</a> during transportation or recycling.</p>
<p>Popular features that consumers love – speed, sharp images, responsive touch screens and long battery life – rely on metals like cobalt, indium and <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-are-rare-earths-crucial-elements-in-modern-technology-4-questions-answered-101364">rare-earth elements</a> that require immense energy and expense to mine. Commercial recycling technology cannot yet recover them profitably, although innovations are starting to emerge. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/376830/original/file-20201231-49513-1tf9ypc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/376830/original/file-20201231-49513-1tf9ypc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/376830/original/file-20201231-49513-1tf9ypc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376830/original/file-20201231-49513-1tf9ypc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376830/original/file-20201231-49513-1tf9ypc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376830/original/file-20201231-49513-1tf9ypc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376830/original/file-20201231-49513-1tf9ypc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376830/original/file-20201231-49513-1tf9ypc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Apple’s new robot, Daisy, can disassemble nine different iPhone models to recover valuable materials that traditional recyclers cannot.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.apple.com/newsroom/2018/04/apple-adds-earth-day-donations-to-trade-in-and-recycling-program/">Apple</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Reenvisioning waste as a resource</h2>
<p>We believe solving these challenges requires a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2019.05.038">proactive approach</a> that treats digital discards as resources, not waste. Gold, silver, palladium and other valuable materials are now more concentrated in e-waste than in natural ores in the ground. </p>
<p>“<a href="https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20200407-urban-mining-how-your-home-may-be-a-gold-mine">Urban mining</a>,” in the form of recycling e-waste, could replace the need to dig up scarce metals, reducing environmental damage. It would also <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2020.105248">reduce U.S. dependence</a> on <a href="https://www.cato.org/blog/chinas-critical-minerals-national-security-meaning-supply-chain-interdependence">minerals imported from other countries</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/376714/original/file-20201228-17-1yhxq7y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/376714/original/file-20201228-17-1yhxq7y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=245&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376714/original/file-20201228-17-1yhxq7y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=245&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376714/original/file-20201228-17-1yhxq7y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=245&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376714/original/file-20201228-17-1yhxq7y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=308&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376714/original/file-20201228-17-1yhxq7y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=308&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376714/original/file-20201228-17-1yhxq7y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=308&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Concentration of hazardous (left) and valuable (right) materials within the U.S. e-waste stream.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Althaf et al. 2020</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Government, industry and consumers all have roles to play. Progress will require designing products that are <a href="https://www.ifixit.com/">easier to repair</a> and reuse, and persuading consumers to <a href="https://earth911.com/eco-tech/ways-to-reuse-old-laptop/">keep their devices longer</a>. </p>
<p>We also see a need for responsive e-waste laws in place of today’s dated patchwork of state regulations. Establishing <a href="https://knowledge.wharton.upenn.edu/article/how-u-s-laws-do-and-dont-support-e-recycling-and-reuse/">convenient</a>, <a href="https://sustainableelectronics.org/recyclers">certified</a> <a href="https://e-stewards.org/">recycling locations</a> can keep more electronics out of landfills. With retooled operations, recyclers can recover more valuable materials from the e-waste stream. Steps like these can help balance our reliance on electronic devices with systems that better protect human health and the environment. </p>
<p>[<em>Deep knowledge, daily.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=deepknowledge">Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/147972/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Callie Babbitt receives funding from the National Science Foundation, the Consumer Technology Association, and the Staples Sustainable Innovation Lab.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Shahana Althaf received funding from the National Science Foundation, the Consumer Technology Association, and the Staples Sustainable Innovation Lab.</span></em></p>
Technical advances are reducing the volume of e-waste generated in the US as lighter, more compact products enter the market. But those goods can be harder to reuse and recycle.
Callie Babbitt, Associate Professor of Sustainability, Rochester Institute of Technology
Shahana Althaf, Postdoctoral associate, Yale University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/149486
2020-11-25T14:36:45Z
2020-11-25T14:36:45Z
As cobalt demand booms, companies must do more to protect Congolese miners
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/368899/original/file-20201111-17-185lyem.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A "creuseur," or digger, descends into a tunnel at the mine in Kawama, Democratic Republic of Congo.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Michael Robinson Chavez/The Washington Post via Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The Democratic Republic of Congo is the major source of some of the minerals used to manufacture components in household appliances, mobile phones, electric vehicles and jewellery.</p>
<p>The mineral extraction industry is the backbone of the Congolese economy. Copper and cobalt, which is a by-product of copper, accounts for 85% of the country’s exports. Because of the huge mineral deposits available in the country, it is often the only sourcing option for companies.</p>
<p>Cobalt is an essential mineral for the lithium-ion batteries used in electric vehicles, laptops and smart phones. It offers the highest energy density and is key for boosting battery life.</p>
<p>The Katanga region in the south of the Democratic Republic of Congo is home to <a href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2020/mcs2020-cobalt.pdf">more than half</a> of the world’s cobalt resources, and over <a href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2020/mcs2020-cobalt.pdf">70%</a> of the current cobalt production worldwide takes place in the country. Demand for cobalt is <a href="http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_A_Vision_for_a_Sustainable_Battery_Value_Chain_in_2030_Report.pdf">projected</a> to surge fourfold by 2030 in pace with the electric vehicle boom.</p>
<p>However, mining in the Democratic Republic of Congo is risky because of the prevalence of artisanal small-scale mining. Artisanal mining is often carried out by hand, using basic equipment. It’s a largely informal and labour-intensive activity on which more than <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/5b37b5f5-a8c0-4047-8b4a-bc9914518ab8">two million Congolese miners</a> depend for income.</p>
<p>And this mining method comes with major human rights risks such as child labour and dangerous working conditions. Fatal accidents in unsafe tunnels <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-54132354">occur frequently</a>. And there are detailed <a href="https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/afr62/3183/2016/en/">reports</a> such as the one by <a href="https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/afr62/3183/2016/en/">Amnesty International</a> on the prevalence of child labour in these operations.</p>
<p>Because artisanal miners frequently extract cobalt illegally on industrial mining sites, human rights issues cannot be excluded from industrial production. Artisanally mined cobalt also often gets mixed with the industrial production when it is sold to intermediaries in the open market. Typically, it is then shipped to refineries in China for further processing and then sold to battery manufacturers around the world. In this complex supply chain, separating, tracking and tracing artisanally mined cobalt is almost impossible.</p>
<p>International human rights organisations have flagged human rights abuses, putting pressure on multinational corporations that buy Congolese cobalt. In response to these pressures, some automotive and electronics companies are currently not sourcing cobalt from the Democratic Republic of the Congo because they want to avoid tainting their brand image. </p>
<p>But that strategy won’t work for long, as no other country will be able to satisfy the rising demand for cobalt. The production of other cobalt-exporting countries such as Russia, Canada, Australia and the Philippines accounts for less than 5% of the global production.</p>
<p>How companies in the cobalt supply chain can source responsible cobalt from the Democratic Republic of the Congo amid these human rights risks is a question worth exploring. We address this question in a recent <a href="http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Making_Mining_Safe_2020.pdf">study</a>, in which we suggest companies should acknowledge the need for common standards for responsibly mined cobalt.</p>
<h2>Common standards</h2>
<p>Currently, there is no common understanding of what “responsible” artisanal cobalt should entail. The quest for responsible mineral sourcing is not a cobalt-specific challenge. The Congolese mining code establishes certain basic standards such as the prohibition of miners under the age of 18. There are also requirements to register as an artisanal miner and become a member of a mining cooperative.</p>
<p>One approach towards common standards is to mount “artisanal and small-scale mining formalisation projects”. The few existing projects establish rules for the mining site that are defined and enforced by the project partners. These usually consist of cooperatives, mine operators and buyers.</p>
<p>One of us visited two active formalisation projects in Kolwezi in Katanga province. Based on the observations during the September 2019 visit, we believe that formalisation is a viable path to making artisanal mining safe and fair.</p>
<p>Formalisation works because operational measures are put in place to mitigate safety risks. For example, the extraction is supervised by mining engineers. Also, the project site is fenced off and has exit and entry controls. This ensures that no underage, pregnant or drunk miners can work on site.</p>
<p>But for formalisation projects to yield “responsible” artisanal cobalt, common standards and consistent enforcement are necessary. Currently, formalisation means different things in different sites.</p>
<p>National standards for mine safety exist, but they need to be enforced uniformly. Where current standards fall short of reassuring buyers, further measures need to be developed by a consortium of the key players. This should involve mining cooperatives, concession holders, the government, civil society organisations, and other companies along the battery supply chain.</p>
<p>The 2018 amendments to the mining code introduced a legal basis for the subcontracting of artisanal miners by industrial mining companies. In January 2020, the Congolese government created an <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/congo-mining-cobalt-idUSL8N2E26D0">entity</a> that will oversee artisanal and small-scale mining activities. These are positive steps.</p>
<p>The development of artisanal mining standards through a process involving key players needs to build on and strengthen these existing national laws and strategies. Furthermore, private actors should support government efforts by identifying parameters and means of evaluation to ensure the consistent enforcement of these standards. A discussion about responsible sourcing strategies and practices is indispensable for all brands that care about the human rights implications of their operations.</p>
<h2>The way forward</h2>
<p>To illustrate how a multi-stakeholder discussion over responsible sourcing standards translates into practice, we can examine tunnel construction to extract the ores underground at artisanal and small-scale mining sites.</p>
<p>The first issue is whether tunnels should be allowed at all or whether responsible artisanal cobalt should take place exclusively from open pits. Open pits are considered significantly safer. If only open pits are considered responsible, who will pay for the earth-moving machines needed to create open pits?</p>
<p>If tunnels are allowed, how deep can they be? While relevant mining regulations limit tunnel depth to 30 metres and tunnel inclination to 15%, international buyers of cobalt do not consider this safe.</p>
<p>Given that horizontal tunnel construction is particularly dangerous, should horizontal tunnels be banned entirely from sites? If tunnels are permitted, should miners receive training on construction safety, and if so, who will pay for these programmes?</p>
<p>These processes and regulations must be standardised and widely adopted. Only when this happens will automotive and electronics companies be reassured that they are not contributing to human rights violations. And only then will they feel confident buying Congolese cobalt.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/149486/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Responsible sourcing of cobalt from the DRC is a fully independent research project.
The travel cost of the field research in the DRC were reimbursed by the World Economic Forum's Global Battery Alliance.
All other funding for this research came from the University of Geneva, where I direct the Geneva Center for Business and Human Rights, and from the NYU Stern School of Business, where I am research director of the NYU Stern Center for Business and Human Rights.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Our Center has received funding from the World Economic Forum's Global Battery Alliance solely for the travel expenses related to the research trip to the DRC. I am a consultant at the Geneva Center for Business and Human Rights at the University of Geneva. </span></em></p>
Companies can’t verify that their source didn’t involve artisanal mining. A discussion over responsible sourcing strategies and practices is needed.
Dorothee Baumann-Pauly, Adjunct Professor and Director of the Geneva Center for Business and Human Rights, Université de Genève
Serra Cremer Iyi, Researcher, Université de Genève
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/146065
2020-10-22T12:23:50Z
2020-10-22T12:23:50Z
Designing batteries for easier recycling could avert a looming e-waste crisis
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/364563/original/file-20201020-17-1x28u8s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=31%2C5%2C3494%2C2144&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">What happens to millions of these?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Li_ion_laptop_battery.jpg">Kristoferb/Wikipedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>As concern mounts over the impacts of climate change, many experts are calling for <a href="https://www.rff.org/publications/explainers/electrification-101/">greater use of electricity</a> as a substitute for fossil fuels. Powered by advancements in battery technology, the number of <a href="https://afdc.energy.gov/vehicles/electric_batteries.html">plug-in hybrid and electric vehicles</a> on U.S. roads is increasing. And utilities are generating a growing share of their power from renewable fuels, supported by <a href="https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=40072">large-scale battery storage systems</a>.</p>
<p>These trends, coupled with a growing volume of battery-powered phones, watches, laptops, wearable devices and other consumer technologies, leave us wondering: What will happen to all these batteries once they wear out?</p>
<p>Despite overwhelming enthusiasm for cheaper, more powerful and energy-dense batteries, manufacturers have paid comparatively little attention to making these essential devices more sustainable. In the U.S. only about 5% of lithium-ion batteries – the technology of choice for electric vehicles and many high-tech products – <a href="https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2019/07/f64/112306-battery-recycling-brochure-June-2019%202-web150.pdf">are actually recycled</a>. As sales of electric vehicles and tech gadgets continue to grow, it is unclear who should handle hazardous battery waste or how to do it. </p>
<p>As engineers who work on <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=pPgKUOEAAAAJ&hl=en">designing advanced materials</a>, including <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=dD8UWYEAAAAJ&hl=en">batteries</a>, we believe it is important to think about these issues now. Creating pathways for battery manufacturers to build sustainable production-to-recycling manufacturing processes that meet both consumer and environmental standards can reduce the likelihood of a battery waste crisis in the coming decade.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/iFchfHH0qzg?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Spent batteries from electric vehicles can still power devices like streetlights, but there is not currently any requirement to reuse them. Recycling them is expensive and technically complex.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Hazardous contents</h2>
<p>Batteries pose more complex recycling and disposal challenges than metals, plastics and paper products because they contain many chemical components that are both toxic and difficult to separate. </p>
<p>Some types of widely used batteries – notably, lead-acid batteries in gasoline-powered cars – have relatively simple chemistries and designs that make them straightforward to recycle. The common nonrechargeable alkaline or water-based batteries that power devices like flashlights and smoke alarms can be disposed directly in landfills. </p>
<p>However, today’s lithium-ion batteries are highly sophisticated and not designed for recyclability. They contain hazardous chemicals, such as toxic lithium salts and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/transition-metal">transition metals</a>, that can damage the environment and leach into water sources. Used lithium batteries also contain embedded electrochemical energy – a small amount of charge left over after they can no longer power devices – which can cause fires or explosions, or <a href="https://www.epw.senate.gov/public/_cache/files/e/5/e5530917-434d-451c-8a6b-c5cdfad1b5ec/EED12407A6BF7DE6C86A4B39C25CF6A4.greenberger-testimony-07.17.2019.pdf">harm people that handle them</a>.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1026491976722468865"}"></div></p>
<p>Moreover, manufacturers have little economic incentive to modify existing protocols to incorporate recycling-friendly designs. Today it <a href="https://www.epw.senate.gov/public/_cache/files/e/5/e5530917-434d-451c-8a6b-c5cdfad1b5ec/EED12407A6BF7DE6C86A4B39C25CF6A4.greenberger-testimony-07.17.2019.pdf">costs more to recycle</a> a lithium-ion battery than the recoverable materials inside it are worth.</p>
<p>As a result, responsibility for handling battery waste frequently falls to third-party recyclers – companies that make money from collecting and processing recyclables. Often it is cheaper for them to store batteries than to treat and recycle them. </p>
<p>Recycling technologies that can break down batteries, such as <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/pyrometallurgy">pyrometallurgy</a>, or burning, and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/hydrometallurgy">hydrometallurgy</a>, or acid leaching, are becoming <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s41918-018-0012-1">more efficient and economical</a>. But the lack of proper battery recycling infrastructure creates roadblocks along the entire supply chain. </p>
<p>For example, transporting used batteries over long distances to recycling centers would typically be done by truck. Lithium batteries must be packaged and shipped according to the U.S. Department of Transportation’s <a href="https://www.ecfr.gov/cgi-bin/text-idx?SID=83659c6aca8187cdb60b38763b2ffbb8&node=se49.2.173_1185&rgn=div8">Class 9 hazardous material regulations</a>. Using a <a href="https://www.anl.gov/egs/everbatt">model developed by Argonne National Laboratory</a>, we estimate that this requirement increases transport costs to more than 50 times that of regular cargo.</p>
<h2>Safer and simpler</h2>
<p>While it will be challenging to bake recyclability into the existing manufacturing of conventional lithium-ion batteries, it is vital to develop sustainable practices for solid-state batteries, which are a next-generation technology expected to enter the market within this decade. </p>
<p>A solid-state battery replaces the flammable organic liquid electrolyte in lithium-ion batteries with a nonflammable inorganic solid electrolyte. This allows the battery to operate over a much wider temperature range and dramatically reduces the risk of fires or explosions. Our <a href="http://zhengchen.eng.ucsd.edu/">team of nanoengineers</a> is working to incorporate ease of recyclability into next-generation solid-state battery development before these batteries enter the market.</p>
<p>Conceptually, recycling-friendly batteries must be safe to handle and transport, simple to dismantle, cost-effective to manufacture and minimally harmful to the environment. After analyzing the options, we’ve chosen a combination of specific chemistries in next-generation all-solid-state batteries that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1557/mre.2020.25">meets these requirements</a>. </p>
<p>Our design strategy reduces the number of steps required to dismantle the battery, and avoids using combustion or harmful chemicals such as acids or toxic organic solvents. Instead, it employs only safe, low-cost materials such as alcohol and water-based recycling techniques. This approach is scalable and environmentally friendly. It dramatically simplifies conventional battery recycling processes and makes it safe to disassemble and handle the materials. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/364347/original/file-20201019-15-3uirm9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Diagram showing steps to recycle an all-solid-state battery." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/364347/original/file-20201019-15-3uirm9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/364347/original/file-20201019-15-3uirm9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=298&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364347/original/file-20201019-15-3uirm9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=298&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364347/original/file-20201019-15-3uirm9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=298&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364347/original/file-20201019-15-3uirm9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=374&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364347/original/file-20201019-15-3uirm9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=374&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/364347/original/file-20201019-15-3uirm9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=374&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A proposed procedure for recycling solid-state battery packs directly and harvesting their materials for reuse.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://doi.org/10.1557/mre.2020.25">Tan et al., 2020</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Compared to recycling lithium-ion batteries, recycling solid-state batteries is intrinsically safer since they’re made entirely of nonflammable components. Moreover, in our proposed design the entire battery can be recycled directly without separating it into individual components. This feature dramatically reduces the complexity and cost of recycling them.</p>
<p>[<em>Deep knowledge, daily.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=deepknowledge">Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter</a>.]</p>
<p>Our design is a proof-of-concept technology developed at the laboratory scale. It is ultimately up to private companies and public institutions, such as national laboratories or state-run waste facilities, to apply these recycling principles on an industrial scale.</p>
<h2>Rules for battery recycling</h2>
<p>Developing an easy-to-recycle battery is just one step. Many challenges associated with battery recycling stem from the complex logistics of handling them. Creating facilities, regulations and practices for collecting batteries is just as important as developing better recycling technologies. China, South Korea and the European Union are <a href="https://www.epw.senate.gov/public/_cache/files/d/c/dc43cdc9-ef56-4f8c-b442-d325aa8acf72/D775B276380B37ABF9A49BFD581DD1A5.sanders-testimony-07.17.2019.pdf">already developing battery recycling systems and mandates</a>.</p>
<p>One useful step would be for governments to require that batteries carry universal tags, similar to the internationally recognized standard labels used for plastics and metals recycling. These could help to educate consumers and waste collectors about how to handle different types of used batteries.</p>
<p>Markings could take the form of an electronic tag printed on battery labels with embedded information, such as chemistry type, age and manufacturer. Making this data readily available would facilitate automated sorting of large volumes of batteries at waste facilities.</p>
<p>It is also vital to improve international enforcement of recycling policies. Most battery waste is not generated where the batteries were originally produced, which makes it hard to hold manufacturers responsible for handling it. </p>
<p>Such an undertaking would require manufacturers and regulatory agencies to work together on newer recycling-friendly designs and better collection infrastructure. By confronting these challenges now, we believe it is possible to avoid or reduce the harmful effects of battery waste in the future.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/146065/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Zheng Chen receives funding from the National Science Foundation.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Darren H. S. Tan does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Batteries power much of modern life, from electric and hybrid cars to computers, medical devices and cellphones. But unless they’re made easier and cheaper to recycle, a battery waste crisis looms.
Zheng Chen, Assistant Professor of Engineering, University of California, San Diego
Darren H. S. Tan, PhD Candidate in Chemical Engineering, University of California, San Diego
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/145386
2020-09-02T03:57:06Z
2020-09-02T03:57:06Z
Pain-sensing electronic silicone skin paves the way for smart prosthetics and skin grafts
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/355754/original/file-20200901-22-yivt65.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=36%2C0%2C3507%2C2478&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ella Maru Studio</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Skin is our largest organ, made up of complex sensors constantly monitoring for anything that might cause us pain. Our new technology replicates that – electronically.</p>
<p>The electronic artificial skin we’ve developed reacts to pain stimuli just like real skin, and paves the way for better prosthetics, smarter robotics and non-invasive alternatives to skin grafts.</p>
<p>Our prototype device mimics the body’s near-instant feedback response and can react to painful sensations with the same lighting speed at which nerve signals travel to the brain.</p>
<p>Our new technology, details of which are <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/aisy.202000094">published in Advanced Intelligent Systems</a>, is made of silicone rubber with integrated electronics. It mimics human skin, both in texture and in how it responds to pressure, temperature and pain.</p>
<p>Human skin senses things constantly, but our pain response only kicks in at a certain threshold. Once this threshold is breached, electric signals are sent via the nervous system to the brain to initiate a pain response.</p>
<p>You don’t notice when you pick up something at a comfortable temperature. But touch something too hot, and you’ll almost instantly recoil. That’s our skin’s pain-sensing system in action. </p>
<h2>Helping hand</h2>
<p>Our new pain-sensing electronic skin is a crucial step towards the development of “smart prosthetics” featuring sophisticated feedback systems. We want to develop medical devices and components that show similar pain sensing responses to the human body.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/355936/original/file-20200902-16-1vvqtxv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Sample of silicone skin" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/355936/original/file-20200902-16-1vvqtxv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/355936/original/file-20200902-16-1vvqtxv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/355936/original/file-20200902-16-1vvqtxv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/355936/original/file-20200902-16-1vvqtxv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/355936/original/file-20200902-16-1vvqtxv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/355936/original/file-20200902-16-1vvqtxv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/355936/original/file-20200902-16-1vvqtxv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Stretchable, smart silicone skin.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">RMIT University</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Prosthetics significantly improve an amputee’s quality of life, but they still lack the ability to sense danger. A prosthetic hand does not sense when it’s placed on a hot surface, while someone with a prosthetic arm might lean on something sharp but won’t realise the damage being caused.</p>
<p>Technology that provides a realistic skin-like response can make a prosthetic much more like a natural limb. </p>
<p>With further development, our electronic skin could also potentially be used for skin grafts, in cases where the traditional approach is not viable.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/355937/original/file-20200902-18-1wgbpqd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Hand with silicone skin overlaid" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/355937/original/file-20200902-18-1wgbpqd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/355937/original/file-20200902-18-1wgbpqd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/355937/original/file-20200902-18-1wgbpqd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/355937/original/file-20200902-18-1wgbpqd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/355937/original/file-20200902-18-1wgbpqd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/355937/original/file-20200902-18-1wgbpqd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/355937/original/file-20200902-18-1wgbpqd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The new silicone skin could pave the way for smarter skin grafts.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">RMIT University</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Skin in the game</h2>
<p>We created our electronic skin by building on our research group’s previous breakthroughs in <a href="https://www.rmit.edu.au/news/all-news/2017/aug/eureka-moment-for-unbreakable-electronic-skin">stretchable electronics</a>, <a href="https://www.rmit.edu.au/news/newsroom/media-releases-and-expert-comments/2018/feb/clever-coating-opens-door-to-smart-windows">temperature-sensitive materials</a>, and <a href="https://www.rmit.edu.au/news/all-news/2015/october/nano-memory-cell-mimics-brains-longterm-memory">brain-mimicking electronics</a>.</p>
<p>For example, we used our process for integrating temperature-sensitive vanadium oxide, a material that can change its electronic behaviour in reaction to temperatures above a particular threshold (65°C in this case). </p>
<p>This material then triggers electrical signals similar to those generated by our nerve endings when we touch something hot. The electrical signal from the sensing part of the system (which is temperature- or pressure-sensitive) goes to a brain-mimicking circuit which processes the input and makes a decision based on threshold values. </p>
<p>The electrical output from the brain-mimicking circuit is like the nerve signals that initiate a motor response (such as moving your hand away) in the human pain response. </p>
<p>In our experiment, we measured the current generated. To use the silicone skin for real, this would need to be connected to nerve endings or apparatus that could initiate a motor response.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/its-not-easy-to-give-a-robot-a-sense-of-touch-118111">It's not easy to give a robot a sense of touch</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Our material responds just as fast as a real human pain response, mimicking the entire process from stimulus to response triggers from the brain – or in our case, the brain-mimicking circuit. The response is stronger depending on both the intensity and time of stimulation – just like a real human pain response.</p>
<p>The electronic skin brings to reality the threshold-based responses to pain, both in the way the skin reacts differently to pain above a certain threshold and how it takes longer for skin to “recover” from something that’s more painful. This is because stronger stimuli generate more voltage across the brain-mimicking circuit.</p>
<p>We can also modify this threshold in our devices to mimic the way injured skin (such as sunburnt skin) can have a lower pain threshold than normal skin. The electronic skin can also be used to increase sensitivity, which could be particularly useful in sports and defence as well as for skin grafts. </p>
<p>Another unique application could be smart gloves that could provide precise feedback from a surgeon’s hands when palpating tissue.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/prosthetic-limbs-affect-our-attitudes-to-disability-expressive-design-might-change-things-for-the-better-140796">Prosthetic limbs affect our attitudes to disability – expressive design might change things for the better</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Our silicone skin will need further development to integrate the technology into biomedical applications. But the fundamentals – biocompatibility and skin-like stretchability – are already there.</p>
<p>The next steps are working with medical researchers to make this even more “skin-like”, and to figure out how best to integrate it with the human body.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/145386/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Madhu Bhaskaran receives funding from Australian Research Council. </span></em></p>
A new silicone ‘skin’ contains electronics that mimic the human body’s lightning-fast response to pain, potentially paving the way for smart prosthetics that can detect painful sensations.
Madhu Bhaskaran, Professor, Electronic and Communications Engineering, RMIT University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/141997
2020-07-10T14:38:21Z
2020-07-10T14:38:21Z
Global electronic waste up 21% in five years, and recycling isn’t keeping up
<p>Each year, the total amount of electric and electronic equipment the world uses <a href="https://globalewaste.org/news/surge-global-waste/">grows by 2.5 million tonnes</a>. Phones, radios, toys, laptops – if it has a power or battery supply it’s likely to join a growing mountain of “e-waste” after use.</p>
<p>In 2019 alone, the world generated 53.6 million tonnes of e-waste. That’s about 7.3 kilograms per person and equivalent in weight to 350 cruise ships. Asia produced the lion’s share – 24.9 million tonnes – followed by the Americas (13.1 million tonnes) and Europe (12 million tonnes), while Africa and Oceania generated 2.9 and 0.7 million tonnes respectively.</p>
<p>By 2030, the global total is likely to swell to 74.7 million tonnes, almost a doubling of the annual amount of new e-waste in just 16 years. This makes it the world’s fastest growing domestic waste stream, fuelled mainly by more people buying electronic products with shorter life cycles and fewer options for repair.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/346615/original/file-20200709-87086-1pb82yb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/346615/original/file-20200709-87086-1pb82yb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/346615/original/file-20200709-87086-1pb82yb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/346615/original/file-20200709-87086-1pb82yb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/346615/original/file-20200709-87086-1pb82yb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/346615/original/file-20200709-87086-1pb82yb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/346615/original/file-20200709-87086-1pb82yb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Discarded electric and electronic products are forming the fastest growing domestic waste stream worldwide.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">UNU/UNITAR SCYCLE©/Yassyn Sidki</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These products can help improve living standards, and it’s good that more and more people can afford them. But growing global demand is outpacing our capacity to recycle or dispose of electronic products safely. Once they’re obsolete and discarded, these products can end up accumulating in the environment, polluting habitats and harming people and wildlife.</p>
<h2>E-waste recycling</h2>
<p>Only 17.4% of 2019’s e-waste was formally collected and recycled. Since 2014, the amount of recycled e-waste has only grown by 1.8 million tonnes each year. The total amount of e-waste generated increased by 9.2 million tonnes over the same period. At the same time, the amount of undocumented e-waste is increasing. </p>
<p>In <a href="https://globalewaste.org/">new research</a>, we found that Europe has the highest collection and recycling rate, covering about 42.5% of the total e-waste generated in 2019. Asia ranked second at 11.7%, the Americas and Oceania were similar at 9.4% and 8.8%, and Africa had the lowest rate at 0.9%. What happened with the rest (82.6%) of the world’s e-waste generated in 2019 isn’t clear. </p>
<p>In high income countries, around 8% of e-waste is thought to be discarded in waste bins, while 7%-20% is exported. In lower income countries, the picture is less clear, as e-waste is mostly managed informally.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/346690/original/file-20200709-26-1en9wzl.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/346690/original/file-20200709-26-1en9wzl.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/346690/original/file-20200709-26-1en9wzl.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=444&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/346690/original/file-20200709-26-1en9wzl.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=444&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/346690/original/file-20200709-26-1en9wzl.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=444&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/346690/original/file-20200709-26-1en9wzl.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=558&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/346690/original/file-20200709-26-1en9wzl.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=558&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/346690/original/file-20200709-26-1en9wzl.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=558&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">How the world managed e-waste in 2019.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">UNU/UNITAR SCYCLE©/Nienke Haccoû</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Without a reliable system of waste management, toxic substances contained in e-waste, such as mercury, brominated flame retardants, chlorofluorocarbons and hydrochlorofluorocarbons, are more likely to be released into the environment and harm the people who live, work and play in e-waste scrapyards. </p>
<p>Mercury is used in computer monitors and fluorescent lighting, but exposure to it can cause brain damage. We estimated that about 50 tonnes of mercury is contained in these undocumented flows of e-waste that end up in the environment each year.</p>
<p>E-waste doesn’t just pose a health risk though. It also contributes directly to global warming. Dumped temperature-exchange equipment, found in fridges and air conditioners, can slowly release greenhouse gases. About 98 million tonnes are thought to leak from scrapyards each year, equivalent to 0.3% of global emissions from the energy sector.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/346609/original/file-20200709-87080-10upcy7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/346609/original/file-20200709-87080-10upcy7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/346609/original/file-20200709-87080-10upcy7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/346609/original/file-20200709-87080-10upcy7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/346609/original/file-20200709-87080-10upcy7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/346609/original/file-20200709-87080-10upcy7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/346609/original/file-20200709-87080-10upcy7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Discarded e-waste isn’t just an environmental problem, it’s also an economic opportunity.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">UNU/UNITAR SCYCLE©/Yassyn Sidki</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Aside from toxins, e-waste also contains precious metals and useful raw materials, such as gold, silver, copper and platinum. The total value of all this discarded as e-waste in 2019 has been conservatively valued at US$57 billion (£45 billion) – a sum greater than the GDP of most countries.</p>
<p>But since only 17.4% of 2019’s e-waste was collected and recycled, just US$10 billion of this was recovered in an environmentally responsible way. Only 4 million tonnes of raw materials was made available for recycling.</p>
<p>Thankfully, the world is slowly waking up to the scale of this problem. As of the end of 2019, 78 countries, covering 71% of the world’s population, either had a policy for managing e-waste or were putting regulation in place – an increase of 5% from 2017. But in many of these countries, policies still aren’t legally binding and regulation isn’t enforced. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/346613/original/file-20200709-38-idlyo7.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/346613/original/file-20200709-38-idlyo7.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/346613/original/file-20200709-38-idlyo7.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=268&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/346613/original/file-20200709-38-idlyo7.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=268&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/346613/original/file-20200709-38-idlyo7.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=268&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/346613/original/file-20200709-38-idlyo7.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=336&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/346613/original/file-20200709-38-idlyo7.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=336&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/346613/original/file-20200709-38-idlyo7.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=336&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Governments worldwide are enacting new laws to better manage e-waste.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Credits© Illustrations UNU/UNITAR SCYCLE -Nienke Haccoû</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As researchers, we’ll continue to monitor the world’s e-waste to support the creation of a circular economy and sustainable societies. We hope that our efforts to track this growing problem can spur governments to act with an urgency that reflects the scale of the challenge, with laws and enforcement that can drastically increase the proportion of e-waste that’s recycled safely.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/141997/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Vanessa Forti is affiliated with United Nations University (UNU) / United Nations International Training and Research (UNITAR) - SCYCLE</span></em></p>
Demand for electric and electronic products is fuelling the meteoric rise in e-waste.
Vanessa Forti, Programme Associate at Sustainable Cycles (UNU-ViE-SCYCLE), United Nations University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/135844
2020-05-04T14:25:37Z
2020-05-04T14:25:37Z
Why Nigeria needs to manage electronic waste better
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/331114/original/file-20200428-110785-1x8pqpm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Electronic waste heap from used discarded computer parts and cases </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/electronic-waste-heap-from-used-discarded-computer-royalty-free-image/1175564260?adppopup=true">Ladislav Kubes/Getty Images </a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In most of Nigeria’s cities, there are visible piles of refuse that have built up on roads, river banks and swampy land. These waste dumps smell bad and are breeding grounds for germs that cause diseases. </p>
<p>Perhaps less well-known is the electronic waste that’s becoming a serious problem in parts of the country. This is obsolete electrical and electronic equipment that has been discarded. Because Nigeria does not have a formal recycling sector for safe management of e-waste, every month <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02772248.2011.561949">about 500,000 tons</a> of electronic and electrical equipment is dumped in workshops, open spaces, water sources and landfills. More than half of this is near end of life or <a href="https://www.trtworld.com/magazine/nigeria-has-become-an-e-waste-dumpsite-for-europe-us-and-asia-24197">completely damaged</a> .</p>
<p>When rain falls on informal waste dumps, polluted liquids leach out. These liquids contain toxic chemicals and metals, bacteria and viruses. They find their way into the ground and surface water, and can be taken up by plants and end up in animals and people. </p>
<p>Electronic waste is one of the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02772248.2011.561949">fastest-growing types of waste</a> in some parts of the world. Globally, the eco-friendly recycling of e-waste is optimally low. So more than half of almost <a href="http://www.saicm.org/Portals/12/Documents/EPI/ewastesafework.pdf">50 million metric tonnes of e-waste</a> generated worldwide ends up in landfills or is illegally transported.</p>
<p>Some of Nigeria’s e-waste is equipment that was imported when new and is discarded after its useful life. Some is imported second-hand. Out of an <a href="https://www.unenvironment.org/news-and-stories/press-release/nigeria-turns-tide-electronic-waste">average of 500,000 tonnes</a> of used electrical and electronics equipment imported into Nigeria, more than 25% is dead on arrival.</p>
<p>I have carried out several <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969712001374?via%3Dihub">studies</a> over the years into the environmental and health impacts of this electronic waste. My <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15376516.2017.1349228?journalCode=itxm20">findings</a> show that metals from waste have contaminated land and water and that these substances are <a href="https://europepmc.org/article/med/31104299">harmful</a> to living organisms. </p>
<p>My studies <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0147651313001759?via%3Dihub">standard and advanced techniques</a> to explore the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02772248.2011.561949">genotoxic and mutagenic effects</a> and <a href="https://www.ajol.info/index.php/tzool/article/view/142147">potential environmental and health impacts</a> of this electronic waste. Specifically, I have shown how e-waste from Alaba international market and Computer Village in Lagos State induced genetic damage in the cells of microorganisms, plants, animals and people.</p>
<h2>What we found</h2>
<p>Even though these e-waste dump sites are a health hazard, many people make their living on them. According to the International Labour Organisation, up to <a href="https://www.unenvironment.org/news-and-stories/press-release/nigeria-turns-tide-electronic-waste">100,000 people </a> work in the informal e-waste recycling sector in Nigeria. They <a href="https://www.ajol.info/index.php/tzool/article/view/142147">collect and dismantle electronics by hand</a> to reclaim components that can then be sold. </p>
<p>These people are at risk of infection and physical injury from handling waste. They are in danger of direct chemical poisoning leading to organ dysfunction, or disorders that are an indirect result of exposure to hazardous chemicals. E-waste can also induce <a href="https://europepmc.org/article/med/31104299">genetic damage</a> that could affect future generations. </p>
<p>In one <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12011-019-01745-z">study</a>, we collected blood samples and cheek cell samples from teenagers who were sorting through waste at the Alaba international electronic market. We found their blood contained much higher levels of heavy metals than a control group. </p>
<p>Within this group, higher levels also corresponded with longer periods spent in contact with e-waste, genetic predisposition (that is an individual’s genetic susceptibility), previous or concurrent exposures to other substances (such as cigarette smoke and alcohol), and the concentrations and types of toxic substances the person had been exposed to. </p>
<p>Genetic damage is usually due to exposure to chronic concentration or doses of xenobiotics. The most worrisome aspect is when the effect is not expressed in an individual but transferred onto another generation before it is expressed. </p>
<p>Genetic damage has been implicated as a cause of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5979367/">cancer</a> and certain other disorders such as <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/305954666_Mercury_toxicity_and_DNA_damage_in_patients_with_Down_syndrome">Down syndrome</a> and <a href="https://www.cell.com/ajhg/fulltext/S0002-9297(16)30282-8">nerve disorders</a> although our studies did not provide evidence of such linkages in Nigeria. We hope to provide evidence of such linkage in future studies.</p>
<h2>What needs to be done</h2>
<p>There is an urgent need for greater awareness of the dangerous substances found in the environment. The attitude of Nigerians towards waste disposal should change: waste should be managed sustainably by reducing, reusing, recovering and recycling materials safely. </p>
<p>The government should build properly engineered landfills to contain waste. Residential areas should be separated from electronic markets. Contaminated soil and water should be treated to protect workers and residents.</p>
<p>Nigeria also needs legislation that deals specifically with electronic waste. The country could be guided by examples provided by the <a href="https://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?type=REPORT&reference=A7-2011-0334&language=EN&mode=XML">European Union</a>and <a href="https://collections.unu.edu/eserv/UNU:1624/ewaste-in-china.pdf">China’s National Development and Reform Commission</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/135844/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Adekunle Bakare receives funding from McArthur Foundation/University of Ibadan Grant and Academy of Science for the Third World- TWAS. </span></em></p>
There is an urgent need for greater awareness of the dangerous substances found in the environment.
Adekunle Bakare, Professor of Genetics, Cellular and Molecular Toxicology , University of Ibadan
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/125968
2019-12-04T11:33:12Z
2019-12-04T11:33:12Z
How to find the most sustainable and long-lasting children’s toys
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/304987/original/file-20191203-67034-yjggu0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4636%2C3088&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/wjpGuGfxZhE">freestocks.org/Unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Think about the way plastic pollution has been reported in recent years and you’re probably picturing plastic packaging, films and microfibres. But Christmas brings a deluge of another relatively short-lived plastic product that has received a lot less attention – children’s toys. </p>
<p>Children’s toys form a large and growing global market worth <a href="https://www.toyassociation.org/ta/research/data/global/toys/research-and-data/data/global-sales-data.aspx?hkey=64bda73b-80ee-4f26-bd61-1aca29ff2abf">USD$90.4 billion in 2018</a>. Unlike low weight packaging and film, toys often contain far larger quantities of high-quality virgin plastic material – and they usually last a lot longer than their owner’s interest, such is the rapid pace of child development. </p>
<p>We wanted to find out which toys are best for the planet, to help parents make a sustainable choice of gifts for their children at Christmas. Our research considered a wide range of children’s toys and compared high-value branded toys with those that were cheaper and unbranded.</p>
<p>By studying the life cycles of a range of children’s toys, we were able to determine their environmental impact and calculate how much energy goes into making and using each toy throughout its lifespan. We calculated the energy used to extract and process the raw materials, ship the product, deliver any power requirements such as batteries as well as energy that is lost, used or recovered through recycling or disposing of the toy at the end of its life.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/304990/original/file-20191203-66994-r7xgig.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/304990/original/file-20191203-66994-r7xgig.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/304990/original/file-20191203-66994-r7xgig.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/304990/original/file-20191203-66994-r7xgig.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/304990/original/file-20191203-66994-r7xgig.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/304990/original/file-20191203-66994-r7xgig.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/304990/original/file-20191203-66994-r7xgig.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Some toys are bought, discarded and dumped in landfill within just a year or two.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/soledade-april-1-2019-approximate-image-1356785255?src=fda13fed-ee4a-4e61-a9b4-4b29f2325cdb-1-14">Felipequeiroz/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We found that toys that are kept longer, resold or donated secondhand, have a lower yearly environmental impact overall, as this is likely to negate the manufacture and purchase of new toys. Toys that maintained their interest and relevance to children over time, had multiple uses or could added to as part of a collection had the greatest potential for longer lifespans.</p>
<p>We also considered the secondhand prices of toys online and asked the opinions of secondhand retailers such as charity shops and parents and childcare workers. As you might expect, the secondhand value of a toy is greater for those that are initially more expensive. Higher-value branded products were more likely to be resold whereas cheaper alternatives were more likely to be sent to landfill or donated rather than sold.</p>
<p>So which toys were the most and least sustainable?</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/304994/original/file-20191203-66998-dpavyv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/304994/original/file-20191203-66998-dpavyv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/304994/original/file-20191203-66998-dpavyv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/304994/original/file-20191203-66998-dpavyv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/304994/original/file-20191203-66998-dpavyv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/304994/original/file-20191203-66998-dpavyv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/304994/original/file-20191203-66998-dpavyv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">More expensive toys tend to hold their resale value, and are more likely to find second owners.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/woman-hand-holding-donation-box-clothes-1248084661?src=d8ca5711-0666-4041-b1ac-facc2bd0c39a-1-41">Veja/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Secondhand toy story</h2>
<p>Construction toys such as Lego and Meccano scored well because they can be used for longer and are suitable for children over a wider age range. These collections can be added to and customised, ensuring that they remain challenging and enjoyable as the child grows. Such toys have maintained their popularity over generations and so retain a good residual secondhand value and are more likely to be resold.</p>
<p>The least sustainable toys were typically those that contained electronics. These toys require larger amounts of energy during manufacture, and the electronics hamper their capacity to be recycled. Electronic toys also rely on batteries and tend to only be relevant to younger children, giving them a short lifespan. They are often relatively cheap when new, limiting their value in secondhand sales. Some electronic soft toys are particularly hard to clean, meaning that they are often discarded rather than donated.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/304995/original/file-20191203-66982-1802178.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/304995/original/file-20191203-66982-1802178.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=380&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/304995/original/file-20191203-66982-1802178.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=380&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/304995/original/file-20191203-66982-1802178.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=380&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/304995/original/file-20191203-66982-1802178.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=478&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/304995/original/file-20191203-66982-1802178.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=478&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/304995/original/file-20191203-66982-1802178.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=478&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Plastic isn’t all bad – construction toys in particular have a low environmental impact and a long shelf life.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/Z9AU36chmQI">Kelly Sikkema/Unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For early development playthings, the parents and carers we interviewed strongly preferred wooden toys. Secondhand retailers said that wooden toys such as stacking rings and blocks retain relatively high secondhand values, and can have second – or even third – lives. But plastic toys shouldn’t necessarily be demonised – especially products like Lego. Good quality plastic toys are typically highly durable and are easily cleaned before resale.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/dreaming-of-a-green-christmas-here-are-five-ways-to-make-it-more-sustainable-108768">Dreaming of a green Christmas? Here are five ways to make it more sustainable</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Top tips for toy purchases this Christmas:</p>
<ol>
<li><p>Buy secondhand wherever possible.</p></li>
<li><p>Consider signing up to a local toy library if there’s one in your area. For a small fee per toy or a subscription you can borrow toys as you would a book in a normal library.</p></li>
<li><p>Avoid electronic toys, especially for lower age groups where a child’s capabilities and interests change rapidly. </p></li>
<li><p>Consider how long the toy may be relevant to your child.</p></li>
<li><p>If buying short-lived toys such as art and craft-based toys, try to ensure that the materials are biodegradable or reusable.</p></li>
</ol><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/125968/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>This research was undertaken with financial support from the EPSRC-funded Centre for Industrial Energy, Materials and Products. </span></em></p>
The most thoughtful gifts can also be the most sustainable, and last long after Christmas has ended.
Matthew Watkins, Senior Lecturer in Product Design, Nottingham Trent University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/124344
2019-11-07T12:16:20Z
2019-11-07T12:16:20Z
Soft robots of the future may depend on new materials that conduct electricity, sense damage and self-heal
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/299922/original/file-20191101-88372-1kt2aco.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=262%2C34%2C1076%2C644&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Interactions between people and machines continue to increase.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/tecnalia/14109734238/">Tecnalia/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Robots used to be restricted to heavy lifting or fine detail work in factories. Now Boston Dynamics’ nimble <a href="https://www.bostondynamics.com/spot">four-legged robot, Spot</a>, is available for companies to lease to carry out various real-world jobs, a sign of just how common interactions between humans and machines have become in recent years.</p>
<p>And while Spot is versatile and robust, it’s what society thinks of as a traditional robot, a mix of metal and hard plastic. Many researchers are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/admt.201800477">convinced that</a> <a href="https://www.npr.org/sections/alltechconsidered/2016/12/11/504953475/behold-a-robot-hand-with-a-soft-touch">soft robots</a> capable of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41928-018-0024-1">safe physical interaction</a> with people – for example, providing in-home assistance by gripping and moving objects – will join hard robots to populate the future.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/295033/original/file-20191001-173369-1y7qpg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/295033/original/file-20191001-173369-1y7qpg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/295033/original/file-20191001-173369-1y7qpg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=513&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295033/original/file-20191001-173369-1y7qpg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=513&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295033/original/file-20191001-173369-1y7qpg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=513&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295033/original/file-20191001-173369-1y7qpg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=644&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295033/original/file-20191001-173369-1y7qpg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=644&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295033/original/file-20191001-173369-1y7qpg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=644&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Soft multifunctional materials will be used in soft robotics and wearable computers, for example, and will perform many different tasks simultaneously.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Michael Ford</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Soft robotics and wearable computers, both technologies that are safe for human interaction, will demand new types of materials that are soft and stretchable and perform a wide variety of functions. My colleagues and I at the <a href="http://sml.me.cmu.edu/">Soft Machines Lab</a> at Carnegie Mellon University develop these multifunctional materials. <a href="https://www.cmu.edu/me/malen/Lab_Website/Home.html">Along with</a> <a href="https://warelab.co/people/">collaborators</a>, we’ve recently developed one such material that uniquely combines the properties of metals, soft rubbers and shape memory materials. </p>
<p>These soft multifunctional materials, as we call them, conduct electricity, detect damage and heal themselves. They also can sense touch and change their shape and stiffness in response to electrical stimulation, like an artificial muscle. In many ways, it’s what the pioneering researchers <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=Iky0yNkAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">Kaushik Bhattacharya</a> and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=gIS0-ekAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=sra">Richard James</a> described: “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1100892">the material is the machine</a>.” </p>
<h2>Making materials intelligent</h2>
<p>This idea that the material is the machine can be captured in the concept of <a href="https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/how-body-shapes-way-we-think">embodied intelligence</a>. This term is usually used to describe a system of materials that are interconnected, like tendons in the knee. When running, tendons can stretch and relax to adapt each time the foot strikes the ground, without the need for any neural control.</p>
<p>It’s also possible to think of embodied intelligence in a single material – one that can sense, process and respond to its environment without embedded electronic devices like sensors and processing units.</p>
<p>A simple example is rubber. At the molecular level, rubber contains strings of molecules that are coiled up and linked together. Stretching or compressing rubber moves and uncoils the strings, but their links force the rubber to bounce back to its original position without permanently deforming. The ability for rubber to “know” its original shape is contained within the material structure.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/300339/original/file-20191105-88372-7sgbvn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/300339/original/file-20191105-88372-7sgbvn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/300339/original/file-20191105-88372-7sgbvn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=277&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300339/original/file-20191105-88372-7sgbvn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=277&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300339/original/file-20191105-88372-7sgbvn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=277&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300339/original/file-20191105-88372-7sgbvn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=349&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300339/original/file-20191105-88372-7sgbvn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=349&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300339/original/file-20191105-88372-7sgbvn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=349&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A soft robot with a stretchable and electrically conductive circuit that is self-healing.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Soft Machines Lab</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Since engineered materials of the future that are suitable for human-machine interaction will require multifunctionality, researchers have tried to build new levels of embodied intelligence – beyond just stretching – into materials like rubber. Recently, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41563-018-0084-7">my coworkers created self-healing circuits</a> embedded in rubber.</p>
<p>They started by dispersing micro-scale liquid metal droplets wrapped in an electrically insulating “skin” throughout silicone rubber. In its original state, the skin’s thin metal oxide layer prevents the metal droplets from conducting electricity.</p>
<p>However, if the metal-embedded rubber is subjected to enough force, the droplets will rupture and coalesce to form electrically conductive pathways. Any electrical lines printed in that rubber become self-healing. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.201900160">In a separate study</a>, they showed that the mechanism for self-healing could also be used to detect damage. New electrical lines form in the areas that are damaged. If an electrical signal gets through, that indicates the damage.</p>
<p>The combination of liquid metal and rubber gave the material a new route to sense and process its environment – that is, a new form of embodied intelligence. The rearrangement of the liquid metal allows the material to “know” when damage has occurred because of an electrical response.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/295026/original/file-20191001-173364-8tc296.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/295026/original/file-20191001-173364-8tc296.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/295026/original/file-20191001-173364-8tc296.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295026/original/file-20191001-173364-8tc296.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295026/original/file-20191001-173364-8tc296.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295026/original/file-20191001-173364-8tc296.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295026/original/file-20191001-173364-8tc296.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295026/original/file-20191001-173364-8tc296.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Liquid crystal elastomers are a type of shape memory material that can be programmed into a specific shape, like this 3-D face, and then reversibly transform into another shape, such as a flat sheet.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://news.rice.edu/2018/12/20/mighty-morphing-materials-take-complex-shapes/">Jeff Fitlow/Rice University</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Shape memory is another example of embodied intelligence in materials. It means materials can reversibly change to a prescribed form. Shape memory materials are good candidates for linear motion in soft robotics, able to move back and forth like your bicep muscle. But they also offer unique and complex shape-changing capabilities.</p>
<p>For example, two groups of materials scientists recently demonstrated how <a href="https://doi.org/10.1039/C8SM02174K">a class of materials</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1804702115">could reversibly transform</a> from a flat rubber-like sheet into a 3-D topographical map of a face. It’s a feat that would be difficult with traditional motors and gears, but it’s simple for this class of materials due to the material’s embodied intelligence. The researchers used a class of materials known as liquid crystal elastomers, which are sometimes described as artificial muscles because they can extend and contract with the application of a stimulus like heat, light, or electricity.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/SpBrlmwwj30?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">A new soft artificial muscle.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Putting it all together</h2>
<p>By drawing inspiration from the liquid metal composite and the shape-morphing material, my colleagues and I recently <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1911021116">created a soft composite with unprecedented multifunctionality</a>.</p>
<p>It is soft and stretchable, and it can conduct heat and electricity. It can actively change its shape, unlike regular rubber. Since our composite easily conducts electricity, the shape-morphing can be activated electrically. Since it is soft and deformable, it is also resilient to significant damage. Because it can conduct electricity, the composite can interface with traditional electronics and dynamically respond to touch. </p>
<p>Furthermore, our composite can heal itself and detect damage in a whole new way. Damage creates new electrically conductive lines that activate shape-morphing in the material. The composite responds by spontaneously contracting when punctured.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/295031/original/file-20191001-173358-1ffxm3c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/295031/original/file-20191001-173358-1ffxm3c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/295031/original/file-20191001-173358-1ffxm3c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=238&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295031/original/file-20191001-173358-1ffxm3c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=238&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295031/original/file-20191001-173358-1ffxm3c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=238&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295031/original/file-20191001-173358-1ffxm3c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=299&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295031/original/file-20191001-173358-1ffxm3c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=299&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295031/original/file-20191001-173358-1ffxm3c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=299&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Top: The damage-sensing composite is connected to a light-emitting diode to indicate that conductivity is active. When the damage is severe enough, new conductive pathways form. The new conductive pathways cause the composite to ‘respond’ by actuating. Bottom: The composite can reversibly morph in complex ways, like this dome that flattens when activated.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1911021116">Ford et al, PNAS October 22, 2019 116 (43) 21438-21444</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In the movie “<a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0103064/">Terminator 2: Judgment Day</a>,” the shape-shifting android T-1000 can liquify; can change shape, color, and texture; is immune to mechanical damage; and displays superhuman strength. Such a complex robot requires complex multifunctional materials. Now, materials that can sense, process and respond to their environment like these shape-morphing composites are starting to become a reality.</p>
<p>But unlike T-1000 these new materials aren’t a force for evil – they’re paving the way for soft assistive devices like prosthetics, companion robots, remote exploration technologies, antennas that can change shape and plenty more applications that engineers haven’t even dreamed up yet.</p>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael Ford works for the Smart Machines Lab at Carnegie Mellon University. He receives funding from the US Army Research Office.</span></em></p>
Engineers predict a time when people and robots physically interact all day long. For that to happen safely will require new soft materials that can do things like sense touch and change shape.
Michael Ford, Postdoctoral Research Associate in Materials Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.